* INTRODUCTION TO ACCESS

NETWORK*
A network is a set of devices (often referred to as nodes)
connected by communication links. A node can be a
computer, printer, or any other device capable of sending
and /or receiving data generated by other nodes on the
network.
An access network is the part of a telecommunication
network which connects subscribers to their immediate
service provider.
We can classify networks based on transmission mode,
on authentication, on geographical location, on reliability.
Based on transmission mode
Transmission mode defines the direction of signal flow
within two linked devices. There are three types of
transmission mode.
• simplex: in simplex mode the communication is
unidirectional. Among the stations, only one can
transmit and the other one can only receive. E.g.
radio.
• Half Duplex: in half duplex mode, the
communication is bi-directional. In this, both stations
can send and receive but not at the same time.
• Full Duplex: In full duplex mode, the communication
is bi-directional. In this, both stations can transmit
and receive simultaneously.
Based on time in transmission type
• Synchronous transmission: In synchronous
transmission, both the sender and receiver use the
same time cycle for the transmission. With same bits
one after another without start/stop bit or gaps. It is
the responsibility of the receiver to group the bits.
Bit stream is delivered with a fixed delay and given
error rate. Each bit reaches the destination with the
same time delay after leaving the source.
• Asynchronous transmission: In Asynchronous
transmission, we send one start bit at the beginning
 and one stop bit at the end of each byte. There may
be a gap between each byte. Bit stream is divided
into packets. Packets are received with the varying
delays, so, packets can arrive out of order. Some
packets are not received correctly.
Based on authentication
• Peer to peer network: In peer to peer network,
there are no dedicated servers. All the computers are
equal and, therefore, are termed as peers. Normally,
each computer functions as both a client and a
server. No one can control the other computer
• Server based connection: Most networks have a
dedicated server. A dedicated server is a computer
on a network which functions as a server, and cannot
be used as a client or a work station. A dedicated
server is optimised to service requests from network
clients. A server can control the client for its service.
Based on Geographical Location
• Local Area Network: LAN is a small high speed
network. In LAN, few numbers of systems are
interconnected with networking devices to create
network. As the distance increases between the
nodes or systems, its speed decreases. So it is limited
to some few metres only. Network which covers
close geographical area. LAN is used to link the
device in a single office, building or campus. It
provides high speed over short distances. Systems
are connecting directly to networks. The LAN is
owned by private people.

• Metropolitan Area Network: MAN is an extension of

LAN to spread over the city. It may be a single
network or a network in which more than one LAN
can share their resource.

• Wide Area Network: WAN is connection of network.

This network’s speed is less than the LAN network
speed. WAN network connects system indirectly.
WAN spread over the world may be spread over
 more than one city, country or continent. Systems in
this network are connected indirectly. Generally,
WAN networks are slower in speed than LAN. The
MAN network are owned or operated by network
providers. If it is owned by a single person, then it is
called enterprise network. Often, these types have
combination of more than one topology.

Based on Reliability
Reliability is maintained by authentication.
-Connection Oriented: This type of communication
establishes a session before data can be sent. This
method is often called a reliable network service. It can
guarantee that data will arrive in the same order.
-Connection less: This type of communication does not
require a session connection btw sender and receiver for
data transfer. The sender simply starts sending packets to
the destination. A connection less network provides
minimal services.
Based on topology
Topology refers to physical layout including computer,
cables and other resources. It determines how
components communicate with each other. Today,
network designs are based on three topologies.
• Bus Topology: Bus topology is consist of series of
computers connected along a single cable segment.
• Star topology: Star topology connects computers via
central connection point or Hub.
• Ring topology: Ring topology connects computers to
form a loop.
All computers, regardless of topology, communicate
by addressing data to one or more computers and
transmitting it across cables as electronic signals.
Data is broken into packets and sent as electronic
signals that travel on the cable. Only the computer to
which the data is address accepts it.
05-11-16
Based on Protocol
Protocol mean sets of rule. It’s formal description of
message format and the rules two or more machines are
followed to exchange message. The key element of the
protocol are syntax, semantics and timings.

Syntax: Syntax refer to the structure or format of the data,

meaning the order in which they are presented.
Semantics: Semantics refers to the meaning of each
section of bits.
Timings: Timing refers to how data can be sent and how
fast it can be sent.

Chapter 1: INTER-NETWORKING TECHNOLOGY

Definition of Inter-Networking Technology

Internet Technology tells how the network accommodate

multiple underlying hardware technology and how they
are interconnected and form the network, and set of
communication standards which the network uses to inter-
operate.

The lower case internet mean multiple network connected

together, using a common protocol suite.

The Upper case Internet refers to the connection of hosts

around the world that can communicate with each other
using TCP/IP ( Transmission Control Protocol/Internet
Protocol). While the Intarnet is an internet , the reverse is
not true.
• Networking Infrastructure[ Transmission
Infrastructure]
 Network infrastructure is divided into 2 parts:
Access Network and Core Network
An Access Network is the part of the
telecommunication network which connects ends systems to
the first router or subscriber to their immediate service
providers as shown in figure 1.1 below.

Access network can be loosely divided into 3 categories.

-The residential network connecting a home end system into
the network .
-Institutional access network connecting an end system in a
business or educational institutions into the network.
-Mobile access network connecting a mobile end system into
the network.
1.1 2 Core Network: Core network connects all the routers to
each other and internet service provider. It is the main
backbone for internet. Core network use Circuit switching and
Package switching for data transmission.
The internet bottom to top, the hierarchical consist of ends
system [eg Personal Computer PC, Workstation ] connected to
local Internet service provider. The local Internet Service
Provider eg Youmee are in turn connected to the regional
Internet Service Provider, which are in turn connected to the
national and international internet service provider. The
national and international internet service provider are
connected together at the highest tier in the hierarchical.

Let us begin at the top

• Components of Internet[inter-network]
A Network[internet] is formed using hardware[network
 devices] and network software[ application] and
protocols.
• Hardware or network devices
Hub: A hub is used to connect systems or notes or networks .
It has direct connections to a nodes[point-to-point connection].
It suffers from high collision of data resulting to data loss. A hub
take data from input port and retransmits input data on output
port.
Repeaters[boosters]: A repeater is the device which re-
generates or amplifies the data or signals so that it can be
travelled to the other segments of cable. It is used to connect
through networks that receives technology and protocols. It
does not filter or translates any data. It works in physical layers .
Bridge: Bridge is used to connect through network. It divides
the collision base on number of ports or interface present in the
bridge. It uses the package switches that forward and filter the
frame that forward and filter the frame using local area network
destination address. Bridge is having the destination address of
frame and forward it to the interface or ports which links to the
destination. It uses the routine table[routine frame] from one
node to another using MAC[Media Access Control] Address. It
works in data link layer .
Switch: It is similar to Bridge. It has more number or interfaces
as compared to Bridge. It allows direct communication between
the nodes. It works in data links layer. It uses MAC Address for
data transmission and communication.
Router: It is used to connect different types of networks.[ Type
ie. Architectural protocol]. It works similar to Bridge but it use IP
addresses and Routine data. Router cannot be used for
connecting systems. It work in network layer.
Gateway: Gateway make communication possible between
systems that use different communication protocols, data
formating structure, languages and architecture. Gateways re-
package data going from one systems to another.
1.22 Software or Application and Protocol
Basically two types of systems are used.
• Client systems: User which access data from the internet.
• Server systems: Hosts data for users using
 HTML[ Hypertext Makeup Language].

Some of common software or applications and protocols

are
• IRC[ Internet Relay Chat]: is used for live discussions on the
Internet.
• FTP[ File Transfer Protocol]: It is the most common method
of transferring files between the computers via the
Internet.
• E-commerce: Is taking orders for products and services on
the internet.
• E-mail: is exchanging electronic letter, messages and small
files
• Hosting: is the application making information available to
others on the internet.
• Search Engine: This tool are really a part of the world wide
web and are often used when looking for information
because the web has grown so large and is without any
inherent organizational structure.
• Telnet: Creation of a dome section to host the computer in
order to run software applications on the host system.
• World Wide Web: This is the largest, fastest growing, part
of the Internet, the part for which internet browsers like
Netscape navigator and Microsoft Explorer were designed.
• TCP/IP:
• Browser:

• WAN Protocol
-Frame relay: It is used to connect large number of sites in the
network because it is relatively inexpensive to do so. The
service provider give you a frame relay circuit and is charged for
the amount of data and the bandwidth you use as opposed to
T1 Circuit that charge with the flat monthly rates whether you
use partial bandwidth or a full bandwidth regardless. Frame
relay is a higher performance one protocol that operates at the
data link layer and physical layer of the OSI Model .
- Integrated Service Digital Network: ISDN Is designed to run
over existing telephone network. It can deliver end-to-end
digital service, carrying voice and data. ISDN operates as OSI
Model, physical layer, data link layer and network layer. It can
carry multimedia and graphic with all other voices, data
services. The ISDN supports all upper layer protocols and you
can choose PPP [Point-Par-Pouce], Large HDLC [High Data Link
Control] or High level Data Link Control or LAPD[Link Access
Protocol Dish channel ] as your encapsulation protocols. It has 2
offerings i.e. Primary Rate which is 23B+D channels, 23.64k/b
and 164kb/s mainly used for signalism.
The other is the basic rates which has 2B+D
Channels, 264kb/s and 116kb/s. At data-link layer ISDN
supports 2 protocols LAPD and LAPB.
The LAPD is used to mainly transfer data from one
upper layers and has 3 types of frames.
I-frames: carry upper layer information and carry out sequence,
flow control, error detection and recovery.
S-frames: S-frames carries controlled information for the I-
frames .
Execution Frames: Executing the commands.
The LAPD provide an additional multiplexing
function to the upper layer in enabling number of networks
entities to operate over a single physical access. Each Individual
link procedure are independently of the other. The Multi-plex
procedure combine and distribute the data link channels
according to the address information of the frame. Each link is
associated with a specific service access point[SAP], which is
identified in the part of the address field.
HDLC [high Level Data link Control]:
It’s a big-orientated data linked layer frame
control that has many versions similar to Link Access Protocol
[LAP], LAPB and LAPD.
Cisco routers default encapsulation is HDLC [High
Data Link Control] but is a property of Cisco .
12-11-16

Open System Interconnection (OSI) : is developed by the

International Organization for standardisation.
It defines the architecture for communication that supports
distributed processing. The OSI model describes the function
that allows the system to communicate successfully using what
is called a layered approach ( communication function are
broken down into 7 distinct layers)
The 7 layers begin with the bottom layer of the OSI
model are shown in figure 2. Routers are used as an
intermediate nodes to create a link between A and B system.
OSI model layers are dependant on each other. Each
layer serve the upper layer and also depend upon the service
from the lower layer. It also provides layer abstraction. Layers
are dependant on each other for service but in terms of
protocol they are independent. In each layer, info is added into
original data as header but in data link, layer trailer is added
into the data.
Layer 1:
Physical Layer:
It defines the transmission of data across the communication
medium and translation of binary data into signals. Mode of
transmission over the link implies simplex, half-duplex, and full
duplex. It defines the transmission of bit/sec.
Layer 2:
Data link Layer:
It divides the data into number of frames. It uses the MAC
address for sending frame from one point to another. It
provides flow control, aero control and access control.
Layer 3:
Network Layer: Divides the data into the number of packets. It
uses IP address for routing packet to their destinations. It
provides end-to-end connection.
Layer 4:
Transport Layer: Divides messages into segments and also re-
assemble the segment to create. It can be either connection
orientated or connectionless. It uses service port address or
port address for process to process communication. Flow
control and aero control is also provided by transport layer.
 Layer 5:
Session Layer: Establishes, maintains, and synchronises
instructions amongst communicating system.
Layer 6:
Presentation Layer: It concerned with the centres and cematics
of the information exchanged between two systems. It
translates information from text/numeric into bit stream. It also
encrypts the information for security purpose and compress it
to reduce the number of bits in the information.
Layer 7:
Application Layer: It provides interface to end user and
support for service such as e-mail,file transfer, and distributed
information service.
Layer Protocol
Application HTTP,FTP, Telnet and SMTP
Presentation JPG, GIF,MPEG
Session TCP, 3-ways, Hand shaking
Transport TCP, UDP
Network IP, IPX
Data link Ethernet, token ring, HDLC
Physical X.21, R5-23, Dj