Materials and Design 67 (2015) 571–576

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Materials and Design

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The microstructural evolution and mechanical properties of resistance

spot welded Fe–31Mn–3Al–3Si TWIP steel
M.H. Razmpoosh a,b, M. Shamanian a,⇑, M. Esmailzadeh a,c
a
Department of Materials Engineering, Isfahan University of Technology, Isfahan 84156-83111, Iran
b
School of Metallurgy and Materials Engineering, College of Engineering, University of Tehran, Tehran, Iran
c
Department of Materials Science and Engineering, School of Engineering, Shiraz University, Shiraz, Iran

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: In this study, similar resistance spot weldability of an Fe–31Mn–3Al–3Si Twinning Induced Plasticity
Received 15 September 2014 (TWIP) steel was investigated. The microstructural evolution was studied by means of optical microscopy
Accepted 31 October 2014 (OM) and scanning electron microscopy (SEM) in order to evaluate the effects of experimental conditions
Available online 7 November 2014
on spot welded (RSW) joints. In addition, tensile–shear load bearing capacity of welded materials and
failure modes were precisely inspected to determine the mechanical properties and fracture behavior
Keywords: of welded joints. The results illustrated that due to the expulsion phenomenon, optimum welding param-
Twinning Induced Plasticity steel
eters for the experimental TWIP steel are shifted to lower values. Meanwhile, OM indicated that the
Resistance spot welding
Welding parameters optimization
fusion zone (FZ) held a dendritic structure; however, heat affected zone (HAZ) exhibited a significant
Mechanical properties grain growth in the narrow band. At upper welding parameters, shrinkage cavities and, in certain
Microstructure characterization specimens, in microscopic scale inter-dendritic micro-pores were observed.
Ó 2014 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction However, in order to well industrialization of TWIP steels, specifi-

Growing demands in automotive industries toward the
improvement of passenger safety and weight reduction have led
to significant efforts to replace conventional steels with light-
weight alloys or advanced high strength steels (AHSS) [1–3]. In this
regard, a variety of AHS steel grades, including transformation-
induced plasticity (TRIP) and Twinning-Induced Plasticity (TWIP)
steels have been developed as a promising address to the requisi-
tions of transportation industries [4]. In particular, the TWIP steels
contain a high amount of manganese, which decreases the stacking
fault energy (SFE) and determines the deformation characteristics.
In other words, in lower SFEs, mechanical twinning is highly pro-
moted [5–10]. So, these steels exhibit the formation of mechanical
twins in the course of deformation leading to an increase in the
instantaneous work hardening rate. It has been demonstrated
[11–15] that the introduced twin boundaries in the material, act
as strong barriers against motion of dislocations. As a result,
strengthening is considered via reduction in dislocation mean free
path (the dynamic Hall–Petch effect). Moreover, due to the retar-
dation of local necking, the ductility is also improved and excellent
tensile strength–ductility combination can be attained [9,16–23].
⇑ Corresponding author. Tel./fax: +98 311 3915737.
E-mail address: shamanian@cc.iut.ac.ir (M. Shamanian).
cally in applications for car body components, a thorough research
into proper joining of the TWIP steel is highly required. In the best
of author’s knowledge, quite a few investigations have been carried
out concerning the effect of joining process on the microstructure
and mechanical behavior of TWIP steels.
Mújica Roncery et al. [24] have reported that the formation of
chemical inhomogeneities as a result of evaporation, dilution and
micro-segregation are the main determinative issues associated
with the fusion welding of TWIP steels. On account of the close
interdependency of SFE and chemical composition, any chemical
inhomogeneity in the joint region could alter the deformation
mechanism or could significantly impress the austenite stability
and the presence of second phases such as e-martensite and a-
martensite. Mujica et al. [25] have addressed that high manganese
content of typical TWIP steel is responsible for the segregation
phenomena in solidification within the joining process. Moreover,
in the case of dissimilar joints of TWIP and TRIP steels, differences
in the deformation behaviors of the joint have been attributed to
the dilution effects. These authors also reported that the joint
reveals yield strength slightly higher than the TWIP-parent metal
(PM) but not as high as the TRIP-PM. In addition, it has also been
shown that the grain size distribution in the fusion zone is not
homogeneous. This could be related to the large differences in
the thermal conductivity between the austenite and the ferrite,
where the austenite is less conductive. It is worth mentioning that

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.matdes.2014.10.090
0261-3069/Ó 2014 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
572 M.H. Razmpoosh et al. / Materials and Design 67 (2015) 571–576

Fig. 1. Conventional RSW setup and electrical resistances [27].

manganese exhibits better solubility in the liquid phase in compar- Table 1

ison to the solid austenite. Consequently, the early solidified The chemical composition of the experimental TWIP steel.
regions, i.e. near the interface, are more prone to form manganese Element C Mn Al Si S Fe
depleted zones. So, a lower SFE is anticipated in the fusion zone
wt.% 0.005 31 3.1 2.9 0.012 Bal.
that encourages the formation of martensite [5–8]. Additionally,
due to the inadequate corrosion resistance of TWIP steel, the galva-
nized sheets of these steel grades also were subject of investiga-
tion. Accordingly, these Zinc coated sheets showed a considerable
susceptibility to liquid metal embrittlement (LME) in the range
of 750–900 °C, which can simply be reached during the joining
processes [26].
Resistance spot welding (RSW) is the dominant joining process
mainly used for the sheet metal components assemblies, particu-
larly in the automotive industry [27]. In Fig. 1, the schematic view
of the RSW setup is depicted [27]. In recent years, despite the
development of alternative joining methods, conventional resis-
tance spot welding is still the primary joining technique in auto-
motive structures. The unique status of this process is related to
the respective technical and economic benefits as high potentiality
for automation and procedure simplicity, low process time and
cost and consequently high productivity [28–30].
The mechanical behavior of spot-welds and, in the larger scale,
the overall integrity of assembly, plays a crucial role in the assess-
ment of the vehicle crashworthiness. Meanwhile, the microstruc-
tural evolution during RSW could intensely affect the mechanical Fig. 2. The initial microstructure of the experimental TWIP steel.
properties of the welded products. Owing to this fact, the profound
perception of the restoration processes and phase transformations
during RSW is of particular importance. In this regard, control over Table 2
the welding process and the quality of the welded joints is essen- The experimental welding parameters and corresponding heat inputs.

tial and critical in each manufacturing process. Consequently, opti- Number of specimen S1 S2 S3 S4 S5 S6
mization of TWIP steel RSW has to be done. Up to now, the Welding current (kA) 6.25 5 5 3.75 3.75 2.5
microstructure evolution and failure mechanism of resistance spot Welding time (cycles) 25 25 25 25 25 25
welded TWIP steel have not been subject of research widely. Holding time (s) 0.5 0.5 1 1 2 2
Hence, the purpose of this research is to optimize the RSW process Heat input (A2 s  106) 19.5R 12.5R 12.5R 7R 7R 3.1R
for joining the experimental Fe–31Mn–3Si–3Al TWIP steel sheets.

2. Experimental procedure
In this study, 1 mm thick TWIP steel sheets were used for the
joining process. As-received material was a hot rolled steel sheet
with 5.7 mm in thickness and a chemical composition according
to Table 1. In order to remove any microstructural inhomogeneity,
as-received sheets were heated at 1100 °C for 3.6 ks. Afterwards,
the homogenized sheets were cold rolled to a reduction of 90%. Sub-
sequently, in order to obtain a fully recrystallized microstructure,
the sheets were annealed at 700 °C for 1.8 ks followed by air-
cooling. The initial microstructure of the material is illustrated in
Fig.2. The annealed material possesses the ultimate tensile strength
and elongation of about 650 MPa and 50%, respectively. The surface
of sheets was polished and cleaned by acetone before the welding
procedure. Spot welding experiments were performed using a
typical pneumatic type resistance spot welding machine. Water
cooling copper electrodes were utilized. With the aim of determin-
ing an optimum welding condition, the trials were conducted at dif-
ferent combinations of process parameters (3 trials for each
combination). The noted process parameters and their ranges are
presented in Table 2. In the entire welding trials, the electrode force
was constant. In order to describe the mechanical behavior of the
spot welds, tensile–shear tests were conducted. Specimens of
tensile–shear test were prepared according to ANSI/AWS/SAE/
D8.9–99 standard [31]. A schematic view of the tensile–shear spec-
imen dimensions is illustrated in Fig. 3. Moreover, tensile–shear
 M.H. Razmpoosh et al. / Materials and Design 67 (2015) 571–576 573

Fig. 3. Spot welded tensile–shear test sample.

Fig. 4. Spot welded specimens (a) at lower heat inputs (defectless), (b) at higher heat inputs (expulsion phenomenon).

tests were carried out at a crosshead speed of 1 mm/min using a

universal testing machine (SANTAM). The attained fracture surfaces
were examined by means of scanning electron microscopy (SEM).
The specimens were cross sectioned perpendicular to the spot
welds. The polished sections were prepared according to standard
metallographic procedures followed by etching in 2% Nital
solution. The average grain size was measured by CLEMEX image
analyzing software. Microhardness measurements were made
across the PM, heat affected zone (HAZ) and fusion zone (FZ), at
a load of 300 g for 10 s.

3. Results and discussion

In the case of RSW, the noticeable process parameters are weld-

ing current and time. It is worth mentioning that like any other
welding technique, the main feature that controls microstructural
evolution and the subsequent mechanical behavior is heat input.
According to the following equation, in the course of RSW, the heat
input is mainly controlled by current, time and electrical resistance
of steel sheets.
Q ¼ RI2 t
where Q and R express the heat input and the bulk resistance,
respectively. I represents the welding current and t is the welding
time. Considering the constant value of bulk resistance (R) in all
experimental welding conditions, magnitudes of heat input are pre-
sented in Table 2. Seemingly, in the presence of a probable high
electrical resistance of the experimental TWIP steel, higher heat
inputs resulted in the extensive expulsion phenomenon (Fig. 4).
Consequently, owing to the incidence of expulsion, cavities in the
Fig. 5. The microstructure of fusion zone (FZ), heat affected zone (HAZ) and parent
metal (PM).
joint region emerge at higher heat inputs. Clearly, the presence of
these defects could profoundly affect shear–tension strength of
ð1Þ
the spot welds. In this regime, the defectless spot welds were
achieved at welding current of 2.5 kA and welding cycle of 25.
Fig. 5 demonstrates the microstructure of the joint region at weld-
ing current of 2.5 kA and welding cycle of 25. As clearly seen, the
joint region consists of distinct conventional zones of PM, HAZ
and FZ. As previously shown in Fig. 2, in the PM, the fully recrystal-
lized structure held a fine grain size of 600 ± 50 nm including
numerous annealing twins. Grain size measurements in this region
were in good agreement with those obtained in the study by Ueji
574 M.H. Razmpoosh et al. / Materials and Design 67 (2015) 571–576

Fig. 8. Interdendritic micro-pores in the joint region.

Fig. 6. The microstructure of the FZ.

Fig. 9. Macro shrinkage cavities in the joint region.

Fig. 7. Substantial grain growth in HAZ.

et al. [32] on the effect of heat treatment on static recrystallization

(SRX) of the similar Fe–31Mn–3Al–3Si TWIP steel. However, among
the aforementioned regions, the most notable changes in the micro-
structure have occurred in the FZ. The FZ has been melted during
the welding process and has rapidly resolidified, which resulted in
a cast structure. The results, according to Fig. 6, have shown that
the cast microstructure in the joint region consisted mainly of a
dendritic structure. Meanwhile, HAZ, which was not melted during
the joining process, underwent substantial grain growth as a conse-
quence of thermal cycling. Evaluations indicated that the mean
grain size of about 600 ± 50 nm in PM has been raised abruptly to
8 ± 1 lm (Fig. 7).
Extreme grain growth in a narrow band in HAZ could be
explained from the point view of low thermal conductivity of the
experimental TWIP steel. This, in turn, could result in a great heat
accumulation in a narrow zone in the vicinity of the FZ. Thereafter,
this accumulated heat results in excessive growth of recrystallized
grains of PM. Fig. 10. Tearing of the joint region associated with the expulsion phenomenon.
As noted previously, due to the high electrical resistance of the
experimental steel sheets, excessive heat input has been experi- has to be noted that the possibility of the micro-pore formation
enced during the welding process in specimens S1–S5. In this increases with increasing solidification rate. Thus, on account of
regard, the macrostructure of the FZ indicated several defects. In the higher cooling rate followed by high heat inputs involved with
other words, the expulsion phenomenon and subsequent pore upper welding parameters, the possibility of the formation of
formation have been observed. In addition, in the microscopic micro-pores increases. Also, as macrograph of the joint region in
scale, in certain specimens, inter-dendritic micro-pores have been Fig. 9 indicates, at upper values of heat input, macro shrinkage cav-
observed (Fig. 8). These micro-pores have been formed during the ities have been observed. The occurrence of this type of shrinkage
solidification process in an inter-dendritic area as a consequence of cavities could be directly attributed to the abundant material loss
solidification shrinkage. Owing to the high contraction volume in in the course of the expulsion phenomenon. It is also worth
TWIP steels, the occurrence of shrinkage-related defects is highly mentioning that due to excessive heat input and consequently
expected. The exact mechanism of the formation of these micro- upper electrode/sheet interface temperature, the amount of plastic
pores has been discussed by Fredriksson and Svensson [33]. It deformation in the sheet surface under the applied electrode force
 M.H. Razmpoosh et al. / Materials and Design 67 (2015) 571–576 575

Moreover, the effect of holding time, i.e. the time during which
the electrodes clamp sheets after applying current, has been con-
sidered. In this regard, it has been found that with an increase in
the holding time, in equivalent current and cycle, the chances of
the defect formation decreases slightly.
Fig. 11 shows the Vickers microhardness profile of material
welded at optimum parameter (i.e. welding current 2.5 kA and
welding time 25 cycles). As is seen, microhardness level at FZ is
slightly higher than that of PM. However, diminution in microh-
ardness level could be observed in HAZ, in the vicinity of FZ. This
diminution is possibly originated from significant grain growth,
which has occurred in narrow band in HAZ. Higher mean microh-
ardness value at FZ, compared to PM, could be attributed to the
dendritic structure of this region. Lack of sharp variation of microh-
ardness from the joint region to PM can be assumed as an advan-
tage of using RSW as the joining process for the experimental AHS
Fig. 11. Vickers microhardness profile of the spot weld at optimum parameter steel sheets.
(welding current 2.5 kA and welding time 25 cycles). It is generally believed that under the tensile–shear test, a pro-
found correlation exists between the load carrying capacity of the
spot welds and welding parameters i.e. current and time. In this
Table 3 regard, increase in the welding current and time leads to an
The experimental welding parameters and corresponding tensile–shear peak loads. increase in the aforementioned capacity, due to increasing of FZ’s
size and fusion penetration depth [29,34]. It is of interest to note
Number of specimen Result Tensile–shear peak load (kN)
that, in the present study, owing to the occurrence of expulsion
S1 Defected 2.4
at higher heat inputs (i.e. specimens S1–S5), a completely reverse
S2 Defected 2.7
S3 Defected 3.1 trend has been observed. Therefore, increasing the heat input leads
S4 Defected 6.1 to the significant drop in the peak load, and the specimens tend to
S5 Defected 6.3 fail rapidly in the course of tensile–shear testing. Hence, it can be
S6 Defectless 7.5 specified that the highest strength of the spot weld would be
achieved at lowest experimental heat input value. Accordingly,
the highest peak load of 7.5 kN is achieved in 2.5 kA and 25 cycles
(the defectless spot-welded specimen). So, the load bearing capac-
ities of different conditions, as a criterion for defining optimum
welding condition, have been summarized in Table 3.
Fig. 12 depicts the failure location at the peak load in the course
of the tensile–shear tests. As clearly seen, the failure occurs in the
vicinity of the joint region, which is consistent with the micro-
structure observed in HAZ. As revealed previously in Figs. 5 and
6, significant grain growth had occurred in HAZ. Therefore, inci-
dence of failure in HAZ could be justified through substantial
reduction in strength in comparison to the side regions such as
PM and FZ. With the aim of better perception of failure in HAZ,
scanning electron microscopy (SEM) has been performed to exam-
ine the failure surfaces. The SEM micrograph of the fracture
surfaces is shown in Fig. 13a and b. One can see clearly that the
surface consists of almost equiaxed dimpled rupture, which is
Fig. 12. Failure incidence during tensile shear test at the maximum load. characteristic of a ductile failure, while, very few facets are also
present. These dimples are relatively uniform in size, but few
is amplified resulting in excessive electrode indentation. As can be extremely large and deep ones can also be observed. These large
seen in Fig. 10, excessive electrode indentation with the concomi- dimples presumably originated from extreme grain growth in
tant of the expulsion has led to the tearing of the joint region. HAZ. Higher-magnification view of this area is represented in

Fig. 13. SEM micrograph of the fracture surface of the tensile–shear test specimen at (a) lower magnification and (b) higher magnification.
576 M.H. Razmpoosh et al. / Materials and Design 67 (2015) 571–576
Fig. 13b. Relying on the fact that very deep voids are usually symp-
toms of severe and localized plastic deformation before failure, one
can speculate high level of plastic deformation before the failure.
On the other hand, remarkable pre-failure deformation could be
interpreted as an evidence of absence of defects in the HAZ and
the FZ in optimum condition of welding parameters (S6).
4. Conclusions
The present work has been directed towards resistance spot
welding of Fe–31Mn–3Al–3Si Twinning Induced Plasticity (TWIP)
steel. The microstructural evolution was investigated by means
of OM and SEM. The mechanical properties were studied through
microhardness measurements and tensile–shear tests. The main
results are summarized as follows:
(1) At upper welding parameters, shrinkage cavities have been
observed. Occurrence of these cavities was directly attributed
to the abundant material loss in the course of expulsion phe-
nomenon. Thus, defectless spot welds have been obtained in
welding current of 2.5 kA and welding cycle of 25.
(2) The fusion zone revealed a dendritic structure, while signif-
icant grain growth in HAZ has occurred only in the narrow
band. This phenomenon has been explained from the point
view of low thermal conductivity of the experimental steel.
In certain specimens, inter-dendritic micro-pores have been
observed, which have been justified through the high solid-
ification shrinkage in inter-dendritic areas.
(3) Microhardness measurements revealed slight reduction
through HAZ. Higher microhardness level at the FZ was
attributed to the dendritic structure of this zone. An increase
in the welding current and time leads to a significant drop in
the peak load during tensile–shear tests.
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