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L RESEARCH
QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH
2
JUNE REBANGCOS RAÑOLA
Teacher
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ud Pr
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To our dear parents;
In response to this pandemic, the Department of Education along with the
private schools are putting their best foot forward to deliver quality education
amidst this pandemic. With that, Osmena Colleges has considered choosing a
modular mode of learning.
PLEASE CONTACT ME
THROUGH MESSENGER OR
FACEBOOK. JUST SEARCH FOR MY
NAME. THANK YOU!
LET’S RACE!!!
LESSON
NIT 1
1: U
In this unit, you will be encountering also the characteristics of quantitative research, its strength and weaknesses,
its kinds and importance across disciplines. In here also, we will be tackling kinds of variables and its uses.
By the end of this lesson, you are expected to:
Define quantitative research
Describe characteristics, strengths, weaknesses, and kinds of quantitative research
Identify various kind of quantitative research in various contexts
This icon represents a trivia. You better watch out for this. This may at least add a bit of new knowledge to
your schema.
This icon signals a pre-test or a quiz that you need to answer to determine how much you about the topic. At
every pre-test, you will find a question to answer. Write your answers in the blank provided for or as
instructed in the pre-test/quiz.
You will find this icon before some chunks of text in the following pages. It tells you to carefully study the
concepts, principles, or processes discussed in the text. It also tells you that there is a question to answer or
an idea to think about it.
This icon introduces a list of important ideas to remember. Read it carefully and keep it in mind. From the
good habit of reviewing the text and how much time, effort, interest and patience you invest in your learning
will determine how sure you are in having good scores in the checkpoint. Your attitude will help you learn
more and effectively that makes you a better learner.
You will find this icon at the end of every lesson. It signals a self-test to determine how well you have
achieved the objectives set in the unit. Study the lesson well and you will perform quite well in the self-
test. This will be submitted to your teacher after you answering the self-test. Write legibly and always
follow instructions properly
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assignment will show the extent to which you can apply what have you learned from the lesson.
Submit this also to your teacher at the date specified.
This icon introduces a stage where you will be asked about your insight or reflection regarding the
previous activity. You’ll be given either a bubble thought or lines where you can write your answers.
This icon signal that the writer of the module is asking for any of your honest suggestions
and feedbacks. Please fill in this portion of the module so that we can continuously
improve our module.
PRE-TEST! Answer the questions below. Follow instructions properly.
I. TRUE or FALSE. Write QUANTITATIVE after the item when the sentence is true while
QUALITATIVE if the statement is false.
1. In quantitative research, researchers know in advance what they are looking for. _______________
2. Quantitative research can be easily misinterpreted because it provides numerical data. _______________
3. Quantitative research puts emphasis on proof, rather than discovery. _______________
4. Normative research is conducted by researcher whose aim would be to find out the direction and/or
relationship between different variables or group of respondents under study. _________________
5. Qualitative research requires a large number of respondents. It assumes that the larger the sample is, the
more statistically accurate the findings are. ___________________
6. Evaluation describes the status of a phenomenon at a particular time. It describes without value judgment a
situation that prevents. ____________________
7. Correlational is conducted by researchers whose aim would be to find out the direction and/or relationship
between different variables or groups of respondents under study. _____________________
8. Methodological is the implementation of a variety of methodologies that forms a critical part of achieving
the goal of developing a scaled-matched approach, where data from different disciplines can be integrated.
___________________
9. One characteristics of quantitative research is that its method can be repeated to verify findings in another
setting, thus, reinforcing validity findings. _____________________
10. In quantitative experiments it filters out external factors, if properly designed, and so the results gained can
be seen, as real and unbiased.
II. Put a tick (/) if it describes the characteristics of a Quantitative Research and (X) if it does not.
MY REFLECTION: What you reflection regarding the pre-test? Will the subject be difficult or
easy for you?? How will you handle future lesson??
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PROBE RANDOM PONDER
Study Illogic Reflect
Investigate Disorderly Consider
Scrutinize Unplanned Contemplate
VOCABULARY
Inspect IMPROVEMENT: Based on your stock knowledge
Accidental and on the words
Meditate
below the word on the top, define the top word in each table.
1. PROBE :
Meaning:
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RANDOM :
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Meaning:
Sentence:
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Sentence:
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3. PONDER:
Meaning:
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Sentence:
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DEFINITION OF QUANTITATIVE
RESEARCH
QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH is an objective, systematic empirical investigation of observable
phenomena through the use of computational techniques. It highlights numerical analysis of data hoping that the
numbers yield unbiased results that can be generalized to some larger population and explain a particular
observation. Simply, quantitative research is concerned with numbers and its relationship with events.
The quantitative research suggests that the data concerned can be analyzed in terms
of numbers. An example that we can give for this study is a study comparing the performance of Grade 12
in Mobo National High School and Osmena Colleges in Physical Science when ICT is integrated in teaching.
This can be approached by getting the average performance of both schools before and after integrating ICT.
Then the averages can be compared and analyzed to see the differences or effectiveness. In this case, numbers
are used as data for analysis. Another is surveying what do viewers in Mandaon, Masbate prefer to watch: is it
GMA dramarama or ABS-CBN Golden Kapamilya noontime show. In here, it may be approached by making a
survey questionnaire asking for the preference of viewers in Masbate.
MY EXAMPLE: May you now give your own example of a quantitative research?
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1. It is objective. The most reliable and valid way of concluding results, giving way to a new hypothesis
or to disproving it. Because of bigger number of the sample of a population, the results or
generalizations are more reliable and valid. Since it provides numerical data, it can’t be easily
misinterpreted.
2. The use of statistical techniques facilitates sophisticated analyses and allows you to comprehend a
huge amount of vital characteristics of data.
3. It is real and unbiased. If the research is properly designed it filters out external factors, and so can be
seen as real and unbiased.
4. The numerical data can be analyzed in a quick and easy way. By employing statistically valid random
models, findings can be generalized to the population about which information is necessary.
5. Quantitative studies are replicable. Standardized approaches allow the study to be replicated in
different areas or over time with formulation of comparable findings.
6. Quantitative experiments are useful for testing the results gained by a series of qualitative
experiments, leading to a final answer, and narrowing down of possible directions to follow
WEAKNESSES OF QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH
The disadvantages of quantitative research are as follows:
1. Quantitative research requires a large number of respondents. It is assumed that the larger the sample is,
the more statistically accurate the findings are.
2. It is costly. Since, there are more respondents compared to qualitative research, the expenses will be
greater in reaching out to these people and in reproducing questionnaires.
3. The information is contextual factors to help interpret the results or to explain variations are usually
ignored. It does not consider the distinct capacity of the respondents to share and elaborate further
information unlike the qualitative research.
4. Much information are difficult to gather using structured research instruments, specifically on sensitive
issues like pre-marital sex, domestic violence, among others.
5. If not done seriously and correctly, data from questionnaires may be incomplete and inaccurate.
Researchers must be on the look-out on respondents who are just guessing in answering the instrument.
I. EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH DESIGN. This allows the researcher to control the situation. In doing so, it
allows the researcher to answer the question, “What causes something to occur?” This kind of research also
allows the researcher to identify cause and effect relationships between variables and to distinguish placebo
effects from treatment effects. Further, this research design supports the ability to limit alternative explanations
and to infer direct causal relationships in the study; the approach provides the highest degree level of evidence
for single studies.
A. PRE-EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN. A type of research apply to experimental design that with least
internal validity. One type of pre-experiment, the simple group, pretest-post-test design, measures the
group two times, before and after the intervention.
EXAMPLE:
Instead of comparing the pretest with the posttest within one group, the posttest of the treated
groups is compared with that of an untreated group. Measuring the effect as the difference between
groups marks this as between-subjects design. Assuming both groups experienced the same time-related
influences, the comparison group feature should protect this design from the rival explanations that
threaten the within-subject design.
B. QUASI – EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN. In this design, the researcher can collect more data, either by
scheduling more observations or finding more existing measures. Quasi-experimental design involves
selecting groups, upon which a variable is tested, without any random pre-selection processes.
EXAMPLE:
To perform an educational experiment, a class might be arbitrarily divided by alphabetical
selection or by seating arrangement. The division is often convenient and, especially in an educational
situation, causes as little disruption as possible. After this selection, the experiment proceeds in a very
similar way to any other experiment, with a variable being compared between different groups, or over a
period of time.
There are two types of quasi-experimental design, these are:
a. Non-Equivalent Control Group. This refers to the chance failure of random assignment to
equalize the conditions by converting a true experiment into this kind of design, for purpose of
analysis.
b. Interrupted Time Series Design. It employs multiple measures before and after the
experimental intervention. It differs from the single group pre-experiment that has only one
pretest and one posttest. Users of this design assume that the time threats such as history or
maturation appear as regular changes in the measures prior to the intervention.
C. TRUE-EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN. It controls for both time-related and group related threats. Two
features mark true experiments: two or more differently treated groups; and random assignment to these
groups. These features require that the researchers have control over the experimental treatment and the
power to place subjects in groups.
True experimental design employs both treated and control groups to deal with time-related rival
explanations.
A control group reflects changes other than those due to the treatment that occur during the time
of the study. Such changes include effects of outside events, maturation by the subjects, changes in
measures and impact of any pre-tests.
True experimental design offers the highest internal validity of all the designs. Quasi-experimental design
differs from true experimental design by the absence of random assignment of subjects to different conditions.
What quasiexperiments have in common with true experiments is that some subjects receive an intervention and
provide data likely to reflect its impact.
2. NON-EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN. In this kind of design, the researcher observes the phenomena as they
occur naturally and no external variables are introduced. In this research design, the variables are not deliberately
manipulated nor is the setting controlled. Researchers collect data without making changes or introducing
treatments. This may also called as DESCRIPTIVE RESEARCH DESIGN because it is only one under non-
experimental design.
DESCRIPTIVE RESEARCH DESIGN’s main purpose is to observe, describe and document aspects of a
situation as it naturally occurs and sometimes to serve as a starting point for hypothesis generation or theory
development. The types of descriptive design are as follows:
A. SURVEY. It is used to gather information from groups of people by selecting and studying samples chosen
from a population. This is useful when the objective of the study is to see general picture of the population
under investigation in terms of their social and economic characteristics, opinions, and their knowledge
about the behavior towards a certain phenomenon.
B. CORRELATIONAL. It is conducted by researchers whose aim would be to find out the direction,
associations and/or relationship between different variables or groups of respondents under study.
Correlational Research has three types, these are:
a. Bivariate Correlational Studies – It obtains score from two variables for each subject, and then uses
them to calculate a correlation coefficient. The term bivariate implies that the two variables are
correlated (variables are selected because they are believed to be related). Example: Children of
wealthier (variable one), better educated (variable 2) parents earn higher salaries as adults.
b. Prediction Studies – It uses correlation coefficient to show how one variable (the predictor variable)
predicts another (the criterion variable). Example: Which high school applicants should be admitted to
college?
c. Multiple Regression Prediction Studies – All variables in the study can contribute to the over-all
prediction in an equation that adds together the predictive power of each identified variable. Example:
Suppose the High School GPA is not the sole predictor of college GPA, what might be other good
predictors?
D. COMPARATIVE. It involves comparing and contrasting two or more samples of study subjects on one or
more variables, often at a single point of time. Specifically, this design is used to compare two distinct
groups on the basis of selected attributes such as knowledge level, perceptions, and attitudes, physical or
psychological symptoms.
Example:
A comparative Study on the Health Problems among Rural and Urban People in Ilocos Region,
Philippines
E. EVALUATIVE. It is a process used to determine what has happened during a given activity or in an institution.
The purpose of evaluation is to see if a given program is working, an institution is successful according to the goals
set for it, or the original intent was successfully attained. In other words, in evaluation judgments can be in the
forms of social utility, desirability, or effectiveness of a process. For example, we can cite here a situation. In
evaluation study, it will not just be considering the performance of the students who were taught under modular
instruction; instead, it is the rate of progress that happened among the students who were exposed to modular
instruction. Example: A test of children in school is used to assess the effectiveness of teaching or the deployment
of a curriculum.
D. METHODOLOGICAL. In this approach, the implementation of a variety of methodologies forms a critical part
of achieving the goal of developing a scale matched approach, where data from different disciplines can be
integrated.
1. It highlights numerical analysis of data hoping that the numbers yield unbiased results that can be generalized to
some larger population and explain a particular observation. _________________________
2. It suggests that the data concerned can be analyzed in terms of numbers. _______________________
3. This kind of research derives conclusion from observations and manifestations that already occurred in the past
and now compared to some dependent variables. _______________________
4. It describes the norm level of characteristics for a given behavior. _________________
5. In this design, the researcher can collect more data, either by scheduling more observations or finding more
existing measures. ________________________
6. It is conducted by researchers whose aim would be to find out the direction, associations and/or relationship
between different variables or groups of respondents under study. ______________________
7. It refers to the overall strategy that you choose in order to integrate the different components of the study in a
coherent and logical way, thereby ensuring you will effectively address the research problem.
__________________________
8. It controls for both time-related and group-related threats. Two features mark true experiments: two or more
differently treated groups; and random assignment to these groups. ____________________________
9. All variables in the study can contribute to the over-all prediction in an equation that adds together the predictive
power of each identified variable. _______________________
10. Its main purpose is to observe, describe and document aspects of a situation as it naturally occurs and
sometimes to serve as a starting point for hypothesis generation or theory development.
__________________________
MY TAKEAWAYS! NON-STOP WRITING: Write your concise learning about the questions
that follow. Please strictly answer based on you understanding not TO COPY FROM THE TEXT
ABOVE!!!
MULTIPLE CHOICE: Choose the correct letter that best describe the question or complete the statement.
Encircle the letter of your answer.
3. Which of the following describes the characteristics of research where data are in form of statistics?
A. Objective B. Numerical Data C. Replication D. Large Sample Size
4. This characteristic of quantitative research which refers to its necessity to arrive at a more reliable data analysis.
A. Large Sample Sizes C. Numerical Data
B. Replication D. Objective
5. It is done to check the correctness and verify the findings of the study.
A. Large Sample Sizes C. Numerical Data
B. Replication D. Objective
6. The researchers know in advance what they are looking for. The research questions are well defined for which
objective answers are sought. All aspects of the study are carefully designed before data are gathered.
A. Future Outcomes C. Clearly defined Research Questions
B. Structured Research Instruments D. Numerical Data
8. In this type of research, the investigator tries to probe the significance of relationship between two or more
factors or characteristics
A. Correlational C. Ex-post facto
B. Experimental D. Survey
9. Which of the item below does NOT hold true for descriptive research?
A. describes the nature of a situation or an event
B. presents the profile of persons, events, and things
YOUR ANSWERS
C. describes past situations COLUMN A COLUMN B
1. the posttest
D. there is no manipulation of the treated
of variables groups
or search is compared
for cause and effect related to the performance
with that of an untreated group A. Normative
10. Which of the following2.illustrates
a test of children in school
a quantitative is used to assess the
study?
effectiveness
A. attributes to malnutrition of teaching or the deployment of a
in children B. Survey
B. public opinion tocurriculum
the sex scandal of the Pres. in our country
C. academic performance of high school students
D. all of the above choices
1. The most reliable and valid way of concluding results, giving way to a new hypothesis or to disproving it.
___________________________
2. Since, there are more respondents compared to qualitative research, the expenses will be greater in reaching out to
these people and in reproducing questionnaires. _______________________
3. If not done seriously and correctly, data from questionnaires may be incomplete and inaccurate.
____________________________
4. Standardized approaches allow the study to be replicated in different areas or over time with formulation of
comparable findings. _______________________________
5. Quantitative experiments are useful for testing the results gained by a series of qualitative experiments, leading to a
final answer, and narrowing down of possible directions to follow. _______________________________
6. It is assumed that the larger the sample is, the more statistically accurate the findings are.
________________________
7. Researchers must be on the look-out on respondents who are just guessing in answering the instrument.
______________________________
8. It does not consider the distinct capacity of the respondents to share and elaborate further information unlike the
qualitative research. __________________________
9. It is real and unbiased. _____________________
10. It is costly. ______________________
MATCHING TYPE: Match item in COLUMN A with those of COLUMN B by placing the letter of the
correct answers in the space provided in column A from among the choices I column B.
3. useful when the objective of the study is to see C. Census
general picture of the population under
investigation in terms of their social and economic D. Evaluative
characteristics, opinions, and their knowledge
about the behavior towards a certain phenomenon E. Comparative
4. conducting a research on the study habits of the
high school students you are to use the range of F. Ex-post Facto
score to describe the level of their study habits
5. discusses why and how a phenomenon occurs G. Descriptive
6. selecting groups, upon which a variable is
tested, without any random pre-selection H. Correlational
processes
7. uses correlation coefficient to show how one I. Bivariate Correlational
variable (the predictor variable) predicts another
(the criterion variable) J. prediction
8. employs both treated and control groups to deal
with time-related rival explanations K. Multiple Regression
9. it obtains score from two variables for each
subject, and then uses them to calculate a L. Pre-experimental
correlation coefficient
10. term that seems synonymous to survey M. Quasi-experimental
research
N. True experimental
LESSON IT 1
2: UN
MY REVIEW: If you’re going to sum up your experience with the previous lesson in three (3), what
will be those words? Why?
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By the end of this lesson, you are expected to:
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Identify quantitative research used in various disciplines
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Explain the importance of quantitative research across various fields
PRE-TEST! Answer the questions below. Follow instructions properly.
MATCHING TYPE. Match item in COLUMN A with those of COLUMN B by placing the letter of
the correct answers in the space provided in column A from among the choices in column B. Identify
what discipline the given research title is related.
ESSAY:
Discuss briefly how quantitative research related or important to different field of discipline.
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Choose two disciplines enumerated above (column B) and explain how quantitative research was used on
it.
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IMPORTANCE OF QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH ACROSS
FIELDS
People do research to find solutions, even tentative ones, to problems, in order to improve or enhance ways of
doing things, to disprove or provide a new hypothesis, or simply to find answers to questions or solutions to problems
in daily life. Research findings can affect people’s lives, ways of doing things, laws, rules and regulations, as well as
policies, among others. Widely, quantitative research is often used because of its emphasis on proof rather than
discovery.
In recent times, research studies are gaining an unprecedented focus and attention. Then, only the faculty in
higher education has so much interest and conduct researchers, but now even the teachers in the basic education are
engrossed in researches and devote time and effort in conducting researches to improve educational practices that
may lead to more quality learning of the students. Many teachers do action researches because there is a serious need
to identify the problems of the deteriorating quality of education. By doing so, they can address systematically and
make educational decisions regarding the problems met. Innovative teaching strategies are product of research.
In the natural and social sciences, quantitative research is the systematic, empirical investigation of observable
phenomena via statistical, mathematical or computational techniques. The objective of quantitative research is to
develop and employ mathematical models, theories and/or hypotheses pertaining to phenomena. The process of
measurement is central to quantitative research because it provides the fundamental connection between empirical
observation and mathematical expression of quantitative relationships.
Health Sciences (Medical Technology, Dentistry, Nursing, Medicine, etc.) use quantitative research designs
like descriptive, pre-experimental, quasi-experimental, true-experiment, case study, among others.
In Field, Janet Schofield and her colleagues did a 3 year ethnographic study in middle school. During the first
year, they noticed that African-American and while children seemed to react differently to “mildly aggressive acts’ –
things like bumping in the hallway, poking one another in the classroom, asking for food, or using another student’s
pencil without permission. There appeared to be no event of racial conflict in the school, but during interviews while
students were more likely to report being intimidated by their African-American peers than vice versa (Sagar &
Schofield, 1980, as cited by Bernard, 2004)
After reading the whole discussion, you will be given A SECOND CHANCE to answer the test. (Isang
malaking SANA ALL!!!) Answer the questions below. Follow instructions properly.
MATCHING TYPE: Match item in COLUMN A with those of COLUMN B by placing the letter of
the correct answers in the space provided in column A from among the choices in column B. Identify
what discipline the given research title is related.
PS: Ang bait ko no?? What can you say?? Leave a comment.
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YOUR ANSWERS COLUMN A COLUMN B
1. What Effect do Punitive Behavioral Control Statements
have on Classroom?
2. The Relationship between the Mushrooming of Fast Food A. QUANTI & ANTHROPOLOGY
Chains and Obesity of Children in Kuopo, Eastern England.
3. Effect of Tourism to the Cultural System of Villagers in B. QUANTI & COMMUNICATION
Southern Cordillera.
4. Factors Affecting Quality of Medical Education in Saint C. QUANTI & SPORTS MED.
Louis University
5. Relationship of Verbally Aggressive Behavior to the D. QUANTI & MEDICAL ED.
Physical Aggression of a Person.
E. QUANTI & BEHAVIORAL SCI.
6. Factors Affecting Crime Rates in Burgos, La Union.
7. Video Integration in Teaching Science in Grade 12 of F. QUANTI & EDUCATION
Upper Tumapoc National High School.
8. Communicative Behaviors Associated in Different Stages G. QUANTI & PSYCHOLOGY
of a Romantic Relationship.
9. Ethnographic Study: Changes of Aeta Behaviors in past 5 H. QUANTI & ABM
years.
10. Relationship of Physical Activity to the Amount of I. QUANTI & STEM
Adipose Tissue and Endurance Fitness of Children Aged 15
– 22 in Burgos, La Union.
MY TAKEAWAYS! NON-STOP WRITING: Write your concise learning about the questions
that follow. Please strictly answer based on you understanding not TO COPY FROM THE TEXT
ABOVE!!!
How important quantitative research across fields? Cite at least five fields and explain how quantitative
research is interconnected with it.
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LESSON IT 1
3: UN
- VARIABLE
DEPENDENT
INDEPENDENT
CONTROL
1. It refers to the characteristics that have two or more mutually exclusive values or properties.
CONTINUOUS
________________________
2. Variables that
INTERVENING represent categories that cannot be ordered in any particular way.
________________________
CONFOUNDING
3. Special kind of independent
INTERVALvariables that are measured in a study because they potentially influence the
dependent variable. __________________________
4. Variables that have values that lie along an evenly dispersed range of numbers when there is an absolute
NOMINAL
zero, as opposed
ORDINAL to net worth, which can have a negative debt-to-income ratio-level variable.
____________________________
RATIO
5. Kind of variable that are not actually measured or observed in a study. They exist but their influence cannot
be directly detected in a study. __________________________
ABSTRACT
6. It “stands between” the independent and dependent variables, and they show the effects of the independent
variable on the dependent variable. __________________________
7. Variables that represent categories that can be ordered from greatest to smallest. _____________________
8. Kind of variable that probably cause, influence, or effect outcomes. They are variably called treatment,
manipulated, antecedent or predictor variables. ________________________
9. Variables that depend on independent variables; they are the outcomes or results of the influence of the
independent variable. _______________________
10. Variables that have values that lie along an evenly dispersed range of numbers. ______________
ESSAY:
Discuss briefly your expectations from this lesson.
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Based on the pre-test, how much do you know about variables in research?
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THE VARIABLES IN RESEARCH
The term ‘variable’ has been mentioned several times so that it is necessary to define it here. In research, a
variable refers to a “characteristics that has two or more mutually exclusive values or properties” (Sevilla and Other,
1988). Sex, for instance, has two properties which are maleness and femaleness. The ages of different persons have
different values; so with their size, height, weight and income. The phenomenon of variety is what makes life
interesting; it is one of the motivating factors of the research undertaking.
The root word of the word variable is “vary” or simply “can change”. These variables are among the
fundamental concepts of research, alongside with measurement, validity, reliability, cause and effect; and theory.
Bernard (1994) defines a variable as something that can take more than one value, and values can be words or
numbers.
a. INTERVAL VARIABLES – It have values that lie along an evenly dispersed range of numbers. It is a
measurement where the difference between two values does have meaning. Examples of interval data include
temperature, a person’s net worth (how much money you have when you subtract your debt from your
assets), etc. In temperature, this may illustrate as the difference between a temperature of 60 degrees and 50
degrees is the same as difference between 30 degrees and 20 degrees. The interval between values makes
sense and can be interpreted.
b. RATIO VARIABLES – It have values that lie along an evenly dispersed range of numbers when there is
absolute zero. It possesses the properties of interval variable and has a clear definition of zero, indication that
there is none of that variable. Examples of which are height, weight, and distance. Most scores stemming
from response to survey items are ratio-level values because they typically cannot go below zero.
Temperature measured in degrees Celsius and degrees Fahrenheit is not a ratio variable because 0 under these
temperatures scales does not mean no temperature at all.
2. DISCRETE VARIABLES – This is also known as categorical or classificatory variable. This is any variable that
has limited number of distinct values and which cannot be divided into fractions like sex, blood group, and number
of children in family. Discrete variable may also categorized into:
a. NOMINAL VARIABLE – It represent categories that cannot be ordered in any particular way. It is a
variable with no quantitative value. It has two or more categories but does not imply ordering of cases.
Common examples of this variable include eye color, business type, religion, biological sex, political
affiliation, basketball fan affiliation, etc. A sub-type of nominal scale with only two categories just like sex is
known as dichotomous.
b. ORDINAL VARIABLE – It represent categories that can be ordered from greatest to smallest. This
variable has two or more categories which can be ranked. Examples of ordinal variable include education
level, income brackets, etc. An illustration of this is, if you asked people if they liked listening to music while
studying and they could answer either “NOT VERY MUCH”, “MUCH”, “VERY MUCH” then you have an
ordinal variable. While you can rank them, we cannot place a value to them. In this type, distances between
attributes do not have any meaning. For example, you used educational attainment as a variable on survey,
you might code elementary school graduates = 1, high graduates = 2, college undergraduate = 3, and college
graduate = 4. In this measure, higher number means greater education. Even though we can rank these from
lowest to highest, the spacing between the values may not be the same across the levels of the variables. The
distance between 3 and 4 is not the same with the distance between 1 and 2.
EXAMPLE: A study is on the relationship of study habits and academic performance of UTNHS senior high school
students. STUDY HABITS is the independent variable because it influenced the outcome or the performance of the
students.
2. DEPENDENT VARIABLES – those that depend on the independent variables; they are the outcomes or results
of the influence of the independent variable. That is why it is also called outcome variable.
EXAMPLE: A study is on the relationship of study habits and academic performance of UTNHS senior high school
students. ACADEMIC PERFORMANCE is the dependent variable because it is depending on the study habits of the
students; if the students change their study habit the academic performance also change.
3. INTERVENING OR MEDLING VARIABLES – Variables that “stand between” the independent and
dependent variables, and they show the effects of the independent variable on the dependent variable.
EXAMPLE: Consider the given below. Even if farm production is good, if the attitude towards payment is negative,
loan repayment would be low, whereas, if the attitude towards repayment is positive or favorable, loan repayment
would be high.
4. CONTROL VARIABLES – A special types of independent variables that are measured in the study because
they potentially influence the dependent variable. Researchers use statistical procedures (e.g. analysis of covariance)
to control these variables. They may be demographic or personal variables that need to be “controlled” so that the
true influence of the independent variable on the dependent variable can be determined.
5. CONFOUNDING VARIABLES – Variables that are not actually measured or observed in a study. They exist
but their influence cannot be directly detected in a study. Researchers comment on the influence of confounding
variables after the study has been completed, because these variables may have operated to explain the relationship
between the independent variables and dependent variable, but they were not or could not be easily assessed.
DETERMINATION. Determine if what type of variable are the following. Write I if the variable is Interval,
N if Nominal, R if Ratio and O if Ordinal. Write your answers on the space provided.
ASSESSMENT!!! This serves as your summative test. Answer the questions below following the
instruction given in each test. FAILURE TO FOLLOW INSTRUCTIONS WILL NOT BE
CONSIDERED.
IDENTIFICATION. Identify the variables and the constant in each title of study presented below.
Determine the independent and dependent variable; then determine whether discrete or continuous
variable.
FOR EXAMPLE: A study on the relationship of study habits and academic performance of BSU college
students.