Conservation Laws

Certain quantities are conserved in nature:

• Conservation of (linear) momentum
• Conservation of angular momentum
• Conservation of energy

These conservation laws can explain most

processes in the universe
Newton’s laws reflect these conservation laws…

Conservation of Momentum

• Law of conservation of
momentum:

The total momentum of

interacting objects cannot
change unless an external
force is acting on them

Conservation of Momentum
How do Newton’s reflect the conservation of momentum ?
• Newton’s 1st + 2’nd law:
Each object exerts a force
on the other object that
changes the momentum of
the other object

• Newton’s 3’rd law:

Each object exerts an equal
and opposite force on the
other object.

1
 Conservation of Momentum
How do Newton’s reflect the conservation of momentum ?
• Newton’s 1st + 2nd + 3rd
law:
Change in each objects
momentum is equal and
opposite
Thus the total momentum
before and after the
interaction is the same
Note: There are no external
forces (forces external to the
interacting objects).

Conservation of Momentum
• Interacting objects exchange
momentum through equal and
opposite forces

Example: Rocket momentum

forward is equal to gas
momentum backwards.

A ship in space moving at

constant velocity will keep
going forever in the absence of
any forces

Conservation of Momentum
Example: A cricket player hits a 100g cricket ball . The 2.0kg bat is
swung with a speed of 15m/s. The ball approaches at 30m/s and rebounds
at 60m/s. What is the final speed of the bat?
Bat: particle 1, Ball: particle 2.

( vi )1 ( vi )2 F2 on 1 F1 on 2
(v )f 1
(v ) f 2

1 2 1 2 1 2
Before During After
mbat = 2.0kg, mball = 0.10kg vibat = 15m / s, viball = 30m / s, v fball = !60m / s

mbat v ibat + mball v iball = mbat v f bat + mball v f ball

Pf = Pi 1
v f bat = (m bat v ibat + mball v iball + m ball v f ball ) = 13.5m / s
mbat

The bat slows down after impact with the ball. Values of forces were not needed !

2
 Conservation of Angular Momentum

What keeps a planet rotating and orbiting the Sun?

Conservation of Angular Momentum

angular momentum = mass x velocity x radius

L = mvr
Law of conservation of angular momentum

• The angular momentum of an object cannot change

unless an external twisting force (torque) is acting on it

• Earth experiences no twisting force as it orbits the

Sun, so its rotation and orbit will continue indefinitely

Conservation of Angular Momentum

Angular momentum conservation also explains why
objects rotate faster as they shrink in radius:

L = mvr
Skater with arms out: r is
bigger, so v must be
smaller to keep L
constant
Skater with arms in: r is
smaller, so v must be
larger to keep L constant

3
 Conservation of Angular Momentum
Angular momentum conservation also explains why
planets rotate faster as they get closer to the sun (Kepler’s
second law):
L = mvr
Aphelion: r is bigger, so
v must be smaller to
keep L constant
Perihelion: r is smaller,
so v must be larger to
keep L constant

Conservation of Energy

• Energy is the ability to do work (make

matter move).

• Energy is conserved, but it can:

– Transfer from one object to another
– Change in form

Basic Types of Energy

• Kinetic energy (motion)
• Radiative energy (light)
• Stored or potential energy
Energy can change type but
cannot be destroyed.
SI Units of Energy: Joules (J)
1J = 1N x 1m
Other units: calories
1 calorie = 4184 joules

4
 Thermal Energy
the collective kinetic (motional) energy of many
particles (for example, in a rock, in air, in water)

Thermal energy is related to temperature but it is NOT

the same.
Temperature is the average kinetic energy of the many
particles in a substance.

Kinetic energy of
each particle

1 2
KE = mv
2

Temperature Scales

Conversions:

5
TCelcius = (TFahrenheit ! 32 )
9

TKelvin = TCelcius + 273

Absolute 0 = 0 Kelvin
= no motion

Thermal Energy
Thermal energy is a measure of the total kinetic energy of all
the particles in a substance. It therefore depends both on
temperature AND density
Example:

5
 Gravitational Potential Energy
• On Earth, depends on:
– object’s mass (m)
– strength of gravity (g)
– distance object could
potentially fall (h)

U = mgh

As object falls the height decreases so potential energy decreases.

This lost potential energy is converted to kinetic (motional) energy,
so object speeds up. The opposite happens when an object rises
upwards.

Gravitational Potential Energy

• On Earth, depends on:
– object’s mass (m)
– strength of gravity (g)
– distance object could
potentially fall (h)

U = mgh

Conservation of energy is embedded in Newton’s laws of motion

Gravitational Potential Energy

• In space, an object or gas cloud has more gravitational energy
when it is spread out than when it contracts.
! A contracting cloud converts gravitational potential energy to
thermal energy.

6
 Mass-Energy
• Einstein’s theory of relativity
shows that mass itself is a form of
potential energy

E = mc2

• A small amount of mass can release a

great deal of energy
• Concentrated energy can
spontaneously turn into particles (for
example, in particle accelerators)

Conservation of Energy
• Energy can be neither created nor destroyed.
• It can change form or be exchanged between
objects.
• The total energy content of the Universe was
determined in the Big Bang and remains the
same today.

Newton’s Theory of Gravity

What determines the strength of gravity?

• By applying Newton’s laws to the motion of the Moon,

we can find the acceleration of the Moon due to the
Earth’s gravity:
g moon = 0.00272m / s 2

• The acceleration of any object on Earth due to the

Earth’s gravity is
g Earth = 9.8m / s 2

7
 Newton’s Theory of Gravity
g moon 0.00272m / s 2 1 1
= = =
g earth 9.8m / s 2 3600 60 ! 60

Comparing the distance of an object from the Earth’s centre to the

distance of the Moon from the Earth’s centre:

Rearth 6.37 ! 10 6 m 1 g R moon !R $2

= = = # earth &
Rmoon 3.84 ! 10 8 m 60 g R earth " moon %
R

The force of gravity between two objects must be inversely

proportional to the square the distance between two objects.

Newton realized this relation and also found a relationship between

the force of gravity between two objects and their mass….

Newton’s Theory of Gravity

The Universal Law of Gravitation:
1. Every mass attracts every other mass.
2. Attraction is directly proportional to the product of their
masses.
3. Attraction is inversely proportional to the square of the
distance between their centers.

Newton’s Theory of Gravity

Gm1m2
F12 = F21 =
d2

G is the gravitational constant

G = 6.67 ! 10"11 Nm 2 / kg 2

G was measured by Henry Cavendish using a device called a torsion

balance.

G is a universal constant : It is the same everywhere in the universe.

The gravitational force is thus a fundamental force of nature.

Newton showed that the law of gravity applies to massive objects such
as planets if we treat the object as a particle or a point mass.

8
 Newton’s Theory of Gravity
Gm1m2
F12 = F21 =
d2

The gravitational force between two objects is typically very

small unless the objects are massive (example planets).

Example: Force between two people standing a metre apart:

Gm1m2 (6.67 ! 10"11 Nm 2 / kg 2 )(60kg)(60kg)
F12 = F21 = = = 2.4 ! 10"7 N
r2 (1m) 2

Example: Force between the earth and 1kg on the surface

Gm1m2 (6.67 ! 10"11 Nm 2 / kg 2 )(M earth )(1kg)
F12 = F21 = = = 9.8N = mg!
r2 (Rearth ) 2

Newton’s Theory of Gravity

Why do all objects fall at the same rate regardless of
their mass ?
Fg M Earth M rock
arock = Fg = G 2
M rock REarth
M Earth M rock M
arock = G 2
= G 2Earth
REarth M rock REarth

• The gravitational acceleration of an object like a rock does not

depend on its mass because Mrock in the equation for
acceleration cancels Mrock in the equation for gravitational force
• This “coincidence” was not understood until Einstein’s general
theory of relativity.

Newton’s Theory of Gravity

Finding g from the gravitational force
M Earth m
aearth = G 2
= 9.8 2
REarth s

We can use the above formula to find the acceleration of gravity at

any distance from the centre of the earth

Example: g of earth at the moon

GM earth
gRmoon = = 0.00272m / s 2
( dEarth ! moon )2
Hence the law of gravity correctly predicts the value of g that
we expect from observations.

9
 Newton’s Theory of Gravity
Finding g from the gravitational force
M Earth m
aearth = G 2
= 9.8 2
REarth s

We can use the above formula to find the acceleration of gravity at

any distance from the centre of any world by using the mass of that
world and the distance from that world

Example: g of moon at the surface of the moon

GM Moon
a moon = = 1.7m / s 2
( RMoon )2

Newton’s Theory of Gravity

Finding the mass of the earth

By measuring G, the radius of the earth and g at the earth’s

surface we can obtain the mass of the earth without actually
‘weighing’ it:

GM earth
g=
Rearth 2

2
gRearth
M earth = = 5.98 ! 10 24 kg
G

Newton’s Theory of Gravity

How does Newton’s law of gravity extend Kepler’s laws?
• Kepler’s first two laws apply to all orbiting
objects, not just planets
• Ellipses are not the only
orbital paths. Orbits can
be:
– Bound (ellipses)
– Unbound
• Parabola
• Hyperbola

10
 Newton’s Theory of Gravity
How does Newton’s law of gravity extend Kepler’s laws?

• Recall that Kepler’s 2nd

law is a result of angular
momentum conservation
which is embedded in
Newton’s laws
Center of Mass
• Because of momentum
conservation, orbiting
objects orbit around their
center of mass

Newton’s Theory of Gravity

How does Newton’s law of gravity extend Kepler’s laws?

His laws of gravity and motion showed that the

relationship between the orbital period and average
orbital distance of a system tells us the total mass of
the system. This extended Kepler’s 3rd law
Examples:
• Earth’s orbital period (1 year) and average distance (1 AU)
tell us the Sun’s mass.
• Orbital period and distance of a satellite from Earth tell us
Earth’s mass.
• Orbital period and distance of a moon of Jupiter tell us
Jupiter’s mass.

Newton’s Theory of Gravity

How does Newton’s law of gravity extend Kepler’s laws?

Newton’s Version of Kepler’s Third Law

2 3
p2 = 4! 2 a3 OR M1+M2 = 4! a
G(M1+M2 ) G p2

p = orbital period
a=average orbital distance (between centers)
(M1 + M2) = sum of object masses
Note: If one of the masses is very small relative to the other, it
can be neglected

11
 Gravity and Energy
The law of gravity and conservation of energy can explain
stable orbits:
More gravitational energy;
Less kinetic energy
• Total orbital energy
(gravitational +
kinetic) stays
constant if there is
no external force
• Orbits cannot
change
spontaneously.
Less gravitational energy;
More kinetic energy

Total orbital energy stays constant

Changing an Orbit

! So what can make an

object gain or lose orbital
energy?
• Friction or atmospheric
drag
• A gravitational
encounter.

Escape Velocity

• If an object gains enough

orbital energy, it may escape
(change from a bound to
unbound orbit)
• Escape velocity from Earth !
11 km/s from sea level (about
40,000 km/hr)

Escape and orbital velocities don’t depend on the mass

of the object

12
 Summary
What are conservation laws ?
• Conservation of (linear) momentum
The total momentum of interacting objects cannot change
unless an external force is acting on them.
Thus objects move at constant velocity if no force acts on
them

• Conservation of angular momentum

The total angular momentum of objects cannot change unless
an external turning force is acting on them.
Explains why a a planet keeps rotating and orbiting the Sun.
Explains Kepler’s second law

Summary
What are conservation laws ?
• Conservation of energy
Energy cannot be created or destroyed but only transformed
from one type to another.
Energy comes in three basic types: kinetic, potential, radiative.

These conservation laws can explain most processes in the

universe
Newton’s laws reflect these conservation laws

Summary
How did Newton explain Kepler’s laws ?
Newton formulated the Theory of Gravitation:
Gm1m2
F12 = F21 =
d2

The theory of gravity explains and extends Keplers laws:

- All objects obey Kepler’s laws, not just planets
- Orbits can be ellipses, parabolas or hyperbolas
- Objects orbit around their centre of mass
- Orbits can be used to predict mass of an object

13
 Summary
• How do gravity and energy together allow us to
understand orbits?
– Change in total energy is needed to change orbit
– Add enough energy (escape velocity) and object
leaves
• Why do all objects fall at the same rate?
– Mass of object in Newton’s second law exactly
cancels mass in law of gravitation.

14