Part 1

(6.2)

6. (d+1) integers are the pigeons, and the pigeonholes are the different possible remainders.
There are only d possible remainders when any of the integers is divided by d, which are the
integers 0, 1, . . . d-1. By the pigeonhole principle, if we have d + 1 remainders, then at least two
must be the same.

10. The set of five points are the pigeons. The pigeonholes are represented by the different
types of parities each set of points can have: (even, even), (even, odd), (odd, even), and (odd,
odd) . The midpoint of (xi, yi) and (xj, yj) is ((xi+x+j)/2, (yi,yj)/2). The midpoint has integer
coordinates if and only if (xi, yi) has the same as (xj, yj). There are only four possibilities for the
parity of integers. By the pigeonhole principle with 5 integers there are at least 2 points with the
same parity. The midpoint of these two has integer coordinates.

16. We can think about the pigeons as the set of all eight integers. Then the pigeonholes are the
four groups (1, 15), (3, 13), (5,11), (7,9). If we choose 5 numbers out of the 4 groups, then we
will get at least two numbers in the same group, and they will add up to 16. SO we have to
choose at least 5 numbers to get a pair that sum to 16.

Part 2
(6.5)

Theorem: there are C(n+r-1,r-1) r-combinations from a set with n elements when repetition of
elements is allowed.

12. There are five things to choose from, repetition allowed, and we want to choose 20 things, order not
important. Therefore the answer is C(5+20−1, 20) = C(24, 20) = 10626 combinations.

20. Let’s introduce a variable x4 such that x1 + x2 + x3 + x4 = 11, note that x4 is nonnegative,
same as count the number of nonnegative solutions to the equality. It is C(4+11-1,11) = C(14,3)
= 364 combinations.

34. We’ll break up the different possible combinations into strings of length seven characters,
six characters, five characters, then add them up.
For length seven: we are putting {1, 2, ..., 7} into the three sections S, E, and R, with S receiving
three numbers, E receiving three numbers, and R receiving one number. There are
7! / (3! · 3! · 1!) = 140 ways to do this.

For length six: we have several cases.

If we left out an R, we are putting {1, ..., 6} into two different sections, each of which gets three
numbers; there are 6! /( 3!·3!) = 20 ways to do this.
If we left out an S, we are putting {1, ..., 6} into three sections which get three, two, and one
objects, respectively; there are 6! /( 3!·2!·1!) = 60 ways to do this.
In the same manner, leaving out an E also gives 60.
Hence there are 20 + 60 + 60 = 140 strings of length six.

For length five: we once again have several cases:

Leave out an S and an R: we get 5! /(3!·2!) = 10.
Leave out an E and an R: also 10.
Leave out two S’s: we get 5!/( 3!·1!·1!) = 20.
Leave out two E’s: also 20.
Leave out an S and an E: we get 5!/(2!·2!·1!) = 30.
This gives a total of 10 + 10 + 20 + 20 + 30 = 90 strings of length five.
Altogether, we get that 140 + 140 + 30 = 310 strings with five or more characters can be formed
from the letters in SEERESS

Part 3
(7.1)

8. The set of 5 card hands is C(52,5). C(51,4) ways to choose the four cards and C(1,1) way to
choose the ace of hearts. p(E) = 1*C(51,4)/C(52,5) = .0961

16. Total set is C(52,5). C(4,1) ways to pick the suit, C(13,5) ways to pick the cards from the
selected suit.
p(E) = C(4,1)*C(13,5)/C(52,5) = .002

32. C(3,3) ways to distribute the prizes among the three people, and C(97,0) for the other 97
people. Total set is C(100,3)
p(E) = C(3,3)*1/C(100,3) = 6.184*10^-6

Part 4
(7.2)

8. a. There are C(n,2) ways to choose the two spots for 1 and 2. Fill in the other n − 2 spaces with the
remaining n − 2 numbers; there are (n − 2)! ways to do this. This gives C(n, 2)* (n − 2)! ways to do this.
There is a total of n! permutations possible, so the probability is:
C(n, 2)*(n − 2)!/n! = n(n − 1)/2 n(n − 1) = 1/2.

b. Similarly to part a, we choose the 2 spots for 2 and 1, and fill in the other n-2 spaces; the total
permutations is n!. Here, the probability is also 1/2.
c. Treat 1 and 2 as a single block, meaning we’re permuting n − 1 elements. There are (n − 1)! ways to do
this, and so there are (n − 1)! permutations with 1 immediately preceding 2. Dividing by the n!
permutations total gives a probability of
(n-1)!/n! = 1/n.

d. We will simply count the possible strings.

First we’ll choose the four spots for 1, 2, n − 1, and n, or C(n,4) ways. Then there are six arrangements for
these four numbers among the four spots, giving us a factor of 6. Then we must fill in the remaining n − 4
spots with the remaining n − 4 numbers, or (n − 4)! ways. Multiplying together and dividing by n! total
permutations, we get a probability of:
6*C(n,4)*(n − 4)!/ n!

e. We need to break the counting up into sections:

We’ll start counting the number of strings where n precedes 1 and 1 precedes 2. First we’ll choose the
three spots for these numbers, or C(n,3) ways. Then we’ll fill in the n−3 remaining spots, or (n−3)! ways.
This gives a total of C(n,3)*(n − 3)! = n!/3! ways to do this.

Now we’ll count up the number of strings where n precedes 2 and 2 precedes 1. This is
symmetrical to the previous case, so there are also n!/3! strings like this. Hence there are 2*n!/3!
= n!/3 strings, as we can see that either 1 precedes 2 or 2 precedes 1. This means the
probability of a random permutation having n preceding 1 and n preceding 2 is (n!/3)/n! = 1/3 .

16. E and F are independent events, which can be translated to p(E ∩ F) = p(E)p(F). So this means we
want to show that p( E ∩ F ) = p( E ) p( F ) . Using de Morgan’s law, we have
p( E ∩ F ) =p ( E ∪ F )
=1 − p(E ∪ F)
=1 − p(E) − p(F) + p(E ∩ F)
=1 − p(E) − p(F) + p(E)p(F)
=(1 − p(E))(1 − p(F))
=p( E ) p( F ).

24. Let A be the event that exactly four heads appear, and let B be the event that the first flip comes up
tails. We have p(A|B) = p(A ∩ B)/ p(B) = (1/2)^5 / (1/2) = 1/264 = 1/16 .

26. Remember that E and F are independent if and only if p(E ∩ F) = p(E)p(F). Consider the possible bit
strings:
000 001 E
010 E 011
100 EF 101 F
110 F 111 EF

Half the strings have an odd number of ones, and half the strings start with 1. Thus p(E) = 1/2 and p(F) =
1/2. Furthermore, two of the eight possible strings correspond to the events E and F occurring at the same
time, giving p(E ∩ F) = 2/8 = 1/4.
Since p(E)p(F) = (1/2)(1/2) = 1/4 = p(E ∩ F), we know that E and F are independent.

32. a. bit 1: 0.5

bit 9 & 10: 0.5*0.5 = 0.25
bit 1,9 & 10: 0.5*0.25 = 0.125
.5 + .25 - .125 = .625

b. bit 1: 0.6
bit 9 & 10: 0.4*0.4 = 0.16
bit 1,9 & 10: 0.6*0.16 = 0.096
.6 + .16 - .096 = .664

c. bit 1 is 1: .5 bit 9 is 0: 1 - 1/(2^9). bit 10 is 0: 1 - 1/(2^10)

bit 9 and 10: .99805*.999902 = .99707
bit 1,9 & 10: .5*.99707 = .49854
.5 + .99707 - .49854 = .99853

Part 5
We’ll say that even in the most ideal situation, realistically not every person who drives a
manual vehicle will be put out of work by self-driving vehicles. We’ll take the phrase “almost all”
to mean around 95% of people that will be put out of work,
A good sample space would be different events that are likely to occur that can affect the
preferences of self-driving vehicles or non self driving vehicles, and vice versa.
The events are development in technology, amount of marketing of self-driving vehicles,
the scope/range of urbanization, and the health of the economy. These are all common factors
in the real world that determine how well accepted or well advertised some product is.

All probabilities are based on time, with k representing the year number in the given
decade, which encompasses the time range of the new technology.
The global economy has, on average, been improving at a slow rate. Self driving
vehicles will slowly become a growing interest for most developed countries, and they will want
to invest more in self-driving technology as time progresses. The probability that the economy
will put almost all manual vehicle drivers out of work is 1-(18/25)^k
Development of technology is on an upward rise, and so self-driving cars will become
more popular as time progresses. The probability that upgrades in technology will put almost all
manual drivers out of work is 1-(20/27)^k
The scope and range of urbanization will affect the amount of space available for
personal vehicles, as more and more the preferred method of transportation will be public
vehicles. Let’s assume that these public vehicles will be non-self driving, and so self-driving cars
will become less popular. The probability that urbanization will cause almost all manual vehicle
drivers to go out of work would be (7/10)*(15/18)^k
Marketing, for the most part, will go down, because the industry will spend more effort to
make self-driving vehicles more popular in the future. Either this happens, after which they can
start advertising self-driving vehicles less, or they don’t become popular, in which the industry
will still lower marketing because the profit margins decrease over time. The probability that
marketing and advertising will put manual drivers out of work is (6/10)*(8/10)^k

Part 6
a. The subset of the sample space where E happens is ({4,6}, {5,5}, {5,6}, {6,4}, {6,5},
{6,6}). The probability of E occurring:
Pr(E) = Pr(10) + Pr(11) + Pr(12) = 3/36 + 2/36 + 1/36 = 1/6

b. Every valid E has a probability of occurrence that is between 0 and 1. The E’s would
range from sums of 2 to 12. Pr(2) = 1/36, Pr(3) = 2/36, .... Pr(12) = 1/36
Note: Pr(greater than 9) is just Pr(10) + Pr(11) + Pr(12)
Pr of the empty space will result in a probability of zero, because all cases are
accounted for, and the sum of all the event probabilities do add up to 1. Pr(2) + Pr(3) +... Pr(12)
=1
Clearly, the roll of one trial does not affect at all the roll of the next trial, and the value of
one roll is independent of the value of another roll, so all the events are disjoint and thus the
union of any combination of events is the sum of the probabilities of them occurring. Ex: Pr(9 U
10) = Pr(9) + Pr(10)

c. 10, 11, and 12 ∈E, which is ‘sum is greater than 9’.

The event E’ would just be the subset (10, 11, 12).
The Pr’(E’) is Pr’(10) + Pr’(11) + Pr’(12) = n10/36 + n11/36 + n12/36 = 3/36 + 2/26 +
1/36 = 1/6

d. Each E here is the same as in part a,b, where the individual probabilities for events
from 2 to 12 all occur with a non-zero probability less than one.
Pr’ of the empty space will again result in zero (no possible event is left out), and the
sum of all event probabilities add up to 1, just as in the the previous part. Pr’(2) + Pr’(3).. +
Pr’(12) = 1
The roll of one trial does not affect at all the roll of the next trial, and the value of one roll
is independent of the value of another roll, so all the events are disjoint and thus the union of
any combination of events is the sum of the probabilities of them occurring. Ex: Pr’(E’) = Pr’(10
U 11 U 12) = Pr’(10) + Pr’(11) + Pr’(12).