IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON POWER DELIVERY, VOL. 20, NO.

1, JANUARY 2005 23

Measurement of Harmonics/Inter-harmonics
of Time-Varying Frequencies
Masoud Karimi-Ghartemani, Member, IEEE, and M. Reza Iravani, Fellow, IEEE

Abstract—A novel method of extraction and measurement of in-
dividual harmonics of a signal with time-varying frequency is pre-
sented. The proposed method is based on a nonlinear, adaptive
mechanism. Compared with the well-established techniques such
as DFT, the proposed method offers (i) higher degree of accuracy,
(ii) structural/performance robustness, and (iii) frequency-adap-
tivity. The structural simplicity of the algorithm renders it suitable
for both software and hardware implementations. The limitation
of the proposed method as compared with DFT-based methods is
its slower transient response. Based on simulation studies, perfor-
mance of the method is presented and its accuracy and response
time are compared with a DFT-based method.
Index Terms—Harmonics detection and extraction, harmonics
measurement, inter-harmonics, power quality, time-varying fre-
quency.
I. INTRODUCTION
H ARMONICS measurement is one of the functions of a
power quality analyzer widely used in monitoring the
quality of power. The use of power electronic devices which
increases the harmonic pollution through power systems on
one hand and the widespread use of sensitive loads such as
computers and microprocessor-based industrial controllers on
the other hand signify the ever-increasing need for harmonic
measurement and compensating devices [1]. To monitor and
maintain the power quality, there has been an increasing interest
in devising harmonic detection and extraction algorithms and
devices over the last decade [1]–[16].
Characterization of harmonic distortion requires means for
accurate measurement of individual and total harmonic content
of a signal. Harmonics measurement of a fixed-frequency signal
is a straightforward task, however, the issue has not been fully
addressed for a signal with time-varying frequency. The voltage
and current harmonics can be time-varying due to i) continuous
changes in the system configuration and the load conditions [2],
ii) rapid proliferation of distributed resources, and iii) possi-
bility of new operational scenarios, e.g., islanded microgrids.
Time-varying nature of the harmonics on the power lines poses
difficulties with respect to their proper detection and extraction,
thereby rendering measurement of time-varying harmonics an
active area of research [3]. Any frequency deviation from the
Manuscript received May 27, 2003; revised September 20, 2003. Paper no.
TPWRD-00267-2003.
The authors are with the Centre for Applied Power Electronics (CAPE)
at the Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, University of
Toronto, Toronto, ON M5S 3G4, Canada (e-mail: masoud@ele.utoronto.ca;
iravani@ecf.utoronto.ca).
Digital Object Identifier 10.1109/TPWRD.2004.837674
0885-8977/$20.00 © 2005 IEEE
nominal value of 50/60 Hz can substantially degrade the perfor-
mance of the measurement devices which operate based on the
assumption of constant frequency.
Conventionally, extraction of individual harmonics is based
on the Fast Fourier Transform (FFT) [4], [5]. FFT, though
efficient in stationary conditions and attractive because of its
simple structure, loses accuracy under time-varying conditions
[2]. Another shortcoming of an FFT-based method is sensitivity
to noise [3], [6]. A number of algorithms, e.g., least-square
techniques [7], [8], artificial neural networks [3], [13], Kalman
filtering [11], Parseval’s relation and energy concept [12],
and adaptive infinite impulse response line enhancer [14],
have been proposed to extract and measure harmonics under
time-varying conditions. Although each exhibits specific ad-
vantages, none is reported to demonstrate good performance
in frequency-varying environments while having a simple and
robust structure suitable for practical applications.
This paper presents a harmonic extraction and measurement
unit which employs the enhanced phase-locked loop (EPLL) of
[17] as the main building block. The mechanism of the EPLL
is such that it extracts the amplitude and phase of the sinusoidal
component of its input signal for which its internal operating
point is preset while adaptively follows time variations in the
characteristics of the signal. The two main features of the pro-
posed harmonic estimator are (1) accurate performance in non-
stationary frequency-varying environments and (2) immunity to
noise. However, compared to DFT, the proposed method has a
slower dynamic response.
Definition of the harmonic estimation problem is given in
Section II. The structure and principles of operation of the EPLL
core unit are reviewed in Section III. A general configuration
devised to extract and measure harmonics is presented in Sec-
tion IV. The transient and steady-state performances of the pro-
posed method are studied in Section V. Section VI concludes
the paper.
II. PROBLEM DEFINITION
Let denote a signal comprising a fundamental compo-
nent of nominal frequency , other frequency components and
noise
(1)
where is the total phase angle of the th com-
ponent, and denotes the total noise imposed on the signal.
Usually is fixed, known and , but it is not neces-
sarily true in all cases. In general, may vary in time in an
24 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON POWER DELIVERY, VOL. 20, NO. 1, JANUARY 2005

-neighborhood of where is determined by the applica-

tion. A component of that has a frequency of (or has a
frequency which is in the -neighborhood of ) is defined as
the th harmonic of the fundamental frequency. A component
of that has a frequency between and (or has a
frequency between and ) is called
an inter-harmonic. The noise is assumed as a zero-mean
white Gaussian with variance .
A harmonic component is primarily specified by its am-
plitude, i.e., in (1), but its instantaneous value, i.e.,
, may be of interest in some applications [14].
The problem of harmonic measurement is to find a scheme
for estimating individual harmonic components as fast and
accurate as possible; a scheme which should not be sensitive
to the noise, and more importantly not to the time variations of Fig. 1. A block diagram representation of the core unit.
frequencies. Simplicity of the structure, for the sake of practical
hardware/software realization, is also desirable.

III. REVIEW OF THE CORE UNIT

This section reviews the mathematical structure and proper-
ties of the core unit which is the basis for the proposed harmonic
measurement method. The proposed method is based on the
concept of the enhanced phase-locked loop (EPLL) system of
[17]. A detailed account of derivations and mathematical prop-
erties of the core algorithm are presented in [18].
It is shown in [18] that a proper setting of parameters
ensures the convergence of solution of the following set of dif-
ferential equations to the unknown values given
that the initial conditions are properly chosen:
(2)
(3)
(4)
In the above set of equations, the dot sign is used to denote time
derivative and the signal is defined by
(5)
The following theorem, proved in [18], expresses the behavior
of this dynamical system more precisely:
Theorem 1: Assume is given by (1) wherein all the
parameters are unknown nevertheless bounded. The dynam-
ical system represented by (2)–(4) has an asymptotically
stable unique periodic orbit in a close neighborhood of
. The core unit presented in the preceding section picks up the
The theorem indicates that the above set of equations has
a solution whose amplitude, frequency, and phase are close
to those of the fundamental component of , respectively.
In the case of slowly time-varying parameters in (1), a proper
setting of the parameters forces the solution to track
such variations.
A block diagram of the core unit is presented in Fig. 1
in which is the nominal value of . The upper branch
computes the amplitude and the lower branch computes the
phase and the frequency of the fundamental component of the
input signal. Three integrations, three multiplications, three
Fig. 2. PLL implementation of the core unit.
gains, two additions, and two trigonometric functions are the
arithmetic operations needed to implement the core unit.
The core unit behavior is controlled by setting the three pa-
rameters . Parameter mainly controls the amplitude
with a time constant approximated as . The other two
parameters, i.e., and , control the phase and the frequency
tracking properties. A wide range of values for these parameters
is acceptable for power system applications, i.e., the structure is
robust with respect to variations in the internal parameters.
The core unit presents an algorithm which is capable of ex-
tracting the fundamental component, estimating its amplitude,
phase and frequency, and accommodating variations in these pa-
rameters. It can be envisaged as an enhanced phase-locked loop
(EPLL) system [17], as shown in Fig. 2.
IV. PROPOSED HARMONIC MEASUREMENT METHOD
sinusoidal component of the input signal having the frequency
predetermined by its internal structure, i.e., preset by the value
of the in Figs. 1 and 2. The dynamic behavior of the algorithm
is theoretically evaluated in [18]. Investigations reported in
[17] and [18] show that the algorithm yields a component
confined in close vicinity of the pre-determined sinusoidal
component. Such a neighborhood is controlled by the values of
step sizes and the level of pollution in the input signal.
Practically, the filter can be adjusted to extract, with sufficient
accuracy, the desired sinusoidal component embedded in the
input signal after a transient period. The steady state error is
KARIMI-GHARTEMANI AND IRAVANI: MEASUREMENT OF HARMONICS/INTER-HARMONICS OF TIME-VARYING FREQUENCIES
Fig. 3. Block diagram of the harmonic measurement scheme.
traded off with the speed of convergence and is controlled
by the values of . set of units. It simply provides an output of zero.
The fundamental and harmonic components of a signal are
sinusoidal components embedded in the signal with frequencies
. A cascaded configuration consisting of core
units can extract the fundamental and the harmonics of the
signal, Fig. 3. The remainder which is the error signal of the
th block is ideally the sum of all harmonics of order
and higher and all other components. Each core unit picks up
its own sinusoidal component and passes the rest, namely the
error signal in which higher order harmonics may exist, to the
next core unit. This structure provides a harmonic measurement
scheme capable of estimating amplitude, phase and frequency
of fundamental and individual harmonics while maintaining
a good frequency tracking ability to render it suitable for
measurement needs in an environment that frequency can
change.
Usually, the amplitude of a harmonic component decreases
as the harmonic order increases. Typically, the th harmonic
component has an amplitude of order . Since one of the
objectives of this work is to extend the functionality of the har-
monic measurement scheme to accommodate higher order har-
monics whose amplitudes are very low, it is desirable to amplify
the input of the core used to extract the harmonic component of
order by a gain of about so that the level of the
input signal becomes relatively the same in all units. The ampli-
tude extracted by the th unit is then reduced by a factor of to
provide the actual value.
In the structure of Fig. 3, the core units are not bound to
exclusively find the sinusoidal component whose frequencies
are predetermined by their internal settings. For example, in
case the third unit is set to extract the third harmonic, its
output moves toward and converges to the next harmonic
component, if the input signal has no third harmonic. The
third unit may provide the fourth harmonic while the fourth
unit is also trying to extract the fourth component. To retain
consistency and avoid competition/repetition of units, it is
plausible to define not overlapping territories for the units.
One possible solution is to define a range of (
25
Fig. 4. Incorporation of frequency limiter and low-pass filters.
) as the territory of the th unit where is
the fundamental frequency of 50/60 Hz. Thus, the territories
do not overlap while covering the whole range of ( ,
) consistently. With this provision, in the example
of a signal lacking the third harmonic, the third unit does
not find the next component within its territory and therefore
leaves the extraction of the subsequent harmonics to the next
Defining the territory for each unit is achieved by imposing
limits in the frequency loop of Fig. 1, as shown in Fig. 4.
The upper and the lower limits of such limiters are set at
.
Since each unit extracts its corresponding component in con-
junction with its value of frequency, there is no confusion as
which harmonic is detected by the unit. For example, if the fun-
damental frequency of 50 Hz happens to deviate to 56 Hz, the
fifth harmonic, i.e., the component with the frequency of 5 56
lies within the territory of the sixth core unit. This
will not be confused with a possible sixth harmonic (which will
then be extracted by the seventh unit).
This method performs well for extracting all other compo-
nents, such as inter-harmonics as well. Thus, the individual
blocks find individual periodic components that exist in the
signal whether they are harmonics or inter-harmonics. Each
block readily provides the frequency of its extracted component
which serves as an identification index. Likewise, the values
of amplitude and phase angle of each component and the
component itself are directly available.
It is possible, and even useful, to include simple low pass fil-
ters (LPF) within the upper and lower loops in the block diagram
of each core unit, i.e., LPF1 and LPF2 in Fig. 4. These filters
smoothen the extraction of amplitude and frequency at the ex-
pense of increasing the time response of the unit. For measure-
ment applications, usually the accuracy of the extracted values
are more important than the speed and therefore the use of fil-
ters are preferred. Each filter can be a first-order, low-pass filter
with a transfer function of .
V. PERFORMANCE OF THE PROPOSED METHOD
This section presents the results of digital computer simulation
case studies carried out to evaluate the performance of the pro-
posed harmonic measurement scheme of Fig. 3. A set of 30 core
units are employed. The fundamental frequency is .
A set of values of , , and is chosen
, as the basis for the parameter settings. The filters within each core
26
Fig. 5. Performance of the proposed scheme for extracting fixed-frequency
harmonics: a) amplitude of the extracted harmonics, b) a magnified portion of
(a).
unit are two identical first-order, low-pass filters with the cut-off
frequency of . The initial conditions of the integrators
are set to zero. To produce smoother output data, the amplitude
and frequency data recorded from each unit were passed through
low-pass filters of the same structure as those within the loops.
The delay produced by the application of such filters is manifested
in the overall convergence time and is presented in the figures
throughout this section.
A. Case I
The input signal to be analyzed by the proposed method is
Fig. 5 shows the measured components of the input signal. The
method works well (as would DFT) in such an ideal situation
where no noise is present in the input signal and no frequency
variation occurs. The magnitudes shown in Fig. 5 take almost
IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON POWER DELIVERY, VOL. 20, NO. 1, JANUARY 2005
Fig. 6. Estimated frequency deviations of the units corresponding to the case
study of Fig. 5.
400 ms to attain their steady-state for the given setting of pa-
rameters. This response time is mostly due to the frequency es-
timation loops of the measurement system.
Since the initial conditions are all set to zero, the frequen-
cies of the units deviate due to the frequency-adaptive nature of
the system, and nonzero frequency deviations are experienced at
the initial stage. As the units approach their steady-states, each
one settles at its own frequency and provides accurate measure-
ment. Fig. 6 shows the corresponding frequency deviations (
in Figs. 1 and 2) for all the units for the case study of Fig. 5.
Figs. 5 and 6 show that when all magnitudes achieve desirable
steady-state values (by ), the frequencies are still
not settled down to their final steady-state values but are ap-
proaching to them. A nonadaptive measurement scheme, such
as DFT, provides the same accurate results for amplitudes within
a transient time of 1 cycle, i.e., 20 ms. However, as it is shown
later in this section, DFT generates large errors when frequency
is not exactly known/preset.
B. Case II
In this case study, a Gaussian noise of standard deviation
of is added to the input signal , thus, the signal
to noise ratio (SNR) is 17 dB. Figs. 7 and 8 present the mea-
surements obtained from the proposed method and those from
an FFT-based method, respectively. The window length of the
FFT is 20 ms which is 200 samples at the sampling rate of
10 kHz. Superior noise immunity of the proposed method in
the steady-state conditions is clearly observed. The transient
time of the proposed method is about 400 ms for the given set-
ting of parameters. During this period, the units achieve their
steady-state conditions consecutively from top to bottom as the
harmonics with smaller frequencies have higher levels of en-
ergy. A DFT-based method can be set to have a transient time
of n-cycle (n: integer). Our simulations illustrate that the level
of noise at the 1-cycle/2-cycle DFT output is almost three/two
times higher than that of the proposed system. As the length
KARIMI-GHARTEMANI AND IRAVANI: MEASUREMENT OF HARMONICS/INTER-HARMONICS OF TIME-VARYING FREQUENCIES
Fig. 7. Performance of the proposed scheme for extracting fixed-frequency
harmonics in a noisy environment: a) amplitude of the extracted harmonics, b)
a magnified portion of (a).
of the DFT-window increases, its noise characteristics become
closer to the proposed method.
C. Case III
To study the adaptive frequency tracking capability of the pro-
posed method, the fundamental frequency of the input signal is
shifted by 1 Hz. Consequently, the frequency of the th har-
monic is drifted by Hz. The settings of the units are kept un-
changed. Fig. 9 shows the performance of the proposed method
for measuring the harmonics. Fig. 10 illustrates the values of
for each unit. Fig. 10 indicates that frequency deviation of
the th unit approaches a value of Hz, for , 3, 5, 9, 11,
13, 19.
Fig. 11 shows the results of an FFT-based method when the
fundamental frequency is shifted by 1 Hz. The extracted har-
monics by the FFT method are assumed to have frequencies of
multiples of 50 Hz as the FFT method does not directly provide
frequency measurement. The measurement errors due to the
leakage effect, observed in Fig. 11, indicate that (i) the stronger
components such as the 5th component are measured but with
large errors and (ii) the errors in measurement of harmonics with
27
Fig. 8. Performance of FFT for extracting fixed-frequency harmonics in a
noisy environment: a) amplitude of the extracted harmonics, b) a magnified
portion of (a).
lower levels such as the 19th component are so high that make
them undistinguishable from the nonexisting components.
D. Case IV
To study the effect of frequency variations on the performance
of the proposed method, the response of the system to a fre-
quency-step is studied. A step change of is imposed at
. Fig. 12 shows that the amplitudes of the harmonics are
accurately extracted. Fig. 13 shows the extracted frequency de-
viations which are for the th unit. The corresponding
erroneous results obtained from the FFT-based method are pre-
sented in Fig. 14.
In the results presented in Fig. 13, the effects of saturation
units, discussed in Section IV, are manifested. The sudden
change in frequency causes the frequency detection path of
the 19th unit to undergo an undershoot of more than 25 Hz,
if the saturation units did not prevent it. Fig. 15 provides a
complete picture of the variations of the frequency deviation for
the unit corresponding to harmonic order 19th which is partly
depicted in Fig. 13. If the saturation unit had not confined the
unit within its frequency territory, it would have moved toward
28 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON POWER DELIVERY, VOL. 20, NO. 1, JANUARY 2005

Fig. 9. Performance of the proposed scheme for extracting the harmonics Fig. 11. Performance of FFT for extracting the harmonics undergoing a
undergoing a frequency drift: a) amplitude of the extracted harmonics, b) a frequency drift: a) amplitude of the extracted harmonics, b) a magnified portion
magnified portion of (a). of (a).

importance of saturation units during the transient states, the

significance of the saturation units are most pronounced in the
steady-state behavior of the measurement system. Without the
saturation units, the free-running units which do not find any
strong component near their initial frequency, keep drifting to
other frequencies already extracted by the neighboring units.

E. Case V
In the previous case studies, the constituting components of
the input signal were the fundamental and the harmonics. The
proposed method is not bound to extract only such components.
The units can extract any existing component up to a prespeci-
fied order. To verify this assertion, an input signal of the form

is considered where the constant phases and are randomly

Fig. 10. Tracking the frequency drift. selected. Figs. 16 and 17 show the performance of the proposed
method and the FFT-based method for extracting the compo-
some other component and would have caused malfunctioning nents of this signal. It is observed that FFT fails to perform prop-
in the measurement system. Although this example shows the erly and identifies two components at frequencies
KARIMI-GHARTEMANI AND IRAVANI: MEASUREMENT OF HARMONICS/INTER-HARMONICS OF TIME-VARYING FREQUENCIES 29

Fig. 14. Performance of FFT for extracting the harmonics undergoing a step
Fig. 12. Performance of the proposed scheme for extracting the harmonics change in frequency: a) amplitude of the extracted harmonics, b) a magnified
undergoing a step change in frequency: a) amplitude of the extracted harmonics, portion of (a).
b) a magnified portion of (a).

Fig. 15. The effect of limiter on frequency.

Fig. 13. Tracking the step change in frequency.

input signal On the other hand, the proposed method provides

50 Hz and 100 Hz with oscillatory amplitudes and a number of accurate estimations of the amplitudes and the frequencies of
weaker components; a result which has no correlation with the the constituting components.
30
Fig. 16. Performance of the proposed scheme for extracting two components
of arbitrary frequencies: a) amplitude of the extracted harmonics, b) frequency
of the extracted harmonics.
F. Case VI
A more challenging measurement scenario is also considered
in which the amplitudes and the frequencies of the signal
undergo variations with time as follows:
where is the unit step function. In other words, frequencies
undergo jumps of 3 Hz and at and at the same
time amplitudes start to oscillate with amplitudes of 0.2 pu and
0.1 pu and frequencies of 0.5 Hz. The results obtained by the
proposed method are shown in Fig. 18. Fig. 18 illustrates that
the proposed algorithm is able to detect all the variations in time
and frequency for the signal.
IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON POWER DELIVERY, VOL. 20, NO. 1, JANUARY 2005
Fig. 17. Performance of FFT for extracting two components of arbitrary
frequencies.
Fig. 18. Performance of the proposed scheme for extracting two components
of the signal with oscillating amplitudes and jumping frequencies: a) amplitude
of the extracted harmonics, b) frequency deviations of the extracted harmonics.
VI. CONCLUSIONS
A method for extraction and measurement of constituting
components of a time-varying signal is presented. The proposed
scheme consists of a number of core units where each is as-
signed to extract a certain component within a pre-specified
frequency range. This core unit is an enhanced PLL structure.
The studies show that the proposed method has an accurate
response for the extraction of harmonics of time-varying fre-
quency under noisy conditions. The study results demonstrate
the superior performance of the proposed method to that of
FFT-based methods in terms of i) immunity to noise, and ii)
adaptivity to unknown/time-varying frequency conditions. The
structure of the proposed method is simple and its performance
is robust with respect to settings of the parameters. The pro-
posed method requires several cycles (of 50/60 Hz) to settle to
a steady-state and this limits its applications to cases for which
the speed of measurement is not a critical factor.
KARIMI-GHARTEMANI AND IRAVANI: MEASUREMENT OF HARMONICS/INTER-HARMONICS OF TIME-VARYING FREQUENCIES
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Masoud Karimi-Ghartemani (M’01) received the B.Sc. and M.Sc. degrees in
electrical engineering from Isfahan University of Technology, Isfahan, Iran, in
1993 and 1995, respectively. He received the Ph.D. degree in electrical engi-
neering from the University of Toronto, ON, Canada, in 2004.
He was with the Center for Applied Power Electronics (CAPE) in the Depart-
ment of Electrical and Computer Engineering at the University of Toronto from
1998 to 2001. His research is focused on developing control and signal pro-
cessing algorithms for power systems protection, control, and power quality.
M. Reza Iravani (M’85–SM’00–F’03) received the B.Sc. degree in electrical
engineering from Tehran Polytechnique University, Iran, in 1976, and the M.Sc.
and Ph.D. degrees in electrical engineering from the University of Manitoba,
Winnipeg, MB, Canada, in 1981 and 1985, respectively.
Currently, he is a Professor at the University of Toronto, ON, Canada. His
research interests include power electronics and power system dynamics and
control.