SUMMARY of SK016

Chapter Define/ state Calculation Remark

Matter: Anything that has mass and volume A = Z + number of neutrons Isotope notation
A
1. Matter Proton number/ atomic number (Z): Number of protons in the nucleus of an atom Atom: p=e ZX
Nucleon number/ mass number (A): Total number of protons and neutrons in Example of average atomic mass
1.1 the nucleus of an atom of chlorine =
Atoms and Isotope: Two or more atoms of the same element having same proton number % of 35Cl x atomic mass of 35Cl
molecules but different nucleon number @ Two or more atoms of the same element having + % of 37Cl x atomic mass of 37Cl
same number of protons but different number of neutrons
Relative atomic mass: A mass of one atom of an element compared to one twelfth
mass of one atom of carbon-12 atom
Relative molecular mass: A mass of one molecule of a compound compared to one
twelfth mass of one atom of carbon-12 atom
Average atomic mass: The average of mass of its naturally occurring isotopes
weighted according to their abundances
1.2 Mole Mole: Amount of substances that contains the same number of entities (atoms, 1 mol = 6.02 x 1023 entities
concept molecules, formula units, ions) as there are atoms in exactly in 12 g of C–12 number of particles
Avogadro’s number: The number of carbon–12 atoms in a 12–g sample (1 mol) of Mole =
Avogadro consant
carbon–12
Mole (s) = mass/ molar mass
Empirical formula: formula shows the simplest whole number ratio of all element
Mole(g)= volume/ molar volume
in a molecule.
Mole (aq) = MV [V=L]
Molecular formula: formula shows the actual number of atoms of each element
of a molecule in the compound
Molarity(M) =
Concentration: Amount of solute present in a given quantity of solution or solvent
Molarity: Number of moles of solute in 1 L of solution Moles of solute
Molality: The number of moles of solute dissolved in 1 kg of solvent Volume of solution (in L)
Mole fraction: The ratio of the number of mole of a solute to the number of moles
of the solution
Percentage by mass: The ratio of the mass of a solute to the mass of the solution, Molality (m) =
multiplied by 100 percent Moles of solute
Percentage by volume: The ratio of the volume of a solute to the volume of the Mass of solvent (in kg)
solution, multiplied by 100 percent
 Mole fraction=
Mole of solute .
Mole of solute + mole of solvent

% by mass=
Mass of solute x100%
Mass of solution

% by volume=
Volume of solute x 100%
Volume of solution

Dilution: MiVi = MfVf

1.3 Stoichiometry: Study of the quantitative aspects of chemical formulas and % of yield=
Stoichiometry reactions Actual yield x 100%
Chemical equation: A statement that uses chemical formulas to express the Theoretical yield
identities and quantities of the substances involved in a chemical or physical
change Purity of sample=
Oxidation number: charge of the particle/ the state of an element or ion in a compound Mass of pure substance x 100%
with regard to the electrons gained or lost by the element or ion in the reaction that formed Mass of impure sample
the compound, expressed as a positive or negative number indicating the ionic charge of the
element or ion.
MtVt = stoichemetric
Redox reaction: Oxidation–reduction reaction
MaVa proportions
Limiting reactant: Reactant that is completely consumed in a
reaction and limit the amount of products formed
theoretical yield: Amount of product that would result if all the limiting reactant
reacted
Actual yield: Amount of product actually obtained from a reaction
Purity of sample: Mass % of a specified substance in impure sample
Analyte : the solution of unknown concentration
Titrant : the solution that is added from a burette to the measured of another
solution
2. Atomic Frequency: Number of waves undergoes per second En = -RH (1/n2); RH =2.18 x 10-18J Compare line and
structure Wavelength: Distance between identical points on successive waves continuous spectrum
2.1 Bohr’s Bohr’s Postulate: 1 1
atomic model 1. Electron moves around the nucleus in a fixed circular orbit. ∆E = RH ( 2
- 2 ) Use of Rydberg
ni nf
2. H atom has only certain allowable energy level called stationary states or Equation:
ground state; The energy of an electron in its stationary state is quantized (has ∆E = hwhere c/ λ; L: Lyman (n=1)
specific value) h: Planck’s constant B: Balmer (n=2)
3. An electron moves in an allowed energy state will not absorb or radiate energy; = 6.6256 x 10-34 Js P: Paschen (n=3)
no change of energy while e- moves within an orbit c = speed of light B: Brackett (n=4)
4. Energy is emitted or absorbed by an electron as it changes from one allowed = 3.0 x 108 ms-1 P: Pfund (n=5)
energy state to another  = frequency
Spectrum: range of electromagnetic radiation with respect to its wavelength or  = wavelength
frequency
Ionisation energy: Minimum energy needed for the complete removal of 1 mol of Rydberg Equation:
electron in ground state from 1 mol of gaseous atoms or ions 1 1 1
= RH ( - 2 ) ; n1 < n2
de Broglie’s postulate: dual nature of electron; particles such as electrons can have  2
n1 n 2
wave properties RH = 1.097 x 107 m-1
Heisenberg uncertainty principle: It is impossible to know simultaneously the exact
location and momentum of a particle
2.2 Quantum Orbital: 3-dimensional region or space in an atom which there is a high probability Shape of orbitals:
Mechanical of finding the electron - s orbital (spherical)
Model 4 quantum number: Principal Quantum Number (n) ; Angular Momentum/ - p orbital ( dumb
azimuthal/ subsidiary/ orbital Quantum Number (ℓ ); Magnetic Quantum Number bell)
(m); Electron-spin Quantum Number (s) - d orbitals
(cloverleaf & donut)
2.3 Electronic Aufbau principle: Electrons in an atom should be filled in the orbitals in order of spdf notation
configuration increasing energy anomalous electron
Pauli’s Exclusion principle:No two electrons in the same atom have the same set configuration of Cr
of four quantum numbers and Cu
Hund’s rule: In a given set of orbitals of equivalent energy (degenerate orbitals),
the electrons tend to occupy the orbitals singly first before pairing up
3.0: Periodic Group: A vertical column of elements in Periodic Table Block: s, p, d, f
Table Period: A horizontal row in Periodic Table
3.1
Classification
of elements
3.2 Isoelectronic species are groups of atoms and ions which have the same electronic Effective nuclear
Periodicity configuration charge
First ionization energy: Minimum energy required for complete removal of 1 mol Shielding effect
of electron in ground state from 1 mol of gaseous atoms to form 1 mol of gaseous Anomalous of IE
ions between Group 2
Second ionization energy: Minimum energy required for complete removal of 1 &13 and Group
mol of electron from 1 mol of gaseous ions (charge +1) 15&16
Electronegativity: Relative ability of a bonded atom to attract the shared electrons
toward itself in a chemical bond
4. Chemical Octet rule: An atom other than H tends to form bonds (by losing or gaining or Draw Lewis structure
bonding sharing e-) until it is surrounded by eight valence e- Determine formal
4.1 Lewis Ionic bond: Attractive electrostatic force between positive and negative ions charge
structure Covalent bond: Bond in which two e- are shared by two atoms
Coordinate covalent bond/ covalent dative bond: bond formed when one of the
atoms donates both e-
Resonance structure: Two or more Lewis structures for a single molecule that
cannot be represented accurately by only one Lewis structure
4.2 Molecular VSEPR: Each group of valence electrons around a central atom is located as far 5 Basic molecular
shape and away as possible from the others in order to minimize repulsion shape: linear,
polarity trigonal planar
tetrahedral, trigonal
bipyramidal,
octahedral
4.3 Orbital Hybridization: Mixing of two or more atomic orbitals to form a new set of Type of hybrid: sp,
overlap and equivalent hybrid orbitals (with different energies, shapes, etc… than the sp2, sp3, sp3d, sp3d2
hybridization component atomic orbitals) suitable for the pairing of electrons to form chemical
bonds in valence bond theory
4.4 Intermolecular force:Attractive forces between neighbouring particles (atoms,
Intermolecular molecules or ions).
forces Dipole-dipole forces: Attractive force between polar molecules
 London forces: Attraction between instantaneous dipole- induced dipole
Hydrogen bond: Force between polar molecules which have partially positive H
atom bonded to highly electronegative atom N, O or F and partially negative lone
pair e- on N, O, F of another molecule
4.5 Metallic Electron sea model
bond
5. States of Boyle’s law: At constant temperature, the volume occupied by a fixed amount of P1V2=P2V2 ; T & n : constant Kinetic molecular
matter gas is inversely proportional to the applied (external) pressure P1/T1 = P2/T2 ; V & n: constant theory
5.1 Gas Charles’s law: At constant pressure, the volume occupied by a fixed amount of gas V1/n1 = V2/n2; P&T : constant Graph based on the
is directly proportional to its absolute temperature PV=nRT Law
Avogadro’s law: At constant pressure and temperature, the volume of a gas is Density, d= PM/RT
directly proportional to the number of moles of the gas present PT = PA + PB + …..
Dalton’s law of partial pressure: In a mixture of unreacting gases, the total
pressure is the sum of the partial pressures of the individual gases
Partial pressure: Pressures of individual gas components in the gas mixture
5.2 Liquid Vapour pressure: The pressure exerted by vapour in equilibrium with its liquid in
a closed container
Boiling point: The temperature at which the vapour pressure of a liquid is equal to
the external (atmospheric) pressure
Normal boiling point: The temperature at which a liquid boils when the external
pressure is 1 atm
5.3 Solid Melting point is temperature at which a solid substance is in equilibrium with its
liquid at constant pressure.
Normal melting point of a substance is at equilibrium with its liquid at 1 atm
pressure
5.4 Phase Phase: A homogeneous part of a system in contact with other parts of the system Phase diagram of CO2
diagram but separated from them by well-defined boundary and H2O
Critical Point – the point in temperature and pressure on a phase diagram where
the liquid and gaseous phases of a substance merge together into a single phase
Triple Point - the point when both the temperature and pressure of the three
phases of the substance coexist in equilibrium
Phase diagram: A diagram showing the regions of pressure and temperature at
which a substance exists as a solid, liquid or vapor phases are thermodynamically
 stable
6. Chemical Non-reversible reactions: Reaction that can only proceed in one direction.
Equilibrium Reversible reaction: Reactions that occur in both directions (forward and backward
6.1 Dynamic directions).
equilibrium Equilibrium: rate of forward reaction = rate of reverse reaction
Dynamic equilibrium: forward and reverse reactions continue even after apparent
change has ceased (stop).
Law of mass action/ equilibrium law states that for any equilibrium at a given
temperature, the ratio of the concentration of the products, each raised to the
power of its coefficient, to the product of the concentration of reactants, each
raised to the power of its coefficient, is a constant
6.2 Homogeneous equilibrium: Products and reactants are in the same phase aA + bB cC + dD ICE table
Equilibrium Heterogeneous equilibrium: Reactants and products are in different phase c
[C ] [ D] d Q>K(shift to left)
constant Degree of dissociation: Fraction of molecule dissociate or decompose into smaller KC = Q=K (equilibrium)
[ A] a [ B]b
molecules / ions / atoms Q<K(shift to right)
The equilibrium quotient Q is the value of the equilibrium expression of a reaction Kp = (Pc)c(PD)d
for any arbitrary set of concentrations or partial pressures of the reaction (PA)a(PB)b
components. KP = KC(RT)∆n
 Change in concentration of reactant
Initial concentration of reactant
6.3 Le Le Chatelier’s principle : When a chemical system is disturbed, it reattains
Chatelier’s equilibrium by undergoing a net reaction that reduces the effect of the
principle disturbance
7 Ionic Arrhenius: Acid: Substance that has H in its formula and dissociates in water to Ka
equilibria yield H3O+ Kb
7.1 Acids and Base: Substance that has OH in its formula and dissociates in water to Kw =[H3O+][OH-]=1.0x 10-14
bases yield OH– pH = – log [H3O+]
Brønsted–Lowry: Acid: Any substance that can donate a proton, (H+) to other pOH = - log [OH-]
substance pKw = pH + pOH = 14.00
Base: Any substance that can accept a proton from other (at 25oC)
substance pKa = - log Ka
Conjugate base: A species that remains when one proton has pKb = - log Kb
been removed from the Bronsted acid. 
 Conjugate acid : A species that remains when one proton has =
been added to the Bronsted base ionized acid concentration at equilibrium (x)
initial concentration of acid
Lewis: Acid: A substance that can accept a pair of electrons to form a covalent
bond (dative or coordinate bond) /[electron pair acceptor]
Henderson-Hasselbalch equation:
Base:A substance that can donate a pair of electrons to form a
covalent bond/[electron pair donor] [ A ]
pH = pKa + log
Strong acid: acid which dissociate completely (100 %) into ions in water [ HA]
Weak acid: acid which dissociate very slightly (partially dissociated) into ions in [ BH  ]
water pOH = pKb + log
Strong base: base which dissociate completely (100 %) into ions in water [ B]
Weak base: base which dissociate very slightly into ions in water (Buffer solution)
Salt hydrolysis is a chemical reaction between anion or cation of a salt with water
molecules. (change in [H+] and [OH-], change in pH)
Buffer solution: A solution that maintains its pH when a small amount of a strong
acid or a strong base is added to it.
7.2 Acid -base Titration: A method for determining the concentration of a solution using another
titrations solution (known concentration), called standard solution.
Equivalence point: The point at which the reaction is complete
End point: The point at which the indicator change color
Indicator: A weak organic acid that has different colour than it conjugate base
pH range: Range over which the indicator changes from the acid color to the base
color
Acid-base titration curve: A plot of the pH of a solution of acid(or base) versus the
volume of base (or acid) added to the solution
7.3 Solubility The solubility of a salt is the amount of solid that dissolved in a known value of AxBy (s) xAm+ (aq)+ yBn-(aq) Qsp >Ksp (shift to left:
equilibria saturated solution. precipitate will
Molar solubility: Moles of solute dissolved in 1 L of a saturated solution Ksp = [Am+]x[Bn-]y formed)
Solubility product constant: is the product of the molar concentrations of the Qsp =Ksp (equilibrium)
constituent ions, each raised to the power of its stoichiometric coefficient in the Qsp <Ksp (shift to
equilibrium equation right: no precipitate
Precipitate is an insoluble solid formed in and separates from the solution will formed)
Common ion effect