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LITERARY DEVICE AS A KEY TO THE UNDERSTANDING AND APPRECIATION
OF THE OLD TESTAMENT TODAY
A Research paper
By
As we sit down to read the Old Testament in the 21st century, we are holding a
430 B.C. (Malachi)1. But the story line doesn’t start at 1450 B.C. The birth of the first
patriarch Abraham can be traced to the year 2166 BC2, and his genealogy starts at the
eleventh chapter of Genesis, verse 10. Future back, from Genesis 1:1 to 11:9 we has a
pre-historic or pre-patriarchal narrative. 3 Being so far removed from these ancient dates,
care must be taken when reading and seeking to understand the text. It is obvious that the
original listeners/readers of the Old Testament lived in a very different culture with very
different customs than we do. This simple distinction alone can help us read the Old
Testament better. But just how was this literature composed back then? How should we
read the Old Testament today? Is it like modern poetry with rhythmic and sensitive
information and data? Or do we engage it like a drama with its highs and lows, bringing
us to a touching or tragic moment? What sort of genre is the Old Testament? Is the Old
Testament a novel or history? Is it humor or an epic? Are we reading fiction like the
movies of today, or spiritual poetry? What literary techniques were used and how can
they assist us in our quest to read the Bible intelligently? My desire is to shed some light
on these questions.
1
Thomas R. Rodgers, Panorama of the Old Testament (Newburgh, Indiana: Trinity
Press Publishing, 2012), 24.
2
Ibid. , 14.
3
Samuel J. Schultz, The Old Testament Speaks (New York, NY: Harper & Row
Publishers, 1960), 31.
The Entrance of Thy Word Bringeth Light
Before I present these Old Testament Literary devices as aids to the understanding
and appreciation of Scripture, let us examine some statements from the pages of the Old
Testament canon itself. The Psalmist David, around 1000 BC, joyfully exclaimed in
Psalm 119:1-2 “Blessed are the undefiled in the way, who walk in the law of the LORD!
Blessed are those who keep His testimonies, who seek Him with the whole heart!” In
verse 14 He continues: “I have rejoiced in the way of Your testimonies, As much as in all
riches. I will meditate on Your precepts, and contemplate Your ways”. 4 Apparently
David appreciated and understood when he read God’s ‘laws, testimonies, precepts, and
ways’ or else he could not of boasted in them. The book of Proverbs continues in
exhortation to the reader: “Wisdom is the principal thing; therefore get wisdom. And in
all your getting, get understanding” (Proverbs 4:7). Where is this wisdom found and how
can today’s Old Testament reader benefit from it? The answer is found earlier; For the
LORD gives wisdom; From His mouth come knowledge and understanding (Proverbs
2:6). The Old Testament claims to have God’s Word spoken from God’s Mouth.5 We are
exhorted to “Get wisdom! Get understanding!” (Proverbs 4:5). All this awaits the
As an aid to the appreciation and understanding of the Old Testament, I will point
out some Literary Devices employed by the Writers of this ancient magnificent text we
call the “Old Testament”. Some are apparent and will be easily recognized. Others hide in
4
Unless otherwise indicated all Bible references in this paper are to the New King
James Version (Oxford University Press, Inc., 2002).
5
An example of this is Exodus 20:1 “And God spoke all these words saying:” This
verse increases the force of Proverbs 2:6. See also Peter C. Craige, Page H. Kelley,
and Joel Drinkard, Jr., Jeremiah 1-25, Word Biblical Commentary, Vol. 26
(Dallas, Texas: Word, Inc. 1991), 216 on the ‘Word of the Lord came to me’ formula.
the stories of the OT books. Some are not recognized in our English translations at all,
and have been brought to light by scholars in the fields of Old Testament and Ancient
Near East studies. A fact to remember is that these Literary Devices may be new to us,
but the original hearers and readers of these texts saw and heard them, and understood
what the author was putting forth. Our job is to recognize these motifs, appreciate the
device, and read with understanding. When this newfound insight shines on the pages of
the Old Testament, we benefit by “getting understanding” from the wisdom found in its
pages. As the light shine in out hearts and our minds, we can walk in His laws like David
On Appreciation
music.6 Brueggemann and Linafelt echo this definition stating, “ Once we become aware
of the distinctive elements of both biblical narrative style and biblical poetic style, we can
appreciate with fresh eyes the rich literary artfulness of the Old Testament. Moreover,
having knowledge of and appreciation for the literary style and conventions of the Bible
may well facilitate a deeper engagement with the ethical and theological dimension of the
text.”7 We come to appreciate the Scripture as God-breathed when we see the unity, rich
literary artfulness, and loftiness of the portion we are reading. Biblical Scholarship in the
last 60 years has acknowledged that viewing the Old Testament and especially the book
of Genesis as a unified literary whole can yield much fruit. Preparation for this paper has
6
(The American Heritage Dictionary 2nd College ed., s.v. “appreciate”).
7
Walter Brueggemann and Tod Linafelt, An Introduction to the Old Testament: The
Canon and Christian Imagination, 2nd ed. (Louisville, Kentucky: Westminster John
Knox Press, 2003), 17.
shown me, that this fruitfulness was due to the use of literary devices purposely
employed in the Hebrew text. Biblical authors worked very hard to produce literature of a
Wellhausen is credited for postulating the JEDP theory or Documentary Hypothesis in its
classical form. Much of the Biblical scholarship, since his hypothesis, has operated under
the theory that the Biblical text should be broken into its original independent units and
then understood in the context of which the traditions originally arose. According to this
view, the Pentateuch in composed of four distinct sources, each given a corresponding
letter to match the recurring language style, with a date much later than the traditional
time of Moses. They are as follows: J= Yahwist (10/9 century), E = Elohist (9/8th
century), D= Dueteronomist (7th century) and P= Priestly (6/5th century). These sources
were all independent of each other, brought together in a more or less haphazard fashion
by a later redactor. This theory would of course exclude Mosaic authorship. Other new
ideas were suggested, e.g. the prophets of Israel came before the Law of Moses.
Wellhausen also declared that the Old Testament did not furnish a history of
Israel, but it supplies the materials from which such a history can be constructed.10 These
views shook many traditional Jewish and evangelical paradigms. In retrospect one can
see anti-Jewish and anti-Catholic bias in his theory and this was par with the times.11 Did
not classical rabbinic Judaism esteem the biblical text itself as a vehicle of revelation, and
8
Ibid. , 32.
9
Gordon J. Wenham, Genesis 1-15, Word Biblical Commentary, Vol. 1
(Dallas, Texas: Word, Inc. 1991),xxvi.
10
Mark S. Gignilliat, A Brief History of Old Testament Criticism (Grand Rapids,
Michigan: Zondervan 2012), 57-67.
11
Ibid. , 75-76.
every word holy and immutable? How could we look at the Old Testament as a beautiful
later redactor?
Modern Scholarship
I thank God that fresh new approaches to the biblical scholarship have brought
new insights and reward. Wenham writes “ While traditional critical views of the JEDP
theory have been under debate using traditional critical methods of argument, a quite
fresh look at Genesis has come from scholars concerned to appreciate it as a piece of
literature in its own right. This is part of a strong interest in biblical narrative and its
techniques that has come to the fore in the last decade. Clearly biblical storytellers were
masters of the craft.... What the secret to their craft was has barely been explored till
recently; now there are so many studies that it is hard to keep up.”12
It was the recognition of literary devices and lexical links in the Old Testament
that strengthened the traditional high view of Torah in scholarly minds. The Jews had
always dealt with and commented on minor discrepancies in the Old Testament. What
logic, may not have been perceived as such by the ancient authors or readers.13 Robert
Alter also disagrees with Wellhausen, and submits that the so-called redacted text, which
has come down to us, though not without certain limited contradictions and disparate
elements, has a powerful coherence as a literary work, and this coherence is above all
what we need to address as readers.14 Paul Borgman writes: “ Literary unity: Here we are
12
Ibid. , xxxiii.
13
Gary A. Rendsburg , “The Book of Genesis”, Lecture notes from CD 6. The Teaching
Company, 2006.
14
Robert Alter, The Five Books of Moses: A Translation and Commentary. (New York:
W.W. Norton& Company, Inc., 2004),10.
at the heart of that critical approach treating the Bible “as literature”- a critical endeavor
that accepts gratefully the finding of the biblical scholar, while neither denying nor
denigrating the Bible as sacred text for those who believe. Style, diction, imagery,
episode, scene, character, and plot – all are literary elements to be explored in the light of
the whole. The gain is no less than meaning, and an appreciation for the Bible as a
repository of the most sophisticated and compelling literature in the ancient world.”15
With this fresh approach to reading and studying the Old Testament as we have received
it, as a sophisticated literary whole, our appreciation and respect for this ancient text can
Observing the literary structure in Genesis is a great starting point for research in
Hebrew artistic literary prowess. Literary structure refers to the way the author of a text
organizes the different parts of the story or material. We will look at this structure now,
and it will lead us into our first literary device, namely, chiasm or chiastic structure.
David R. Bauer defines chiasm as “ also called chiasmus, a Latin transliteration of the
Greek chiasma, referring to the Greek letter X (chi). Chiasm is the repetition of the same
level, and a micro-chiasmus structure on smaller line or verse level. Gary A. Rendsburg
15
Paul Borgman, “Literary Interpretation, OT.” The New Interpreter’s Dictionary of
The Bible, Vol. 3, General ed. Katharine Doob Sakenfeld (Nashville : Abingdon
Press),672. Emphasis mine.
16
David R. Bauer, “Chiasm”. The New Interpreter’s Dictionary of The Bible, Vol. 1,
General ed. Katharine Doob Sakenfeld (Nashville : Abingdon Press),587.
expounds on this type of redactional structuring in Genesis, and he strikes at the heart of
those who want to diminish the greatness and verbal plenary inspiration of the Bible,
which Christians and Jews hold dear.17 Instead of dividing up the Old Testament in to
minuet fragments consisting of legend and lore, pasted together late in Israel’s history, as
these higher critics were doing since the 1700’s and well into the ninetieth century as
mentioned above, Rendsburg, furthering the work of great scholars of the Old Testament
such as Umberto Cassuto (1883-1951), Michael Fishbane (b. 1943), and Jack Sasson (b.
1941), found great literary unity in the Old Testament and especially the book of Genesis.
This was important work for Bible believers everywhere because Genesis is the seed plot
of the whole Bible. If the roots of our faith are flawed, we are in trouble and would be on
a shaky foundation for our faith. I will rely primarily on Rendsburg’s work in this paper,
although I have read Cassuto’s lectures and commentaries with great profit.
Macro-Chiasmus Structure
narratives, rather large disparate units artistically organized: the Abraham cycle or
material (Gen. 12-22), the Jacob material (Gen. 25-35), and the Joseph story or novella
(Gen. 37-50). They all have an underlying palistrophe, or symmetric structure. This is
also called chiasm, and it operates in a big and small way. We will look at the macro first.
1. The story builds from its onset with a series of episodes in the life of the
17
Gary A. Rendsburg, The Redaction of Genesis (Winona Lake, Indiana: Eisenbrauns,
1986), 1-106.
18
Ibid. , 28-97
2. The story reaches a climax, or focal point, halfway through the
3. The cycle (or story) concludes with another series of episodes, each of
which matches, in reverse order, the episodes in the first half of the
prime).
This overarching unity seems to be a deliberate literary move, guiding the reader
The Abraham cycle in the above chart builds to a focal point in Genesis 17:1-3,
after which the themes and stories are repeated in reverse order, creating a chiastic
structure, and this shows our first literary device. Rendsburg also points out that each of
the matching episodes contains ‘lexical links’.19 For example in Genesis 12: 1 “go forth”/
lekh lekha (B in example) matches 22:2 (B prime in example); also the place name
Moreh in 12:6 matches phonically Moriah in 22:2. Again, these linking catch phrases
appear in each of the matching episodes, another deliberate literary technique. We are
deprived of this literary skill in our English translations. The result is that we do not have
a mirror of the Hebrew original unless the translator takes the poetic beauties and crafts
them into the target language in like fashion. The Jacob Cycle also shows chiastic
The Jacob Cycle above (25:19-35:22) works in similar fashion as the Abraham
cycle. It also has matching episodes in the two halves, for example, Jacob’s dream about
the angels in chapter 28, (D in above example), and his encounter with an angel in
chapter 32, (D prime), and after the focal point in 30:22-25, where Joseph is born and
Jacob decides to return to Canaan, the themes and stories are repeated in reverse order.
19
Ibid. , 47-51.
Lexical links or key words in D and D prime are present for example, the Hebrew word
paga, is used in both 28:11 and 32:2. The reader would be reminded of the earlier link
word phonically or by sound. This would enhance the enjoyableness and strength of this
literary masterpiece. The Joseph Story can also follow the above treatment. These are
powerful literary insights into the unity and artistry of the book of Genesis.
It should be noted that there are two sections of linking material collecting less
important information between the three patriarchal cycles. This is material that closes
out Abraham’s life in 23:1-25:18 and material that bridges the Jacob cycle and the Joseph
story in 35:2320.
enlightening. The focal point is The Lord, and truly we see God becoming involved in the
pre-historic past. We also should note that the readers of this text, in the world of the
20
Ibid. , 71-77.
21
J.P. Fokkeman, Narrative Art in Genesis (Assen: Van Gorcum, 1975), 13-22.
Referenced in J. Scott Duvall and J. Daniel Hays, Grasping God’s Word 3rd Edition
(Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 2012), 101.
Ancient Near East, with its pantheon of gods, would see Yahweh, the true God involving
Himself in the affairs of men in a way that was different then what they were used to –
Micro-Chiasmus Structuring
Chiasm:
A God is renowned
B in Judah
B’ in Israel
A’ His name is great.
Today’s readers of the Old Testament can recognize these literary devices as an
aid to the understanding and appreciation of this ancient text. But even more so, we are
supposed to see the hand of God in the Old Testament. There was a Divine Presence in
Israel’s history. The author22 deliberately crafted this literary structure to serve as the
blueprint for Israel’s religious traditions. The scripture was formed and fashioned this
way for our enlightenment also. The savant Brevard S. Childs writes, “…the first five
books constituted the ground of Israel’s life under God and provided a critical norm of
how the Mosaic tradition was to be understood by the covenant people. The fundamental
theological understanding of God’s redemptive work through law and grace, promise and
fulfillment, election and obedience was once and for all established.” 23 In the books of
22
I believe that Moses wad the author, and took the oral traditions, cuneiform tablets
and other Ancient Near East literary remains, and as an anointed redactor,
fashioned the Torah as God wanted mankind to have it. The Bible is a Revelation
from Him.
23
Brevard S. Childs, Introduction to the Old Testament as Scripture (Philadelphia:
Fortress Press, 2011), 131.
the Old Testament, we begin to see the True God at work in creation, in the pagan world,
in the lives of the patriarchs, in Israel as a nation, and we should realize it in our own
lives as well. This is the purpose of our reading in the final analysis.
Now we will move on to some additional literary devices. We will use the book of
Proverbs to elaborate on this. The book of Proverbs falls into the genre of wisdom
literature. The Old Testament contains different genres of literature, which I alluded to in
my introduction. We have narrative, law, poetry, prophecy, wisdom and even court
narrative and apocalyptic prophecy24 as seen in Daniel. Our interpretation of the Bible
Duvall and Hays write “ Over one- third of the Bible is comprised of poetry. The
books of Psalms, Job, Proverbs, Song of Songs, and Lamentations are almost entirely
poetic. Furthermore, the prophetic books also embody poetry as a major literary
feature”25. Hebrew poetry is not easy to define due to its artistic nature, but we do see
elements that characterize Old Testament poetic texts. Duvall and Hays highlight:
2. Structure:
A. Parallelism (synonymous, developmental, illustrative,
contrastive and formal)
B. Acrostics
3. Figurative Imagery:
D. Wordplays
The wisdom of Proverbs can highlight elements of Hebrew poetry with it’s literary
devices very nicely for us. Proverbs 10:19 reads: “In the multitude of words sin is not
lacking, but he who restrains his lips is wise”. We are immediately confronted with the
brevity or terseness of the saying. The NKJV uses 17 words as quoted in English, but the
Hebrew only has 8 words.26 The writer is deliberately compressing this wisdom in a
compact form. The reader is signaled to slow down and reflect on the meaning of the
by observing the structure of this proverb. Observing the terseness and parallelism in this
proverb, the reader stops and reflects. God can speak to the reader through His Word.
The poetry of the Old Testament is also largely constructed of parallel lines.
Parallelism refers to the correspondence or echo that occurs between the phrases of a
poetic line.27 Instead of rhyme, as we are accustomed to in our English poetry, Hebrew
poetry, has little tangible syllabic rhythm or rhyme, but, instead, a parallel structure – a
“rhythm of thought” rather than sound.28 Look at Proverbs 16:13 “ Righteous lips are the
delight of kings, And they love him who speaks what is right.” We notice the echoing
effect that occurs between the two parts, or lines. Longman gives a literal translation that
makes this literary device even more forceful: “A king is pleased with righteous lips; he
26
Tremper Longman, How To Read Proverbs (Downer Grove, IL.: InterVarsity Press,
2002), 31.
27
Ibid. , 38-39.
28
Roy B Chamberlin & Herman Feldman, The Dartmouth Bible, An Abridgment of The
King James Version, With Aids To Its understanding as History And Literature, And As
A Source of Religious Experience (Boston, Houghton Mifflin Company, 1950), 6.
loves honest words.”29 The verb “loves” echoes “is pleased”; the object “righteous lips”
echoes “honest words”. Longman reminds us that this is not mere repetition. The echo is
not “saying the same thing twice” - a common misunderstanding of parallelism. Instead,
the second part sharpens and intensifies the thought of the first part. We reflect and ask,
how does the second part of the parallel line contribute to the first? We should not skim
Acrostics
Another fascinating structural feature of the Old Testament is the occasional use of
acrostics. An acrostic is a poem in which each successive line of poetry starts with the
next letter of the Hebrew alphabet.31 The book of Psalms contains numerous acrostics.
Psalms 25, 34, 111,112, and 145 are all acrostics. In Psalms 25, 34, and 145 the acrostic
is in the first letter of each verse. Thus the Psalms each have 22 verses, matching the 22
letters in the Hebrew alphabet (actually the Hebrew alphabet has 23 letters, but in
acrostics the writers combine the letters “s” and “sh” into a single letter).32 These
acrostics are not evident in our English Bibles unfortunately. Psalm 119 may be the most
popular and interesting acrostic. Every first word in each of the first eight verses starts
with the beginning letter of the Hebrew alphabet, aleph. Likewise verses 9 to 16 all start
with beth, the second letter. This continues eight lines at a time, all the way through
psalm 119 and all the way through the Hebrew alphabet. Acrostic texts are found in the
Bible, in extra-biblical sources, and in ancient Eastern literature. There is, however, no
certain answer as to the purpose for which these ancient authors used the device. One
29
Longman, 41
30
Longman, 46
31
Duvall & Hays, Grasping Gods Word, 379.
32
Ibid. , 379.
reason often suggested is that the poet employed acrostic as a mnemonic.33 A mnemonic
believe Biblical writers used this literary device as an aid for memorization of God’s
Word.
Figurative Imagery
A final literary device is called Figurative Imagery. Duvall & Hays write, “The
major medium through which the Old Testament poets communicate is figurative
imagery. They do not write essays; the paint pictures. The authors are conveying real
thoughts, events, and emotions to us- that is literal truth, but they express this truth
figuratively. Our job as readers is to grapple with the figures and to strive to grasp the
reality and the emotion that the poets are conveying by their figurative language.”34
3. Hyperbole - Psalm 42:3 “My tears have been my food day and night.”
4. Personification – Psalm 24: 7 “Lift up your heads, you gates.” Isaiah 44:23
“Burst into song, you mountains, you forests and all trees.” Personification
33
Elie Assis, "The alphabetic acrostic in the Book of Lamentations." Catholic Biblical
Quarterly 69, no. 4 (October 1, 2007): 710-724. ATLA Religion Database with
ATLASerials, EBSCOhost (accessed November 17, 2014).
34
Duvall & Hays, Grasping Gods Word, 380-381.
5. Substitution (effect and cause) – Psalm 51:8 “ Let me hear joy and gladness.”
This is the effect. The cause, the action that David really is asking for, is
forgiveness for his sin with Bathsheba. Yet what he states is the result of that
forgiveness- joy and gladness. Davis used a figure of speech, substituting the
6. Irony (Sarcastic Irony example) – Job 38:18-21 “ Have you comprehended the
breadth of the earth? Tell Me, since you know all this. Where is the way to the
dwelling of light? And darkness, where is its place, that you may take it to its
territory, that you may know the paths to its home? You should know it, because
you were born then, and because the number of your days is so great! ”36 Italics
were added to show that God was saying the exact opposite of what He meant.
This is irony.
which plays off variant possible meanings of a word, or play off sound
similarities. For example, “ ' Drop the gun,' Tom said with a disarming smile.”
Jeremiah 3:22 is a great example “Return, you backsliding children, And I will
Conclusion
I have a strong persuasion that the Bible is the Word of God. It testifies of it own
divine origin, has a unique consistency, and its message is alive and life changing. It has
stood the test of time and has endured endless assault from its enemies. My life was
35
Ibid. , 385.
36
This is my paraphrase.
drastically changed when I first heard the Bible preached and I still marvel at its
revelation. The principles of God’s Word have also brought me much blessing. I believe
the Bible and the God who stands behind what He said.
of Scripture that we viewed in the book of Genesis. I disagree with the theories postulated
by higher critics of the Old Testament, mythologizing the Scriptures, making them more
“logical”. I will admit that scholarship has helped our understanding of the Bible in a
myriad of ways, and one can benefit from becoming familiar with differing views on
Bible subjects. But taking the supernatural out of the picture distorts the truth of what we
read. In contrast, our reading of the Old Testament is energized when we see God’s
involvement with mankind and His willingness to use His power to deliver His children.
Our grasp on God’s Word is greatly improved by the recognition of the literary devices
employed. I have grown to appreciate the Scriptures much more by this study, and I hope
The danger in all research and study is that we can forget that God’s Word is our
“daily bread” (metaphor) and not a study book, and we can also forget that “As far as the
east is from the west, so far hath he removed our transgressions from us” (simile). These
are facts are found in plain sight and cause us to say with King David “Oh how I love
Your Law.”
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Books
Alter, Robert. The Five Books of Moses: A Translation and Commentary. New York:
W.W. Norton & Company, Inc., 2004.
Brueggemann, Walter., and Tod Linafelt, An Introduction to the Old Testament: The
Canon and Christian Imagination, 2nd ed. Louisville, Kentucky: Westminster
John Knox Press, 2003.
Craige, Peter C., Page H. Kelley, and Joel Drinkard, Jr., Jeremiah 1-25, Word Biblical
Commentary, Vol. 26. Dallas, Texas: Word, Inc. 1991.
Duvall, J. Scott. , and J. Daniel Hays, Grasping God’s Word 3rd Edition . Grand Rapids:
Zondervan, 2012.
Longman III, Tremper. How To Read Proverbs. Downer Grove, IL.: InterVarsity
Press, 2002.
New King James Version (NKJV). Oxford University Press, Inc., 2002.
Rodgers, Thomas. Panorama of the Old Testament. Newburgh, Indiana: Trinity Press
Publishing, 2012.
Sakenfeld, Katharine Doob, General ed. The New Interpreter’s Dictionary of The
Bible, Vol. 1 and Vol. 3. Nashville : Abingdon Press, 2006.
Schultz, Samuel J. The Old Testament Speaks. New York, NY: Harper & Row
Publishers, 1960.
Periodicals
Assis, Elie. "The alphabetic acrostic in the Book of Lamentations." Catholic Biblical
Quarterly 69, no. 4 (October 1, 2007): 710-724. ATLA Religion Database with
ATLASerials, EBSCOhost (accessed November 17, 2014).
Other Sources
Rendsburg , Gary A. “The Book of Genesis”, Lecture notes from CD 6. The Teaching
Company, 2006.