SOS HERMANN GMEINER

SCHOOL HAWASSA

DEPARTMENT OF NATURAL SCIENCE

BIOLOGY ASSIGNMENT ON:

Behavior
Submitted to Tr. Yidenekachew Group members:
 Innate behavior 1. Tidenek Guldu
 Learned behavior 2. Tizita Tamene

 Behavioral patterns 3. Tsion Yoseph

Date of submission: 4/4/2017
4. Wossen Zewdu
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT 5. Yonas Abrham
We would like to thank our teacher for giving us the opportunity to do
6. Yonas Mekdes
this assignment and the opportunity to learn through the process about
7. Yonantan Yoseph
all the wonders of the animal human and so many other organism’s
8. Yordanos Ayele
behavior. Helping us to understand what when and why9.living things do
Zeamanuel Hailu
what they do and what they get from doing it.
INTRODUCTION

What is behavior?

Behavior can be defined in a number of ways, depending on your perspective, or view point. The best
definition of behavior in biology: The coordinate response of an organism to an internal or external
stimulus. It is the range of actions and mannerisms made by individuals, organisms, systems, or artificial
entities in conjunction with themselves or their environment, which includes the other systems or
organisms around as well as the (inanimate) physical environment. It is the response of the system or
organism to various stimuli or inputs, whether internal or external, conscious or subconscious, overt or
covert, and voluntary or involuntary.

For an organism to show a coordinated response, then any behavior must have these components:

 A receptor of some kind to detect stimulus.

 An effector of some kind and
 Some kind of linking system or coordinating system that is influenced by the receptor and can
influence the effector.

Behaviorism (also called behavioral psychology) refers to a psychological approach which emphasizes
scientific and objective methods of investigation.

Behavior is the result of stimulus – response. All behavior, no matter how complex, can be reduced to a
simple stimulus – response association). Watson described the purpose of psychology as:

‘To predict, given the stimulus, what reaction will take place; or, given the reaction, state what the
situation or stimulus is that has caused the reaction.' (1930, p. 11).
H o w d o p l a n t s r e s p o n d t o u n i d i r e c ti o n a l s ti m u l i ?

If you put a plant on a windowsill (where the intensity of the light will be greater on the window side
than on the other side), the plant shoots grow towards the greater light intensity. This behavior is called
phototropism.

Plant shoots are positively phototrophic because they grow towards light. The response is even more
marked in young seedlings. This response is coordinated by plant growth substances called auxins. These
are produced in the shoot tip in response to light and move downwards and away from light to the
‘dark’ side of the shoot.

The auxins stimulate the shoot cells to divide and enlarge, so growth is greatest on the side away from
the light. As this side grows more, it causes the shoot to bend towards the light.

Light from one side Receptor cells in

the shoot up
Auxins produced and
move away from light

Shoot grows Cells on dark side

towards light of stem grow

Fig 1.1 phototropism in plant shoots

It’s known that plant stems grow upwards and roots grow more or less downwards. The unidirectional
stimulus producing this response is gravity. The response by plants to gravity is called gravitropism.
Plant roots are positively gravitropic, because they grow towards gravity; plant shoots are negatively
gravitropic, because they grow away from gravity. This means that the roots will grow towards an
environment in which they can anchor the plant, absorb water and absorb mineral ions.

H o w d o s i m p l e a n i m a l s r e s p o n d t o s ti m u l i ?
Just as some plant responses serve to maintain the plant in a favorable environment, some responses of
simple animals do the same. Two different types of responses in simple organisms are given below:

 Taxes (singular taxis), in which the animal moves along a gradient of intensity of a stimulus
towards the greatest intensity of the stimulus (a positive taxis) and sometimes away from the
greatest intensity (a negative taxis); there is a directional response to a directional stimulus. For
example: the unicellular protoctistan Euglena swims (using its flagellum) towards areas of
increased light intensity. This is positive phototaxis and allows the organism to photosynthesize
efficiently.
 Kineses (singular kinesis), in which a change in the intensity of the stimulus brings about a
change in the rate of movement, not a change in the direction of movement. For example,
woodlice increase their rate of movement in bright light. This increases the probability that they
will move into a dark area, where it is usually more humid and they will lose less water.

How do woodlice respond to a change in the

intensity of light?

Woodlice are small land-dwelling crustaceans. There are many different species, but all are quite similar.
Because of their flattened shape and small size, they have a relatively large surface-area-to-volume
ratio. This means that they tend to lose water quickly through their body surface. This happens quickly
because they have no waxy cuticle covering their bodies to limit loss of water. They are typically found
under logs, stones, bark and amongst leaf litter. These areas all have a more humid atmosphere, which
reduces the rate of water loss from the woodlice. They are all also dark areas.

When brought into the light, the woodlice start to move around much more quickly. This increased rate
of movement is a response to the increased intensity of light – it is a kinesis.

Detected by ocelli
Light/dark
(simple eyes)

Increased Increased rate of

movement muscle contraction

Nerve cells transmit

impulses to/from
central nervous system
 Fig 1.2 the response of woodlice to light

The increased movement makes it more likely that the woodlice will, quite by chance, move into dark,
humid conditions once more. Once they do, their rate of movement decreases again, making it more
likely that they will remain in these more favorable conditions.

The Importance of Studying Behavior

The study of animal behavior is often called Ethology and the biologists who work in this field are known
as Ethologists.

Studying animal behavior is important in its own right as a field of scientific knowledge, just as is
subatomic physics. But studying animal behavior has made many contributions to other areas of science,
in particular to the study of human behavior, but also including neuroscience, the environment and
science management, animal welfare science and education.

The Impact of Studying Animal Behavior on

Human Society
Many problems in human society can be related to the interaction of environment and behavior, or
genetics and behavior. Social scientists often now turn to animal behavior as a basis for interpreting
human society and understanding possible causes of problems in society.

 Research by de Waal on chimpanzees and monkeys has illustrated the importance of

cooperation and reconciliation in social groups. This work has implications for aggressive
behavior among human beings.
 Harlow’s work on social development in rhesus monkey has been of major importance to
theories of child development and attachment formation.

The Impact of the Study of Animal Behavior on

Neuroscience
 Neuroethology: carefully collected behavioral data allows neurobiologists to focus their studies
on specific stimuli and specific responses to determine neural pathways.
 The quality of the social environment has a direct effect on immune system functioning.
 And recent works in animal behavior has demonstrated the influence of behavior and social
organization on physiological and cellular processes.
The Impact of the Study of Animal Behavior on
Management of the Environment and Resources

The behavior of animal often provides early clues of environmental damage. Changes in sexual and
other behavior occur much sooner and at lower levels of environmental disruption than changes in
population size. Waiting to see if numbers of animal population are declining may be leaving it too late
to take action to save the environment if it is needed. Example:

 Knowledge of honeybees’ foraging behavior has given important information about mechanisms
of pollination, which in turn has been important for plant breeding and propagation.

The Impact of the Study of Animal Behavior on

Animal Welfare

Animal behavior researchers look at the behavior and well-being of animals in the lab and in their
natural environment. Such research has ensured reasonable and effective standards for the care and
well-being of research animals.

The Impact of the Study of Animal Behavior on

S c i e n c e E d u c a ti o n

In some countries there is a concern about the lack of interest in science and the fact that women and
minority groups are under-represented in science.

Courses at universities in animal behavior and behavioral ecology often interest students in behavioral
biology.

INNATE BEHAVIOR
There are two types of animal behavior: Innate & learned
What is innate behavior?
The word “innate” literally means “inborn” .Innate behavior is potentially represented at birth or
hatching.. The young herring gull knows that if it pecks the orange spot on the beak of the adult gull, it
will receive food. However, this is not quite the same as saying that the behavior is coded for directly in
the genes. There Is no gene that directly codes for innate behavior but some genes control development
of neutral pathways and mechanisms which cause the behavior to carried out. Can be described as a
reaction to a stimulus, which is an internal or external event that leads to a response. Many forms of
behavior.

Types on innate behavior

There are three major types of innate behavior. These are

 Reflex action- is the simplest forms of innate behavior and is single action performance to
specific stimulus. Nearly always they are protective for example the withdrawal reflex in which a
limb is moved from a stimulus such as heat or pain, blinking of the eye, sneezing, the
withdrawal of your hand from a hot object, etc.
 Orientation behavior- is the movement of simple animals away from unfavorable
conditions. It also includes the movement towards and remaining
in favorable ones. An animal’s orientation behavior, which allows
an animal to be placed in a favorable environment, occurs in two
ways: taxis and kinesis.
a. Taxis are a deliberate movement toward or away from a
stimulus. It is a directional response to stimulus i.e. – moves
toward (positive taxes) or away (negative taxis) from the stimulus.
 Single celled algae – As algae are photosynthetic they move towards light (positive
phototaxis).
 Earthworms – Move away from light (negative phototaxis). Helps them survive as this
takes them into the soil, helping them conserve water, find food and avoid predators.
 Some Bacteria –Move towards areas where glucose (there food) is more concentrated
(positive chemotaxis).
b. Kinesis, on the other hand, is a random movement that is not oriented
toward or away from a stimulus. Such as the kinesis and taxes of woodlice
and other simple animals. Non directional response to stimulus. The more
unfavorable the conditions the more rapidly the organism moves and changes direction more
often. This response enables the organism to return to favorable conditions more rapidly.
 Woodlice – lose water in dry conditions.
When in dry area – move more rapidly + change direction more often
When in damp area – move less rapidly + change direction less often.
This increases chance of organism moving into or staying in favourable conditions,
preventing them drying out and increasing there chance of survival
Kineses vs Taxes
 Taxes - enables a faster direct response to the stimulus but is only possible if the
stimulus is directional
  Kineses – A slower response but allows a response to a stimulus that isn’t always
directional eg temperature and humidity

c. Instinctive behaviors- these often involve the most complex behaviors, but there is always
a fixed action pattern for each key stimulus. Means that is carried out to completion once
started even if other stimuli intervene. An inborn pattern of behavior that is characteristics of a
species and often a response to a specific environment stimuli: the spawning instinct in salmon;
altruistic instincts in social animals. A powerful motivation or impulse. An innate capability or
aptitude: an instinct for tact and diplomacy. For example nest-building, weaving a web, etc.

Any behavior is instinctive if it is performed without

being based upon prior experience (that is, in the
absence of learning), and is therefore an expression of
innate biological factors. Sea turtles, newly hatched on a
beach, will automatically move toward the ocean. A
kangaroo climbs into its mother's pouch upon being
born. Honeybees communicate by dancing in the direction of a food source without formal
instruction. Other examples include animal fighting,
animal courtship behavior, internal escape functions, and the
building of nests.

Instincts are inborn complex patterns of behavior that

exist in most members of the species, and should be
distinguished from reflexes, which are simple
responses of an organism to a specific stimulus, such A dog shaking after getting wet
as the contraction of the pupil in response to bright
light or the spasmodic movement of the lower leg when the knee is tapped. The absence of
volitional capacity must not be confused with an inability to modify fixed action patterns. For
example, people may be able to modify a stimulated fixed action pattern by consciously
recognizing the point of its activation and simply stop doing it, whereas animals without a
sufficiently strong volitional capacity may not be able to disengage from their fixed action
patterns, once activated.
H o w a r e h u m a n r e fl e x a c ti o n s b r o u g h t a b o u t ?
There are two types of reflex actions: - somatic and autonomic reflexe
Those that involve our special senses (eyes, ears, pressure detectors, etc.) and produce a
response by a muscle, called somatic reflexes. Are movements of body parts that result nearly

instantly when a certain stimulus is delivered. Reflexes are able to occur so quickly because the
stimuli that cause them are not processed in the brain rather than the nerve impulse generated
by the stimulus is relayed only to the spinal cord. These include the knee-jerk reflex and the
withdrawal from heat reflex. Many of these reflexes are protective.
 Those that involve sensors in internal organs and produce responses also in internal
organs, called autonomic reflexes. Are unconscious motor reflexes relayed from the
organs and glands to the CNS through visceral afferent signaling? While the unconscious
reflex arcs are normally undetectable in certain instances the may trigger pain, typically
masked as referred pain. These include the reflex actions controlling heart rate and
breathing rate.
The structure of the nervous system
To understand how these two types of reflex action operate, we must look at the structure of nervous
  Central nervous system: - consists of brain and spinal cord. these coordinate
the nervous system. It is named because it integrates information it receives from and
coordinates and influences the activity of all parts of bodies of bilaterally symmetric
animals. It contains the majority of the nervous system. May consider the retina and
the optic nerve as parts of the CNS, synapsing directly on brain tissue without
intermediate ganglia.
 The peripheral nervous system: - consists of cranial and spinal nerves which
branch from brain and spinal cord, respectively.
Again, functionally, there are two types of nervous system: somatic and autonomic
nervous system. The main function of the PNS is to connect the CNS to the limbs and
organs, essentially serving as a communication relay going back and forth between
the brain and spinal cord with the rest of the body. Unlike the CNS, the PNS is not
protected by the bone of spine and skull or by the blood-brain barrier, which leaves it
exposed to toxins and mechanical injuries. The peripheral nervous system is mainly
divided into the somatic nervous system and autonomic nervous system.
 Somatic nervous system: - integrates information from sense organs and
produces responses in skeletal muscle.in the somatic nervous system, the cranial
nerves are part of the PNS with the exception of cranial nerve II, the optic nerve, along
with retina. The second cranial nerve is not a true peripheral nerve but a tract of the
diencephalon. Cranial nerve ganglia originate in the CNS however; the remaining ten
cranial nerve axons extend beyond the brain and are considered as part of PNS.
 Autonomic nervous system: - integrates information from receptors found in
internal organs and produces responses in the same or other organs or glands.
Division of PNS that influences the function of internal organs. Is a control system that
acts largely unconsciously and regulates bodily functions. Is regulated by the
hypothalamus. This system is the primary mechanism in control of the fight-or-flight
response. And subdivided into

 Sensory division: - is a part of the PNS, it runs from sensory organs to CNS. The
sensory division collects information from outside and inside of the body and
carries them to the CNS. which transmits sensory nerve impulses in to the
central nervous system

 Sympathetic division: - which transmit impulses from the CNS to the organs,
generally preparing the body “fight or flight”. It is however constantly active at a
basic level to maintain homeostasis. Described as being complementary to the
parasympathetic division which stimulates the body to “feed” and breed and to
“rest-and –digest”.
 Fig. Summary of nervous
system structure
 Parasympathetic division: -division of autonomic nervous system, along with the
sympathetic nervous system and enteric nervous system. After the sympathetic
nervous system gets the body ready for action, the parasympathetic claims it back
down. which acts antagonistically to the sympathetic branch and prepares the
body for rest and repair.

What are biological clocks?

The term “biological clock” is used to describe some internal regulatory mechanism that controls various
cyclical responses in living things. Organisms (plants and animals) show genetically programmed yearly,
monthly, daily and other cyclical changes. The clocks evolved independently in different organisms and
are example of convergent evolution.

Circadian
rhythms
(from Latin word words
“circa”=about and “dies”= a day) are
daily cycles that persist with the
period of 24 hours and a
synchronize to a 24hour cues such
as light and darkness called
entrainment.

Example: sleeping at night and

becoming active during the day or
vice versa.
In mammals and other animals, the biological clocks is located the hypothalamus of the brain, is called
superchaismatic nucleus (SCN). During night, SCN sends impulse to pineal gland which secrets
melatonin, which promotes sleepfulness, so sleep-wake cycle is controlled by melatonin whose
secretion is induced by SCN. If we did not have others cues to wake us and send us to sleep, we might
expect to have a different sleep-wake cycle in the summer compared to the winter. Changes in light-
dark ratio can also affect reproductive behavior on a yearly basis because this affects melatonin
concentration in a body.

Table: Mean sleep times and wake times in summer and winter

Season Wake time Bed time

Winter 08.53 23.48
Summer 08.05 23.21
Summer Vs winter 48 minutes earlier 27 minutes earlier

Clearly the shorter nights of summer have an effect but not quite what one would expect. The subjects
woke earlier in summer, but also went to bed earlier. However, the shorter nights did result in reduction
of 21minutes of sleep.

Circannual rhythms
are yearly cycles that synchronize to seasonal variation such as summer and winter with longer and
shorter days, respectively. Changes in the light-dark ratio can also control reproductive behavior on
anuual basis. As the day length changes, so will the duration of melatonin secretion. This change in
duration links reproductive behavior in many animals to specific times of the year. Some animals are
long-day (summer) breeds and others are short-day (winter) breeders. The point is that it is day length
that triggers the changes. Can also be shown in many animals in such behaviors as

 Migration ( for example, swallows)

 Hibernation (for example, hedgehogs)
 Coat growth (for example, arctic foxes)
 Camouflage coloring (for example, arctic foxes)
LEARNED BEHAVIOR
D i ff e r e n t d e fi n i ti o n s o f l e a r n i n g
 “A change in human disposition or capability that persists over a period of time and is not simply
ascribable to processes of growth.”
- From the Conditions of Learning by Robert Gagne
 “Learning is the relatively permanent change in a person’s knowledge or behavior due to
experience. This definition has three components: 1) the duration of the change is long-term
rather than short-term; 2) the locus of the change is the content and structure of knowledge in
memory or the behavior of the learner; 3) the cause of the change is the learner’s experience in
the environment rather than fatigue, motivation, drugs, physical condition or physiologic
intervention.”
–From Learning in Encyclopedia of Educational Research, Richard E. Mayer
 Textbook defi niti on: the strengthening of existing responses or the formation of new
responses to existing stimuli that occurs because of practice or repetition.

So what is a learned behavior?

Remember that behavior is a response to a stimulus. In the previous section we looked at innate
behaviors, which are inherited and performed correctly the first time an organism is exposed to a
stimulus. In this section we will focus on learned behaviors, which are acquired changes in behavior
during one's lifetime.

Imagine our ineptitude, if at every turn we were obliged to look, feel, smell or see an object or situation
as if it were for the very first time. Fortunately, our brain has the capacity to remember sensations, to
recall situations, we are able to reason in conjunction with our memory about what we should best do.
We can do all of this mental process in a fraction of a second as if by intuition

Acquired memories, intricately interwoven, assert themselves as patterns of behavior. As much as

seventy to eighty percent of our waking activities are pattern driven. Such patterns of behavior and
more formally known as learned behavioral patterns may be created in an instant or can be the result of
protracted training. Learned behavior patterns are rarely fully functional the first time they are
performed and hence at the very simplest level of learning, trial and error are required for
improvement.
Other examples of learned behaviors in animals and humans

Difference between learned behavior and innate behavior

Innate behavior
Instinctive(fixed action patterns)-genetically
based
Not modified by individual
Fully functional at first attempt
Adaptive behavior that has been retained as a
result of natural selection
Learned behavior
Changes and develops through experience
Behavior may be modified by new experiences
not fully functional at first attempt(requires trial
and error)
Behavior that is learned anew by each member of
the species and may not be adaptive

Unaffected by environment Highly affected by environment

Generally uniform: low variation in population High variation within the population
Examples: Examples:
Suckling instinct in newborns Acquisition of language and social skills
Migration of blackcaps Training dolphins to perform
Hunting instincts Domesticated behavior in pets
Animals:

 Dog shakes paw with you

 Fish swims to top of fish bowl
 Dog hears a bell and comes for food
 Colt wears saddle to allow rider
 Bird builds nest in safe place….etc

Humans:

 Tying our shoes

 Eating
 Taking
 Walking
 Running
 Driving
 Potty training
 Knowing what is right and what is wrong
 Reading & typing …etc
Types of learned behavior
Two types of learned behavior: Associative vs non associative learning
Associative and Non-Associative learning are two types of learning between which a key difference can
be identified. Associative learning refers to a variety of learning in which ideas and experiences are
connected. On the other hand, Non-associative learning is another variety of learning in which an
association between stimuli does not take place. The key difference is while stimuli are linked in
associative learning; in non-associative learning this does not take place.

WHAT IS ASSOCIATIVE LEARNING?

Associative learning refers to a variety of learning in which ideas and experiences are connected. The
human brain is organized in such a way that recalling a single piece of information in isolation is often
difficult. This is because it is connected to other types of information. The theory of associative learning
highlights this connection or link between ideas.

According to psychologists, associative learning takes place when we learn something with the
assistance of a new stimulus. Here the theory of conditioning comes into play. Through conditioning,
psychologists emphasize how human behavior can be altered or how new patterns of behavior can be
created in the individual. The process of associative learning takes place through two types of
conditioning. They are,

 Classical conditioning

 Operant conditioning

 Latent learning

Classical conditioning was a technique introduced by Ivan Pavlov where he conducts an experiment
using a dog. In the first phase of the experiment, he presents the dog with food and notices how it
salivates. Then he introduces a bell just as the food is being presented and notices how the dog
salivates. Thirdly he rings the bell without presenting the food but notices that the dog salivates.
Through this, he explains how a natural response to a stimulus can be conditioned where a conditioned
response can be created from a conditioned stimulus.

In Operant conditioning, B. F Skinner explains how rewards and punishments can be used to train new
behavior. For instance, imagine a child is given a bar of chocolate after getting good marks at an exam.
This is an example of a reward. Or else imagine a child is grounded for misbehaving. This is an example
of punishment. Through associative learning, a new behavior is promoted based on a new stimulus.

WHAT IS NON-ASSOCIATIVE LEARNING?

Non-associative learning is another variety of learning in which an association between stimuli does not
take place. To be more descriptive, in non-associative learning the behavior and stimulus are not paired
or linked together. This form of learning is quite common in animals. Mainly there are two types of
non-associative learning. They are,

 Habituation

 Sensitization

 Imprinting

 Insight

Habituation is when the

responsiveness of an
organism to a
repeatedly exposed
stimulus decreases.
Simply, it is when a
person or animal reacts
less and less to
something due to exposure. For example, imagine a child who is always being scolded. Although the
child may first react to this, as he begins to experience it all the time, the child reacts less and less.
Sensitization is when the responsiveness of an organism to a repeatedly exposed stimulus increases or
else the person or animal reacts even more each time it is exposed to the stimulus.

1. N o n - a s s o c i a ti v e l e a r n i n g
1.1. Habituation
Habituation is a simple form of learning in which an animal stops responding to a stimulus, or cue, after
a period of repeated exposure. This is a form of non-associative learning, meaning that the stimulus is
not linked with any punishment or reward.

- Otherwise known as the “the cry wolf” effect

- It enables animals to disregard unimportant stimuli

For example, prairie dogs typically sound an alarm call when threatened by a predator. At first, they will
give this alarm call in response to hearing human steps, which indicate the presence of a large and
potentially hungry animal. However, the prairie dogs gradually become habituated to the sound of
human footsteps, as they repeatedly experience the sound without anything bad happening. Eventually,
they stop giving the alarm call in response to footsteps. In this example, habituation is specific to the
sound of human footsteps, as the animals still respond to the sounds of potential predators.
Other examples:

 falling leaves not triggering fear in baby birds

 Feeling your clothes rub on your legs
 Getting used to a foul odor in a room
 Getting used to a loud noise after repetition

Habituation can occur at different levels in the nervous system:

- Sensory systems may stop after a while sending signals to the brain in response to a
continuously present or often repeated stimulus….sensory habituation
- The brain still perceives the stimulus is still present but has simply decided to no longer pay
attention to it

Research using Aplysia (a sea slug)

Why Aplysia:

- Because its neurons are large and easily observed

In a simple reflex action if the siphon of this slug is touched it withdraws its gills. However, if done
repeatedly the withdrawal reflex diminishes in both strength and duration. If the habituation is just one
training session of fewer than 10 stimulations in less than an hour then the habituation lasts for a few
hours then after. But if four or more individual training sessions are given the habituation can last for
several weeks. These two forms of habituation – short and long – are interpreted as short and long term
memory.

Due to habituation research has shown that the nerve network that brings about the response is
altered.

Factors affecting habituation

There are many factors that influence the emergence of habituation in an organism. The two most
important factors are:

- The amount of time in between the first presentation of the stimulus to the organism up to the
second presentation, known as inter-stimulus interval.
- The length of time during which the stimulus is presented, known as stimulus duration.

Suppose there are two stimuli: A and B. The stimulus duration of A is 10 seconds, while that of B is
20 seconds. The concept of habituation holds that the longer the organism is exposed to the
stimulus, the faster habituation occurs. Therefore, comparing the stimulus duration of A and B, we
 can conclude that habituation happens faster in B than in A because the organism is exposed to it. It
can be said that the organism got used to B more than to A, and “habit” may be developed in the
presence of B than A.

- One of the most interesting facts about habituation is that the decrease in response is specific
only to the stimulus with which the habit is developed. For example, if you are habituated to the
taste of chocolate flavored ice cream, your degree of responding to vanilla flavored ice cream
will significantly increase because you have not developed a “habit” of it yet.
1.2. Sensitization
Sensitization is a non-associative learning process in which repeated administration of a stimulus results
in the progressive amplification of a response.[1] Sensitization often is characterized by an enhancement
of response to a whole class of stimuli in addition to the one that is repeated. For example, repetition of
a painful stimulus may make one more responsive to a loud noise.

History

Eric Kandel was one of the first to study the neural basis of sensitization, conducting experiments in the
1960s and 1970s on the gill withdrawal reflex of the seaslug Aplysia. Kandel and his colleagues first
habituated the reflex, weakening the response by repeatedly touching the animal's siphon. They then
paired noxious electrical stimulus to the tail with a touch to the siphon, causing the gill withdrawal
response to reappear. After this sensitization, a light touch to the siphon alone produced a strong gill
withdrawal response, and this sensitization effect lasted for several days. (After Squire and Kandel,
1999). In 2000, Eric Kandel was awarded the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine for his research in
neuronal learning processes.

Types of sensitization

The neural basis of behavioral sensitization is often not known, but it typically seems to result from a
cellular receptor becoming more likely to respond to a stimulus. Several examples of neural sensitization
include:
  Electrical or chemical stimulation of the rat hippocampus causes strengthening of synaptic
signals, a process known as long-term potentiation or LTP. LTP of AMPA receptors is a potential
mechanism underlying memory and learning in the brain.
 In "kindling", repeated stimulation of hippocampal or amygdaloid neurons in the limbic system
eventually leads to seizures in laboratory animals. After sensitization, very little stimulation may
be required to produce seizures. Thus, kindling has been suggested as a model for temporal lobe
epilepsy in humans, where stimulation of a repetitive type (flickering lights for instance) can
cause epileptic seizures. Often, people suffering from temporal lobe epilepsy report symptoms
of negative effects such as anxiety and depression that might result from limbic dysfunction.
 In "central sensitization," nociceptive neurons in the dorsal horns of the spinal cord become
sensitized by peripheral tissue damage or inflammation. This type of sensitization has been
suggested as a possible causal mechanism for chronic pain conditions. The changes of central
sensitization occur after repeated trials to pain. Research from animals has consistently shown
that when a trial is repeatedly exposed to a painful stimulus, the animal’s pain threshold will
change and result in a stronger pain response. Researchers believe that there are parallels that
can be drawn between these animal trials and persistent pain in people. For example, after a
back surgery that removed a herniated disc from causing a pinched nerve, the patient may still
continue to “feel” pain. Also, newborns who are circumcised without anesthesia have shown
tendencies to react more greatly to future injections, vaccinations, and other similar procedures.
The responses of these children are an increase in crying and a greater hemodynamic response
(tachycardia and tachypnea).
 Drug sensitization occurs in drug addiction, and is defined as an increased effect of drug
following repeated doses (the opposite of drug tolerance). Such sensitization involves changes in
brain mesolimbic dopamine transmission, as well as a protein inside mesolimbic neurons called
delta FosB. An associative process may contribute to addiction, for environmental stimuli
associated with drug taking may increase craving. This process may increase the risk for relapse
in addicts attempting to quit.
1.3. Imprinting
If newly-hatched geese are exposed to a
moving object of reasonable size and emitting
reasonable sounds, they will begin to follow it
just as they would normally follow their
mother.

This is called imprinting.The time of exposure

is quite critical. A few days after hatching,
imprinting no longer occurs. Prior to this time,
though, the results can be quite remarkable. A
gosling imprinted to a moving box or clucking
person will try to follow this object for the
rest of its life. In fact, when the gosling
reaches sexual maturity, it will make the imprinted object — rather than a member of its own species —
the goal of its sexual drive.

 Much of our knowledge of imprinting was learned from the research of Konrad Lorenz, shown
here with some of his imprinted goslings. Lorenz shared a Nobel Prize in 1973 for his discoveries.
 Male mice become imprinted with the odor of littermates during the first three weeks of life.
When they reach sexual maturity, they avoid mating with close relatives. The odor is controlled
by the major histocompatibility complex (MHC).
 Imprinting is a simple and highly specific type of learning that occurs at a particular age or life
stage during the development of certain animals, such as ducks and geese. When ducklings
hatch, they imprint on the first adult animal they see, typically their mother. Once a duckling has
imprinted on its mother, the sight of the mother acts as a cue to trigger a suite of survival-
promoting behaviors, such as following the mother around and imitating her.
 How do we know this is not an innate behavior, in which the duckling is hardwired to follow
around a female duck? That is, how do we know imprinting is a learning process conditioned by
experience? If newborn ducks or geese see a human before they see their mother, they will
imprint on the human and follow it around just as they would follow their real mother.
 An interesting case of imprinting being used for good comes from efforts to rehabilitate the
endangered whooping crane by raising chicks in captivity. Biologists dress up in full whooping
crane costume while caring for the young birds, ensuring that they don't imprint on humans but
rather on the bird dummies that are part of the costume. Eventually, they teach the birds to
migrate using an ultralight aircraft, preparing them for release into the wild.
1.4. Insight learning
Insight learning is a theory of learning first put forth by Wolfgang Kohler about 90 years ago. Learn about
the development and definition of this theory and then test your knowledge with a short quiz.

Insight learning is considered a type of learning because it results in a long-lasting change. Following the
occurrence of insight, the realization of how to solve the problem can be repeated in future similar
situations.

Theory Development

In the 1920s, German psychologist Wolfgang Kohler was studying the behavior of apes. He designed
some simple experiments that led to the development of one of the first cognitive theories of learning,
which he called insight learning.

In this experiment, Kohler hung a piece of fruit just out of reach of each chimp. He then provided the
chimps with either two sticks or three boxes, then waited and watched. Kohler noticed that after the
chimps realized they could not simply reach or jump up to retrieve the fruit, they stopped, had a seat, and
thought about how they might solve the problem. Then after a few moments, the chimps stood up and
proceeded to solve the problem.
In the first scenario, the problem was solved by placing the smaller sticks into the longer stick to create one
very long stick that could be used to knock down the
hanging fruit. In the second scenario, the chimps would
solve the problem by stacking the boxes on top of each
other, which allowed them to climb up to the top of the
stack of boxes and reach the fruit.

Learning occurs in a variety of ways. Sometimes it is the

result of direct observation; other times, it is the result
of experience through personal interactions with the
environment. Kohler called this newly observed type of
learning insight learning. Based on these observations,
Kohler's theory of insight learning became an early
argument for the involvement of cognition, or thinking,
in the process of learning.

Insight Learning versus Other Learning Theories

A basic assumption of strict behaviorism is that only

behavior that can be seen may be studied, and that
human behavior is determined by conditioning. Insight
learning suggests that we learn not only by conditioning,
but also by cognitive processes that cannot be directly
observed. Insight learning is a form of learning because,
like other forms, it involves a change in behavior;
however, it differs from other forms because the process
is not observable. It can be hard to define because it is not behavioral, a characteristic that distinguishes
it from most theories of learning throughout the history of psychology.

Initially, it was thought that learning was the result of reproductive thinking. This means that an
organism reproduces a response to a given problem from past experience. Insight learning, however,
does not directly involve using past experiences to solve a problem. While past experiences may help
the process, an insight or novel idea is necessary to solve the problem. Prior knowledge is of limited help
in these situations.

In another experiment, a crow creatively learns to bend a wire to get food out of a jar. In humans,
insight learning occurs whenever we suddenly see a problem in a new way, connect the problem to
another relevant problem/solution, release past experiences that are blocking the solution, or see the
problem in a larger, more coherent context. When we solve a problem through insight, we often have a
so-called aha or eureka moment. The solution suddenly appears, even if previously no progress was
being made. Famous examples of this type of learning include Archimedes's discovery of a method to
determine the density of an object ("Eureka!") and Isaac Newton's realization that a falling apple and the
orbiting moon are both pulled by the same force.
2. A s s o c i a ti v e l e a r n i n g

2.1. The Conditioned Response (CR)

The conditioned response is probably the simplest form of learned behavior. It is a response that — as a
result of experience — comes to be caused by a stimulus different from the one that originally triggered
it.
The Russian physiologist Ivan Pavlov found that placing meat powder in a dog's mouth would cause
it to salivate. The meat powder, an unconditioned stimulus (US), triggers a simple inborn reflex
involving taste receptors, sensory neurons, networks of interneurons in the brain, and autonomic
motor neurons running to the salivary glands — producing an unconditioned response (UR).Pavlov
found that if he rang a bell every time he put the meat powder in the dog's mouth, the dog
eventually salivated upon hearing the bell alone. This is the conditioned response (CR).The dog has
learned to respond to a substitute stimulus, the conditioned stimulus (CS).

We assume that the physiological basis of the conditioned response is the transfer, by appropriate
neurons, of nervous activity in the auditory areas of the brain to the motor neurons controlling
salivation. This involves the development and/or strengthening of neural circuits, which — we may also
assume — is characteristic of all forms of learning.

The conditioned response has proved to be an excellent tool for determining the sensory capabilities of
other animals. For example, honeybees can be conditioned to seek food on a piece of blue cardboard
.By offering other colors to a blue-conditioned bee, Karl von Frisch (who shared the 1973 Nobel Prize
with Lorenz) found that honeybees can discriminate between yellow-green, blue-green, blue-violet, and
ultraviolet.

In classical conditioning, a response

already associated with one stimulus is
associated with a second stimulus to
which it had no previous connection.
The most famous example of classical
conditioning comes from Ivan Pavlov’s
experiments in which dogs were
conditioned to drool—a response
previously associated with food—upon
hearing the sound of a bell.

As Pavlov observed, and as you may

have noticed too, dogs salivate, or drool,
in response to the sight or smell of food.
This is something dogs do innately, without any need for learning. In the language of classical
conditioning, this existing stimulus-response pair can be broken into an unconditioned stimulus, the
sight or smell of food, and an unconditioned response, drooling.

In Pavlov's experiments, every time a dog was given food, another stimulus was provided alongside the
unconditioned stimulus. Specifically, a bell was rung at the same time the dog received food. This ringing
of the bell, paired with food, is an example of a conditioning stimulus—a new stimulus delivered in
parallel with the unconditioned stimulus.

Over time, the dogs learned to associate the ringing of the bell with food and to respond by drooling.
Eventually, they would respond with drool when the bell was rung, even when the unconditioned
stimulus, the food, was absent. This new, artificially formed stimulus-response pair consists of a
conditioned stimulus, the bell ringing, and a conditioned response, drooling.

Is the unconditioned response, drooling in response to food, exactly identical to the conditioned
response, drooling in response to the bell? Not necessarily. Pavlov discovered that the saliva in the
conditioned dogs was actually different in composition than the saliva of unconditioned dogs.

2.2. (Operant)Instrumental Conditioning

Pavlov's dogs were restrained and the response being conditioned (salivation) was innate. But the
principles of conditioning can also be used to train animals to perform tasks that are not innate. Instead,
whenever an organism performs a behavior—or an intermediate step on the way to the complete
behavior—it is given a reward or a punishment. At first, the organism may perform the behavior—e.g.,
pressing a lever—purely by chance. Through reinforcement, the organism is induced to perform the
behavior more or less frequently. In these cases, the animal is placed in a setting where it can move
about and engage in different activities.

The experimenter chooses to reward only one, e.g., turning to the left. By first rewarding (e.g., with a
pellet of food) even the slightest movement to the left and then only more complete turns, a skilled
experimenter can — in about 2 minutes — train a naive pigeon to make a complete turn. A little more
work and the pigeon will pace out a figure eight.

for example, a pigeon — presented with two spots of light — pecks at the brighter and reaches down to
pick up the grain of food that is its reward. Such training is known as instrumental conditioning or
operant conditioning. The latter term was coined by B. F. Skinner, whose skill with the technique
enabled him to train pigeons to play ping-pong and even a toy piano! It is also called trial-and-error
learning because the animal is free to try various responses before finding the one that is rewarded.

Reinforcemen Increased

Behavior Consequence Likelihood of repetition

Punishment Decreased
Maze problems are a form of instrumental
conditioning in which the animal is faced with a
sequence of alternatives. In this photo (Courtesy
of B. Rensch), Julia, a chimpanzee, uses a
magnet to move an iron ring through a maze.
Julia is able to solve mazes like this on her first
attempt most (86%) of the time and sometimes
faster than biology students can!

One prominent early investigator of operant conditioning was the psychologist B. F. Skinner, the inventor of the Skinner
box, see image below. Skinner put rats in boxes containing a lever that would dispense food when pushed by the rat. The
rat would initially push the lever a few times by accident, and would then begin to associate pushing the lever with getting
the food. Over time, the rat would push the lever more and more frequently in order to obtain the food. Not all of Skinner's
experiments involved pleasant treats. The bottom of the box consisted of a metal grid that could deliver an electric shock
to rats as a punishment. When the rat got an electric shock each time it performed a certain behavior, it quickly learned to
stop performing the behavior. As these examples show, both positive and negative reinforcement can be used to shape an
organism's behavior in operant conditioning. Ouch! Poor rats!

Operant conditioning is the basis of most animal training. For instance, you might give your dog a biscuit
or a "Good dog!" every time it sits, rolls over, or refrains from barking. On the other hand, cows in a field
surrounded by an electrified fence will quickly learn to avoid brushing up against the fence.

As these examples illustrate, operant conditioning through reinforcement can cause animals to engage
in behaviors they would not have naturally performed or to avoid behaviors that are normally part of
their repertoire.

2.3. Latent learning

Latent learning is a form of learning that is not immediately expressed in an overt response; it occurs
without any obvious reinforcement of the behavior or associations that are learned. Interest in latent
learning arose largely because the phenomenon seemed to conflict with the widely held view that
reinforcement was necessary for learning to occur.

Early studies

In a classic study by Edward C. Tolman, three groups of rats were placed in mazes and their behavior
observed each day for more than two weeks. The rats in Group 1 always found food at the end of the
maze; the rats in Group 2 never found food; and the rats in Group 3 found no food for 10 days, but then
received food on the eleventh. The Group 1 rats quickly learned to rush to the end of the maze; Group 2
rats wandered in the maze but did not preferentially go to the end. Group 3 acted the same as the
Group 2 rats until food was introduced on Day 11; then they quickly learned to run to the end of the
maze and did as well as the Group 1 rats by the next day. This showed that the Group 3 rats had learned
about the organization of the maze, but without the reinforcement of food. Until this study, it was
largely believed that reinforcement was necessary for animals to learn such tasks. Other experiments
showed that latent learning can happen in shorter durations of time, e.g. 3–7 days. Among other early
studies, it was also found that animals allowed to explore the maze and then detained for one minute in
the empty goal box learned the maze much more rapidly than groups not given such goal orientation.

In 1949, John Seward conducted studies in which rats were placed in a T-maze with one arm coloured
white and the other black. One group of rats had 30 mins to explore this maze with no food present,
and the rats were not removed as soon as they had reached the end of an arm. Seward then placed
food in one of the two arms. Rats in this exploratory group learned to go down the rewarded arm
much faster than another group of rats that had not previously explored the maze.

Most early studies of latent learning were conducted with rats, but a study by Stevenson in 1954
explored this method of learning in children. Stevenson required children to explore a series of objects
to find a key, and then he determined the knowledge the children had about various non-key objects in
the set-up. The children found non-key objects faster if they had previously seen them, indicating they
were using latent learning. Their ability to learn in this way increased as they became older.

More recent studies

In humans

An experiment with infants explored latent learning at an early age. Three-month-olds were exposed
to two different hand puppets simultaneously. The infants were then periodically presented with one
of the puppets until they reached 6-months of age, at which point a target behavior was demonstrated
on the first puppet. Finally, the infants were presented with the alternative puppet and performed the
target behavior on that puppet at a higher rate than the control group which had not seen the two
puppets paired. This suggests that the pre-exposed infants had formed an association between the
puppets without obvious reinforcement.
Another experiment suggested that not all potential associations are easily formed by latent learning.
Human participants undeprived of caffeine were given a novel caffeinated drink for four days and then
were given the drink on a caffeine-deprived fifth day. These participants did not show an increased liking
for the flavor upon being caffeine-deprived, while subjects who underwent the same procedure while
deprived of caffeine every day showed an increased liking for the flavor each day. In this case, flavor
quality as a function of caffeine did not seem to be acquired through latent learning.

Neurophysiology

There have been several investigations of the neural processes involved in latent learning. In one study,
patients with medial temporal amnesia had particular difficulty with a latent learning task which
required representational processing. Another study, conducted with mice, found intriguing evidence
that the absence of a prion protein disrupts latent learning and other memory functions in the water
maze latent learning task, while phencyclidine was found to impair latent learning in a water finding
task.

EXAMPLES OF BEHAVIOR PATTERNS

Behavioral patterns are connected with the assignment of responsibilities between objects or
encapsulating behavior in an object and delegating requires to it. In software engineering, behavioral
design patters are design patterns that identify common communication patterns between objects and
realize these patterns.

What is courtship behavior?

Courtship behavior is an activity that precedes and results in mating and reproduction. It allows
members of a species to recognize each other and prevents or reduces attempts at interbreeding
between different species. Courtship may simply involve a few chemical, visual or auditory stimuli, or it
may be a complex series of acts by two or more individuals using several methods of communication.

There are many different methods of communication that are used to attract a mate. These include:

•the use of pheromones by some female insects to attract males from a distance

•the use of touch by painted turtles

•the courtship songs of frogs heard on spring nights in many different countries
•the song of a humpback whale
under the sea, which can be heard
hundreds of miles away

In most animals, courtship behavior

is innate and consists of a pre
programmed set of fixed action
patterns in response to a key
stimulus.

Courtship behaviors are innate and

complex behaviors consisting of a
preprogrammed set of fixed actions
in response to a key stimulus which
then serves as a stimulus for another
fixed action in another organism.

What are Pheromones?

The term, “pheromone,” is in part a
from a Greek word and translated as
"hormone bearer" was first
introduced by Peter Karlson and
Martin Luscher in 1959. It refers to
the chemical emitted by an animal,
which another animal of the same
species can detect and respond to, depending on the type of pheromone.

Types of pheromones

Alarm pheromones: secreted when attacked and produce fight or flight response

Releaser hormones: highly volatile pheromones that attract a mate from a distance of 2 miles

Territorial pheromones: used to mark boundaries of territory; eg. Dog urine

Sex hormones: signal availability of a female for mating.

Types of human sex pheromones

There are different types of human sex pheromones, including:

 Androstenone – It has the most potent molecules responsible for sexual attraction. It can
increase sexual desire in women and can help you look more attractive to them.
  Androsterone – This can help you look more masculine and trustworthy.

 Androstadienone – This can create a feeling of comfort and increase the feeling of sexual
intimacy.

 Androstenol – This type of pheromone can make you look more approachable.

 Beta-Androstenol – Also known as the “icebreaker” pheromone.

 Copulin – This female pheromone can increase the testosterone levels in men.

Courting Courting in house fly

What is territorial behavior?

Territorial behavior is found in nearly every species of animal, even humans. It also gives the holder
areas to forage for food and so increases the chances of attracting a mate. It also reduces vulnerability
to predators.

Territorial behavior is the methods by which an animal, or group of animals, protects its territory from
incursions by others of its species.

Territorial animals usually defend areas that contain one or more of

•a nest

•a den, or mating site

• sufficient food for themselves and their young

Males are usually the territorial sex, but in some species such as fiddler crabs females maintain a
territory also. Residents of a territory are difficult to dislodge as they are often older and more
experienced.
Defence threat displays may be visual as in the colour of feathers or fur, auditory as in birdsong or the
howls of gibbons or olfactory through the deposition of scent marks.

The resident animal usually holds on to his or her territory only by expending considerable time and
effort in its defence. Sunbirds, for example, can use up to 13000 kilojoules per hour patrolling and
defending their territory. This is more than the recommended daily energy intake for the average adult
human male.

The Ethiopian Wolf{canis simensis} is a social animal; the wolves live and hunt in packs. As a result, they
maintain a group territory by marking with urine {containing pheromones}.All adult animals contribute
to this marking behavior, particularly during patrols of the territory.

Defending a territory
Some animals defend their territory by fighting with those who try to invade it. Fighting, however is not
often the best option, since it uses up a large amount of energy and can result in injury or even death.
The songs of birds and the loud calls of monkeys are warnings that carry for considerable distances, and
warn intruders that they are approaching someone else's territory. If these warnings are ignored, and
the intruder enters the territory, or two animals meet near the border of their adjacent territories, they
usually threaten each other with visual displays. These displays often either:

•exaggerate an animal's size by the fluffing up of feathers or fur or

•show off the animal's weapons

Also, the animals may go through all the motions of fighting

Ritual fighting in hippos
without ever actually touching each other, a behavior known as
ritual fighting. Ritual fighting is more intense the further into an
animal's territory it takes place. In this situation, the territory holder has ‹nowhere to go› - he cannot
retreat.

Actual fighting usually only happens in overcrowded conditions

where resources are scarce. Serious injury can result, and old or
sick animals may die, leading to a more balanced and biologically
fit population. Animals fight for a number of different reasons.
Most will defend themselves against predators, but many also do
battle with members of the same species. Some of these fights
may take place to keep rivals out of a good feeding area. Fights
between male deer at the start of the breeding season are not
concerned with feeding, however. Two males lock antlers to see
which is the strongest. The victor will then dominate the herd and earn the right to mate with the
female deer.
Rival white-tailed deer stags battle to see which one is the strongest.

Fighting can occur when a young mammal challenges an older one for the
territory which maybe home to several females as well as being a foraging Agonistic behavior is any social
area. Older animals are more experienced but eventually experience will behavior related to fighting. The
give way to strength. Territoriality is an effective way of maintaining a term has broader meaning than
healthy population. aggressive behavior because it
includes threats, displays, retreats,
What is social behavior? placation, and conciliation. The term
was coined by Scott and Fredericson
Social behavior is behavior among two or more organisms, typically from in 1951.Agonistic behavior is seen in
the same species. Social behavior is exhibited by a wide range of organisms many animal species because
including social bacteria, slime moulds, social insects, social shrimp, naked resources including food, shelter,
mole-rats and humans. and mates are often limited.
Some of the benefits of social behavior are that it allows animals to:

•form stable groups in which intra specific aggression is reduced, sometimes as a result of hierarchies
being established

•improve the effectiveness of reproduction and parenting through courtship

behavior and pair bond formation; example: a beaver couple with their
offspring.

•forage more efficiently - especially if sources of food are localized

Eg: lions hunt in small groups when hunting large prey such as wildebeest but may hunt smaller prey
singly

•protect themselves against attack more effectively

Eg: baboons co-operate to fight off a leopard, which would be extremely

difficult for a single baboon

•increase the chance of surviving migration - some birds travel in large groups
for example many geese fly in “V” shaped formation.

•increase the chance of surviving extreme conditions - some birds huddle

together in very cold weather this reduces the overall surface-area-to-volume
ratio and can reduce heat loss by up to 50%. For example penguins huddle as in the picture in the left to
reduce heat loss.

•communicate across long distances

Social behavior in bees

Honeybees and bumblebees and other species of insects exhibit what is called eusociality.

Eusociality has three main feature:

•there is co-operation in caring for the offspring; as a consequence, many individuals are caring for
offspring that are not their own

•there are usually several generations in the colony so that it will sustain for longer and allow offspring
to assist parents, and

•there is division of labour - not every individual in the group is reproductively active in the case of bees
the queen is the only reproductively active female with the male drones also being active; the female
worker bees are more or less sterile.

There are three different types or castes of bees in a nest. They are

•the queen - the only truly reproductively active female(1st caste)

•workers- non reproductively active females(2nd caste)

•drones - reproductively active males(3rd caste)

Table: Summary of the different bee castes
The queen secrets powerful pheromones within the nest that control the behavior of the workers at
different stages of their development and so help to maintain the social structure if the nest. She may
also make aggressive attacks on maturing worker bees.

If the queen does not produce these pheromones, or if she produces too few eggs, then the structure of
the nest breaks down. She may be attacked by mature workers, one of whom will replace her.

A honeybee colony may last for several years, with the male drones being driven out of the nest over
winter to preserve resource for the workers and the queen. More drone will emerge the following
spring.

At the end of the colony cycle, the queen, the drones and most workers will die, leaving just a few large
workers, who will assume the status of the queens and the following spring, fly away to establish their
own colonies.

Worker bees communicate with each other in a very special way to convey information about a source
of nectar. Foragers perform a 'wag- dance' on the honeycomb to inform other workers of the direction
of the nectar source and its distance. The dance takes the form of a 'figure of eight' on the vertical face
of the honeycomb.

Roles of worker bees at different stages of dev’t

Information about the nectar is conveyed in two ways:

 the angle of the dance away from the vertical corresponds

with the angle of the nectar from the sun.
 the length of the 'straight-run' part of the dance is
proportional to the distance from the nest

Also recent research shows that the foraging bees use

sound to inform other bees about the distance of the
source, and perhaps to help to 'recruit' these other
workers. The time for which they produce their sounds Different types of bee dances
is directly correlated with distance to nectar source.
  the length of the 'straight-run' part of the
dance is proportional to the distance from
the nest

REFERENCES
Biology student textbook for grade 12
en.m.wikipedia.org
newsroom.ucla.edu
www.nexus phermones.com
 www.reference.com

M.autostream.com
Bscstriplescience.wikispaces.com
Ntionalmaglab.com