INVERTEBRATE GALLERY OF

INDIAN MUSEUM, KOLKATA

ENTRANCE TO INVERTRATE GALLERY

MODEL SHOWING DIVERGENCE OF INVERTEBRATE PHYLA ON EXHIBITION

IN THER GALLERY
Invertebrates are animals that neither possess nor develop
a vertebral column (commonly known as a backbone or spine),
derived from the notochord. This includes all animals apart from
the subphylum Vertebrata. Familiar examples of invertebrates
include arthropods (insects, arachnids, crustaceans,
and myriapods), mollusks (chitons, snails, bivalves, squids,
and octopuses), annelids (earthworms and leeches),
and cnidarians (hydras, jellyfishes, sea anemones, and corals).
The majority of animal species are invertebrates; one estimate puts
the figure at 97%.Many invertebrate taxa have a greater number and
variety of species than the entire subphylum of Vertebrata.

 SUBKINGDOM: PROTOZOA
THE GRAND ORIGIN OF LIFE: Our life started with a single cell and
started releasing oxygen. With the accumulation of oxygen in the
atmosphere, the beginning life started millions of years ago. The
first organisms formed are called Protists and among them, which
can move are placed under Protozoa. Some of them, like plants,
have chloroplasts in their body.

PROTOZOA DIORAMA
Protozoans show the following basic features :
 Microscopic, unicellular and eukaryotic organisms.
 Presence of structures for locomotion (pseudopodia, flagella
etc.)
 Chlorophyll may or may not be present.
 Reproduction is either sexual or
asexual; asexual binary reproduction occurs by fission, multiple
fission, budding or sporulation and sexual reproduction occurs
by gamete formation or conjugation.
The following specimens were observed and studied in the gallery:

1. Elphiduium sp.

Systematic Position (Levine et al., 1980)

Subkingdom Protozoa
Phylum Sarcomastigophora
Specimen Elphidium sp.
CHARACTERS:
 Body is enclosed in a coiled, chambered shell with fine pores.
 Pseudopodia emerge out through these pores and form a
network outside the shell, known as reticulopodia.
 Presence of single nucleus and large proloculum in
megalospheric form.
 Presence of many nuclei and small proloculum in microspheric
form.
This protozoan is found abundantly on the bottom of the ocean and
it is one of the indicators of petroleum. Fossils of these protozoans
are used for dating rocks. They exhibit dimorphism with alternating
generations.

2. Entamoeba histolytica

Systematic Position (Levine et al., 1980)

Subkingdom Protozoa
Phylum Sarcomastigophora
Specimen Entamoeba histolytica
CHARACTERS:
Trophozoite-
 More or less rounded in shape measuring 20 to 40 micrometer
in diameter.
 Cytoplasm is divided into a clear, translucent ectoplasm and a
granular endoplasm.
 Pseudopodium is blade-like
 Nucleus has a delicate nuclear membrane, chromatin granules
and a central karyosome.
Cystic stage-
 Rounded, quadrinucleate form.
 Outer cystic wall is highly refractile.
 Cytoplasm is clear and hyaline.
This is a human parasite, histolytic literally means “tissue
destroyer”. It bores into the intestinal wall, and reaches different
vital organs of the body, usually the liver. Only 10-20% of the
infected people develop symptoms.

EXHIBITION ON LOCOMOTION IN PROTOZOA

WHY PROTOZOA ARE IMPORTANT IN THE STUDY OF GENETICS:
Geneticists have focussed their attention on protozoa because the
group “presents all problems of heredity and variation in miniature”.
The advantage of using Protozoa as a genetic material is that it
reproduces at a rapid rate and may offer a generation in a day for the
study of variation and heredity. Study of conjugation in
Paramoecium has revealed many interesting information about
protozoa genetics and the interrelationship between nucleus and
cytoplasm in attributing hereditary factors.

 PHYLUM PORIFERA
GENERAL CONCEPTS ON PORIFERA

 Phylum Porifera constitutes of sponges that are the most

primitive of the multicellular animals, lacking organs, but
having well developed connective tissue. Porifera refers to
“pore bearing” showing a great variety of external forms- they
may be saucer-shaped, cup-shaped, foliaceous, lobed,
branched, irregular, mushroom-shaped etc.
 Body is cylindrical, asymmetrical or possesses radial symmetry.
 They are purely aquatic and prefer relatively shallow water but
some (glass sponges) prefer deeper water.
 Absence of a true body cavity or gut.
 Presence of an elaborate skeletal system of either calcareous or
siliceous spicules or protein (collagen, sometimes called
spongin) fibres or combination of these.
 They possess a canal system through which water current flows
transporting food and oxygen.
DESCRIPTION OF SPECIMENS
OBSERVED FROM PHYLUM
PORIFERA:
1. SPECIMEN- Scypha (Syn., Sycon ciliatum)
OTHER NICKNAMES: Scypha is commonly known as “URN
SPONGE” owing to its urn shape. It is also called as “CROWN
SPONGE” as the fringe of long and straight spicules looks like a
little crown.

SYSTEMATIC POSITION (Ruppert and Barnes,

1994)
Phylum Porifera
Class Calcarea
Specimen Sycon ciliatum (Fabricius,1780)

Characters:
 Body consists of several interconnected vase-shaped unit
or cylinders.
  The distal or free end of each cylinder has a single large
opening called OSCULUM or EXHALENT or EXCURRENT
PORE, guarded by upstanding collar of monaxon spicules.
 Body is externally covered by a thin dermal epithelium or
ectoderm.
 Branched and colonial sponge whose body surface is
perforated by numerous inhalant pores called ostia.
HABITAT: Sycon ciliatum is a small, marine sponge found attached
by a sticky secretion to some submerged solid objects like rocks,
shells of mollusks and corals. It is found in shallow water up to a
depth of 300 feet where waves provide the animal with plenty of
food and well oxygenated water.
2. SPECIMEN: Neptune’s cup
SCIENTIFIC NAME: Cliona patera (Hardwicke,1822)
REASON FOR SUCH NAMING: Among the larger known
sponges at up to a meter in height and width, the common
name Neptune’s Cup refers to its characteristic wine glass
shape and the Roman God Of the sea.
 SYSTEMATIC POSITION
(According to Ruppert and Barnes,1994)
Phylum Porifera
Class Demospongiae
Genus Cliona
Species Cliona patera
CHARACTERS:
 Body becomes free large vase shaped or large cup
shaped.
 Large osculum is present at the anterior end.
 The posterior end has a root like process in the form of a
stalk.
AMAZING FACTS ABOUT NEPTUNE’S CUP:
 The species was thought to be extinct in the early 1900s but
living specimens were rediscovered in 2011. The most recent
living specimen of Neptune’s Cup was found off to the coast of
Singapore attached to the muddy bottom of sea floor.
 A MARINE MARVEL: The ‘never-say-die’ characteristic of
Singapore’s Natural Heritage is exemplified by the Neptunes’s
Cup Sponge. It was first seen in Singapore Waters in 1822.
In MARCH 2011, during a routine survey dive, marine biologists
from DHI WATER AND ENVIRONMENT PTE. LTD. Encountered a
unique looking sponge from Southern Island of Singapore.
 It was later identified by Singapore Sponge Expert, Mr. Lim
Swee Cheng.

CANAL SYSTEM IN PORIFERA:

The water circulatory system of sponges also called as canal
system is the characteristic feature of the phylum Porifera. Canal
system is also known as aquiferous system. The canal system of
sponges helps in food acquisition, respiratory gas exchange and
also in excretion.
 The numerous perforations on the body surface of the sponges for
ingression and egression of water current are the main
constituents of the canal system. Inside the body, the water
current flows through a certain system of spaces where by the
food is captured from the incoming water and the excretory
material is sent out into the outgoing water.

Types of canal systems:

Different sponges have different arrangement and grades of
complexity of internal channels and accordingly the canal system
is been divided into the following three types:
Ascon type of canal system
 This canal system is the simples of all the three. It is found in
asconoid type of sponges like Leucosolenia and also in some of
the developmental stages of all the syconoid sponges.
 The body surface of the asconoid type of sponges is pierced by
a large number of minute openings called as incurrent pores or
ostia. These pores are intracellular spaces within the tube like
cells called porocytes. These pores extend radially into
mesenchyme and open directly into the spongocoel.
 The spongocoel is the single largest spacious cavity in the body
of the sponge. The spongocoel is lined by the flattened collar
cells or choanocytes. Spongocoel opens outside through a
narrow circular opening called as osculum located at the distal
end and it is fringed with large monaxon spicules.
 The surrounding sea water enters the canal system through the
ostia. The flow of the water is maintained by the beating of the
flagella of the collar cells.
Course of water current in Asconoid type canal system
 INGRESSING
OSTIA SPOGOCOEL OSCULUM OUTSIDE
WATER

SYCONOID TYPE CANAL SYSTEM:-

 More complex canal system and found only in syconoid
sponges
 Derived from the asconoid type by horizontal folding of
its wall
 Have two types of canal-incurrent and radial, paralleling
and alternating with each other
 Incurrent canals are non-flagellated and radial canals are
flagellated
 have two openings-dermal ostia and prosopyles in its
body wall
 The spongocoel is the narrow and non-flagellated cavity
 It is lined by pinacocytes e.g. Scypha, Grantia.
Course of water current in Syconoid type Canal system
 INGRESSING WATER

DERMAL OSTIA

INCURRENT CANALS

PROSOPYLES

RADIAL CANALS

APOPYLES

SPONGOCOEL

OSCULUM

TO OUTSIDE

LEUCONOID TYPE CANAL SYSTEM:

 More complex canal system than Sycon type and found only
in leuconoid sponges
 Derived from the sycon type.
 Flagellated chambers lined by choanocytes.
 All other spaces are lined by pinacocytes.
 Incurrent canals open into Flagellated cluster chambers
through prosopyles and opens into excurrent canals through
apopyles.
 Spongocoel is excessively narrow and partly disappeared
e.g. Spongilla.
Course of Water Current in Leuconoid Type Canal System
 INGREESING WATER

DERMAL OSTIA

INCURRENT CANALS

PROSOPYLES

FLAGELLATED CHAMBERS

APOPYLES

EXCURRENT CANALS

OSCULUM

TO OUTSIDE

SIGNIFICANCE OF CANAL SYSTEM:

The flagella of choanocytes beat to produce a water current, which
enters the spongocoel through ostia. It carries food particles and
oxygen and sweeps away the metabolic wastes through OSCULUM.
Therefore, the canal system serves the function of food collection,
respiration and excretion. In simple type of canal system, there is
lesser number of cells and thin body wall but as the canal system
attains complexity, the number of flagellated cells increases and the
force to draw water current is increased. The syconoid canal system
is therefore more efficient than asconoid type and leuconoid type is
the most efficient.
  PHULUM: CNIDARIA

CNIDARIA DIORAMA

Cnidarian, also called coelenterate, any member of the phylum

Cnidaria (Coelenterata), a group made up of more than 9,000
living species. Mostly marine animals, the cnidarians include the
corals, hydras, jellyfish, Portuguese men-of-war, sea anemones, sea
pens, sea whips, and sea fans.
The basic features of organisms classified under this phylum are:
 Polymorphic mesozoan with radial and biradial symmetry.
 A circlet of tentacles surrounds the mouth.
 Outer body wall possesses numerous cnidoblasts or cnidocytes.
 Presence of single gastrovascular cavity or coelenteron.
 Presence of nematocysts.
 Presence of mouth but absence of anus.

CNIDOCYTE- THE WORLD’S FIRST WEAPON:

Cnidocytes, the stinging apparatus of the phylum Cnidaria are
used to stun and capture prey. Cnidocytes contain giant secretory
 organelles called ‘stinging cells.’ The cnidocyte fires a hypnotoxin
from that stinging cell.

1. MOON JELLYFISH

Systematic Position (Ruppert and Barnes, 1994)

Phylum Cnidaria
Class Scyphozoa
Specimen Aurelia aurita
CHARACTERS:
 Inverted saucer-shaped umbrella with tetramerous radial
symmetry.
 Outline of umbrella is notched and housed by eight pairs of
marginal lappets.
 Numerous small tentacles are present between two notches.
 Large squarish mouth at the centre of sub-umbrellar surface.
 Long, frilled and tapering oral arms, lying one at each end of
mouth.
 Inner side of oral arms have ciliated grooves.
  Four horse-shoe shaped gonads and per, inter and adradially
arranged canals are visible on the surface of umbrella.

2. DIORAMA SHOWING VARIOUS TYPES OF

CORALS AND CORAL REEFS

Corals are marine invertebrates within the class Anthozoa of

the phylum Cnidaria. They typically live in compact colonies of many
identical individual polyps. Corals species include the
important reef builders that inhabit tropical oceans and
secrete calcium carbonate to form a hard skeleton.
A coral "group" is a colony of myriad genetically identical polyps.
Each polyp is a sac-like animal typically only a few millimeters in
diameter and a few centimeters in length. A set
of tentacles surrounds a central mouth opening. An exoskeleton is
excreted near the base. 
The general systematic position of corals is presented below:

Systematic Position (Ruppert and Barnes, 1994)

Phylum Cnidaria
Class Anthozoa
Subclass Hexacorallia
Specimen Coral
CORAL REEFS: A coral reef is an
underwater ecosystem characterized by reef-building corals. Reefs
are formed of colonies of coral polyps held together by calcium
carbonate. Most coral reefs are built from stony corals, whose polyps
cluster in groups. Sometimes called rainforests of the sea, shallow
coral reefs form some of Earth's most diverse ecosystems. They
occupy less than 0.1% of the world's ocean area, about half the area
of France, yet they provide a home for at least 25% of all
marine species,including fish, mollusks, worms, crustaceans, echinod
erms, sponges, tunicates and other cnidarians. Coral reefs flourish in
ocean waters that provide few nutrients. They are most commonly
found at shallow depths in tropical waters, but deep water and cold
water coral reefs exist on smaller scales in other areas.
Coral reefs deliver ecosystem services for tourism, fisheries
and shoreline protection. Coral reefs are fragile, partly because they
are sensitive to water conditions. They are under threat from excess
nutrients (nitrogen and phosphorus), rising temperatures, oceanic
acidification, overfishing (e.g., from blast fishing, cyanide
fishing, spearfishing on scuba), sunscreen use, and harmful land-use
practices, including runoff and seeps (e.g., from injection wells and
cesspools).
TYPES OF CORAL REEFS: There are three major types of coral
reefs.
 BARRIER REEF: Barrier reefs are separated from a
mainland or island shore by a deep channel or lagoon. They
resemble the later stages of a fringing reef with its lagoon, but
differ from the latter mainly in size and origin. Their lagoons
can be several kilometres wide and 30 to 70 metres deep.
Above all, the offshore outer reef edge formed in open water
rather than next to a shoreline. Like an atoll, it is thought that
these reefs are formed either as the seabed lowered or sea
level rose. Formation takes considerably longer than for a
fringing reef, thus barrier reefs are much rarer.
The best known and largest example of a barrier reef is the
Australian Great Barrier Reef.
 FRINGING REEF: A fringing reef, also called a shore reef, is
directly attached to a shore, or borders it with an intervening
narrow, shallow channel or lagoon. It is the most common reef
type. Fringing reefs follow coastlines and can extend for many
kilometres. They are usually less than 100 metres wide, but
some are hundreds of metres wide.
The fringing reefs of the Red Sea are some of the best
developed in the world.
 ATOLL: Atolls or atoll reefs are a more or less circular or
continuous barrier reef that extends all the way around a
lagoon without a central island. They are usually formed from
fringing reefs around volcanic islands. Over time, the
island erodes away and sinks below sea level. Atolls may also
be formed by the sinking of the seabed or rising of the sea
level. A ring of reefs results, which enclose a lagoon.
Atolls are numerous in the South Pacific.
 CORAL BLEACHING: Coral polyps are actually translucent
animals. Reefs get their wild hues from the billions of colourful
zooxanthellae algae they host. When stressed by such things as
temperature change or pollution, corals will evict their
boarders, causing coral bleaching that can kill the colony if the
stress is not mitigated.
THREATS TO SURVIVAL: Coral reefs teem with life,
covering less than one percent of the ocean floor, but
supporting about 25% of all marine creatures. However, threats
to their existence abound, and scientists estimate that human
factors—such as pollution, global warming, and sedimentation
—are threatening large swaths of the world's reefs.

ASPECTS ON CONSERVATION STRATEGIES OF CORALS

IN INDIAN SUBCONTINENT: The regional planning to conserve
Coral Reefs in India requires the following strategies:
 An environmental planning unit should monitor the status and
exploitation level of coral reefs in different coastal areas of
India.
 Major activities including conservation, protection, eco-
development and awareness amongst the communities should
be undertaken.
 Attempts have been made to identify the alternative
sustainable livelihood options for the community so as to
reduce the pressure on the fragile ecosystem.
 Under the Marine Protected Area Network, MoEF has declared
Gulf of Mannar and Great Nicobar Biosphere Reserves in 1989.
Similarly, the MoEF has notified Gulf Of Kachch (Gujarat),
Mahatma Gandhi Marina National Park (Andaman) and Rani
Jhansi Marine National Park (Andaman) as Marine National
Parks. Periodic survey on biodiversity status of coral reefs must
be undertaken.
 Efforts should be made to forestall or avert the accumulation of
allochthonous pollutants around the area of coral reefs.

WHY ARE CNIDARIANS GIVEN A

PHYLETIC STATUS?
Many Zoologists still combine the cnidarians and the
ctenophores under a common phylum- the Phylum
Coelenterata. Both the cnidarians and ctenophores have many
common features, of which the coelenteron or enteric cavity is
noteworthy. Both of them stand at a low level of metazoan
organization with a distinct radial symmetry. This symmetry
becomes markedly biradial in some cases. But the recent
workers on this line advocate the splitting of the original
phylum Coelenterata into two distinct and separate phyla-
Phylum Cnidaria (including the idealised diploblastic
nematocyst bearing coelenterates) and Phylum Ctenophora
(including the triploblastic coelenterates without nematocysts).

 PHYLUM: PLATYHELMITHES
 GENERAL CONCEPTS ON PHLYUM
PLATYHELMITHES:
ETYMOLOGY “PLATY” – flat, “HELMINTHES”- worms
Platyhelminthes or flatworms are a diverse group comprising of
25000 living species, that show evolutionary achievements over the
diploblasts in having a structural body plan that is based upon
bilateral symmetry and in having definite organs or system of organs.
 Body is bilaterally symmetrical and dorsoventrally flattened.
 They are triploblastic acoelomate animals having organ systems
that occur in the middle layer.
 Digestive system has a single opening or mouth, that leads to a
well-developed gastrovascular cavity. Anus absent.
 Body spaces are filled with parenchyma.
 Anterior end of the body is differentiated into head.
 Presence of organs for attachment.

Description of selected specimens

from phylum platyhlminthes:-
1. SPECIMEN: Liver fluke
SCIENTIFIC NAME: Fasciola hepatica (Linnaeus,1758)
OTHER NICKNAMES: Fasciola hepatica is also known as
the COMMON LIVER FLUKE OR SHEEP LIVER FLUKE as it is an
endoparasite in the bile-passages of sheep.
Systematic Position (Ruppert and Barnes, 1994)
Phylum Platyhelminthes
Class Trematoda
Genus Fasciola
Species Fasciola hepatica
CHARACTERS:
 Fasciola is thin, dorsoventrally flattened, leaf shaped ,
elongated and oval.
 Body tapers anteriorly and posteriorly with maximum width at
about anterior third of the body.
 The anterior end is rounded, while the posterior end is bluntly
pointed.
  The anterior end of the body has distinguishable triangular oral
cone or head lobe. The head bears a triangular mouth.
 There are 2 cup-like muscular suckers- an oral sucker at the
anterior end encircling the mouth and a large ventral sucker or
acetabulum situated mid-dorsally behind the oral sucker. The
suckers are mainly used as attachment organ with the body of
host.
 Apart from mouth aperture, there are 2 apertures on the body
– i) one situated mid-ventrally in front of the ventral sucker
called COMMON GENITAL PORE/ GONOPORE ii) other is
situated at the posterior end called excretory pore.
PARASITIC ADAPTATIONS IN Fasciola hepatica:
Adaptative features can be accounted as under:
 Its body is dorsoventrally flattened, leaf-shaped which
increases the surface area of the body for increased
diffusion of substances through fluid of the body.
 Its body is covered with thick cuticle which protects it
from host’s antitoxins.
 Adhesive organs like suckers (anterior sucker and ventral
sucker) well developed which provide it for attachment
with the host tissue.
 Many cuticular spines present throughout the body
surface serve in saving the fluke from being pushed away
in the ducts with bile.
 Anteriorly located mouth and the muscular pharynx
Serves for sucking the nutrients from the host body.
 Alimentary canal is not well developed and digestive
glands are not found since it feeds on pre-digested and
digested substances of the host body.
 Since it lives in an anaerobic environment, respiratory
organs are wanting.
 2. SPECIMEN: Pork Tapeworm
SCIENTIFIC NAME: Taenia solium (Linnaeus,1758)
OTHER NICKNAMES: Taenia solium is the pork tapeworm
which is found throughout the world and is most common in
countries where pork is eaten.

Systematic Position (Ruppert and Barnes, 1994)

Phylum Platyhelminthes
Class Cestoidea
Genus Taenia
Species Taenia solium
CHARACTERS:
 The anterior end is a knob-like attachment organ called scolex.
 Scolex bears four radially arranged suckers that surround the
rostellum. These are the organs of adhesive attachment to the
intestinal wall of the host.
 The rostellum is armed with two rows of chitinous spiny hooks.
 The entire body is covered by an absorptive layer called
tegument.
 After short neck is the elongated body called the strobila.
 The strobila is divided into segments called proglottids which
gradually increase in size towards the posterior end.
PARASITIC ADAPTATIONS IN Taenia solium:

EXHIBITION ON PARASITIC NATURE OF FLAT WORMS

 Long and ribbon like body provides a large surface area for
reciprocal chemical exchange with the host’s gut.
 Body is covered by tegument which provides protection against
the hostile chemical environment of the host.
  Presence of microtriches in the body wall which helps in
absorption of foodstuff and maintaining the position of worm
in the host’s gut.
 Head bears four suckers for attachment with the wall of small
intestine of the host.
 Rostellum is surrounded by two rows of hooks which
strengthen the attachment with the host.
 Presence of proglottids having both the male and female
reproductive organs which help in perpetuation.

Pseudometamerism in phylum platyhelmithes:

 Pseudometamerism or strobililization is seen in tapeworms
where segmentation of the body takes place by the
segmentation of the mesoderm
 The body consists of a number of segments or proglottids
which varies in different individuals of the same species.
 New segments are added to the body throughout life. The
proglottids or segments differ in the degree of development.
 The segments or proglottids are functionally independent or
self-contained units and new segments are always formed
and there is no cooperation between the segments.
 The new segments are formed at the anterior end just
behind the scolex.

 PHYLUM: NEMATODA
The nematodes or roundworms constitute
the phylum Nematoda (also called Nemathelminthes). They are a
diverse animal phylum inhabiting a broad range of environments.
The basic features of all nematodes are:
 Body is smooth, elongated, unsegmented and bilaterally
symmetrical.
 Presence of cuticle on body surface.
 Sense organs are in the form of papillae, bristles, pits or eye-
spots.
 Triploblastic and pseudocoelomate organization of body
plan.

LI
FE CYCLE OF A PARASITIC ROUND WORM

 NEMATODES AS HUMAN PARASITES: Nematodes

that commonly parasitise humans
include ascarids (Ascaris), filarias, hookworms, pinworms (Enter
obius), and whipworms (Trichuris trichiura).

1. Wuchereria bancrofti
COMMON NAME: FILARIAL WORM
Systematic Position (Ruppert and Barnes, 1994)
Phylum Nematoda
Class Secernentea
Specimen Wuchereria bancrofti
CHARACTERS: Adult-
 Adult male and female worms are filiform.
 Buccal capsule is absent in male, slightly developed in
female.
  Male with two unequal copulatory spicules but without any
bursa.
 Females are larger than males and have anterior vulva.
 Head region is slightly swollen.
 Presence of two circles of papillae in the head region.

Biological significance of this animal as a human

parasite:
Wuchereria bancrofti causes bancroftian filariasis, resulting in
elephantiasis in man, causing revolting swellings often in the legs and
the genital organs. Bancroftian filariasis is widespread throughout
the broad equatorial belt.
It has been estimated that about one billion people in tropical and
sub-tropical countries are exposed to infection risk and that at least
200 million are infected with filariasis, primarily with bancroftian
type.

 PSEUDOCOELOM IN NEMATODA:
The pseudocoelom is a fluid-filled body cavity lying inside the
external body wall of the nematode that bathes the internal organs,
including the alimentary system and the reproductive system. This
body cavity is called a “pseudocoelom” because it is not fully lined by
mesodermal cells as in the true “coelomic cavity” of vertebrates. The
pseudocoelom contains the coelomocytes, provides the turgor-
hydrostatic pressure for the animal as a whole, functions as a
lubricant between tissues, and provides a medium for intercellular
signalling and nutrient transport.
  PHYLUM: MOLLUSCA

MOLLUSCA DIORAMA

CHARACTERS:
 Body is unsegmented with a distinct head, muscular foot and
visceral hump.
 They show bilateral symmetry.
 Shell is secreted by mantle, which is made up of calcium
carbonate. Shell may be external or internal.
 Mantle (pallium) is a thin, fleshy fold of dorsal body wall which
encloses a space called mantle cavity.
 Coelom is highly reduced. It is restricted to pericardial cavity
and to small spaces within kidneys and gonads. Spaces among
viscera (soft organs) contain blood and from haemocoel.
 Eyes are present over stalks called ommatophores. Statocysts
(balancing organs) may be present. Osphradium in some
molluscs can test the chemical and physical nature of water.
 1. SEA HARE

Systematic Position (Ruppert and Barnes, 1994)

Phylum Mollusca
Class Gastropoda
Subclass Opisthobranchia
Specimen Aplysia sp.
CHARACTERS:
 Body brightly colored, soft and fleshy and tapers behind into a
tail.
 Head bears a pair of small sensory and ear-like oral tentacles,
retractile rhinophores and a pair of eyes near the base of
rhinophores.
 On the dorsum of the bilaterally symmetrical body are two
wing-like folds called parapodia which cover the gills but allow
water to pass through.
 Body bears a pair of flap-like parapodia for swimming which are
lateral extensions of foot. In the middle lies an elongated
epipodial slit through which the ctenidium (epipodium)
projects.
  Shell is reduced, thin, flexible and plate-like and is embedded in
mantle.
 Foot occupies the ventral part and is broad and flat for creeping
among weeds at sea bottom.
 A single common genital aperture is present on right side in
front of the epipodial slit. They are hermaphrodite.

AMAZING FACTS:
Due to their lack of an outer calcareous shell, sea hares utilize cryptic
coloration, nocturnal behaviors, and ink release as defense
mechanisms. Sea hares are also distasteful to many predators due to
chemicals known as secondary metabolites which they create from
chemicals obtained from their algal diet. This chemical adaptation
also makes sea hare tissue somewhat toxic to certain animals and
fairly effective against most predators. It has been discovered that
the mucus covering the mantle also acts a deterrent against
predatory crustaceans and some fish.
 2. COAT-OF-MAIL SHELL

Systematic Position (Ruppert and Barnes, 1994)

Phylum Mollusca
Class Polyplacophora
Specimen Chiton sp.
CHARACTERS:
 Chiton sp. also called as sea cradles, have a dorsal shell
consisting of eight overlapping calcareous plates (valves) which
are arranged in linear zones.
 The plates provide flexibility to move across uneven surfaces as
well as robust protection.
 Body is elliptical and is convex on dorsal and flat on ventral
surface.
 Around the plates, mantle is present which is provided with
many spicules.
 On the ventral surface major portion is occupied by foot.
 Between foot and mantle, mantle groove is present having 8
ctenidia-like gills on either side of the foot.
 Behind the foot in the middle lies the anal pore and in front of
the foot in the middle segment, lies a large head with small
opening- the mouth, there are no eye or tentacles.

AMAZING FACTS:
 Chiton sp. Possesses a radula which enables them to
grind down food. Below radula, there lies a so-called
sub radular organ- a chemical sense organ which gives
information about suitable food in the vicinity. While
doing so, it clings hard to the ground with powerful
foot, supported by the sturdy girdle.
 Absence of a strong longitudinal muscle enables to roll
in the sea floor.
 In the dorsal shell plates, there are mechanical sense
organs called AESTHETES which can detect water
movement.
 Inside the aesthetes, cuticular eyes are present which
are generally of 2 types- a) INTRAPIGMENTARY
CUTICULAR EYES which appears to be cup-shaped with
lens above it.
b) EXTRAPIGMENTARY CUTICULAR EYES present in the
outer skin (tegument).
 Cuticular eyes enable to tell apart light and shadow on
dorsal side without removing the protective girdle from
the ground.
3. SQUID

Systematic Position (Ruppert and Barnes, 1994)

Phylum Mollusca
Class Cephalopoda
Subclass Coleoidea
Specimen Logilo sp.
CHARACTERS:
 Body elongated and torpedo-shaped with eight arms and
two long tentacles.
 Squid has a small head on the same end as these arms as
well as an internal cartilaginous structure called the pen.
 Shell or pane is a flattened plate.
 Lateral fins are triangular and united posteriorly.
 4. Nautilus macromphalus

Systematic Position (Ruppert and Barnes, 1994)

Phylum Mollusca
Class Cephalopoda
Subclass Nautiloidea
Specimen Nautilus macromphalus
CHARACTERS:
 Possesses external shell which is coiled.
 Sutures are not complex.
 Presence of many slender, sucker-less tentacles.
 Two pairs of gills and two pairs of nephridia are present.
FEEDING HABIT: Scavenger.
EVOLUTIONARY SIGNIFICANCE: The subclass has been in existence
since the Cambrian period, but all members are extinct except
Nautilus. Hence, it is regarded as a ‘living fossil.’
 PHYLUM: ANNELIDA
ANNELIDA means ‘RINGED/SEGMENTED WORMS’.
They are found in almost all habitats (marine, freshwater and
terrestrial). They may be free-living or parasitic.

ANNELIDA DIORAMA

The general features of annelids are:

 Bodies are segmented with bilateral symmetry.
 Cuticle covers the whole body.
 They have a head with a mouth, and a terminal segment with
an anus.
 Mostly they have specific organs to move; setae or chaeta or
parapodia.
 They have complete digestive system and contain specialized
organs such as the pharynx, oesophagus, crop, gizzard,
intestine.
  They have complex, closed circulatory system with blood
pumped by five pairs of hearts.
 They have a true coelom.
 Nervous system has a simple brain and a ventral nerve cord
that connects it other areas of the body.
 Presence of nephridia, which excrete nitrogenous wastes and
excess water.
The following specimens were studied in this section:

1. TUBE WORM

Systematic Position (Ruppert and Barnes, 1994)

Phylum Annelida
Class Polychaeta
Specimen Chaetopterus sp.
OTHER COMMON NAMES: Parchment worm, Parchment tube worm.
 Its modified spines are used for tunnelling into sandy substrate
to create the u-shaped tube within which it lives, thus called
tube worm.
 CHARACTERS:
 Body is divided into anterior, middle and posterior regions with
9, 5 and 30 segments respectively.
 Funnel-shaped peristomial collar encircles the mouth.
 Tenth segment has a pair of aliform notopodia.
 Middle region has three fan-like extensions.
 Posterior segments bear parapodia.

2. Neanthes accuminata

COMMON NAMES: Ragworm, Clamworm.

Systematic Position (Ruppert and Barnes, 1994)

Phylum Annelida
Class Polychaeta
Specimen Neanthes accuminata
CHARACTERS:
 Distinct head consists of two parts- prostomium and
peristomium.
 Prostomium bears four black, round eyes, one pair of cylindrical
tentacles and one pair of stout palps.
 Presence of four peristomial cirri.
 All trunk metameres are similar and bear biramous parapodia.
 Anus and a pair of anal cirri are present on pygidium.
 In heteronereis stage, body is divided into atoke and epitoke.

EVOLUTIONARY SIGNIFICANCE OF
METAMERISM IN ANNELIDA

PRE
SENTATION ON METAMERISM IN ANNELIDA

Segmentation or metamerism is characteristic of animals whose

bodies are divided into a longitudinal series of similar repeated units,
or segments. Segmentation is widespread among animals, occurring
in annelids, kinorhynchs, arthropods, and most chordates, but many
zoologists believe that it evolved independently at least three ties.
Segmented animals typically have a specialized anterior acron and
posterior pygidium (telson) and a varying number of intermediate
segments. In examples of near-perfect segmentation, appendages,
muscles, nerves, blood vessels, coeloms and excretory and
reproductive systems are faithfully replicated in each segment. The
organization of many annelids approaches such ideal segmentation
but in the vertebrates segmentation is usually apparent only in the
axial skeleton, muscles and nerves, although primitively other organs
and tissues are also segmented. The initial stages of growth in
segmented animals result from the addition of segments, elongating
the body. Among invertebrates, the growth region may be localized,
like a shoot tip in many plants, to the region immediately in front of
the pygidium. Thus, the newest and youngest segment in the body is
located posteriorly, and the oldest is situated immediately behind
the head.
The serial repetition of segments in segmented animals is
reminiscent of the replication of zooids in colonial animals, and
segmented animals share some of the adaptive advantages
associated with colonial organization. Perhaps, the most important
of these advantages is that segmentation divides a body into series
of compartments, each of which can be regulated more or less
independently of others. As such, the evolution of segmentation, like
the evolution of multi-cellularity or coloniality, provided, provide a
framework for specialization. In colonies, such specialization is
apparent in the polymorphism of zooids, whereas in segmented
animals, it results from regional specialization of segments. The
simplest examples of regional specialization are found in annelid in
which the body may be weakly divided into a head, thorax and
abdomen (trunk). These same three divisions are more prominent in
insects and many crustaceans. In extreme cases, for example in the
higher vertebrates, even the segmented arrangement of muscles is
obscured by regional specialization.
Regional specialization is the result of three processes. The
first is the restriction of certain segmental structures to only a few
segments. For example, gonads are often restricted to a few
specialized genital segments. Other segmental structures may be
retained in all segments but may structurally diverge from each other
and adopt different functions. Such divergence is common among
segmental appendages, some of which may be specialized for
locomotion, whereas others function, for example, in grasping,
chewing and gas exchange. Specialization also results from the
fusion of segments. Although fusion may occur anywhere along the
length of a segmented animal, it is commonly expressed as anterior
fusion of one or more segments with the acron to form a complex
head. The head of the common polychaete, Nereis, for example,
consists of an acron and at least two segments, whereas that of the
fruitfly, Drosophila, is composed of five segments. While considering
annelid locomotion, the English Zoologist, R.B. Clark developed
another explanation for the significance of segmentation. His ide,
which may be called the Burrowing theory, states that segmentation
of the hydraulic coelom enabled worms to burrow more efficiently
than their non-segmented relatives.
The burrowing theory may be elucidated by comparing two
coelomic worms that are identical except that one has segmental
septa that partition its coelom into a series of isolated
compartments, and the coelom of the other is undivided and
continuous throughout the body. Both worms burrow using
alternating contractions of longitudinal and circular muscles to
generate a wave of peristalsis along the body. At any instant, the
peristaltic waves of both worms are identical in appearance, but the
musculature of the non-segmented worm, where circular or
longitudinal muscles re contracted maximally (regions of minimum
and maximum body diameter); the pressure of the coelomic fluid is
at a maximum. Because the coelom is unpartitioned, the elevated
fluid pressure is transmitted throughout the coelom and must be
antagonized by the action of body wall muscles to prevent aneurisms
and other deviations from the proper, peristaltic, wave shape.
Segmented animals, on the other hand, isolate changes in coelomic
fluid pressure to individual segments or groups of segments. As a
result, body regions between contracted segments do not
experience high fluid pressures and need not contract fully, or at all,
o maintain the preferred shape of the body.
  PHYLUM: ARTHROPODA

 THE REAL RULERS ON OUR PLANET:

By nearly any measure, the most successful animals on the planet

are the arthropods. They have conquered land, sea and air, and
make up over three-fourths of all currently known living and fossil
organisms, or over one million species in all. Since many arthropod
species remain undocumented or undiscovered, especially in tropical
rain forests, the true number of living arthropod species is probably
in the tens of millions. One recent conservative estimate puts the
number of arthropod species in tropical forests at 6 to 9 million
species (Thomas, 1990).

Arthropods range in distribution from the deep sea to mountain

peaks, in size from the king crab with its 12-foot armspan to
microscopic insects and crustaceans, and in taste from chocolate
covered ants to crawfish jambalaya and lobster Newburg. Despite
this unbelievable diversity, the basic body plan of arthropods is fairly
constant. Arthropods have a stiff cuticle made largely of chitin and
proteins, forming an exoskeleton that may or may not be further
stiffened with calcium carbonate. They have segmented bodies and
show various patterns of segment fusion (tagmosis) to form
integrated units (heads, abdomens, and so on). The phylum takes its
name from its distinctive jointed appendages, which may be
modified in a number of ways to form antennae, mouthparts, and
reproductive organs.

CHARACTERS:
 Body is segmented and covered by chitinous cuticle.

 Body segments bear paired externally jointed appendages.

 Animals usually bear anterior photoreceptors.

 The nervous system of annelids and arthropods are constructed
on the same basic plan. In both, a dorsal anterior brain is
followed by a ventral nerve cord containing ganglionic swellings
in each segment.

1. HORSE-SHOE CRAB

Systematic Position (Ruppert and Barnes, 1994)

Phylum Arthropoda
Subphylum Chelicerata
Class Merostomata
Subclass Xiphosura
Specimen Limulus sp.
CHARACTERS:
 The carapace is smooth, horseshoe-shaped and convex.
 To the outside of each of the two dorsolateral ridges is a large
compound eye, and to each side of a median ridge at the
anterior end is one of two small median eyes.

 The anterior dorsal surface is reflected ventrally and in the

front forms a large, triangular surface that tapers back toward
the mouth.

 A frontal organ and a pair of degenerate eyes are located on

the ridge formed by this triangle.

 A pair of two-jointed chelicerae are attached to each side of the

upper lip, or labrum; the last two segments form a pair of
pincers, meaning that they are chelate.

 The abdomen is unsegmented and fits into the concavity

formed by the posterior border of the cephalothorax and its
lateral extensions.

 A long, triangular, spike-like tail, or caudal spine (telson),

articulates with the posterior of the abdomen.

2. ASIAN TIGER PRAWN

Systematic Position (Ruppert and Barnes, 1994)
Phylum Arthropoda
Subphylum Crustacea
Class Malacostraca
Subclass Eumalacostraca
Phylum Penaeus monodon
CHARACTERS:
 Body is divided into cephalothorax, abdomen and telson; all
bear appendages.

 First three pairs of thoracic appendages are chelate.

  Presence of teeth on the ventral surface of rostrum.

 Hepatic carina is vertical in position.

 Pleopods are biramous.

3. COCKROACH

Systematic Position (Ruppert and Barnes, 1994)

Phylum Arthropoda
Subphylum Uniramia
Class Insecta
Subclass Ectognatha
Specimen Periplaneta americana
CHARACTERS:
 They have a relatively small head and a broad, flattened body,
and most species are reddish-brown to dark brown.

 They have large compound eyes, two ocelli, and long,

flexible antennae.

 The mouthparts are on the underside of the head and include

generalized chewing mandibles, salivary glands and various
touch and taste receptors.

  It is coated with wax to repel water.

 The wings are attached to the second and third thoracic

segments. 

 The front legs are the shortest and the hind legs the longest,
providing the main propulsive power when the insect runs.

INSECTS AND HUMAN WELFARE:

Insects provide useful services to mankind and the environment in
a number of ways.

The practice of eating insects, entomophagy, sounds gross to us

but insects have served as a food source for people for tens of
thousands of years.  It is now rare in most countries, but
entomophagy is still practiced in parts of Central and South
America, Africa, and Asia.

Biological control is the use of predators and parasitoids to reduce

the population of pests.   When pests are threatening a crop,
beneficial insects can be released to eat the pest and prevent
further damage.   In some cases, insects that eat certain weeds
can be released to keep the weed from spreading.

Insects, or chemicals extracted from them have been used for

thousands of years to help us with medical issues. This is called
Entomotherapy.
Insects also provide us with various useful products such as silk,
honey, shellac, Cochineal dye.

EXH
IBIT ON USEFUL INSECTS

 PHYLUM: ECHINODERMATA
CHARACTERS:
 They are the major group of deuterostome invertebrates
with pentamerous radial symmetry (body arranged in 5
parts around a central axis) and internal skeleton of
calcareous ossicles which is articulated to form skeletal
test with projecting spines or tubercles.
  Presence of unique system of coelomic canals and
appendages composed of water vascular system or
ambulacral system, used for collecting and transport of
food and locomotion.
 Coelom with suspended digestive tract present.
 Simple reproduction characterized by external
fertilization.

DESCRIPTION OF SPECIMENS
OBSERVED
1. SPECIMEN: Red Knob Sea Star

SYSTEMATIC POSITION (Ruppert and Barnes, 1994)

Phylum Echinodermata
Subphylum Asterozoa
Class Asteroidea
Specimen Protoreaster lincki
CHARACTERS:
  The body of is flattened in the oral-aboral axis and has a five-
pointed star shaped body.
 The body consists of a central disc and five symmetrically
placed arms or rays. The length of arms are 2 or 3 times the
diameter of the disc.
 Body exhibits radial symmetry and has two surfaces- upper
aboral or abactinal surface which is convex and lower oral or
actinal surface which is flat.
 Anus is eccentrically placed on convex aboral surface.
 Ambulacral groove extends from mouth to tip of each arm.
 Body is covered by a hard and tough covering containing
numerous calcareous ossicles.
 The tubercles are bright red and extend upward from the arms.

WATER VASCULAR SYSTEM IN

ECHINODERMATA:
The water vascular system is a modified part of coelom and
consists of a system of sea water filled canals having certain
corpuscles. It plays vital role in the locomotion of animals and
comprises of MADREPORITE, STONE CANAL, RING CANAL,
RADIAL CANAL, TIEDMANN’S BODY, LATERAL CANALS AND TUBE
FEET.

MADREPORITE  It is a thick sieve-like calcareous plate situated

on the aboral surface of the central disc.
 Below the madreporite, collecting canal
communicates with stone canal through
ampulla.

STONE CANAL
  It is a S-shaped tube which opens on the oral
side into a ring canal around the mouth. It is
also known MADREPORITE CANAL.
 Inner lining of the wall bears cilia or flagella
which draw water into canal.

RING CANAL
 It is a wide canal forming a ring around the
esophagus.

 They are also known as Racemose glands.

TIEDEMANN’S
 They are small rounded yellowish glandular
BODIES
sacs opening into ring canal on its inner
side.

RADIAL CANALS  They arise from the ring canal and extend
along each arm to the tip.
 Radial canals lie below the ambulacral
ossicles and terminate as the lumen of
terminal tentacles.
 Each radial canal in its corresponding arm
LATERAL CANALS gives out two series of narrow lateral or
podial canals along its entire length.
 Each lateral canal opens into a tube foot.
 The opening being provided by a valve to
prevent back flow of fluid into radial
canal.

TUBE FEET  There are 2 double rows of tube feet in

each arm.
  Each foot has the form of thin walled tube
distinguished into three regions:

1. A rounded sac like ampulla

2. A middle tubular podium
3. A cup like sucker

FUNCTIONS OF WATER VASCULAR

SYSTEM:
 Most peculiar and interesting role of water vascular system
is locomotion by providing a hydraulic pressure mechanism.

 Thin walls of tube feet may serve for respiratory exchange

of gases. Tube feet also helps in anchoring the body to
substratum and in capturing and handling the food.

 THE SECTION OF MINOR

PHYLA
PHYLUM TARDIGRADA
WATER BEAR

Tardigrade is a phylum, a high-level scientific category of animal.

There are over 1,000 known species within Tardigrade, according to
Integrated Taxonomic Information System (ITIS).
Ruppert and Barnes (1994, “Invertebrate Zoology: Sixth Edition”)
have included this minor phylum in the heterogeneous assemblage
Aschelminths.
ETYMOLOGY: Tardigrades were discovered by a German pastor,
Johann August Ephraim Goeze, in 1773. He named them Tardigrada,
which means "slow stepper." In 1776, Italian clergyman and biologist
Lazzaro Spallanzani discovered that water bears survive extreme
conditions by making a transformation.

 GENERAL CHARACTERS:
 Tardigrades, often called water bears or moss piglets, are near-
microscopic animals with long, plump bodies and scrunched-up
heads.
 They have eight legs, and hands with four to eight claws on
each.
  These tiny animals are almost indestructible and can even
survive in outer space.
 Mouth is tubular and is armed with stylets which are used to
pierce the plant cells, algae or small invertebrates on which the
tardigrades feed, releasing the body fluids or cell contents.
 The mouth opens into a triradiate, muscular, sucking pharynx.
 Buccopharyngeal apparatus is prominent which acts as a
swallowing device.
 ECOLOGICAL IMPORTANCE:
Water bears are mostly aquatic that feed on species such as
nematodes, algae, bacteria and collembolans. They act as pioneer
species by inhabiting new developing environments. This movement
attracts other invertebrates to populate that space, while attracting
predators.

 AMAZING FACTS:
 In many conditions, water bears can survive by going into an
almost death-like state called cryptobiosis. They curl into a
dehydrated ball, called a tun, by retracting their head and legs.
If reintroduced to water, the tardigrade can come back to life in
just a few hours.
 Tardigrades have different adaptations for a wide variety of
environmental threats. In hot conditions, they release heat-
shock proteins, which prevent other proteins from warping.
Some tardigrades can form bubbly cysts around their bodies.
Like puffer jackets, the cysts allow them to survive in harsh
climates without having to revert into full tun mode.
Tardigrades are sometimes referred to as “extremophiles”, a term
used to describe super-hardy bacteria that can live on ocean vents
and other extremely inhospitable environments. Bartels clarifies that
they are not extremophiles, as they don’t really “live” and move
around in tun mode. “It’s very easy to kill them when they are out
and about in their normal environment,” .