De La Salle University: Transport Phenomena2: Heat Transfer 3rd Term AY 2015-2016

DE LA SALLE UNIVERSITY
Gokongwei College of Engineering

Chemical Engineering Department
Transport Phenomena2: Heat Transfer 3rd Term AY 2015-2016

(TRAPHE2) Page 1
A. Heat
 Form of energy transferred from one body to another by virtue of a temperature difference
B. Thermal Energy
 Energy resulting from the individual random or disordered motion of a system’s constituent particles such
as atoms, molecules or electrons
 Thermal energy may include both the potential and kinetic energy of the system in the microscopic level as
a result of motion of molecules relative to the center of mass of the system, or to the rotational and
vibrational motion and the electromagnetic interactions of the molecules
C. Heat versus Thermal Energy

 Heat is the transfer or conversion of thermal energy from boundary to another as a result of temperature
difference
 Heat is not a static property and therefore not a property of the system. Thermal energy is the energy
possessed by a system and is subject to transformations into other types of energy
 For two subsystems are brought into a diathermic contact, heat flow occurs from the system with higher
temperature to the system with lower temperature, which a causes a decrease in the thermal energy of the
hotter system and an increase in the thermal energy of the colder system
 At the state of thermal equilibrium, the net exchange of thermal energy is zero and therefore there is no heat
(heat transfer)
 Thermal energy and heat are path functions
D. Transport Processes
 Irreversible processes that involves exchange or transfer of momentum, energy and mass
 Examples of transport processes include heat conduction, fluid flow and molecular diffusion
Quantity Transported Transport Property Equation
v  Newton’s law for fluid momentum
   Isaac Newton (1642-1726)
Momentum Viscosity x
 = / = momentum diffusivity
q dT Fourier’s law of heat conduction
Thermal  k Jean-Baptiste Joseph Fourier (1768-1830)
Energy A dx
conductivity
k = thermal conductivity
C Fick’s law of molecular diffusion
J  D Adolf Eugen Fick (1829-1901)
Mass Diffusivity x
D = diffusivity
Last updated 6/6/2016 4:10 AM

VERGEL C. BUNGAY
De La Salle University

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E. Modes of Heat Transfer

1. Conduction
 Transfer of energybetween adjacent particles of matter
 Transfer of energy from the more energetic particles to the less energetic
particles of a substance due to interactions between the particles
Mechanism of heat conduction
 Molecular interaction. Greater motion of a molecule at a higher energy
level (temperature) imparts energy to adjacent molecules at lower energy
levels. This type of transfer is present in solids, liquids and gases in
which a temperature gradient exists
 Free electron mechanism.The transfer of heatis exclusively via lattice
waves induced by atomic motion. For a conductor, the transfer of heat is
Heat Transfer by Conduction
also due to the translational motion of the free or unbound electrons http://greenmaltese.com/wp-
content/uploads/sites/20/2012/01/NIST-
Conduction_2.jpg,
2. Convection http://www.gcse.com/energy/conduction2.htm
 Transfer of energy due to random molecular motions and by bulk motion of the fluid
 Transfer of heat between a fluid in motion and a bounding surface which are both at different
temperatures
a. Natural convection
Type of heat transport in which fluid motion is not generated by any
external source and the convection currents are the result of
buoyancy force s generated by differences in density which in turn
caused by temperature gradients in the fluid
b. Forced convection
Type of heat transport in which fluid motion is generated by an
external source and therefore independent of density gradients
Heat Transfer by Convection
http://www.mhhe.com/engcs/mech/cengel/notes/I
mage187.jpg
3. Radiation
 Transfer of energy through space by electromagnetic waves
 Radiant heat transfer between surfaces does not require any medium for its propagation
 Energy transfer by radiation is maximum when the two surfaces are separated by a perfect vacuum
References for this section

[1] Green, DW and Perry, RH (2008) Perry’s Chemical Engineers’ Handbook 8th Edition, McGraw-Hill.
[2] Welty, JR, Wicks, CE, Wilson RE and Rorrer, GL (2008) Fundamental of Momentum, Heat and Mass
Transfer 5th Edition, John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

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F. Fourier’s Lat of Heat Conduction

The basic equation governing transfer of heat by conduction is given by
qx dT
 k (1)
A dx
whereqx is the rate of heat transfer in the x-direction, A is the cross-sectional area normal to the direction of
heat flow, k is the thermal conductivity, T is the temperature and x is the distance at which heat flows
1. Thermal properties of matter

a. Thermal conductivity (k)
 Measure of a material’s ability to conduct heat
 In general, the thermal conductivity of a solid is larger than that of a liquid, which is then
larger than that of a gas
 From Fourier’s law, the thermal conductivity associated with the heat conduction along the
x-direction is defined as
o
q
kx   x
 T  (2)
 
 x 
 Similar expressions for thermal conductivities in the y- and z- directions can also deduced
using Fourier’s Law
 For isotropic solids, the thermal conductivity is independent of the direction of transfer and
therefore, kx = ky = kz
Solid state.For pure metals, the contribution of electron to conduction heat transfer dominates
while in non-conductors and semi-conductors, the contribution of phonon dominates. Therefore,
the thermal conductivity may be expressed as
k  ke  k ph (3)
whereke is approximated to be inversely proportional to the electrical resistivity (ability of a
material to oppose the flow of electric current)
kphincreases as the frequency of interactions between the atoms and the lattice decreases
and dependent on the regularity of the lattice arrangement
Fluid state. Heat transport in liquid and gases are less effective than in the solid state since the
molecular spacing in the fluid states is much larger and the motion of the molecules is more
random. For gases, the effect of temperature and pressure on the thermal conductivity can be
explained using the kinetic molecular theory of gases. From this theory, the thermal conductivity
is directly proportional to the density of the gas and increases approximately as the square root
of the absolute temperature. For liquids, thermal conductivity is independent of pressure except
near the critical point and varies moderately with temperature according to a linear relationship:
k  a  bT (4)

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b. Specific heat (c)

 Measure of a material’s ability to store thermal energy
 The product of density,  and specific heat, c is known as the volumetric heat capacity
 Solids and liquids have higher density and are generally very good energy storage media
while liquids have small densities and poorly suited for thermal energy storage
c. Thermal diffusivity ()
 Represents how fast heat diffuses through a material and defined as
k
 (5)
cP
 The larger the thermal diffusivity, the faster the propagation of heat into the medium
 A small value of thermal diffusivity means that heat is mostly absorbed by the material and a
small amount of heat will be conducted
2. Steady state heat conduction

a. Case 1. Constant k and constant A
T driving force
q 
x resistance ( R) (6)
kA
b. Case 2. Variablek and constant A
Assuming k is a linear function of T, using Eq (4) yields,
T
q
x (7)
kM A
k1  k 2 T T
where k M  and evaluated at TM  1 2
2 2
c. Case 3. Constantk and variableA
Hollow cylinder
T r1
q
r2  r1 (8)
kALM T1
where T2
A  A 2r2 L  2r1L 2Lr2  r1 
ALM  2 1  r2
A2 2r2 L r (9)
ln ln ln 2
A2 2r1L r1

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Hollow sphere
T r1
q
r2  r1 (10)
kAGM
T1
where
T2
AGM  A1 A2  4r1 4r2  (11)
r2
3. Conduction through solids in series
a. Plane walls in series
For a multi-layer wall in which more than one material is present, the heat flow must be the same
in each layer assuming steady state conduction on the x-direction. Therefore, the Fourier’s
equation can be writted as:
qx,overall  qx ,(1)  qx ,( 2)  qx ,(3) (12)
qx ,overall 
T1  T2   T2  T3   T3  T4 
x1 x2 x3 T1
(13)
k1 A k2 A k3 A T2 A
qx
Solving each term in the equality in terms of T yields T3
x1 T4
T(1)  T1  T2  qx,(1) (14) (1) (2) (3)
k1 A
x x1 x2 x3
T( 2)  T2  T3  qx ,( 2) 2 (15)
k2 A
x
T(3)  T3  T4  qx,(3) 3 (16)
k3 A
Adding these terms will result to
T1  T2   T2  T3   T3  T4   T1  T4  Toverall (17)
Similarly from Eq. 13,
x1 x x
Toverall  T1  T4  qx,(1)  q x , ( 2 ) 2  q x , ( 3) 3 (18)
k1 A k2 A k3 A
Given the conditions in Eq. 12 will result to
 x x x 
T1  T4  qx  1  2  3 
 k1 A k2 A k3 A 

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T1  T4 T
qx  
x1 x2 x3  R (19)
 
k1 A k 2 A k3 A
b. Multilayer cylinders
For a multilayer cylinders with more than one material is present, the heat flow must be the same
in each layer assuming steady state conduction on the r-direction. Therefore, the Fourier’s
equation can be writted as:
qr ,overall  qr ,(1)  qr ,( 2) (20) (2)
qr ,overall 
T1  T2   T2  T3  (1)
qr
r2  r1 r3  r2 (21)
k1 ALM ,(1) k 2 ALM ,( 2) T1
Solving each term in the equality in terms of T yields T2 T3
r r
T(1)  T1  T2  qr ,(1) 2 1 (22)
k1 ALM ,(1) r1 r3
r3  r2 r2
T( 2)  T2  T3  qr ,( 2) (23)
k2 ALM ,( 2)
Adding these terms will result to
T1  T2   T2  T3   T1  T3  Toverall (24)
Similarly from Eq. 21,
r2  r1 r r
Toverall  T1  T3  qr ,(1)  qr , ( 2 ) 3 2 (25)
k1 ALM ,(1) k2 ALM ,( 2)
Given the conditions in Eq. 20 will result to
 r r r r 
T1  T3  qr  2 1  3 2 
k A 
 1 LM ,(1) k2 ALM ,( 2) 
T1  T3
qr 
r2  r1 r r (26)
 3 2
k1 ALM ,(1) k 2 ALM ,( 2)

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4. Conduction through solids in parallel

Fortwo plane solids placed side by side in parallel, the total
heat flow (qx,overall) is the sum of the heat flow through solid 1
and the heat flow at solid 2. T1 A1
qx,overall  qx ,(1)  qx ,( 2) (27) T2
qx,(1) (1)
For each solid, Fourier’s equation becomes T1 A2
T1  T2 T1  T2 T1  T2 T1  T2 T2
qx ,overall     qx,(2) (2)
x x R1 R2 (28)
kA1 kA2
Therefore, x
1 1  T  T 
qx , overall  T1  T2      1 2 (29)
 R1 R2   RT
1 1 1
where   (30)
RT R1 R2
5. Combined convection and conduction
Ti
qr
T1 Ti
hi T2 hi
A
qx
T3 T4
ho T1 T2
To r1
(1) (2) (3) To
r2 ho
x1 x2 x3
(a)(b)
Combined conduction in a (a) plane wall and (b) cylindrical wall
a. Plane wall
Assuming steady state heat transferand constant area perpendicular to the flow of heat transfer, the
heat-transfer rate equation for conduction and convection is given as
T1  T2 T2  T3 T3  T4
qx ,overall  hi ATi  T1      ho AT4  To 
x1 x2 x3 (31)
k1 A k2 A k3 A

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In terms of individual resistances, Eq. 31 becomes

T Ti  To
qx ,overall  
 R 1  x1  x2  x3  1 (32)
hi A k1 A k2 A k3 A ho A
The overall heat transfer by combined conduction and convection is often expressed as a single
term given as
qx,overall  UATi  To  (33)
whereU = overall heat-transfer coefficient (Wm–2K–1)
The overall heat-transfer coefficient, U is related to the total resistance to heat transfer, R
according to the following relationship:
1 1  1 x x x 1
 R  UA  A  h  k 1  k 2  k 3  h  (34)
 i 1 2 3 o 
Therefore,
1
U
1 x1 x2 x3 1 (35)
   
hi k1 k2 k3 ho
b. Cylindrical wall
Similar to Eq. 31, the heat-transfer equation for the combined conduction and convection in a
cylindrical wall will be
T1  T2
qr ,overall  hi Ai Ti  T1    ho Ao T2  To 
r2  r1 (36)
k1 ALM
In terms of individual resistances, Eq. 36 becomes
T Ti  To
qr ,overall  
 R 1  x1  1 (37)
hi Ai k1 ALM ho Ao
Similar to Eq. 33, the overall heat-transfer equation for the cylinder can be expressed in terms of
the inside (Ai) and outside area (Ao) to yield the following:
Ti  To Ti  To Ti  To
qx ,overall  U i Ai Ti  To   U o Ao Ti  To    
1 1 R (38)
U i Ai U o Ao
The overall heat-transfer coefficient, Ubased from the inside (Ai) and outside area (Ao) is related to
the total resistance to heat transfer, R according to the following relationship:

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1 1 1 x1 1
R  U A    
U o Ao hi Ai k1 ALM ho Ao
(39)
i i
Therefore,
1
Ui 
1 Ai r2  r1  Ai (40)
 
hi k1 ALM ho Ao
and
1
Uo 
Ao Ao r2  r1  1 (41)
 
hi Ai k1 ALM ho
6. Conduction with internal heat generation

 Internal heat generation within a medium may be caused by the conversion of some other form of
energy to thermal energy
 A common thermal energy generation process involves the conversion of electrical energy to
thermal energy. This can be done by passing an electric current through a conductor which then
releases heat. This process is known as Joule heating or ohmic heating or resistive heating. The rate
at which energy is generated is given by
o
E gen  I 2 R (42)
whereI = current passed through a medium of electrical resistance, R
 Assuming complete conversion, the heat generation that occurs throughout a medium of volume, V
is
o
E gen I 2 R
q 
o
(43)
V V
where q = volumetric heat generation (Wm–3)
o
 In addition, changes in the stored internal thermal energy may occur in the medium and if the
material only involves sensible heat, the change in the thermal energy storage may be expressed as
Estorage  cPVT (44)
a. Heat diffusion equation

Consider an infinitesimal small control volume (dxdydz) within a homogeneous medium where
there is no bulk motion and the temperature distribution is expressed in terms of the x, y and z
coordinates.
The conduction heat rates perpendicular to each of the control surfaces are expressed in terms of
qx, qy and qz. Using the Taylor series expansion and neglecting higher order terms,

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(a) (b)
q
qx  x dx  qx  dx (45a)
x
q y y qx qx+dx
qy  dy  q y  dy (45b) x
y
z
q
qz  z dz  qz  dz (45c) dx
z qy+dy
(c) (d) qz
These equations imply that x-component
of the heat-transfer rate at x+dx, qx+x is
the sum of the heat transfer rate at x, qx
and the amount by which heat changes dy
with respect to x.
qz+dz dz
qy
The conduction heat rates qx, qy and qz may be evaluated using the Fourier’s equation
T T T
qx  kdydz , q y  kdxdz and qz  kdxdy (46a, 46b, 46c)
x y z
Using Eqs.43, 44 and 45, an energy balance on the control volume will result to
o o o o
E input  E output E generation  E accumulation
T
q  q y  qz   qx  x  q y  y  qz  z   q dxdydz  cP dxdydz
o
(47)
t
x
 qx q y q  o  T
  dx  dy  z dz    q dxdydz   cP dxdydz (48)
 x y z    t
Substitution Eq. 46 to Eq. 48 and dividing out the dimensions of the control volume (dxdydz)
simplifies to
  T    T    T  o T
k    k    k   q  cP
x  x  y  y  z  z  t
 2T  2T  2T q cP T
o
    (49)
x 2 y 2 z 2 k k t
In the cylindrical and spherical coordinates, the general form of the heat equation can be derived
as follows:

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Cylindrical coordinates
1   T  1   T    T  q cP T
o
r       (50)
r r  r  r 2     z  z  k k t
Spherical coordinates
1   T    T    T  q cP T
o
1 1
r  2  sin   2 2    (51)
r r  r  r sin      r sin      k k t

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b. Heat generation in a plane wall

Case 1: Assymetrical boundary conditions
Consider a plane wall with uniform volumetric heat generation and surfaces maintained at
Ts,1andTs,2. At constant thermal conductivity and at steady state, Eq. 49 becomes
 2T
o
q L L
 (52)
x 2
k
o
The general solution is q
o
q 2
T  x  C1 x  C2 (53)
2k
To
At x = L, T = Ts,2 and x = –L, T = T s,1,
Ts , 2  Ts ,1 q
o
T T
C1  and C2   L2  s , 2 s ,1
2L 2k 2 Ts,1 Ts,2
Substituting the expression for these constants to Eq. 53
yields –L 0 L
q 2  x 2  Ts , 2  Ts ,1 x Ts , 2  Ts ,1
o
T L 1     (54)
2k  L2  2 L 2
The temperature at the center, To can be calculated by setting x = 0 and T = T0
q 2 Ts , 2  Ts ,1
o
To  L  (55)
2k 2
Case 2: Symmetrical boundary conditions

When both surfaces are maintained at a constant L L
temperature, (TW=Ts,1=Ts,2), Eq. 54 is reduced to
q 2  x2 
o o
T L 1    Tw (56) q
2k  L2 
At x = 0, T = T0, Eq. 56 is transformed into
o
To
q 2
To  L  Tw (57)
2k
At any point, x, the temperature profile is Tw Tw
o
q 2
T  x  To (58)
2k –L 0 L

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Case 3: Adiabatic surface at midplane L

Using Eq. 58, it can be shown that
o
dT q
0 To
dx x 0
and therefore, at x = 0, the temperature gradient is zero

and no heat is transferred across this plane. One
implication of this analysis applies to plane walls with Tw
h, Tf
one side (x = 0) that are perfectly insulated. Assuming
steady state heat transfer, qcond qconv
qconduction  qconvection
0 L
qconduction  q AL  hATw  T f 
o
(59)
o
With Tf, h, q and L known, the wall temperature can be calculated as follows
o
qL
Tw  T f  (60)
h
c. Heat generation in a cylinder

At constant thermal conductivity and for steady-state
conduction along the r-coordinates only, Eq. 50 is
reduced to
o
TW q
1   T 
o
q ro
r  (61)
r r  r  k
The general solution is
o
q r2
T   C1 ln r  C2 (62)
4k
o 2
dT qr
At  0 and at r = ro, T = Tw, C1  0 and C2  TW  o
dr r 0 4k
Substitution of the integration constants to Eq. 62 results to
 
o
q 2 2
T ro  r  Tw (63)
4k
At the center of the cylinder (r = 0), the center temperature, To is
o 2
qr
To  o  Tw (64)
4k

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7. Critical thickness of insulation

A steady state, the heat transfer through the cylinder and the insulator
r2
insulation equals the rate of convection from the surface
qr 
T1  To  
2LT1  To 
1 dr 1 1 r2 1 (65) r1
 ln 
k 2Lr 2Lr2 ho k r1 r2 ho
T1 T2
To get the critical radius when the heat transfer rate is maximum,
the derivative of q with respect to r2 is evaluated and equated to ho To
zero.
k
r2,critical  (66)
ho
 If the outer radius is less than (greater than)the critical, adding more insulation will increase
(decrease) the heat-transfer rate.
8. Contact resistance at an interface

 For solids in series, the adjacent touching surfaces are assumed to be at the same temperature, that is,
perfect contact is made between the surfaces
 Interface resistance or contact resistance occurs when a thin layer of stagnant fluid is trapped between
the solids
 It depends on the roughness of the two surfaces, the pressure applied to bring the surfaces in contact,
the temperature at the interface and the fluid at the interface
 Contact resistance can be added to other resistances similar to any resistances in series

VERGEL C. BUNGAY

(TRAPHE2) Page 15
Sample Problems
1. A plane wall of thickness 0.1 m and thermal conductivity 25 W/mK having uniform volumetric heat
generation of 0.3 MW/m3 is insulated on one side, while the other side is exposed to a fluid at 92°C. The
convection heat transfer coefficient between the wall and the fluid is 500 W/m2K. Determine the maximum
temperature in the wall. Calculate the convective heat transfer rate in kWm–2.
2. Consider a plane composite wall that is composed of three materials (materials A, B, and C are arranged left to
right) of thermal conductivities, kA = 0.24 W/mK, kB = 0.13 W/mK, and kC = 0.50 W/mK. The thicknesses of
the three sections of the wall are LA = 20 mm, LB = 13 mm, and LC = 20 mm. A contact resistance of Rint= 10–2
m2K/W exists at the interface between materials A and B, as well as at the interface between materials B and
C. The left face of the composite wall is insulated, while the right face is exposed to convective conditions
characterized by h = 10 W/m2K, Tf = 20C. The thermal energy is generated within material A at the rate of
5000 W/m3. Determine the maximum temperature within the composite wall under steady-state conditions.
Sketch the steady-state temperature distribution on T-x coordinates.

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3. Consider one-dimensional conduction in a plane composite

wall. The outer surfaces are exposed to a fluid at 25°C and a
convection heat transfer coefficient of 1000 W/m2K. The
middle wall B experiences uniform heat generation B, while
there is no generation in walls A (kA=25 W/mK) and C
(kC=50 W/mK). The temperatures at the interfaces are TA-B =
261°C and TB-C = 211°C. The thicknesses of the walls are
LA=30 mm, LB=30 mm and LC=20 mm. Assuming negligible
contact resistance at the interfaces, determine the volumetric
heat generation and the thermal conductivity, kB.
4. A high-temperature, gas-cooled nuclear reactor consistsof a composite cylindrical wall for which a thorium
fuelelement (k  57 W/mK) is encased in graphite (k3W/mK) and gaseous helium flows through an
annularcoolant channel. Consider conditions for which the heliumtemperature is T= 600 K and the convection
coefficientat the outer surface of the graphite is h = 2000 W/m2K).
If thermal energy is uniformly generated in the fuelelement at a rate of 108 W/m3, what are the temperatures,
T1 and T2 at the inner and outer surfaces, respectively, of the fuel element?
5. Develop an expression for the critical radius, r2 for insulation for a sphere of constant thermal conductivity, k
and given outside heat-transfer coefficient, ho.

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(TRAPHE2) Page 17
Illustrative Example 1: Asymmetrical boundary conditions

Consider the plane composite wall given in the figure. The Ts,1 Ts,2
h, Tf T1 T2 h, Tf
following informationis known:
Material Material Material
q  4 106 W  m3
o
A B C
h = 1000 W/m2K
Ts,1 = 261C; Ts,2= 211C
kA = 25 Wm–1K–1;kB = 15.3 Wm–1K–1; kC = 50 Wm–1K–1 LA
LB
0
LB
LC
LA=30 mm, LB=30 mm;LC=20 mm 2LB
Recall general equation (Eq. 53) for plane wall with uniform volumetric heat generation and surfaces maintained at
Ts,1andTs,2
q 2
o
Ts , 2  Ts ,1 q T T
o
T  x  C1 x  C2 where C1  and C2   L2  s , 2 s ,1
2k 2L 2k 2
A. Temperature profile – material B (Heat conduction with heat generation)

To determine the temperature profile across material B, the following equation can be used
q 2  x 2  Ts , 2  Ts ,1 x Ts , 2  Ts ,1
o
T L 1    
2k  L2  2 L 2
4 106  30  x 2  211  261 x 211  261
T   
215.3  10002  2 30 2
Note 1:
 The volumetric heat generation is independent of the position, x
 The position, x in this formula is in millimeters
Task 1
1.1 Complete the table and express answers in four (4) decimal places
xB (mm) T (C) xB (mm) T (C) xB (mm) T (C) xB (mm) T (C)
–30 –14 2 18
–28 –12 4 20
–26 –10 6 22
–24 –8 8 24
–22 –6 10 26
–20 –4 12 28
–18 –2 14 30
–16 0 16

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1.2 Using the following formula, calculate the center-line temperature:

q 2 Ts , 2  Ts ,1
o
To  L 
2k 2
At x = 0; the center-line temperature is __________C.
Plot of T vs. xB
Note 2:
1. The center-line temperature is not the maximum temperature across material B which is a clear
consequence of the asymmetrical boundary condition
Task 2: Calculate the position in which the temperature across the material is maximum:
Using the temperature profile equation:
q 2  x 2  Ts , 2  Ts ,1 x Ts , 2  Ts ,1 q 2 2 Ts , 2  Ts ,1 x Ts , 2  Ts ,1
o o
T L 1   
2k  L2  2 L

2

2k

L x 
2
 L

2

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(TRAPHE2) Page 19
dT
2.1 Evaluate , equate to zero and solve for x
dx
xT  __________ mm
max
2.2 Using x T , substitute to the temperature profile equation to determineTmax

max
Tmax  __________ C
2.3 Derive the following expression for Tmax:
q 2 k Ts , 2  Ts ,1  Ts , 2  Ts ,1
o 2
Tmax  L o 
2k q 8L2 2
2.4 When Ts,2 = Ts,1 = Tw, show that this equation is reduced to Eq. 64
B. Material B (Heat conduction with heat generation)

q dT
Recall Fourier’s equation:  k
A dx
q dT
Rearranging this equation yields:  
kA dx
Task 3: Using the temperature profile equation,
q 2  x 2  Ts , 2  Ts ,1 x Ts , 2  Ts ,1 q 2 2 Ts , 2  Ts ,1 x Ts , 2  Ts ,1
o o
T L 1   
2k  L2  2 L

2

2k
L x  
2 L

2
q
3.1 Evaluate
dT
and show that   qx
o k
Ts,1  Ts,2 
dx  A   LB  x LB 2L
3.2 Complete the table and express answers in four (4) decimal places
qW qW qW qW
xB (mm)   xB (mm)   xB (mm)   xB (mm)  
A  m2  A  m2  A  m2  A  m2 
–30 –14 2 18
–28 –12 4 20
–26 –10 6 22
–24 –8 8 24
–22 –6 10 26
–20 –4 12 28
–18 –2 14 30
–16 0 16

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3.3 Calculate the heat flux at x T obtained from Task 2.1

max
q W
xTmax  ____________ 2
A m
3.4 The values obtained from Task 3.2 was plotted as shown in the figure:
What is the implication on heat transfer at the point in material B where the temperature is maximum?
How is the heat flux related with the temperature profile of material B?
380 140,000
360
120,000
340
100,000
Temperature (C)
Heat flux (Wm-2)

320
300 80,000
280 60,000
260
40,000
240
20,000
220
200 0
-30
-28
-26
-24
-22
-20
-18
-16
-14
-12
-10
-8
-6
-4
-2
0
2
4
6
8
10
12
14
16
18
20
22
24
26
28
30
Position, x (mm)
Note: The absolute value of the heat flux was plotted for x< 0
C. Temperature profile – material A (heat conduction without heat generation)
Given for material A:
Ts,1 = 261C; kA = 25 Wm–1K–1;LA=30 mm

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Recall Eq. 49,

 2T  2T  2T q cP T
o
   
x 2 y 2 z 2 k k t
Assuming one dimensional steady-state heat conduction without heat
generation, Eq. 49 is reduced to
 2T Ts,1
0
x 2
Task 4:Considermaterial A
4.1 Show that the general solution is T  C1 x  C2
T1 Material
4.2 With the following boundary conditions, A
Boundary condition 1: x = 0; T = Ts,1
Boundary condition 2:x = LA; T = Ts,2
Show that the particular solution is
T  T1  Ts ,1 
x
 Ts ,1 LA= –30 mm 0
LA
How does the temperature profile for heat conduction with heat generation (Eq. 54) differ with this
equation?
4.3 Using Fourier’s equation for one dimensional heat conduction, show that from the previous equation,
the resulting expression for the heat flux will be:
q T  T 
 k 1 s ,1
 
 A  material A LA
What is the heat flux at xB = –30 mm (or similarly xA = 0 mm)?
For heat conduction without generation, does the heat flux vary with the length of material A?
4.4 Calculate the temperature at the outer surface of material A, T1. In using x< 0, account for the sign of
the heat flux obtained from Task 3.2
4.5 Complete the table below using the equation: Express your answers in four (4) decimal places.
T  T1  Ts ,1 
x
 Ts ,1
LA
xA (mm) T (C) xA (mm) T (C) xA (mm) T (C) xA (mm) T (C)
0 –8 –16 –24
–2 –10 –18 –26
–4 –12 –20 –28
–6 –14 –22 –30

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D. Material C (Heat conduction with heat generation)

Given for material C:
Ts,2 = 211C; kC = 50 Wm–1K–1; LC=20 mm
Using the value for heat flux at xB =30 mm obtained from the tabulation of Task Ts,2
3.2, the temperature at the outer surface of material C can be calculated using
the following equation: T2
q T  T 
 k 2 s , 2
A LC Material
C
Task 5:
5.1 Calculate the temperature at the outer surface of material C, T2
5.2 Similar to material A, the temperature profile equation for material Cwill
be
T  T2  Ts , 2 
x
 Ts , 2 0 LC = 20 mm
LC
Complete the table below using the equation: Express your answers in four (4) decimal places.
xC (mm) T (C) xC (mm) T (C) xC (mm) T (C)
0 8 16
2 10 18
4 12 20
6 14
5.3 Using Fourier’s equation for one dimensional heat conduction, show that from the previous equation
of the temperature profile of material C, the resulting expression for the heat flux will be:
q T  T 
 k 2 s , 2
 
 A  materialC LC
What is the heat flux at xB = 30 mm (or similarly xC = 0 mm)?
For heat conduction without generation, does the heat flux vary with the length of material C?
E. Convective heat transfer

Task 6:
6.1 Tabulate your results from previous tasks and calculate the fluid temperature. Express your answers in
four (4) decimal places.
Material A Material C
–2
Constant heat flux (Wm )
Surface temperature (C)
Fluid temperature (C)

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(TRAPHE2) Page 23
380 140,000
360
340 120,000
320
100,000
Temperature (C)
Heat flux (Wm-2)

300
280
80,000
260 Material
240 B
60,000
220
200 40,000
180
160 20,000
Material Material
140 A C
120 0
-60
-55
-50
-45
-40
-35
-30
-25
-20
-15
-10
-5
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
45
50
Position, x (mm)
Illustrative Example 2: Heat conduction with heat generation in a hollow cylinder

A high-temperature, gas-cooled nuclear reactor consists of a composite cylindrical wall for which a
He
thorium fuelelement (k  57 W/mK) is encased in graphite (k  3 W/mK) and gaseous helium flows Tf
through an annular coolant channel. Consider conditions for which the helium temperature is Tf= 600 K C
Th
and the convection coefficient at the outer surface of the graphite is h = 2000 W/m2K).If thermal
energy is uniformly generated in the fuel element at a rate of 108 W/m3, what are the temperatures, T1 T1 T
2
and T2 at the inner and outer surfaces, respectively, of the fuel element? T3
A. Conduction with heat generation in a cylindrical wall –Th fuel element r1

r2 r3
Th
Recall Eq. 64 in which heat conduction with internal heat generation was assumed at C
steady state and that the heat transfer is along the radial direction: He
1   T 
o
q
r 
r r  r  k
In this problem, a long solid tube is insulated at the outer radius, r2 with uniform heat generation within the solid.
The particular solution of this resulting heat balance is
o
q r2
T   C1 ln r  C2
4k
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(TRAPHE2) Page 24
Task7:
o
q r2
Given: T    C1 ln r  C2 (T7.1)
4k
Using the following boundary conditions:
Boundary conditions: r = r1, T = T1 and at r = r2, T = T2
7.1 Show that
o
T1  T2 
q 2 2
4k
r
r2  r1  C1 ln 2
r1

7.2 Starting with the particular solution of the resulting heat balance and assuming that there is no
temperature gradient at r1, show that
o
q r2
C1  1 and
2k
o o
T1  T2 
q 2 2 q r12 r2
4k
r2  r1 
2k
ln
r1
  (T7.2)
7.3 Substituting the expression for C1 to Eq. T7.1,show that the expression for C2 is
o o
q r12 q r12
C2  T1   ln r1
4k 2k
7.4 With the expressions for C1 and C2 known, show the equation for the temperature distribution along
the radius will be as follows:
o o
T  T1 
q 2 2 q r12 r
4k
r  r1  ln
2k r1
  (T7.3)
q q dT
7.5 Recall Fourier’s equation:   k
A 2πrL dx
With the length, L of the cylindrical wall assumed constant, show that the equation for the distribution
of the heat flux along the radial direction is
q
L

 π q r 2  r12
o
 (T7.4)
7.6 At the surface of the thorium fuel element (r = r2 = 11 mm), calculate the heat rate per unit length
(q/L)
q W
 __________
L m

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(TRAPHE2) Page 25
B. Steady-state conduction without heat generation (graphite) and convection (He coolant)
The heat rate per unit length at r2 = 11 mm will be constant across the graphite
He
and helium layers since there is no heat generation.
C
Task8:
8.1 For steady-state heat transfer with no heat generation, the overall heat rate T2
transfer equation per unit length is given by:
T3
q q q q
       
 L overall  L  r3 11mm  L conduction- graphite  L convection- helium r2 r3 Tf
C
For steady-state conduction along the graphite layer,
He
q dT
 k
2πrL dr
Show that the temperature distribution across the graphite layer is
q 1 r
T  T2    ln (T7.5)
 L  2πk r2
For the convective heat transfer from the surface of the graphite layer to the He coolant
q

 h T3  T f 
2πr3 L
Show that the expression for the overall heat transfer rate equation for these layers is
q T2  T f
  
 L overall 1 r
ln 3 
1
2πkgraphite r2 2πr3h
Solve for T2
T2 = __________ K
8.2 With T2 known, solve for T1 using Eq. T7.2
T1 = __________ K

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8.3 Using Eqs. T7.3 and T7.5,complete the table below: Express your answers in four (4) decimal places.
rgraphite qW rgraphite qW

T (K)   T (K)  
(mm) L m  (mm) L m 
8 11.2
8.2 11.4
8.4 11.6
8.6 11.8
8.8 12
9 12.2
9.2 12.4
9.4 12.6
9.6 12.8
9.8 13
10 13.2
10.2 13.4
10.4 13.6
10.6 13.8
10.8 14
11
Plot of T and q/L vs. r

1000 20,000
975 18,000
950
16,000
925
Temperature (C)
Heat flux (Wm-2)
14,000
900
875 12,000
850 10,000
825 8,000
800
6,000
775
4,000
750
Thorium 2,000
725 Graphite
Fuel Element
700 0
8 9 10 11 12 13 14
Position, x (mm)

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Plot of T and q/L vs. r for conduction with heat generation

940 20,000
939 18,000
938 16,000
Temperature (C)
Heat flux (Wm-2)

937 14,000
936 12,000
935 10,000
934 8,000
933 6,000
932 4,000
931 Thorium 2,000

Graphite
Fuel Element
930 0
8 9 10 11 12 13 14
Position, x (mm)
9. Heat Transfer from Extended Surfaces

 involves heat transfer by conduction within a solid and by convection or radiation from the
boundaries of the solid
 heat transfer from the boundaries is perpendicular to the direction of heat transfer in the solid
Fig 9.1 Combined conduction and convection in a structural element

 With the concurrent heat transfer by convection to the fluid, how will qx and the temperature gradient,
dT/dx vary with x?_____________________________.

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 For bare surfaces, heat transfer can be increased by increasing the heat transfer coefficient, h, that is
by increasing the fluid velocity or by reducing the fluid temperature
 The rate of heat transfer may be increased by increasing the surface area across which convection
occurs, that is done by extending the surface from the wall into the surrounding fluid
 The extended surface is termed as a fin which enhances heat transfer between a solid and an adjoining
fluid
(a) (b)
Fig 9.2 (a) bare surface and (b) finned surface
 Different fin configurations are shown in Fig 9.3. A straight fin (Figs 9.3a and 9.3b) is any extended
surface of uniform or non-uniform cross-sectional area attached to a plane wall
 An annular fin (Fig 9.3c) is one that is attached circumferentially to a cylinder while a pin fin or a
spine is an extended surface with circular cross section (Fig. 9.3d)
Fig 9.3 Different fin configurations

 Typical applications these fin configurations are shown in Fig 9.4

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Fig. 9.4 Finned tube heat exchanger

http://www.turnbull-scott.co.uk/images/products_gallery/industrial_heat_exchange/finned_tube/dscf0008.jpg/
http://img.frbiz.com/pic/z25a4fae-0x0-0/radiator_finned_strong_style_color_b82220_tube_radiators_strong.jpg
http://dhanlaxmitubes.com/Content/pics/fin_tubes.jpg
http://www.aircoolertechnology.com/spiralx_files/slideshow_data/spiralx_cropped.jpg
a. General heat balance for extended surfaces

 Consider a differential element from the extended surface shown in Fig. 9.5
 The following assumptions were made:
 heat transfer is along the x-direction (one-dimensional)
 temperature is uniform across the fin thickness, that is, the temperature varies only with x
 thermal conductivity (k) and convection heat transfer coefficient (h) is constant, no heat
generation and radiation from the surface is negligible
h, Tf
qx AS
AC (x)
qx+dx
z
dx
y
x
Fig. 9.5 Energy balance in an extended surface
 Applying energy balance yields
qx  qx dx  dqconv (67)
 Using Fourier’s law,
dT
q x  kAC (68)
dx
whereAC is the cross-sectional area perpendicular to heat flow (conduction). Similarly, for
qx+dx,
qx  dx  qx  qx dx
d
(69)
dx

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 Substituting Eq. 68 to Eq. 69 will result to

dT d  dT 
qx  dx  kAC    kAC dx
dx dx  dx 
Simplifying yields to
dT d  dT 
qx  dx  kAC  k  AC dx (70)
dx dx  dx 
 In terms of convective heat transfer, the heat transfer equation is expressed as
dqconv  hdAS T  T f  (71)
wheredAS is the surface area of the differential element
 Combining Eqs.67, 70 and 71 will result to
qx  qx dx  dqconv (67)
 dT  
 dT  dT d 
 kAC dx    kAC dx  dx   kAC dx dx 
 hdAS T  T f  q 
  qx     qxdx conv
dx  hdAS T  T f   0

d  dT 
k  AC
dx  dx 
The first term can be simplified by applying the product rule: d(xy) = xdy + ydx,
  d 2T  dT  dAC  h
k  AC  2      dAS T  T f   0
  dx  dx  dx  dx
Dividing both sides of the equation with –kAC will result to
 d 2T   1 dAC  dT  h dAS
 2       T  T f   0 (72)
 dx   AC dx  dx  kAC dx
i. Temperature distribution and heat loss for fins with uniform cross section
 Consider fins of uniform cross-sectional area shown in Fig. 9.6
 Each fin is attached to a plane wall at base surface temperature of TB and extends into a
fluid of temperature, TforT
 For the given fins, AC is constant with respect to x, that is, AC = wt (for the rectangular fin)
and AC = ¼ D2 (for pin fin). Therefore
dAC
0 (73)
dx
 Similarly, AS for the given fins are measured from the base and expressed in terms of x as
follows
AS  Px (74)
whereP = 2w + 2t (for rectangular fin) and P = D (for pin fin). Therefore
dAS
P (75)
dx

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Fig. 9.6 (a) Rectangular fin and (b) pin fin
 Substituting Eqs. 73 and 75 to Eq. 72 yields

 d 2T   1  dT  h
 2     0    P T  T f   0
  dx   AC  dx  kAC
d 2T hP
 T  T f   0 (76)
dx 2 kAC
 By letting  = T – Tf, it then follows that

d dT
 (77)
dx dx
 Eq. 76 then becomes
d 2 hP
  0 (78)
dx 2 kAC
and if
hP hP
m2  or m  (79)
kAC kAC
The resulting second order, linear differential equation becomes
d 2
2
 m 2  0
dx
To solve this differential equation, the characteristic equation is given by
y 2  m2  0
The general solution is
y  C1emx  C2e mx
Applying this solution to Eq. 78 results to
 x   C1emx  C2e mx (80)

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 To evaluate the constants, one possible boundary condition is:atx=0,  =T–Tf=TB–Tf=B

 x  0   B  C1  C2 (81)
 The other boundary conditions can be broken down into the following cases:
Case 1. Convection heat transfer occurs at the tip of the fin
In this case, the rate at which the heat is transferred to the fluid by convection is the equal to the rate at
which heat is transferred by conduction at the tip of the fin
qcond x  L  qconv
 kAC
dT
dx

 hAC T L   T f 
xL
d dT
With  = T – Tfand  ,
dx dx
k d
 
 L   T L   T f  
h dx x  L
(82)
Starting with Eq. 80,

 x   C1emx  C2e mx (80)
d
 mC1e mL  mC2e mL (83)
dx x  L
and similarly,
 L  C1emL  C2e mL (84)
 Substitution Eqs. 83 and 84 to Eq. 82 yields
C1e mL  C2e mL   mC1e mL  mC2e mL 
k
(85)
h
 Using Eqs. 81 and 85 will finally result to the following temperature distribution equation:
cosh mL  x   sinh mL  x 
h
 T  Tf km
  (86)
 B TB  T f cosh mL 
h
sinh mL
km
 Hyperbolic functions are defined as follows:
e x  e x e x  e x e x  e x
sinh x  , cosh x  and tanh x  x  x
2 2 e e
d
sinh x   cosh x , cosh x   sinh x and tanh x   1 2
d d
dx dx dx cosh x
 The amount of heat transferred from the entire fin can be evaluated by applying Fourier’s
law at the base of the fin, that is

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dT d
qcond  kAC  kAC (87)
dx x 0 dx x 0
 Using the temperature distribution equation (Eq. 86)
 
cosh mL  x   sinh mL  x 
h
d   d  km
   
dx   B  dx  cosh mL 
h
sinh mL 
 km 
 m sinh mL  x   cosh mL  x 
h
1 d k

 B dx cosh mL 
h
sinh mL
km x 0
h
sinh mL  cosh mL
1 d km
 m (88)
 B dx cosh mL 
h
sinh mL
km
 Substitution of this expression to Eq. 87 yields
h
sinh mL  cosh mL
d km
qcond   kAC  kAC m B
dx x 0 h
cosh mL  sinh mL
km
By letting M  kAC hP B , the fin heat transfer rate equation is
h
sinh mL  cosh mL
q fin M km (89)
h
cosh mL  sinh mL
km
Case 2. Convection heat transfer at the tip of the fin is negligible

In this case, the tip of the fin is assumed adiabatic
d
0
dx x L
Using the general solution:
 x   C1emx  C2e mx (80)
d
will result to  0  mC1e mL  mC2e mL
dx xL
and consequently

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 cosh mL  x 
 (90)
B cosh mL
Using this temperature distribution with Fourier’s equation yields
q fin  M tanh mL (91)
Case 3.Temperature at the tip of the fin is given

In this case, the temperature at the tip of the fin is specified
Using boundary condition 1: x=0,  =T–Tf=TB–Tf=B yields

 x  0   B  C1  C2 (81)
And using boundary condition 2: x=L,  =T–Tf=TL–Tf=L yields
 x  L   L  C1emL  C2e mL (84)
The temperature distribution will be as follows
L
sinh mx  sinh mL  x 
 B (92)

B sinh mL
From this temperature distribution equation, the amount of heat transferred in the fin
would be
L
cosh mL 
B (93)
q fin  M
sinh mL
Case 4.For a very long fin

In this case, the extended surface is very long in which
L  0 and  L  0
The temperature distribution will be

 e  mx (94)
B
and the amount of heat transferred across the fin is
q fin  M (95)

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Temperature distribution and heat loss for fins with uniform cross-sectional area

Case Conditions Temperature distribution, Heat transfer rate, q fin
B
Convective heat transfer at the
cosh mL  x   sinh mL  x 
h h
tip of the fin sinh mL  cosh mL
km M km
A d
h L   k cosh mL 
h
sinh mL cosh mL 
h
sinh mL
dx x  L km km
Convective heat transfer at the
tip of the fin is neglected cosh mL  x 
B d M tanh mL
0 cosh mL
dx x L
Temperature at the tip of the fin L L
sinh mx  sinh mL  x  cosh mL 
C is specified B B
 L    L sinh mL
M
sinh mL
Infinite fin
D L e  mx M
 L   0
where m  hP  /kAC  and M  kAC hP B
b. Fin effectiveness (fin)
 Fins increase the rate of heat transfer by increasing the effective surface area
 Since the fin itself acts as a conduction resistance from the original surface, the use of fins
does not guarantee an improvement in the rate of heat transfer
 The effectiveness of a fin can be evaluated as follows
1. With respect to the heat transfer rate without fin
 The fin effectiveness can be defined as the ratio of the fin heat transfer rate to the heat
transfer rate without the fin
q fin
 fin  (96)
hAC , B B
where AC,B is the cross-sectional area at the base. In general, fin must be greater than
or equal to 2.
 For the infinite fin approximation, Eq. 96 is reduced to
kP
 fin  (97)
hAC
 Fin effectiveness is therefore enhanced with the use of a material with relatively
high thermal conductivity such as copper and aluminum
 Aluminum alloys are commonly employed due to its lower cost and lighter
weight
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 The use of thin and closely spaced fins is preferred which results to an increase
in the perimeter to cross-sectional area ratio
 A limiting value for the fin gap must be observed so as not to impede the flow
thereby reducing the convective heat transfer coefficient
2. In terms of fin resistance

 The fin resistance can be defined as
B
Rt,fin  (98)
q fin
 Similarly, the resistance due to the convection at the exposed base is given by the
expression
1
Rt,b  (99)
hAC , B
Substituting to Eq. 96 will yield
R
 fin  t ,b (100)
Rt , fin
3. In terms of fin efficiency
 The maximum driving potential for convection is the temperature difference between
the base temperature, TB and that of the fluid, Tf.
 Therefore, the maximum rate of heat transfer is achieved if the entire fin surface is
exposed at the base temperature
 As such, the fin efficiency is expressed as follows
q q fin
 fin  fin  (101)
qmax hA fin B

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Sample Problems
1. A brass rod 100 mm long and 5 mm in diameter extends horizontally from a casting at 200°C. The rod isin
an air environment with Tf = 20°C and h = 30W/m2K. What is the temperature of the rod 25, 50and 100
mm from the casting? If the rod was approximated as infinitely long, calculated the temperature at the same
positions. Thermal conductivity of brass at 110C is 133 W/mK.
2. An aluminum alloy (k = 180 W/mK) rectangular fin of length L = 10 mm, thickness, t = 1 mm, and width,
w>> t. The base temperature of the fin is TB = l00C, and the fin is exposed to a fluid of temperature Tf =
25C. Assuming a uniform convection coefficient of h = 100 W/m2K over the entire fin surface, determine
the fin heat transfer rate per unit width, efficiency fin, effectiveness fin, thermal resistance per unit width,
and the tip temperature T(L) for Cases A and B and with that based on an infinite fin approximation.
3. A straight fin fabricated from 2024 aluminum alloy (k = 185 W/mK) has a base thickness of t= 3 mm and a
length of L= 15 mm. Its base temperature is TB= 100C, and it is exposed to a fluid for which Tf= 20C and
h= 50W/m2K. For the foregoing conditions and a fin of unit width, compare the fin heat rate, efficiency,
and volume for rectangular, triangular, and parabolic profiles.

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10. Unsteady-State Heat Transfer

a. Derivation of unsteady-state conduction equation
Performing heat balance on the cube,
y
Rate of heat input to the cube qx/x qx/x+x
T
qx/x  k yz  (102)
x x
z
Rate of heat output from the cube x
T x x+x
qx/x  x  k yz  (103)
x x / x  x
The rate of accumulation of heat in the volume, xyz with respect to time is
T
qaccumulation  xyz cP (104)
t
The rate of heat generation in the volume, xyz is
qgeneration  xyz  q
o
(105)
Using the general energy balance equation,

input – output + generation = accumulation
T T T
 k yz   k yz   xyz  q  xyz cP
o
(106)
x x x x  x t
Dividing both sides by the volume yields
o
q k  2T T
  (107)
cP cP x 2 t
b. Simplified equation for systems with negligible internal resistance
 Consider a small, hot cube of steel at temperature, T0 at t = 0, suddenly immersed in a cold bath
at temperature, Tf which is constant for a very long time. (T0>Tf)
 In addition, the solid has a very high thermal conductivity and therefore has very low internal
conductive resistance and hence the temperature within the solid is essentially uniform at any
given time
 Heat balance on the cube will result to
0  qconvection  qaccumulation
 hAT  T f   cPV
dT
(108)
dt

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 By separation of variables and using the boundary conditions, T(t=0) = T0 and at any time, t the
temperature is T,
T t
dT hA
 T f  T  cPV 0 dt
T0

T  Tf  hA   t 
 exp   t   exp    (109)
T0  T f  cPV   t 
wheret = thermal time constant = cPV/hA
This analysis is often called as the lumped capacitance method or Newtonian heating or cooling
method.
 This equation implies that the difference between the solid and fluid temperatures must decay
exponentially to zero at time approaches infinity
 The total energy transfer, Qfromt = 0 to any time, tis given by the expression
Q   qdt  hA T  T f dt

t t
0 0
 t 
Q  hA T0  T f exp   dt
t
0  t 
  
t
 
Q  cPV T0  T f 1  e  t
(110)
 
c. Conduction with surface convection effects: Biot Number
Consider a plane wall of area, A and length, L with one surface maintained at temperature, Ts,1 and the
other surface exposed to a fluid of temperature Tf (Tf<Ts,1). The other surface of the plane wall will be
Ts,2 for which Tf<Ts,2<Ts,1. Assuming steady state conditions,
qcond  qconv
kA
Ts,1  Ts,2   hATs,2  T f  (111)
L
in terms of resistance
Ts,1  Ts,2   Ts,2  T f 
L 1
kA hA
L
Ts,1  Ts,2   Rcond  kA  hL  N
Ts,2  T f  Rconv 1 k Bi (112)
hA
From this relation, the following observations can be made:

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 Biot number provides a measure of the temperature drop in the solid relative to temperature
difference between the surface and the fluid
 For NBi« 1, it is reasonable to assume a uniform temperature distribution within the solid at any
time during a transient process. The resistance within the solid is much less than the resistance to
convection across the fluid boundary layer
 For NBi» 1, the temperature difference across the solid is much larger than that between the
surface and the fluid
 Biot number was named after Jean-Baptiste Biot (1774-1862), a French physicist, astronomer and
mathematician
 The lumped capacitance method can be used to approximate time-dependent conduction is
hL
N Bi  C  0.1 (113)
k
At this condition, the error associated using the lumped capacitance method is small.
The characteristic length, LC can be defined as the ratio of the solid’s volume to surface area
Shape V A LC
long square rod of edge, 2x 2
( 2 x) L 42 x L L/2
2
long cylinder of radius, r0 πr0 L 2πr0 L r0 / 2
3 2
sphere of radius, r0 4
3 πr0 4πr0 r0 / 3
Given the condition of NBi« 0.1, Eq. 109 can be expressed as follows:
T  Tf  hL αt 
 exp   C 2   exp  N Bi N Fo  (114)
T0  T f  k LC 
whereNFo = Fourier number, a dimensionless time parameter together with the Biot number
characterizes transient conduction problems
Sample Problems
1. A thermocouple junction, which may be approximated as a sphere, is to be used for
temperature measurement in a gas stream. The convection coefficient between the junction
surface and the gas is h = 400 W/m2K, and the junction thermophysical properties are k = 20
W/mK, cP= 400 J/kgK, and = 8500 kg/m3. Determine the junction diameter needed for the
thermocouple to have a time constant of 1 s. If the junction is at 25°C and is placed in a gas
stream that is at 200°C, how long will it take for the junction to reach 199°C?
2. Steel balls 12 mm in diameter are annealed by heating to 1150 K and then slowly cooling to
400 K in an air environment for which Tf = 325 K and h = 20 W/m2K. Assuming the
properties of the steel to be k = 40 W/mK, = 7800 kg/m3, and cP= 600 J/kgK, estimate the
time required for the cooling process.

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d. Dimensionless parameters for unsteady-state conduction charts

Fraction of change
T  T0 T  T0
1 Y   (115)
T1  T0 T f  T0
Fraction of unaccomplished change
T  T Tf  T
Y 1  (116)
T1  T0 T f  T0
Relative time
αt k t
X 2  (117)
x1 cP x12
wherex1 = half the thickness of the flat plate, radius of a cylinder or radius of a sphere
Relative position
x
n (118)
x1
wherex = distance from the surface for a semi-infinite solid and for other geometries, x = any distance
relative to a total distance
Relative resistance
k
m (119)
hx1
e. Unsteady state conduction in various geometries

 Semi-infinite solid
 Large flat plate
 Long cylinder
 Sphere

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Convection Heat Transfer

A. Boundary Layer
1. Boundary layer
a. layer of fluid immediate to the bounding surface where the effects of viscosity are significant
2. Velocity boundary layer
a. For a flow over a flat plate, the velocity is Free stream
assumed zero as the fluid particles make contact u x

Velocity
with the surface boundary
b. These particles near the surface will then act to y   layer

retard the motion of the particles in the next
layer, and so on until the effects of such x
retardation becomes negligible
c. Such retardation of fluid motion is associated with the shear stress that acts in planes that are
parallel to the fluid velocity
d. As y increases, ux increases until it approaches the free stream velocity, u (velocity at a point
outside the boundary layer or the surface velocity of an inviscid flow)
e. The boundary layer thickness,  is the value of y for which u = 0.99 u
f. Two regions in the fluid flow:
 thin fluid layer (boundary layer) – velocity gradients and shear stresses are large
 outside the boundary layer – velocity gradients and shear stresses are neglibigle
3. Thermal boundary layer
a. Consider a flowover an isothermal plate at T
tx
Free stream
temperature Ts where a stream of fluid approaches T

Thermal
the plate at a velocity of u and temperature of T boundary
y t layer
b. Assume that Ts is greater than T so that the fluid is
heated by the plate x Ts
c. Fluid particles that come into contact with the plate
surface achieve thermal equilibrium at the plate’s surface
d. These particles then exchange energy with the particles in the adjoining layer which consequently
generates a temperature gradient
e. The thickness of the thermal boundary layer, t is defined as the value for y for which
Ts  T
 0.99 (1)
Ts  T
Local surface heat flux
At any distance, from the edge of the plate at y = 0, Fourier’s law applies to the fluid as follows:
T
qsurface  k f (2)
y y 0
This equation for heat conduction applies since at the surface, there is no fluid motion and energy
transfer occurs only by conduction.

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Similarly, the heat transfer by convection is given by

qsurface  hTs  T  (3)
Combining Eqs. 2 and 3 will result to
k f T
h (4)
Ts  T y y 0
4. Prandtl Number
a. named after Ludwig Prandtl (1875-1953) who studied boundary layer and pioneer in the
development of mathematical analyses in the science of aerodynamics
b. dimensionless number that shows the relationship between the thicknesses of the two boundary
layers at a given point along the plate
c. defined as the ratio of momentum diffusivity to thermal diffusivity

momentum diffusivit y  c
N Pr    P (5)
thermal diffusivit y k k
cP
d. When NPr is greater than unity, the thermal boundary layer is thinner than the hydrodynamic
(velocity) boundary layer due to relatively low rate of conduction
e. For gases, NPr is usually close to 1.0 and the two boundary layers have almost the same thickness
and is almost independent of the temperature since gas viscosity and thermal conductivity both
increase with temperature at the same rate
f. For liquids, NPr changes appreciably with temperature due to the increase in the viscosity
5. Nusselt Number
a. named after Ernst Kraft Wilhelm Nusselt (1882-1957) who developed the dimensional analysis of
heat transfer
b. defined as convective to conductive heat transfer across or normal to the boundary
convective heat transfer hL
N Nu   (6)
conductive heat transfer k
whereL = characteristic length, k = thermal conductivity of the fluid and h = convective heat
transfer coefficient of the fluid
c. The conductive and conductive components are measured under the condition of a stagnant or
motionless fluid
d. NNu close to one is a characteristic of a slug flow or laminar flow while NNu between 10-100 is a
characteristic of a turbulent flow
6. Peclet number
a. named after Jean Claude Eugène Péclet (1793-1857), a French physicist
b. defined as the ration of advection to conduction heat transfer

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advective heat transfer Lu Lu cP c

N Pe     Lu P  N Re N Pr (7)
conductive heat transfer   k k
whereL = characteristic length
c. For small values of NPe, conduction is important and in such a case, the primary source of
conduction is the walls of the tube
B. Forced Convection Heat Transfer Inside Pipes

1. Heat-transfer coefficient for laminar flow inside a pipe
a. For laminar flow of fluids inside horizontal tube or pipes of constant wall temperature, the Sieder-
Tate equation can be used for NRe< 2100
b. For 0.1 <NGz< 104,
0.14
0.8
0.19 N Gz  b 
N Nu  3.66    (8)
1  0.117 N Gz   w 
0.467 
c. For NGz> 100,

0.14 0.14
1/ 3    D   
1/ 3

N Nu a  a  1.86N Gz   b 
hD
 1.86 N Re N Pr   b  (9)
k  w   L   w 
D = pipe diameter (m), L = pipe length before mixing occurs in the pipe (m), b = fluid viscosity at
the bulk average temperature, Tb = ½ (T1 + T2), w = fluid viscosity at the wall temperature, Tw and
ha is the average heat-transfer coefficient. Applicable for 0.48 <NPr< 16,700 and 0.0044 <b/w<
9.75
d. The heat transfer rate, q is calculated as follows:
q  hATw  Tb  (10)
whereTw = wall temperature, and Tb = ½ (T1 + T2) = bulk temperature taken as the average of the
inlet bulk fluid temperature, T1 and outlet bulk fluid temperature, T2
2. Heat-transfer coefficient for turbulent flow inside a pipe
a. Most industrial processes involving heat transfer occurs at NRe> 6,000 since the rate of heat
transfer is greater in the turbulent region
b. For NRe> 6,000, 0.7 <NPr< 16,000 and L/D > 60, the following correlation according to Sieder and
Tate is valid for tubes and pipes:
0.14
hD 1/ 3   
N Nu  L  0.027 N Re N Pr  b 
0.8
(11)
k  w 
c. For air at 1 atm total pressure, the equation is simplified to
3.52u 0.8
hL  where h, u and D are in SI units (12)
D 0.2
For water between 4-105C,
u 0.8
hL  1,4291  0.0146T C  0.2 (13)
D

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3. Heat-transfer coefficient for transition flow inside a pipe

a. In the transition region in which 2,300 <NRe<106 and0.5 <NPr< 105, Gnielinski’s equation can be
used
N Nu 
 f / 2N Re  1000N Pr K
1/ 2

1  12.7 f / 2 N Pr  1
2/3
 (14)
For gases (0.5 <Tb/Tw< 1.5),

K  Tb / Tw 
0.45
(15a)
For liquids (0.05 <NPr,b/NPr,w< 20),
K  N Pr, b / N Pr, w 
0.11
(15b)
For smooth tubes, the Fanning friction, f is given by
f  0.250.790 ln N Re  1.64
2
(15c)
For rough tubes, the Fanning friction factor can be obtained from the Moody chart.
b. The following plot can also be used to estimate the heat-transfer coefficient in the transition region:
Source: Perry, R.H. and Chilton, C.H., (1973) Chemical Engineers’ Handbook, 5 thed. New York, McGraw-Hill Book Co.

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4. Heat-transfer coefficient for non-circular conduits

a. The equivalent diameter or hydraulic diameter can be used to evaluate the heat-transfer coefficient
for fluid flows in non-circular conduits
Geometry Cross-sectional area Wetted perimeter Hydraulic diameter
πD 2
circular tube πD D
4
annulus

π Do  Di2
2
 πDo  Di  Do  Di
4
square duct a2 4a a
2a  b 
2ab
rectangular duct (fully filled) ab
ab
5. Entrance effects on heat-transfer coefficients

a. At the entrance of a pipe, there is no temperature gradient and the value of h is infinite
b. The value of h drops rapidly and approaches hL (h value for a very long tube) at L/D 60 where L
is the entrance length
c. For a turbulent flow inside a pipe where the entrance is an abrupt contraction,
0.7
D L
h
 1   2   20 (16a)
h L D
L
h D L
20   60
 1  6  (16b)
hL L D
d. The entrance effects for gases with NPr1 was correlated by Shah and Batti (1987) as follows:
n
h D
 1  C  (17)
hL L
Entrance configuration Figure C n

Long calming sections 0.9756 0.760
Open end, 90 edge 2.4254 0.676
180 return bend 0.9759 0.70
90 return bend 1.0517 0.629
90 elbow 2.0152 0.614

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6. Liquid metals heat-transfer coefficient

a. Liquid metals are commonly employed as heat-transfer fluids for processes that requires low
pressure and wide temperature range
b. High heat-transfer coefficients of liquid metals are due to very high thermal conductivities and
hence low NPr
c. For fully developed turbulent flow in tubes (L/D > 60 and 100 <NPe< 104)with uniform heat flux,
the following equation can be used:
hD
N Nu  L  0.625 N Pe
0.4
(18)
k
d. For constant wall temperature,
hD
N Nu  L  5.0  0.025 N Pe
0.8
(19)
k
This equation holds for L/D > 60 and NPe> 100
Sample Problems
1. (B.1) Water initially at 20C is to be heated to 50C in a pipe (ID 1.5” and L = 2 ft) maintained
at 90C. If water flows to the pipe at a rate of 150 L/h, calculate the amount of heat flux
transferred from the pipe to the fluid.
2. (B.1) Oil at 60F is heated in a horizontal 2” SCH 40 steel pipe 60 ft long having a surface
temperature of 120F. The inlet flow rate of oil is 150 gal/h. What will be the oil temperature as
it leaves the pipe and after mixing? What is the average heat-transfer coefficient?
Temperature (F) Specific gravity k, BTU/fthF , cP cP, BTU/lbmF
60 0.79 0.072 18 0.75
120 0.74 0.074 8 0.75
3. (B.2) Air flowing through a tube having an inside diameter of 38.1 mm at a velocity of 6.71 m/s,
average temperature of 449.9 K and pressure of 138 kPa. The inside wall temperature is held
constant at 204.4C by steam condensing outside the tube wall. Calculate the heat-transfer
coefficient and the heat flux.
4. (B.3) Water at an average temperature of 55C flows through a 1¼” SCH 40 pipe of length 4.2
m. The temperature was maintained at 90C by condensing steam on the outer surface. The flow
rate of water in the pipe was measured to be 0.1528 m3/hr. Calculate the heat-transfer
coefficient and the heat flux in the pipe.
5. (B.4-5) Air at 300 K, 1 bar, and 0.05 kg/s enters a channel of a plate-type heat exchanger that
measures 1 cm wide, 0.5 m high, and 0.8 m long. The walls are at 600 K, and the mass flow rate
is 0.05 kg/s.The entrance has a 90 edge. Assuming a smooth tube and the entrance effects
apply, estimate the heat-transfer coefficient.

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C. Heat Transfer Outside Various Geometries in Forced Convection

 For heat transfer occurring during immersed flow, the heat flux is dependent on the following
 geometry and position of the body
 flow rate
 fluid properties
 proximity of other bodies (banks of tubes and cylinders)
 In general, the average heat-transfer heat coefficient on immersed bodies is given by:
hD
N Nu   CN Re
m
N Pr0.8 (20)
k
whereC and m are constants which are dependent on the configuration. The fluid properties are
evaluated at the film temperature, Tf:
T T
Tf  w b (21)
2
whereTw = wall or surface temperature and TB = average bulk fluid temperature and the velocity used
in the calculation of NRe is the undisturbed free stream velocity of the fluid approaching the object.
1. Flow parallel to flat plate
a. For a fluid flowing parallel to a flat plate and heat is transferred between the whole plate of length,
L and the fluid, NNu is calculated as follows:
hL
N Nu  L  0.664 N Re,0.5 1/ 3
L N Pr (22)
k
Used for laminar flow where NRe,L< 3  105 and NPr> 0.7
And for a completely turbulent region, NRe,L> 3  105 and NPr> 0.7,
hL
N Nu  L  0.0366 N Re,
0.8 1/ 3
L N Pr (23)
k
2. Cylinder with axis perpendicular to the flow
a. For a cylinder heated or cooled by a fluid flowing perpendicular to the its axis, the average heat-
transfer coefficient is evaluated Eq. 20 with the values of C and m varying with the NRe as follows:
Table C.1Constants for heat transfer to cylinders with axis perpendicular to flow (NPr> 0.6)
NRe 1–4 4 – 40 40 – 4,000 4,000 – 40,000 40,000 – 250,000
C 0.989 0.911 0.683 0.193 0.0266
m 0.330 0.385 0.466 0.618 0.805
where the diameter, D in the NRe corresponds to the outside diameter of the cylinder.
3. Flow past a single sphere

a. For a single sphere being heated or cooled by a fluid flowing past it with NRe between 1 to 70,000
and NPr between 0.6 to 400:
h D
N Nu  D  2.0  0.60 N Re,
0.5 1/ 3
L N Pr (24)
k

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b. To account for the effects of heating or cooling, Whitaker (1972) proposed the following equation
for an isothermal spherical surface:
0.25
0.4   b 
N Nu
h D

 D  2.0  0.40 N Re,
1/ 2

D  0.06 N Re,D N Pr 
2/3
  (25)
k  w 
The equation is based on an experimental data where NRe between 3.5 to 80,000, NPr between 0.7
to 380 and (b/w) between 1 to 3.2. The properties are evaluated at Tb.
4. Flow past banks of tubes or cylinders

a. Many types of heat exchangers are constructed to have multiple rows of tubes in which the fluid
flows perpendicular to the banks of tubes
b. Typical configurations are (a) aligned or in-line tubes and (b) staggered tubes
whereSn = distance (transverse tube spacing, transverse pitch) between the centers of the tube
normal to the flow, Sp = distance (longitudinal spacing, longitudinal pitch) between the centers of
the tube parallel to the flow and D = outside diameter of the tube. The average heat-transfer
coefficient is evaluated using the following equation and the values of C1 and m for banks of tubes
greater than or equal to ten (10) transverse rows (rows parallel to the flow) are shown in Table
C.2:
h D
N Nu,D  D  1.13C1 N Re,
m 1/ 3
max N Pr (26)
k
where 2000 <NRe< 40,000 and NPr 0.7. In using this equation, all properties must be evaluated at
the film temperature (Eq. 21) and the NRe is calculated as follows:
Dumax 
N Re,max  (27)

theumax for different arrangements is calculated base on the velocity of approach, uapp and the NRe
is calculated using the minimum area open to the flow for the velocity while the mass flow rate of
the approaching fluid is calculated based on the total frontal area of the tube-bank assembly.
Sn
in-line umax  uapp (28a)
Sn  D
Sn
umax 
staggered

2 S p'  D 
uapp (28b)
whereS’P = diagonal pitch

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Table C.2 Heat transfer to banks of tubes containing more than ten (10) transverse rows
Sn / D
1.25 1.50 2.00 3.00
Sp / D C1 m C1 m C1 m C1 m
In-line
1.25 0.348 0.592 0.275 0.608 0.100 0.704 0.0633 0.752
1.50 0.367 0.586 0.278 0.620 0.101 0.702 0.0678 0.744
2.00 0.418 0.570 0.299 0.602 0.229 0.632 0.198 0.648
3.00 0.290 0.601 0.357 0.584 0.374 0.581 0.286 0.608
Staggered
0.600 – – – – – – 0.213 0.636
0.900 – – – – 0.446 0.571 0.401 0.581
1.000 – – 0.497 0.558 – – – –
1.125 – – – – 0.478 0.565 0.518 0.560
1.250 0.518 0.556 0.505 0.554 0.519 0.556 0.522 0.562
1.500 0.451 0.568 0.460 0.562 0.452 0.568 0.488 0.568
2.000 0.404 0.572 0.416 0.568 0.482 0.556 0.449 0.570
3.000 0.310 0.592 0.356 0.580 0.440 0.562 0.428 0.574
For transverse rows containing less than ten (10) tubes(NL< 10), a correction factor (C2) is
applied
N Nu , D  C2 N Nu , D (29)
N 10
L L N 10
Table C.3 Correction factors (C2) for banks of tubes with NL< 10
NL
Arrangement 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
in-line 0.64 0.80 0.87 0.90 0.92 0.94 0.96 0.98 0.99
stagerred 0.68 0.75 0.83 0.89 0.92 0.95 0.97 0.98 0.99
Sample Problems
1. Air initially at 15.6C at 101.325 kPa abs flows across a bank of tubes containing four (4) transverse rows
in the direction of the flow and 10 rows normal to the flow at a velocity of 7.26 ms–1 as the air approaches
the bank of tubes. The tube surfaces are maintained at 57.2C. The outside diameter of the tube is 25.4 mm
and the tubes are in-line to the flow. The spacing of the tubes normal to the flow is 38.1 mm and the
spacing parallel to the flow is 50.8 mm. For a 0.305 m length of the tube bank and an outlet air temperature
of 21.2C, calculate the heat-transfer rate.
2. A total of 13,610 kgh–1 of air at 1 atm abs pressure and 15.6C is to be heated by passing a over a bank of
tubes in which steam at 100C is condensing. The tubes are 12.7 mm OD, 0.61 m long and arranged in-line
in a square pattern with Sp = Sn = 19.05 mm. The banks of tubes contain 6 transverse rows in the direction
of flow and 19 rows normal to the flow. Assume that the tube surface temperature is constant at 93.33C.
Calculate the outlet air temperature.

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D. Natural Convection Heat Transfer

 Occurs when a fluid is in contact with a solid surface of different temperature
 Difference in the fluid density due to the heating process provides buoyancy forces to move the fluid
1. Dimensionless numbers in natural convection
a. Grashof number
 named after Franz Grashof (1826-1893)
 dimensionless number which approximates the ratio of buoyancy force to viscous force acting
on a fluid
gx 3
N Gr, x  2 Tw  Tb  (30)

whereg = acceleration due to gravity (m2s–1),  = volumetric coefficient of expansion (K–1), 
= / = kinematic viscosity (m2s–1),  = thermal diffusivity (k/cP), Tw = wall or surface
temperature and Tb = bulk temperature.
b. Rayleigh number
 named after Lord Rayleigh, John William Strutt (1842-1919)
 dimensionless number associated with buoyancy-driven flow such as free or natural
convection
gx 3
N Ra,x  Tw  Tb   N Gr, x     N Gr, x  cP     NGr, x N Pr, x (31)
    k 
All physical properties are evaluated using the film temperature, TF
2. Natural convection from various geometries
a. Natural convection from vertical planes and cylinders
 for isothermal vertical surface or plate with L< 1m, the average natural convection heat-
transfer coefficient is determined using the general equation:
N Nu,L  L  aN Gr, x N Pr, x   aN Ra,x 
hL m m
(32)
k
 Table C.3 shows the values of a and m
b. Natural convection from horizontal planes and cylinders
 for horizontal cylinders, the diameter is used for the characteristic length
 for squares, the length of a side of a square is used
 for rectangles, the linear mean of the two dimensions is used
 for circular disk, 90% of the diameter is used

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Table C.4 Constants for natural convection from horizontal and vertical planes and cylinders
Geometry NRa a m
Vertical planes and cylinders 4 1
< 10 1.36 5
(for vertical height, L< 1 m) 4 9
10 – 10 0.59 1
4
> 109 0.13 1

3
Horizontal cylinders < 10–5 0.49 0
(use D for the characteristic length and used for 10–5 – 10–3 0.71 1
25
D< 0.20 m)
10–3 – 100 1.09 1
10
0 4
10 – 10 1.09 1
5
4 9
10 – 10 0.53 1
4
9 1
> 10 0.13 3
Horizontal plates
(upper surface of heated plates or lower surface 105 – 2  107 0.54 1
4
of cooled plates)
2  107 – 3  1010 0.14 1
3
(lower surface of heated plates or upper surface 105 – 1011 0.58 1
5
of cooled plates)
Table C.5 Simplified equations for natural convection from various surfaces
h  aT m / Ln
Geometry NRa
a m n
Air at 101.325 kPa abs pressure
Vertical planes and cylinders 104 – 109 1.37 1
4
1
4
> 109 1.24 1

3 0
3 9
Horizontal cylinders 10 – 10 1.32 1
4
1
4
> 109 1.24 1

3 0
Horizontal plates
Heated plate facing upward or 105 – 2  107 1.32 1
4
1
4
cooled plate facing downward
2  107 – 3  1010 1.52 1
3 0
Heated plate facing downward or
3  105 – 3  1010 0.59 1
4
1
4
cooled plate facing upward
Water at 70F (294 K)
Vertical planes and cylinders 104 – 109 127 1
4
1
4
Organic liquids at 70F (294 K)

Vertical planes and cylinders 104 – 109 59 1
4
1
4
Simplified equations hold for L3T > 4.7 m and film temperatures between 255–355 K. For
pressures other than 1 atm, h is multiplied by a factor of (p/101.325) ½

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c. Natural convection in enclosed spaces

 for two vertical plates of height, L containing a fluid with a gap,  and T1 T2
the plate surfaces at temperatures, T1 and T2, the Grashof number is

calculated as follows: q
 3  2 g
N Gr, x  T1  T2  (32)
2

The physical properties are evaluated at the mean temperature between
the two plates

 Forgases enclosed between vertical plates with L/> 3
h
N Nu  1 NGr, δ NPr  2  103 (33a)
k
N Nu,δ  0.20
N Gr, δ N Pr 4
1
6 103  NGr, δ N Pr  2 105 (33b)

 L / δ 9
1
N Nu,δ  0.073
1
2 105  NGr, δ N Pr  2 107 (33c)

L / δ 
1
9
 For liquids on vertical plates,

h
N Nu  1 NGr, δ N Pr  1103 (34a)
k
N Nu,δ  0.28
1
1103  NGr, δ N Pr  1107 (34b)

L / δ 
1
4
 For gases in horizontal plates with the lower plate hotter than the upper,
N Nu,δ  0.21N Gr, δ N Pr 4 7 103  NGr, δ N Pr  3 105
1
(35a)
N Nu,δ  0.061N Gr, δ N Pr  NGr, δ N Pr  310
1 5
3
(35b)
 For liquids in horizontal plates with the lower plate hotter than the upper,
N Nu,δ  0.069N Gr, δ N Pr 3 N Pr0.074 1.5 105  NGr, δ N Pr  1109
1
(36)
E. Boiling and Condensation

1. Mechanism of boiling
 Heat transfer to a boiling liquid is encountered in evaporation and distillation in which the boiling
liquid in a vessel is heated using a hot or condensing fluid in a tube or heated electrically
 In boiling, the liquid boils at a temperature corresponding to the pressure of the equipment with
the heated surface at a temperature above the boiling of the liquid
 Initially, bubbles are generated at the heated surface, rise through the mass of the liquid and
withdrawn as it accumulates in a vapor space above the liquid

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(a)(b)
Boiling mechanism for water at atmospheric pressure
Source: (a) Geankoplis, C.J. (2005) Principles of Transport Processes and Separation Processes, 1st Ed. p. 284.and (b) http://www.visionair.nl/
 To investigate the mechanism of boiling, a small heated horizontal tube is immersed containing
boiling water at 100C in which the heat flux, q/A and h are measured at different values of T
 In Region A (low T), h was found to vary with T0.25 similar to heat transfer by natural
convection to horizontal plates and cylinders. At this point, very few bubbles may rise from the
surface of the metal without disturbing the normal natural convection.
 In Region B (nucleate boiling), the rate of the bubble production increases and h is proportional
to T2 to T3 in this region
 In Region C (transition boiling), more bubbles are formed quickly and coalesce to form a layer
of insulating vapor. As T increases, the thickness of the vapor space layer increases and the heat
flux and h decreases.
 In Region D (film boiling), bubbles breaks regularly and rise upward with the radiation through
the vapor layer next to the surface increases the heat flux and h.
 In most industrial applications, nucleate boiling and stable film-boiling regimes are considered
important.
2. Nucleate boiling
 In this region, the heat flux is affected by T, pressure, nature of the surface, physical geometry
and fluid properties
a. For heat-transfer coefficients for water boiling on the outside of submerged surfaces at 1.0 atm abs
pressure, the following empirical equations can be used:
For horizontal surfaces,
 W  q  kW 
  1043T 3   16
1
h 2  (37a)
m K  A  m2 
 W  q  kW 
h 2   5.56T  16   2   240
3
(37b)
 m  K  A m 

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For vertical surfaces,

 W  q  kW 
  537T 7 3
1
h 2  (38a)
m K  A  m2 
 W  q  kW 
h 2   7.95T  3   2   63
3
(38b)
m K  A m 
For pressures other than 1 atm, a factor of (p/1 atm)0.4 is multiplied to the heat-transfer coefficient,
h obtained from Eqs. 37 and 38
b. For forced convection boiling inside tubes, the following simplified relation can be used:
 W   p(kPa) 
h 2   2.55T  exp 
3
(39)
m K   1551 
3. Film boiling
Bromley (1950) proposed the following correlation to predict the heat-transfer coefficient in the film-
boiling region on a horizontal tube:
1
 W   kv3  v g ( l   v )(h fg  0.4cP ,v T )  4

h 2   0.62   (40)
m K   D v T 
wherekv = thermal conductivity of the vapor (Wm–1K–1), l, v = densities of liquid and vapor,
respectively (kgm–3), g = acceleration due to gravity, hfg = latent heat of vaporization, T = Tw – Tsat =
degree of superheat (K), v = viscosity of the vapor (Pas) and D = outside tube diameter (m).
4. Condensation
 Occurs when a saturated vapor comes in contact with a surface whose temperature is below the
saturation temperature
 Types of condensation
 Film-type condensation – a film of condensate between the surface and the vapor acts as the
main resistance to heat transfer
 Drop-wise condensation – liquid droplets formed on the surface coalesce and large areas free
from any liquid are exposed directly to the vapor resulting to high rate of heat transfer; heat-
transfer coefficient are 5-10 times larger compared to the film-condensation coefficients
a. Film condensation coefficients for vertical surfaces
For laminar flow,
1
hL  L3 l gh fg ( l   v )  4
h  1.13  (41)
kl  kl l T 
whereT = Tsat – Tw and L = vertical height of the surface or tube. All physical properties of the
liquid (except for hfg) are evaluated using the film temperature, Tf = ½ (Tsat + Tw). The Reynolds
number (NRe< 1,800 or NRe< 450) is defined as follows:

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4m
N Re  for vertical tube of diameter, D (42a)
πDl
4m
N Re  for vertical plate of width, W (42b)
Wl
where m = mass flow rate. Initially, a laminar flow may be assumed to obtain the heat-transfer
coefficient from Eq. 41. The heat rate and the mass flow rate can be evaluated using the following
equation and using Eq. 42, the type of flow can be validated:
q  hAT  mhfg (43)
For turbulent flow (NRe> 1,800),

1
hL  gL3 l2  3 0.4

h  0.0077  2  N Re (44)
kl  l 
b. Film condensation coefficients for horizontalsurfaces

For N horizontal tubes placed one below the other and successively receding or diminishing in size,
the heat-transfer coefficient is determined as follows:
1
hL  D 3 l gh fg ( l   v )  4
h  1.13  (45)
kl  Nkl l T 
Sample Problems
1. (D.2a) A heated vertical wall 0.500 m high of an oven for baking food with the surface at 500 K is in
contact with air at 350 K. Calculate the heat-transfer coefficient and the heat transfer per 0.100 m width of
wall using the physical properties of air from literature and using simplified equations for air. At the film
temperature, k = 0.03551 Wm–1K–1, NPr = 0.6892 and g2/2 = 0.2812  108
2. (D.2b) A vertical cylinder 76.2 mm in diameter and 302.1 mm is maintained at 500 K at its surface. It loses
heat by natural convection to air at 300 K. Heat is lost from the cylindrical side and the flat circular end at
the top (bottom part is insulated). Calculate the heat loss from the cylindrical side and at the flat circular
end at the top. Calculate the heat loss neglecting radiation losses using the simplified equation for air. At
the film temperature, k = 0.03366 Wm–1K–1, NPr = 0.6914 and g2/2 = 0.3661 108
3. (D.2c) Air at 1 atm abs pressure is enclosed between two plates where L = 0.60 m and  = 30 mm. The
plates are 0.4 m wide. The plate temperature are T1 = 400 K and T2 = 350 K. Calculate the heat-transfer rate
across the air gap according to the following cases:
a. the two plates are vertical
b. the two plates are horizontal and the bottom plate is hotter than the upper plate

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Radiation Heat Transfer

A. Definition of radiation
 Emission or transmission of energy in the form of particles or waves through space or through a
medium
1. Classification of radiation
 Ionizing radiation – type of electromagnetic radiation in which the photon energy is between 10-
33 eV, which is enough to break chemical bonds and ionize atoms and particles
 Non-ionizing radiation– type of electromagnetic radiation that does not carry enough energy to
ionize atoms or molecules to completely remove an electron from an atom; the energy is only
sufficient for excitation, heating and broadcasting.
Source: www.teraphysics.com
"EM spectrum". Licensed under CC BY-SA 3.0 via Wikimedia Commons -

http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:EM_spectrum.svg#/media/File:EM_spectrum.svg
2. Thermal radiation
 Electromagnetic radiation that results from the thermal motion of the charged particles in matter
 At temperatures greater than 0 K, the inter-atomic collisions causes the kinetic energy of the atoms
or molecules to change and results to charge acceleration which produces electromagnetic
radiation
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 Typical examples of thermal radiation are

 Sunlight which is a part of the thermal
radiation emitted by the hot plasma of
the sun
 Infrared radiation emitted animals as
detected by infrared cameras
 Visible light and infrared light emitted
by incandescent light bulb
Photo Credits: www.abc.net.au, www.builitsolar.com
B. Nature of Radiant Heat Transfer

1. Difference with conduction and convection
 In conduction, heat is transferred from one part of a body (solid) to another with the intervening
material being heated
 In convection, heat is transferred by the actual mixing of the materials (solid and fluids) and also
by conduction
 In radiation heat transfer, the medium through which heat is transferred is not heated and heat can
be transferred even in vacuum
2. Nature and mechanism of radiant heat transfer
 When a hot body is placed in an enclosure whose wall temperature is below that of the body, the
temperature of the body will decrease even if the enclosure is evacuated
 The mechanism of radiation may be composed of the following steps or phase:
 The thermal energy of the hot source is converted into energy in the form of electromagnetic
waves
 The electromagnetic waves then travel through the intervening space in straight lines and
strike a cold object
 The waves are absorbed by the body and converted back to thermal energy or heat
3. Wavelength of radiation
 The wavelength of electromagnetic radiation varies from short wavelength gamma and x-rays to lo
long wavelength radio waves and depends on how the radiation is produced (e.g. a metal
bombarded by an high-frequency electrons emits x-rays while some crystals can be excited to emit
long-wavelength radio waves)
 Radiation of single wavelength are called monochromaticand its magnitude varies with the
wavelength (spectral)
 The portion of electromagnetic spectrum that is considered as thermal radiation ranges from 0.1 to
100 m which includes a portion of the UV and all of the visible and infrared since it is caused by
and affects the thermal state or nature of matter

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(a) electromagnetic spectrum
(b) thermal radiation portion of the electromagnetic spectrum
4. Blackbody radiation
 When thermal radiation falls upon a body, a fraction is absorbed (), another fraction is reflected
() back into space and some part can be transmitted () through the body
     1 (46)
 For opaque solids, which is neither transparent (allows all light to pass through) nor translucent
(allows some light to pass through), the expression is reduced to
   1 (47)
where = absorptivity or fraction absorbed and  = reflectivity or fraction reflected
 A blackbodyor an ideal radiator is a body that emits and absorbs the
maximum possible amount of radiation at any given wavelength at any
temperature; it absorbs all radiant energy and reflects none, hence,  =
0 and  = 1
 The classic model of a blackbody is a cavity in a rigid opaque body
with rough absorbing walls and a small hole to allow the passage of
radiation
 The inside surface of the hollow body is darkened by charcoal.
 Any radiation entering the hole is partly absorbed and partly reflected

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at the interior surfaces

 The reflected radiation will not escape the immediately but will repeatedly strike the interior
surface and until it escapes through the hole again.
 The repeated reflection weakens the original radiation and the energy of the radiation leaving the
cavity may be assumed negligible.
5. Emissive power
 The monochromatic energy emitted by a radiating surface
depends on the surface temperature and on the wavelength of the
radiation
 For the entire spectrum of the radiation, the total radiating power,
W is the sum of all the monochromatic radiations from the
surface

W   Wλ d (48)
0
 Emissivity is defined as the ratio of the total emissive power of a
body, W to that of a blackbody, Wb:
W
 (49)
Wb
The monochromatic emissivity,  is the ratio of monochromatic emissive power to that of a
blackbody at the same wavelength
W
λ  λ (50)
Wb,λ
 A gray body is a body whose monochromatic emissivity is the same for all wavelengths
6. Laws of blackbody radiation
 Planck’s law by Max Karl Ernst Ludwig Planck (1858-1947) states that an ideal radiator at
temperature, T emits radiation according to the relation:
2πhc 2
Wb,λ T  
 hc  (51)
λ 5 exp   1
 kTλ 
 Wien’s displacement law by Wilhelm Wien (1864-1928) states the wavelength of maximum
intensity of a black body is inversely proportional to the absolute temperature
2.898 103 m  K
λmax  (52)
T
 Kirchhoff’s law by Gustav Robert Kirchhoff (1824-1887) states that when a body is at thermal
equilibrium with its surroundings, its emissivity () and absorptivity () are equal. In general, the
emissivity of a polished metal surface is lower compared to oxidized metal surfaces.
 Stefan-Boltzmann law by Jozef Stefan (1835-1893) and Ludwig Eduard Boltzmann (1844-1906)
states that the total rate of emission of radiation per unit surface area from a blackbody is related to

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the fourth power of the absolute temperature:

Eb T   r  T 4
q
(53)
A
where = 5.676  10–8 Wm–2K–4 (0.1714  10–8 BTUh–1ft–2R–4) and T = temperature of the
black body
 For a non-blackbody that has an emissivity, < 1, the emissive power is reduced by  according to
the relation:
En -b T   r   T 4
q
(54)
A
7. Radiation to a small object from surroundings
 In case of a small gray object of area, A1 at temperature, T1 in a large enclosure of temperature, T2,
the amount of radiation emitted by the small body to the enclosure is given by
qemitted  1T1
4
(55)
where1 = emissivity of gray body taken at T1. The small body also absorbs energy from the
surroundings at temperature, T2 given by
qabsorbed  12T2
4
(56)
where12 = absorptivity of the gray body for radiation from the enclosure at T2. The net heat
transfer will then be
qnet  qemitted  qabsorbed  1T1  12T2
4 4
(57)
 Simplification is usually made for engineering purposes by using one emissivity of the small body
at temperature, T2. Thus,

qnet  A1 T1  T2
4 4
 (58)
Sample Problems
1. A small oxidized horizontal metal tube with an OD of 0.0254 m, 0.61 m long and with a
surface temperature of 600 K is in a very large furnace enclosure with fire-brick walls and the
surrounding air at 1100 K. The emissivity of the metal tube is 0.50 at 1100 K and 0.40 at 600
K. Calculate the heat transfer to the tube by radiation using Eq. 57 and Eq. 58.
2. A loaf of bread having a surface temperature of 373 K is being baked in an oven whose walls
and air are at 477.4 K. The bread moves continuously through the large oven on an open chain
belt conveyor. The emissivity of the bread is estimated as 0.85, and the loaf can be assumed to
be a rectangular solid 114.3 mm high  114.3 mm wide  330 mm long. Calculate the
radiation heat transfer to the bread, assuming that it is small compared to the oven and
neglecting natural convection heat transfer.

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8. Combined radiation and convection heat transfer

 When radiation heat transfer occurs from a surface, convective heat transfer also occurs unless the
surface is in a vacuum
 The net rate of heat transfer is the sum of the rate of heat transfer by convection (forced or natural)
and the rate of heat transfer by radiation:
qconv  hconv A1 T1  T2  (59a)
qrad  hrad A1 T1  T2  (59b)
qnet  qconv  qrad  hrad  hconv A1 T1  T2  (59c)
whereT1 = surface temperature,T2 = air and enclosure temperature and A1= area of the surface. An
expression for hradcan be obtained by equating Eq. 58and Eq. 59b which will yield
hrad 

 T14  T2 4  (60)
T1  T2 
Note the in using Eq. 58,  is the emissivity for the small body at T2.
9. View factors in radiation for various geometries
 If two surfaces are arranged that will result in the exchange of radiant energy, a net flow of energy
will occur from hotter surface to colder surface
 The net rate of heat flow is affected by the size, shape and orientation of two radiating surfaces
 The two radiating surfaces are assumed to be separated by a non-absorbing medium such as air
Infinite parallel planes

a. For infinite parallel black planes
 Consider Plane 1 at T1 emits radiation to Plane 2amounting to T14, which is all absorbed and
Plane 2 at T2 emits radiation to Plane 1amounting to T24,which also all absorbed. Then the
net radiation from Plane 1 to Plane 2 is

q12  A1 T14  T24  (61)
 To account for the fraction of radiation leaving Plane 1 in all directions which is intercepted
by Plane 2, a correction factor called the geometric view factor or simply view factor is
included in Eq. 61

q12  A1F12 T14  T24  (62)
 Similarly, accounting for the fraction of radiation leaving Plane 2 in all directions which is
intercepted by Plane 1, the net radiation from Plane 2 to Plane 1 is

q21  A2 F21 T14  T24  (63)
 Since in this case, all radiation is absorbed by both Plane 1 and Plane 2, the view factors are
both equal to unity
F12  F21  1.0 (64)
b. For infinite parallel grayplanes
 For two gray bodies of emissivities, 1 and 2, respectively, with unobstructed view of each
other, the view factor is 1.0

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 Plane 1 emits 1A1T14 radiation to Plane 2 in which Plane 2 absorbs a fraction of this radiation
given by the expression
 
radiation absorbed by Plane 2   2 1 A1T14   2 1 A1T14   (65a)
 Also a fraction of this radiation absorbed by Plane 2 is reflected back toPlane 1
radiation reflected by Plane 2 back to Plane 1  1   2  1 A1T14   (65b)
 Of this amount, Plane 1 reflects a fraction back to Plane 2

radiation reflected by Plane 1  1  1 1   2  1 A1T14  (65c)
 This series of equation will results to a geometric series which will then result to an expression
of net radiation from Plane 1 to Plane 2 as follows:
q12 
1 1
1

A1 T14  T24  (66)
 1
1 2
c. For infinite parallel planes of equal emissivity
 Suppose the two parallel surfaces have the same emissivity,  at T1 and T2, Eq. 66 becomes

q12 N0  2 1 A T14  T24  (67a)
1

whereN = 0 indicates that there are no planes in between the surfaces. In cases that the two or
more planes of the same emissivity are inserted between the original surfaces, the heat loss is
reduced according to the equation:
q12 N  1  2 1 A T14  T24
N  1 1
  (67b)

d. For radiation between gray bodies of various geometries
 For two gray bodies of areas A1 and A2 and emissivities 1 and 2, in the absence of reradiating
walls, the new view factor or overall interchange factor, 12is given by the expression:
1
12 
1 A 1  1  (68)
 1   1    1
F12 A2   2   1 
 By applying the reciprocity relationship given by:
A1F12  A2 F21 and A112  A2 21 (69)
 Eq. 68 becomes
1
21 
1 1  A 1  (70)
   1  2   1
F21   2  A1  1 

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i. For gray surface completely surrounded by another

 For an enclosed body of area, A1 and that of the enclosure be A2, the overall
interchange factor is given in Eq. 66 assuming there is no view obstruction between
the body and the enclosure (F12 = 1.0)
q12 
1 1
1

A1 T14  T24  71
 1
1 2
 This equation strictly applies for concentric spheres or concentric cylinders but can
be used with other shapes with minimal error
ii. For parallel planes directly opposed
 Eq. 70 is used using the figure below to determine F12
Radiation between parallel planes

Source: Perry’s Chemical Engineers’ Handbook, 8th Ed (2008)
iii. For perpendicular rectangles

 The figure below can be used to evaluate for the view factor

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Sample Problems
1. Determine the net heat transfer by radiation between two gray surfaces, A (A = 0.90) and B (B = 0.25) at
temperatures 500C and 200C, respectively if
a. surfaces are infinite parallel planes
b. surface A is a spherical shell 3 m in diameter and surface B is a similar shell concentric with A and 0.3 m
in diameter
c. surfaces A and B concentric cylindrical tubes with diameters of 300 mm and 275 mm, respectively
d. both surfaces are squares 2 m  2 m one exactly above the other, 2m apart
2. (9b–9c) Two very large and parallel planes each have an emissivity of 0.70. Surface 1 is at 800 K and surface
2 is at 600 K. (a) Calculate the net radiation loss of surface 1 and (b) If two additional radiation shields also
having an emissivity of 0.7 are placed between the original surfaces, calculate the new radiation loss.
3. (9d – iii) Two adjacent rectangles are perpendicular to each other. The horizontal rectangle measures 1.2 m 
2.0 m and the vertical rectangle measures 2.0 m  6.0 m with the 2.0-m side common to both. The
temperature of the first surface is at 700 K and the second is 500 K. Calculate the radiation heattransfer
between the two surfaces assuming (a) both surface are black and (b) both surfaces are gray with emissivity
of 0.80.

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Heat Exchanger Equipment

 An equipment or device that facilitate the exchange of heat between two fluids that are at different
temperatures while keeping them from mixing each other
 Heat transfer usually involves convection in each fluid and conduction through walls separating the two fluids
A. Types of Exchangers
 Double-pipe or concentric-pipe heat exchanger
 Simplest type of heat exchanger where one fluid flows inside one pipe and the other fluid flows in
the annular space between the two pipes
 The fluid can be in co-current (parallel) or countercurrent flow as shown in Fig. 1
 In the co-current arrangement or parallel flow, the hot and cold fluids enter at the same end, flow in
the same direction and leave the same end
 In the countercurrent arrangement, the fluids enter at opposite ends, flow in opposite directions and
leave at opposite ends
 Usually used for small flow rates
Figure 1. Double-pipe or concentric pipe heat exchanger arrangement: (a) parallel flow arrangement and
(b) counterflow arrangement
Source: Incropera, F.P. et al (2007) Fundamentals of Heat and Mass Transfer 6th Ed, John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
 Shell-and-tube heat exchanger

 Used for large flows and considered as one of the most important type of exchanger in the industry
 The simplest type is the one shell pass and one tube pass or the 1-1 counterflow exchanger in which
the cold fluid enters and flows inside through all the tube ins in parallel in one pass and the hot fluid
enters at the end and flows counter-flow across the outside of the tubes
 Cross-flow baffles are added so that the fluid are forced to flow perpendicular across the tube bank
rather than parallel with it
Figure 2. Shell-and-tube heat exchangers

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 Cross-flow heat exchanger

 Used for heating or cooling a gas such as air
 Flow patterns of cross-flow heat exchanger
Finned with both fluids unmixed
 Typically used in air-conditioning systems and space-heating applications
 The gas flows across a finned-tube bundle and considered unmixed since it is confined in
separate flow channels between the fins as it pass over the tubes
 There will be temperature gradient both parallel and normal to the direction of the flow
One fluid mixed and one fluid unmixed
 One of the fluids, which is a liquid, flows inside through the tubes, and the exterior gas flows
across the tube bundle by either forced or natural convection
 The fluid inside the tube is considered unmixed since it is confined and cannot mix with any
other streams
 The gas flow outside the tube is mixed since it can move freely between the tubes and there will
be a tendency for the gas temperature to equalize in the direction normal to the flow
Figure 3. Flow patterns of cross-flow heat exchangers: (a) finned with both fluids unmixed and (b)
one fluid mixed (gas) and one fluid unmixed
B. Energy Balance
 The rate of heat transfer from the hot fluid is equal to the rate of heat transfer to the cold one
 For the cold and the hot fluid without change of phase
 c cP,c Tc,out  Tc,in 
Q  m (72a)
 c T  T 
Q  m h P,h h,in h,out (72b)
where m c and m c = mass flow rates of cold and hot fluid, respectively and cP,c and cP,h = specific heats of
the cold and hot fluid, respectively.

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C. Design Equations
 The heat-transfer equation is given by
Q  UASTLM (73)
whereU = overall heat transfer coefficient, AS = surface area and TLM = log mean temperature
difference. The log mean temperature difference is calculated as follows:
T2  T1
TLM 
ln T2 / T1 
(74)
 For parallel flow arrangement, TLM is calculated as follows

T  T   Th,in  Tc,in 
TLM  h,out c,out
T T (75a)
ln h,out c,out
Th,in  Tc,in
 For counter-flow arrangement, TLM is calculated as follows

T  T   Th,in  Tc,out 
TLM  h,out c,in
T T (75b)
ln h,out c,in
Th,in  Tc,out
 For cross-flow and multi-pass heat exchangers, a correction factor, F is multiplied to the counter-flow
TLM:
TLM  FTLM, counter-flow (76)
whereF is dependent on the geometry of the heat exchanger, inlet and outlet temperatures of the hot and
cold streams

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 The values of F can be obtained from various charts presented in Fig. 11-4 obtained from Perry’s
Chemical Engineers’ Handbook 8th Ed
 In all these charts, the following parameters must be calculated:
T T m cP,c tubeside
R  h,in h,out 
tc,out  tc,in m cP,h shellside
(77a)
 and
tc,out  tc,in
S (78b)
Th,in  tc,in
Sample Problems
1. A 2-shell passes and 4-tube passes heat exchanger is used to heat glycerol from 20C to 50C by hot water
which enters the thin-walled 2-cm diameter tubes at 80C and leaves at 40C. The total length of the tubes in
the exchanger is 60 m. The convection heat transfer is 25 Wm–2K–1 on the shell side and 160 Wm–2K–1 on
the tube side. Determine the heat transfer in the heat exchanger (a) before any fouling occurs and (b) after
fouling with a fouling factor of 0.006 m2KW–1 occurs on the outer surface of the tubes.
2. A test is conducted to determine the overall heat-transfer coefficient in an automotive heat exchanger that is a
compact cross-flow water-to-air heat exchanger with both fluids unmixed. The radiator has 40 tubes of internal
diameter 0.5 cm, and length 65 cm in a closely spaced finned matrix. Hot water enters the tube at 90C at a
rate of 0.6 kg/s and leaves at 65C. Air flow across the radiator through the interfin spaces and is heated from
20C to 40C. Determine the overall heat transfer coefficient, Ui based on the inner surface area of the tubes.

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Gokongwei College of Engineering

Transport Phenomena2: Heat Transfer 3rd Term AY 2015-2016

C. Heat versus Thermal Energy

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Transport Phenomena2: Heat Transfer 3rd Term AY 2015-2016

E. Modes of Heat Transfer

References for this section

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Transport Phenomena2: Heat Transfer 3rd Term AY 2015-2016

F. Fourier’s Lat of Heat Conduction

1. Thermal properties of matter

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Transport Phenomena2: Heat Transfer 3rd Term AY 2015-2016

b. Specific heat (c)

2. Steady state heat conduction

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Transport Phenomena2: Heat Transfer 3rd Term AY 2015-2016

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Transport Phenomena2: Heat Transfer 3rd Term AY 2015-2016

4. Conduction through solids in parallel

5. Combined convection and conduction

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Transport Phenomena2: Heat Transfer 3rd Term AY 2015-2016

In terms of individual resistances, Eq. 31 becomes

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Transport Phenomena2: Heat Transfer 3rd Term AY 2015-2016

6. Conduction with internal heat generation

a. Heat diffusion equation

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Transport Phenomena2: Heat Transfer 3rd Term AY 2015-2016

Last updated 6/6/2016 4:10 AM

Transport Phenomena2: Heat Transfer 3rd Term AY 2015-2016

Last updated 6/6/2016 4:10 AM

Transport Phenomena2: Heat Transfer 3rd Term AY 2015-2016

b. Heat generation in a plane wall

Case 2: Symmetrical boundary conditions

Last updated 6/6/2016 4:10 AM

Transport Phenomena2: Heat Transfer 3rd Term AY 2015-2016

Case 3: Adiabatic surface at midplane L

and therefore, at x = 0, the temperature gradient is zero

c. Heat generation in a cylinder

Last updated 6/6/2016 4:10 AM

Transport Phenomena2: Heat Transfer 3rd Term AY 2015-2016

7. Critical thickness of insulation

8. Contact resistance at an interface

Last updated 6/6/2016 4:10 AM

Transport Phenomena2: Heat Transfer 3rd Term AY 2015-2016

Last updated 6/6/2016 4:10 AM

Transport Phenomena2: Heat Transfer 3rd Term AY 2015-2016

3. Consider one-dimensional conduction in a plane composite

Last updated 6/6/2016 4:10 AM

Transport Phenomena2: Heat Transfer 3rd Term AY 2015-2016

Illustrative Example 1: Asymmetrical boundary conditions

LA=30 mm, LB=30 mm;LC=20 mm 2LB

A. Temperature profile – material B (Heat conduction with heat generation)

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Transport Phenomena2: Heat Transfer 3rd Term AY 2015-2016

1.2 Using the following formula, calculate the center-line temperature:

Last updated 6/6/2016 4:10 AM