Unit-1 Study Notes - Vehicle Structures and Engines PDF

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I UNIT -1
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Types of automobiles, vehicle construction
different layouts, chassis, frame and body, Ve'hicle
and
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aerodynamics (various resistances and moments
involved), Ie g.n
engines - components functions and
materials, variable valve timing (VVT).
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I Vehicle StrUcture and Engines

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w.E VEHICLE STRUCTURE AND ENGINES
1.1. INTRODUCTION asy

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The term automobile or automotive stands for a vehicle which can be moved by itself.
Therefore, an automobile is a self-propelled vehicle. It is used for the transportation of
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passengers and goods from one place to another on the ground. A vehicle producing
within itself for its- propulsion is known as self-propelled vehicles. Example. s.oooters,
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mopeds, cars, lorry, bus, jeep, tractors, ship, airplanes, helicopters, rockets etc.
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Automobile vehicles differ from aeronautical vehicle .such as ships, airplanes,
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helicopters, rockets etc., which fly in air and from.marine vehicles such as motor boat which
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Modern automobiles are produced by using complex components of machineries and
therefore, it requires a caretul attention for making it to perform the task in a safe, eeonomical
and efficient way. It is made up of a frame supported by the body and power producing units
and power transmitting units. These units are further-supported by tyres ano Wheelswhich are
connected by springs and axles. In general, the power is produced by internal combustion
engines. This power inturn is transmitted to rear wheels through various transmission ~ystems
such as clutch, propeller shaft, gear box, differential units etc.
The various units are held together in a proper position and arranged on the frame. The
automobile is propelled through the friction between tyre and ground. The super structure or

- Automobile EnginHl1ng
body of the automobile provides protection and comfort to the passenger. The 'essential
features of the typical automobile (i.e. truck) are shown in Figure 1.1.
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Figure 1.1Essential features of an automobile
1.1.1.Brief History of Automobiles

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Germany is the birth place of automobile. It was invented there. It went through its initial
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phases and it was developed to a high level of technical maturity. The list of German
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automobile pioneers is a long one starting with Nicholas Cugnot, August, Otto, Carl Benz,
Gottlieb, Daimler, Wilhelm Maybach and Rudolf Diesel and going all the way up to
Ferdinand Porsche and Felix Wankel.
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The leading manufactures or motor vehicles in the world are as follows.
1. U.S.A.: General Motors, Ford-Ford cars, Chrysler, Dodge

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2. U.K.: Rolls-Royce Limited, Aston Martin, Bentley, Daimler
3. Japan: Toyota, Nissan, Honda, Suzuki, Mazda, Isuzu, Mitsubishi
4. Germany: BMW, Volkswagen, Audi, Skoda, Mercedes-Benz, Porsche, Daimler
AG, Opel, Porsche
5. Italy: FIAT
6. Sweden: Volvo
7. France: Renault

Vehicle Structure and Engines

8. India: TATA motors, Mahindra & Mahindra, Hindustan Motors, Premier
Automobiles Limited, Force Motors, Jaguar, Land Rover (Note. Jaguar,
and Land Rover are acquired by TATA Motors in 2008)
9. South Korea: Hyundai, KIA Motors, SsangYong Motor
The invention of automobiles is not the product of a single man, single country or a
single generation in any country. It is the evolution and development of many men at various
generations in different countries.
The real history of automobile was started during 15th century (i.e. during Leonardo Da
Vinci's period). But up to 18th century, it was not seriously considered for the development in
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practice.
Captain Nicholas Cugnot, a French engineer is considered to be the father of
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"Automobiles". He built the first road vehicle in 1769whlch was propelled by its own-power.
Actually, this vehicle was a 3 wheeler with a steam engine having four seats. It attained a
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speed of2.5miles per hour only for a period of 15minutes. During 1770s, he ~uilt another self-
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propelled vehicle which could run at 8mph carrving.e to 5 Jo1IS..()f weight.
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Richard Trevithick of England first built a practical full sized stearn automobile in 1801.
Julis Griffith of England built the first comfortable stearn vehicle in 1821.
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Onesiphore Pacquaur of France took out a patent on the differential for road vehicle in
1827.
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Etienne Lenoir of France (Paris) constructed an internal combustion engine which was
run by gas during 1860. Two years later, he fitted one of his engines in a vehicle. He drove it
for about 6miles.
Nikolaus A.Otto and Engen Langen of Germany invented four stroke engine in 1876
which was run by gas. It was further improved by Gottlieb Daimler of Germany (in 1885)
who substituted oil for gas. The present day automobile is the development of this vehicle.
Karl Benz of Germany built a tricycle with an l.C, engine in 1885-86 which was working
an Otto cycle. The speed of this engine was 10mph and produced 8HP.
In 1886, Daimler produced a four-wheeled vehicle with high-speed gas engine (800rpm
to 1OOOrpm)which was considered as the greatest achievement in the history of automobile.
In 1890, Charles Duryea, J. Frank Duryea, Elwood Haynes, Henry Ford and Ransom E.
Olds, and Alexander Winton manufactured a.gasoline automobile in America.

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Penhard and Levassor of France developed a first gasoline automobile which
incorporated many essential features of the present day automobile in 1895. This car
contained a vertical engine, modern type of chassis, sliding gear transmission operated by
right hand, clutch, brake and a foot operated accelerator.
Before 1900, a considerable work was carried in Germany, France, England and America
on the development of gasoline automobile. Until 1910, the automobile was in the
experimental work.
During 1900-1906, the production and sales of automobile became a real business. The
world's largest manufacturing industry was built in America. In America alone, there were
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121 car manufacturers in which some of the familiar names are Chrysler, Nash. Hudson.
Packard, Autocar, Oldsmobile, White, Ford, Cadillac, Buick overland, Maxwell, Franklin etc.
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Ford started an automobile industry with an initial run of 20000 vehicles in 1908 and it
was the period when the mass production was begun at the lowest possible price.
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Year 1920 was the period of gradual change and refinement in the automobile design.
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The spark ignition gasoline engine was made with compact, light, high speed, less vibration,
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air or water cooled and noiseless in nature. The engines were located in front of chassis. The
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sliding gear transmission and poppet valve were used in almost every engine.
History of automobile in India:

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In 1898, an American company imported three "Oldsmobiles" cars into Bombay
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(Mumbai). One of which was sold to Jamshedji Tata, an industrialist. It was the first motor
car in India.
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In 1903, an American company began to operate a public taxi service with a tleet of SO
cars.
In order to create and manufacture indigenous product, two automobile factories were set
up in India. They were the Permier Automobiles Ltd., Bombay in 1943 and Hindustan Motors
Ltd., Calcutta in 1944.
Now-a-days, there are many automobile industries for manufacturing automobile
vehicles. Maharastra and Tamil Nadu are the major states which are producing most of the
automobile and auxiliary manufacturing units.

VehicleSttvcture and Engines

1.1.2.Requirements of an Automobile
The following requirements must be fulfilled for an automobile.
1. It should develop power by itself.

2. The rate of power development must be easily controlled.
3. There should be an arrangement to transmit developed power to wheels.
4. An arrangement must exist to continue and discontinue power flow to wheels.
5. It should be possible to control or vary the torque.
6. The driving thrust should successfully be carried in the vehicle.
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8. An arrangement must exist to stop the vehicle while it is running.
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All above requirements are fulfilled by the following arrangements.
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1. The power is developed by the engme.
2. The rate of power development is controlled bv an accelerometer.
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3. The power developed by the engine is transmitted to wheels by transmission
system.
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4. The gear box is provided for varying or changing the torque.
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5. The driving thrust is carried to the chassis frame through the suspension system.
6. Directional control is maintained through the steering.
7. The moving vehicle is stopped by means of brakes. g. net
1.2. GENERAL CLASSIFICATIONOF VEHICLES
There are various types of automobiles vehicles used in the world. In general, these
automobiles can be classified into three main groups.
1. Single unit vehicles or load carriers

2. Articulated vehicles
3. Heavy tractor vehicles.
1.2.1.Single Unit Vehicles

These are conventional four-wheel types. The great majority of vehicles are of two axle
design. In these vehicles, the front axle is a steering or.non-driving axle. With the passage of
time; many changes have taken place in axles and driving arrangements.

-1.2.2.Articulated Vehicles
Automobile Engineering
A lower powered three-wheeler with a single steering wheel in front and a conventional .
rear driving axle are an example of articulated vehicles. It has a greater handling ability in
awkward places. It can be turned about its own tail due to three-wheel construction. The
coupling mechanism between semi-trailer and tractor in most of these vehicles is arranged for
automatic connection and coupling up. If it is necessary, it is reversed into a position. But for
uncoupling operation, a lever is provided within the driver's cabin to reverse the whole
process. A pair of retractable wheels in front is also provided. Along with the coupling or
uncoupling operation, they can be automatically raised or lowered.
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1.2.3. Heavy Tractor Vehicles
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Heavy tractor or independent tractor vehicles are used to move heavy loads. They
. commonly operate in pair either in tendon or as 'puller' or 'pusher'. While descending
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appreciable gradients, the stability is provided by the 'puller' or 'pusher' arrangement.
1.3. TYPES OF AUTOMOBILES E ngi

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Automobiles can be classified with respect to different purposes. A general classification
of the automobiles is shown schematically in Figure 1.2.
(i) With respect to the purpose:

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(a) Passenger vehicles. Examples: Car, bus,jeep, scooter, mopeds and motor cycle.
(b) Goods carriers. Examples: Trucks and Lorries.
(ii) Weight of the vehicle: e t

(a) Heavy weight vehicle such as buses, trucks and trailers.
(b) Light weight vehicles such as.cars.jeeps etc.
(c) Medium weight vehicles such as minibus and station wagon.
(iii) With respect to the fuel used:

(a) Petrol vehicles Examples: Scooters, cars, motors cycles etc.
(b) Diesel vehicles Examples: Buses, trucks etc.
(c) Gas vehicles Examples: Coal gas, LPG, CNG vehicles.
(d) Electric vehicle Examples: Heavy cranes, battery truck, cars and forklifts.
(e) Solar vehicle.

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Figure 1.2 Classification of automobiles
(iv) With respect to body style:

According to body style following are major styles.
a) Closed cars such as, sedan cars, saloon cars, SUV~ coupe etc.
b) Open cars such as sport cars and convertible cars.
c) Special style vehicles such as estate car, station wagon etc.

..
, Automobile Enpineering
(v) With respect to capacity:
(a) Heavy transport vehicle or heavy motor vehicles. Example: Bus, Lorries,
Trucks, Tractors.
(b) Light transport vehicle or light motor vehicles. Example: Car, Scooter, Mopeds,
Motor cycles, Jeeps.
(vi) With respect to the number of wheels:

(a) Two wheelers. Examples: Scooters, Mopeds.
(b) Four wheelers. Examples: Car, Jeep, Buses.Trucks,
(c) Three wheelers. Examples: Auto, Tempos
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(vii) With respect to the drive of the vehicle:
(a) Single wheel drive vehicles
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(b) Two wheel drive vehicles
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(c) Four wheel drive vehicles
(d) Six wheel drive vehicles.
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(viii) With respect to the side of driver seat:
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(a) Left hand drive. Example: Most of the American, European and UAE vehicles.
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(b) Right hand drive. Example: Most of the Indian vehicles.
(ix) With respect to the side of power drive: g.n

(a) Front wheel drive. Example: Most of the light weight cars.
(b) Rear wheel drive. Example: Trucks and Buses.
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(c) Four wheel drive. Example: Jeep, military trucks and off-road vehicles.
(x) With respect to transmission:
(a) Conventional type: In this type, ordinary gear box is fitted. Example: Most of
Indian vehicles.
(b) Semi-automatic type: A combination of manual plus some automatic gear box is
fitted. Example: Most of British vehicles.
(c) Fully automatic type: In this type, vehicles are equipped with full automatic
transmission system by using epicyclic gears and torque convertors. Example:
American and European vehicles.

I Vehicle Structure and Engines

(xi) With respect to their construction:
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(a) Single unit vehicles
(b) Articulated vehicles
(c) Heavy tractor vehicles.
(xii) With respect to motion:

(a) Reciprocating Piston engines
(b) Rotary - Wankel engine
(c) Gas turbine.
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(xiii) With respect to the suspension:
(a) Conventional type. Leaf spring
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(b) Independent. Coil, torsion bar, pneumatic.
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(xiv) With respect to engine capacity:
The capacity of the engine is expressed in swept volume of the cylinder which is
vehicles are given in Table 1.1.

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normally expressed in cubic centimeter (CC). Examples of engine capacity of some of the
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Table 1.1 Engine capacity of some automobile
Vehicle
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Engine capacity (CC)
TVSXL 50
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Bajaj Discover 100,
TVS Sport, Hero Splendor
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Bajaj Pulsar 150 DTSi,
150
Hero Xtreme,
Maruti Suzuki Alto,

800
Chevrolet Spark
(xv) With respect to combination of number of wheels and axles:

The digital figures like 4x2, 4x4, 6x4 etc. are commonly used in the classification of
vehicles. By increasing the number of axles, the load per axle can be reduced which protects
the tyres from overloading and the road surface from damage.

I.. Automobile Engineering

1.4. VEHICLE CONSTRUCTION
Before invention of automobile, the most common type of vehicle used in our country
was a bullock cart. Now-a-days, People are also using bullock cart in rural areas. It is better to
understand the construction of bullock cart before discussing automobiles. Figure 1.3 shows a
bullock cart.
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Figure 1.3 Construction of a bullock cart
A bullock cart consists of the following main parts.

(i) Frame eer
(ii) Wheels and axle
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(iii) Yoke
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(iv) Body or superstructure and platform.
These parts can be divided into the following two main portions. t
(i) Machine portion
(ii) Carriage portion
Machine portion consists of a frame in which wheels are attached through the axle. f
yoke is fixed at the front of the frame through which the cart is pulled by bullocks.
The carriage portion consists of platform and body which is mounted over frames. The
platform consists of two long beam connected by cross members. The load or goods to be
carried by this portion and the total load are borne by the frame.
The basic construction of automobile is similar to a cart. An automobile also consists of a

machine portion and carriage portion similar to a cart. The difference between a cart and an

Vehicle Structure and Engines II1'II

automobile is that cart is a simple vehicle whereas automobile is a self-propelled vehicle. A
vehicle consists of engine to drive the vehicle. In addition, an automobile also consists of
power transmission systems such as clutch, gear box, propeller shaft, universal joints,
differential etc. Automobile is also provided with steering for directional control, acceleration
for speed control and brakes for stopping purposes.
The speed of the cart is slow as compared to automobiles. Due to this fact, the
automobile is subjected to more shocks which in tum put more strains on the frame.
Therefore, the automobile is needed robust frame and shock absorbers to bear all stresses and
strains. The axle is not directly fitted with the frame in the automobile. It is suspended with
the frame through strong springs. In order to arrest shocks and save the passengers from jerks
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and jolts due to rough road condition, shock absorbers are provided.
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Figure 1.4 shows the layout of a car. It consists of an engine which is located at the front
of vehicles followed by transmission systems. The radiator is located in front of the engine.
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Various other parts of the vehicle shown in Figure 1.4 are generator, starter, steering, clutch,
rear axle, differential, universai joint, wheel, tyres, body, lamp etc.
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Gear shift w'ih,,:ee~I _
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Engine Universal joints
crank case Flywheel
Figure 1.4 Layout of a car
The power developed by the engine is transmitted to the rear wheel through clutch,
gearbox, propeller shaft, universal joint and differential. Lamps are provided in the
automobile so that they could be safely driven during night hours. A hom is provided for
making warning sound to other road users.
The body or superstructure is built up to fulfill the requirements or trends of the

passenger. A brake is provided to the vehicle to stop or slow down the speed whenever

I" Automobile Engineering

required. A fuel tank is provided to store the required amount of fuel. A radiator is provided
for cooling the engine and related parts of the vehicle.
1.5. DIFFERENTLAYOUTS OF A CAR

1.5.1. Layout for the Light Passenger Vehicle (Car)
Due to various developments in technology and changes in lifestyle, a motor vehicle has
changed to meet upcoming requirements. Recent days, many types of layouts are used with
their own specific advantages and disadvantages. These changes occur in the location of the
engine and the driving arrangement in terms of number of wheels driven and location of
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wheels. The engine can be positioned laterally or longitudinally to drive either front wheels or
rear wheels or all four wheels.
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1.5.1.1.Front Engine
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Many reasons are involved for placing the engine at the front of a car as shown in Figure
1.5. The large mass of an engine placing at the front of the car gives the occupants protection
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in the event of a head-on collision. The engine cooling is simple as it can get benefit of ail
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movement against the motion of vehicle. Also, the cornering ability of a vehicle is generally
better if the weight is concentrated at the front side because the weight of the engine is placed
over steered wheels.
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Figure 1.5 Front engine
1.5.1.2.Rear engine
By placing the engine at the rear of the vehicle, it can be made as a unit to incorporate the
clutch, gearbox and final drive assembly. So, it is necessary to use some form of independent
rear suspension systems.


Most rear-engine layouts have been restricted to comparatively small cars because the
weight of the engine at the rear has poor effect in handling of the car. So, it makes 'tail-
heavy'. The engine mass on a rear-engine car acts behind the rear axle line. It creates a
pendulum effect during cornering. So, it makes difficult for most drivers due to high speeds.
TATA Nano, Volkswagen Beetle and Porsche sports cars are the example of a rear engine
location.
Rear located engines can also take up a large amount of space which would on a front-
engine car used for carrying luggage. Most of the space vacated by moving the engine from
the front can be used for luggage. At the same time, this space is usually less than available
space in rear side. Vertical engines are used in rear-engine cars. A 'flat' engine or a
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conventional engine mounted on its side will provide the additional space for luggage above
the engine.
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The main advantage of a rear-engine layout is the increased load on the rear driving
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wheels which will provide better grip on the road. Figure 1.6 shows the typical layout of a
rear-engme car.
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Figure 1.6 Rear engine
1.5.1.3. Central or Mid-Engine
Generally, the central or mid-engine location is applied in sports cars. In a rear-engined

car, the engine overhangs the rear axle line but in a mid-engined car, the engine is forward of
the rear axle line. This location provides excellent weight distribution to achieve both good
handling and maximum traction from driving wheels. This advantage attracts and makes
useful for sports and special cars but it becomes disadvantages when it is applied to traditional
passenger cars. The main disadvantage is that the mid-engine location takes up space which
will normally be occupied by passengers in conventional layout cars. Most cars using a mid-

engine position are always sports cars fitted with only two seats, one for the driver and the
other for passenger.
The mid-engined layout shown in Figure 1.7 combines the engine and transmission
components in one unit. Mid-engined cars are normally rear-wheel driven.
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1.5.2. Front Engine Front Wheel Drive
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The majority of light vehicles have the engine at the front of the vehicle with the driving
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power being transmitted to front wheels. In the arrangement shown in Figure 1.8, the engine
and transmission units are placed transversely at the front of the vehicle. So, they are at right
angles to the main axis of the vehicle.
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FinalDrive Frontwheel Clutch
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Rearwheel
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Drive shaft
Universal Joint
Figure 1.8 Front enginefront wheel drive

Vehicle Structure and Engines .....

No propeller shaft is used in the front engine front wheel drive and differentials are
included in the same assembly. This layout provides an optimum body-luggage space and a
flat front line resulting a transverse longitudinal engine position. A good road adhesion is
provided by the large proportion of vehicle's weight acting on driven wheels.
Advantages:
1. Because the engine and transmission system are placed over the front wheels the road
holding is improved especially in wet and slippery conditions.
2. Good steering stability is achieved because the driving force at the wheels is in the
direction that the vehicle is being steered. There is also a tendency for front-wheel
ww drive vehicles to understeer which can improve drivability when cornering.

3. Passenger and cargo space~ are good because there is no need for a transmission shaft
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to the rear axle.
4. Good road adhesion is obtained due to a large part of the vehicle weights are carried
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on driving wheels under normal conditions,
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5. Under steady conditions, this drive is preferred by many drivers.
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6. Lower flat floor line is provided due to dispensing with the propeller shaft resulting
less centre of gravity.
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7. The engine clutch, gear box and final drive are combined similar to a rear engine car.
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It provides a more comfortable drive due to final drive spring.
Disadvantages:
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1. Complicated drive shafts are needed for constant velocity Joints.
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2. Acceleration is affected because the load transfer to rear of the vehicle lightens the
load on the drive axle at the front.
3. The turning circle radius is limited by the angle through which a constant-velocity
joint can function.
4. Due to the combination of steered and driven wheels with short shafts, special
universal joints and more complicated assembly are required.
5. To prevent the rear wheels from skidding under heavy brake, the required weight at
the rear usually necessitates a special arrangement.
6. The tractive effort is reduced which is mostly required on steep gradients and during
acceleration.

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1.5.3. Front Engine Rear Wheel Drive
In this layout, a front mounted engine-clutch-gear box unit drives a beam type rear
axle suspended on leaf springs through a propeller shaft with two universal joints. With
the help of coil springs, the front wheels are independently sprung.
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This layout is one of the oldest layouts which remain unchanged for many years.
Some of the advantages provided by this system are as follows.
Advantages: E ngi
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I. It is reasonably balanced weight distribution between front and rear wheels providing
good handling characteristics.
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2. For easy front wheel steering movement, the engine occupies the reduced width
between arches.
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3. Behind the rear seats, a large luggage space is available by providing the increased
carrying capacity as well as space for easy body movement. e t
4. Accessibility to various components such as engine, gear box and rear axle are better
compared to other layouts.
5. The control linkages such as accelerator, choke, clutch and gear box are short and
simple.
6. For the full benefits of the natural air stream created by vehicles, the movement is
taken by the forward facing radiator in reduced power losses from a large fan.
Disadvantages:
1. A single or split propeller shaft with universal joints and supporting bearings between
front mounted gearbox and rear axle may generate vibration, drumming, howl and
other noises under certain operating conditions.


2. The floor tunnel is necessary to provide a clearance for the operation of a propeller-
shaft system and it may interfere with passenger leg-room.
3. In case of a rigid casing for the axle and final drive, more weight is not supported by
the suspension system so that the quality of the suspension ride may be reduced.
4. Additional universal joints and drive shafts are required for independent rear suspen-
sion.
5. A rear-wheel-drive vehicle when stuck in mud, tends to plough further into the ground
when attempts are made to drive away.
1.5.4. Rear Engine Rear Wheel Drive
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This arrangement eliminates the necessity for a propeller shaft when the engine IS
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mounted adjacent to driven wheels. The engine-clutch-gearbox-final
unit in this layout. In order to reduce the 'overhang'
drive forms a single
distance between wheel centres and
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the front side of the engine, the final drive is generally placed between clutch and gear box.
Gearbox Rear wheel CI'Jtch
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Universal _;
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Figure 1.10 Rear engine rear wheel drive
Advantages:
1. Short driveline because the engine, gearbox and final drive can be built into a single
unit.
2. A majority of weight at the rear of the vehicle gives improved traction during hill
climbing and acceleration.

_ Automobile Engineering
3. It has a simple drive shaft layout compared to a front wheel drive.
4. Effective rear wheel braking is possible with this layout.
5. Due to the absence of the propeller shaft, the obstructed floor space is reduced.
6. The exhaust gases, fumes, engine heat and noises are carried away from
passengers.
7. The drive arrangement results a compact layout and short car.
8. The front of the vehicle can be designed for good visibility and smooth air flow.
Disadvantages:
1. The rearward concentration of weight causes the vehicle to be more affected by side
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turning very sharply into a curve.
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It is difficult to accommodate the liquid cooling of the engine.
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It is difficult to accommodate the fuel tank in a safe zone ofthe vehicle.
Space for luggage is reduced.
5.
6.
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Steering is difficult in slippery conditions.
It has a restricted luggage compartment due to narrow front which houses the fuel
tank also.
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7.
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Natural air cooling is not possible because it requires a powerful fan.
8.
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Long linkages are required for the engine, clutch and gear box controls.
1.5.5. Four-Wheel Drive

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To increase the effective use of the vehicle required to travel on rough unconstructed t
roads and trucks, a special arrangement known asfour-wheel drive is provided. Due to all four
wheels getting driven, the whole weight of the vehicle is available for traction. The system is
provided in jeeps which are known as 4x4 wheel drive or all-wheel drive vehicles. These
vehicles are also called off-road vehicles as it is constructed mainly for the purpose of
unformed or off-road driving conditions. Example: Mahindra Scorpio, Maruti Suzuki Gypsy,
Tata Safari, Toyota Fortuner, Mitsubishi Pajero, MahindraBolero etc.
Advantages:
1. The increased traction is obtainable from four driven wheels which is especially
useful on soft or slippery ground.
2. If the front wheel drops into a ditch, they tend to climb out with a rear wheel drive.

Vehicle Structure and Engines liP-

3. Wear oftyres and other driveline components are more evenly shared.
Differential
Front Axle
Engine
Clutch
Gear Box
Transfer Box
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~ Differential
Figure 1.11 Four-wheel drive

Disadvantages:
1. It increases weight and bulk. nee
2. It increases cost.
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3. It increases fuel consumption.
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4. It increases maintenance due to complexity of transmission system.
5. It is possibly difficult to accommodate an anti-locking brake system. e t
1.6. CHASSIS
,
To construct any automobile, chassis is the basic requirement:Chassis is a French term
and it was initially used to denote the frame or main structure of a vehicle. It is extensively
used in complex vehicles except the body. A vehicle without body is called chassis.
1.6.1. Basic Construction of Chassis
Chassis is the back bone of the vehicle. The components of the vehicle such as power
plants, transmission system, axles, wheels and tyres, suspension, controlling systems such as

lma Automobile Engineering

braking, steering etc., and also electrical system parts are mounted on the chassis frame. It is
the main mounting of all components including the body. So, it is also called carrying unit.
1.6.2. Main Components of Chassis
1. Frame
2. Front suspension
3. Steering mechanism
4. Engine, clutch and gear box
5. Radiator
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7.
8.
Wheels
Rear and front springs and shock absorber
9. Differential unit
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10.
11.
Universal joint
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Brakes and braking systems
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12.
13.
Storage battery
Fuel tank nee
14. Electrical systems
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15. Silencer
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16.
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Shock absorbers, fuel tank, petrol and hydraulics pipe cables and some means
of mounting these components.
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1.6.3. Classification of Chassis
The chassis can be classified into different types on the following basis.
1.According to the fitting of engine:

(a) Full-forward
(b) Semi-forward
(c) Bus chassis
(d) Engine at back
(e) Engine at centre.

Vehicle Structure and Engines _

In full-forward chassis, the engine is fitted outside the driver cabin or seat. Example:
Cars and Mahindra jeeps.
In semi-forward chassis, a half portion of the engine is exactly in the driver's cabin
whereas the remaining half is at the front side but it is outside the driver's cabin. Example:
Tata SE series of vehicles.
ww (a) Conventional drive (b) Froru engine drive
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(c) Rear engine drive (d) Centre engine drive
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Figure 1.12 Classification of chassis according to thefitting of engine
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In bus chassis, the total engine is fitted in the driver cabin. It provides the increased floor
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area in the vehicle. The driver seat is just above the front wheel. Example: Busses and trucks.
net
In most of the vehicles, the engine is fitted at the front portion of chassis. The drive is
only given to front wheels. Example: Matador vehicles. In some vehicles, the engine is fitted
at the back portion of the chassis. Example: Volkswagen cars, Leyland bus of England. In
some vehicles, the engine may be fitted at the centre of the chassis. Example: Royal tiger
world master buses of Delhi transport.
2. According to the number of wheels fitted in the vehicles and the number of driving
wheels:
(a) 4 x 2 drive chassis - It has four wheels out of which 2 are driving wheels
(b) 4 x 4 drive chassis - It has four wheels and all of them are driving wheels
(c) 6 x 2 drive chassis - It has six wheels out of which 2 are driving wheels
(d) 6 x 4 drive chassis - It has six wheels out of which 4 are driving wheels.

IrIm Automobile Engineering

1.6.4. Characteristics of a Good Chassis
For a good chassis design and its good performances, it must have the following
characteristics.
1. Fast pickup
2. Strength
3. Safety
4. Durability
5. Dependability
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7.
Ease of control
Quietness
8.
9.
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Speed
Power accessibility
10. asy
Economy of operation
11.
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Low centre of gravity
12.
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Stability
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13. Load clearance
14.
15.
Braking ability
Good springing rin
16. Simplicity of lubrication. g. net
1.6.5. Layout of Chassis
Figure 1.13 shows the front and top views layout of the typical chassis. In this layout, the
engine location is at the front end of the vehicle. The engine is connected to the gearbox
through clutch. The drive of the engine can be connected or disconnected from the gearbox by
using clutch assembly. The clutch pedal provided at the vicinity of the driver facilitates to
engage or disengage the clutch with gearbox whenever required.
From gearbox, power is transmitted to the differential through a propeller shaft and
universal joints and finally to the wheels via rear axles. The radiator is placed at the front side
of the engine.

Rear
Dump Front
spring
iron . spring
Front view (Elevation)
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Side
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tank
members
Universal joint
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Top view (Plan)
Figure 1.13 Layout of chassis
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1.6.6. Components and Drive Systems in Chassis
1. Frame:
Frame is the foundation for carrying the engine and body of the vehicle. It also
carries steering, power train etc. by means of springs, axles, rubber pads etc. The frames are
made of box, tubular, channel or U-shaped section, welded or riveted together. In order to
make them rigid to withstand shocks, blow twists and vibration mats, cross-bracing or cross
members are used When the engine, wheels, power trains, brackets and steering systems
are fitted on the frame, the assembly is known as chassis. Frame bends upward in a shape

_ Automobile Engineering
at the fear to provide space for rear springs. It is tapered at the front to provide space for
turning front wheels when steered.
2. Suspe_nsionsystems:
"--~
Suspension systems are used in vehicles.
~ to insulate the wheel and axles from the frame

~ in order to avoid the transmission of road effects to passengers while travelling
on uneven road
~ to provide a comfortable ride to passengers and
~ to avoid additional stresses in the motor car frame.
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3. Steering system:
The function of the steering system is to enable the driver to accurately control the
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direction taken by the vehicle under all operating conditions. The system must be light and
easy to operate, free from shock and vibration as direct as possible. The steering system also
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helps to convert the rotary motion of the driver's steering wheel into the angular turning of the
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front wheels as well as to multiply the driver's effort with the leverage or mechanical
advantage of turning wheels.
4. Braking system: gin

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The most vital factor in running and controlling the modem vehicle is the braking
ing
system. In order to bring the moving motor vehicle to rest or slow down in a shortest possible
time, the energy of motion possessed by the vehicle must be converted into some other form
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of energy. Brake is a friction device for converting the power of momentum or kinetic energy
of the moving vehicle into heat.
5. Internal combustion engines: t

'In internal combustion engines, the combustion takes place within the engine unlike
steam engines which work using steam which has externally been. raised in a boiler. In all
Internal Combustion (IC) engines, the air is supplied along with a measured quantity of fuel.
This fuel bums within the engine and it produces a high pressure and high temperature gas.
6.._ Clute":
It is a friction type uncoupling device. It consists of a single steel disc faced with suitable
friction material. It is clamped between two surfaces directly driven by the engine. For
disengagirlg the clutch, the two surfaces are ,Positively separated by pressing the clutch pedal.
The main function of the clutch is to take up the drive smoothly from the engine and to release

Vehicle Structure and Engines _u .. .;.

or disengage whenever desired. The disengagement of clutch is reouired while changing the
gear or bringing the vehicle to rest.
7. Gearbox:
It consists of various types of gears which are constantly in mesh. The gear change-takes
place by sliding the dogs. The main function of the gear-box is to provide the necessary
variation to the torque applied by the engine to the road wheel according to the
operating conditions. The necessary variations are provided due to the presence of different
gear ratio among various meshing gears.
8. Propeller shaft:
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The function is to transmit the power from the rear end of the gear-box to the final
reduction gear in the axle. The vertical movement of the rear axle relative to the frame is also
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accommodated. It is an ordinary Hook~'s joint. The small and limited angular displacement in
the rubber joints is advantageous in damping out torsional vibrations.
9. Universaljoint: asy
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Due to the flexibility of road springs, the rear axle is constantly moving up and down.
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The propeller shaft fitted to the rear axle must also be free to move up and down. To permit
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the turning of the propeller shaft, this movement takes place and universal joints are fitted at
each of its ends. Therefore, the relative movement between engine and driving wheel is
maintained by the universaljoint,
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10. Differential:
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The differential gear carries the power from propeller shaft to rear wheel axles. It helps
two rear wheels to turn at different speeds when rounding a curve. The outer wheel must over-
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run than the inner wheels when taking a turn. The differential gear also ensures that the final
output torque is equally distributed between two wheels without any consideration of
their relative speeds.
11. Springs:
Springs are fitted between frame and wheel to prevent the upward movement of the
frame along with up and down movement of the wheel. A spring is a reservoir of energy
which is stored in steel springs by bending them or by twining them. When the spring resumes
to its normal state, this energy is released.

12. Front axle:
It is used for steering front wheels carried on stub axles swiveling upon kingpin's axle
extremities. Steering arms and track rod link, two stub axles are together used for swiveling
them by a steering wheel about kingpins. The steering wheel linked to one cf the stub axle by
a shaft, a gear box and suitable linkage are operated by the driver's hand wheel. An axle in
which one-piece beam is used to support the vehicle through springs (axle and spring
arrangement) was previously used. Now, an arrangement known as independent front
suspension replaces the axle and spring arrangement. Under the control of springs, wheels are
free to rise and fall independently in the vertical direction to each other.
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13. Rear axle:
Rear axle or driving axle is a tube such as shaft enclosing driving shafts with suitable
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bearings for rotating the wheels. It is used for fixing the rear wheels. It is enlarged at the
centre for enclosing the final drive gears used for providing main speed reduction between
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-engine and driving wheels. The change of direction from the line of propeuer shah to the
transverse line of the axle shafts is also provided by the rear axle.
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When going round a curve, the inner wheel has to travel for a smaller distance in
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comparison to the outer wheel. But both the rear wheel would rotate at the same speed if they
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are connected by a shaft. This rotation of both wheels would result the slipping of one or both
of them on the road surface causing excessive tyre wear as well as severe twisting loads on the
ing
shaft. Moreover, two wheels of exact diameter can only tum at the same speed without slip on
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the straight road. Each wheel is provided with its own separate half-shaft connected by a
differential gear and meeting at the centre of the axle. Therefore, when going round a
curve, the wheels are free to rotate at different speeds although they are provided with
equal drive by the differential gear.
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For preventing the transmission of shock from uneven road surfaces to the vehicle,
springs are used to support the vehicle on the axle. In order to allow the vertical movements of
wheels relative to the frame as well as to allow the parts of the shaft to operate at different
angle final drive gears and the differential gear are used. These are mounted in a casting
attached to the frame with independent sprung wheels attached by means of shafts through
devices called universaljoints.
14. Battery:
In reality, the battery is the heart of the electrical system of a motor vehicle. It supplies
current to the cranking motor and ignition system. The function of the battery is to store
electrical energy which can be used whenever required. Battery may be called nerve- centre of
I Vehicle Structure and Engines . -J

the whole installation because it supplies electrical energy for operating all electrical devices
and other units except the charging device. It also supplies the electricity for operating the
various electrical devices when the vehicle is not operating or running slowly and generator
speed is insufficient to meet the full load requirements.
15. Wheels:
The wheels are fitted below the chassis to support the load of the vehicle and passengers.
They are fitted with hollow rubber tyres filled with air in rubber tubes under sufficien,
pressure necessary for carrying the load. The shocks caused by road irregularities are absorbed
by them. By fitting springs between wheels and vehicle to allow the vertical movement of the
wheels in relation to vehicle, a greater part of unevenness of road surfaces is taken care of.
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1.7. FRAME
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The frame is the main part of a chassis. It is the backbone of the vehicle. All other parts
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of the chassis are mounted on the frame. It is a rigid structure which forms a skeleton to hold
all major parts together.
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At the front end of the frame, the engine is mounted. The engine in tum is connected to
clutch and transmission unit to form a complete power assembly. The frame is supported by
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wheel end tyre assembly. Some parts of the steering system are connected to the frame and
remaining to the body. The fuel tank is fastened to the rear end of the frame.
1.7.1. Functions or Importance of Frame

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1. To form the base for mounting engine and transmission systems. .ne
2. To withstand the engine and transmission thrust and torque stresses as well as
accelerating and braking torque.
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3. To carry the load of passengers and goods in the body.
4. To accommodate a suspension system.
5. To carry the other parts of the vehicle.
6. To resist the effect of centrifugal forces when cornering a curve.
7. To withstand bending and twisting stresses due to the fluctuating or rear and front
axles.
8. To support the load of the body, engine, gear box, battery, fuel tank etc.

It must be strong, light and designed to withstand the shock blows, twists, vibrations and
other strains to which it is subjected to road conditions.
It should also resist the distorting force such as
(a) weight of the components and passengers causing a sagging effect due to bending
action.
(b) horizontal forces provided by road irregularities.
(c) upward twisting forces caused by road shocks.
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1.7.3. Frame Construction
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In order to provide good resistance to bending and torsional effect, the frame sections are
made of proper forms. A typical passenger car frame is shown in Figure 1.14. There are three
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common types of frame sections such as channel, tubular and box sections. They are 'made
from cold rolled open earth steel or heat-treated alloy steel.
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Channel section provides good resistance to bending but it is poor in resistance to torsion
while tubular section provides good resistance to torsion and poor in resistance to bending.
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The box sections provide comparatively better resistant to bending and torsion. These sections
are shown in Figure 1.15.
Side member
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X-member
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C
Q)
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a:I
Q)
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a:
Front cross member
Figure 1.14A typical carframe

Channel section Box section Tubular section I-section
Figure 1.15 Frame sections
The frame is narrow at the front end because of short turning radius of front wheels. It is
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widening out at the rear end to provide a bigger space for body.
The rear and front ends of the frame are curved upward to accommodate the movement
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of the axle due to springing and they are also kept the chassis height as low. It also avoids the
impact effect due to rear axle bouncing.
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member gin 'C
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'-
«S
ing
(I)
a:
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Side member
Figure 1.16 Conventional frame

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Figure 1.16 shows the simplified diagram of the frame. It consists of two longitudinal or
side members of channel section. The side members are braced by many number of eros;
members of channel or tubular section. In a conventional design, the cross members are at
right angles to side members shown in Figure 1.16. Several modern chassis frames have cross
members which has the cross section in the form of 'X' between side members shown in
Figure 1.17.
The brackets are provided to connect springs and support running boards. If necessary,
..
more brackets are provided to support the engine, gear box etc. The engine, clutch and

_ Automobile Engineering 1-
geaf.&oxate bolted together to form one rigid assembly. It is usually mounted at the front end
of the frame by means of rubber pads to withstand engine vibrations.
Body mounting brackets
Cross member
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1.7.4. Types of Frame

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There are three types of chassis frame construction as follows.
1. Conventional frame construction

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2. Semi-integral frame construction
3. Integral or Frameless construction g.n
1. Conventional frame construction: et
This type of frame is also called non-load carrying frame. The loads on the vehicle are
transferred to the suspension by this type of frame. The frame supports various parts of the
vehicle such as engine, power transmission elements and car body. The total frame is mounted
on the wheel axle by means of springs.
The body of the vehicle is made of flexible materials such as wood and mounted on the
frame by using rubber mountings between body and frame. This arrangement makes the body
completely isolated from frame deflection. It is mostly used in heavy vehicles such as trucks.
For commercial vehicles with relatively low volume production, it has advantages of
strong-chassis of less weight which is sufficient to carry considerable pay loads and localized
accident damage. It is easy to repair in comparison to the integral chassis. Further, both long
---
wheel base version and short wheel base version of the same vehicle can be produced. The


cross-sections of the frame are usually channel, tubular or box type. Figure 1.18 shows a
dismantled view of conventional chassis frame and body construction.
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Figure 1.18 Dismantled view of chassisframe and body construction
2. Semi-integral frame construction:

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In this type of frame, the rubber body mountings are replaced by relatively stiff
mountings. This arrangement also transfers a part of the frame load to the body structure. This
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type of frame is mainly used in European cars and American cars. But, this construction is
heavy in nature as compared to the conventional type.
3. Integral frame construction or Frameless construction:

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This type of construction is also called chassis-less, unitary or monocoque construction.
Now a-days, it is used in passenger cars. This construction provides a stiff light construction
which is particularly suitable for mass-produced vehicles. In this type of construction, there is
no separate frame. All assembly units are attached to the body. In this design, heavy side
members of the frame are eliminated and cross members are combined with the floor of the
body. The body of the vehicle gives a mounting for engine, transmission, suspension and
other mechanical units and components. This type of construction is led to much reduction of
weight. Figure 1.19 shows the frameless chassis construction of a passenger car with the
loading distribution arrangements whereas Figure 1.20 shows the dismantled view of
frameless chassis construction for passenger car.

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Figure 1.19 Frameless chassis construction for car
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gin
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ing
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Figure 1.20 Dismantled view of'frameless construction for car
The structure includes a floor structure having side members, cross members, floor and
other components. They are welded together form a single assembly. The surfaces have ribbed
portions.to increase the strength and rigidity. For carrying the engine and front suspension, a
sub-frame is also attached to the front of the body shell. The floor and side panel surfaces
have pressed grooves to increase stiffness.


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Box section roof
rails & headers
Radiator
yoke
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rails
Heavy
structural sill
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Figure 1.21Assembly view of frameless construction
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In this type of construction, the stresses are evenly distributed throughout the structure. A
strong structure with good torsional rigidity and resistance in bending are provided by this
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construction. The structure is also free from shakes on rough roads which cause an increased
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life of door locks, hinges and many other small parts along with a reduced body rattle.
ing
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Figure 1.22 Frameless chassis construction for bus

I'" Automobile Engineering

Very low carbon (0.1%) steel with good ductility is required for manufacturing panels by
pressing. The structural members are required to be stiffened by forming thin steel sheets into
intricate sections by spot welding due to low strength of this material. Entire body is
immersed in a rust protective solution to increase corrosion resistance and rusting resistance.
In order to avoid the objectionable drumming sound from panel due to vibration, a sound
damping material should be packed on inside of the panel. Figure 1.21 and Figure 1.22 show
assembled view offrameless chassis construction for car and bus respectively.
1.7.5. Load on Chassis Frame (Various Resistances and Moments involved)
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A chassis frame is subjected to the following loads.
1. Loads of short duration:
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When the vehicle is crossing a broken patch of road, it is acted upon by heavy and
suddenly applied loads of short duration. This load results the longitudinal torsion.
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2. Combinedloadsof momentaryduration:
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These loads occur while negotiating curve, applying brakes and striking a pot hole.
3. Inertia loads: gin

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These loads are applied on the vehicle due to brake applied for a short period. This load
tends to bend side members in the vertical plane.
4. Impact loads: ing

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These loads are applied during collision of vehicles with another object. It results the
general collapse.
5. Load due to roadcamber:

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It is the load due to road camber, side wind and cornering force while taking a tum. It
results the lateral bending of side members.
6. Load due to wheelimpact:

Load due to wheel impact with road obstacles may cause a particular wheel to remain
obstructed while the other wheel tends to move forward. It will tend to distort the frame to
parallelogram shape.
7. Static loads:
Loads due to chassis parts such as engine, steering, gearbox, fuel tank, body etc. are
constantly acting on the frame. They are called static loads.


8. Overloads:
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The load of the vehicle exceeds beyond the specified design load known as overloads.
1.7.6. Materials for Frame

The various steels used for conventional pressed frame are as follows.
1. Aluminium alloy (ALPAX)

2. Mild steel sheet
3. Carbon steel sheet
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The composition of sheet nickel alloy steel is given as follows.
w.ECarbon 0.25 to 0.35%

Magnanese
Silicon asy
0.35 to 0.75%
0.30% (Maximum)
Nickel
Phosphorus
3%
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0.05% (max) ngi
Sulphur 0.5% (max.).
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1.7.7. Sub Frames rin
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In normal vehicles, various components are bolted on the main frame. But sometimes,
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the component on vehicle is installed on sub frames which are bolted on the main frame. The
sub frame provides a greater strength and furthermore, it is supported at three points on the
main frame.
Sub frames are structural modules which are designed to carry specific automotive
components such as engine or axle and suspension. The purpose of a sub frame in an
automobile is to distribute high local loads over a wider area of the body structure (most
relevant in thin-walled monocoque body designs) and to isolate vibration and harshness from
rest of the body. The sub frames are bolted or welded to the vehicle body. Bolted sub frames
are sometimes equipped with rubber bushings or springs to damp noise and vibrations. An
additional benefit is that sub frames can bel separately assembled and integrated into the
vehicle on an automated assembly line when required.

I Vehicle Structure and Engines ".

alignment may be determined by "X" or diagonal method of checking from given points on
each side rail. The most convenient way to make this check particularly is when the body is on
the chassis, all points are marked on the floor from which measurements should be taken.
Dropping a plumb-bob from each point indicated, the floor is directly marked underneath the
point. Then the vehicle is moved away from layout on the floor as per the procedure as
follows.
1. The frame width is checked at front end and rear end using corresponding marks on
the floor. If the width corresponds to specifications, the centre line is drawn for the
full length of the vehicle, half-way between marks indicating front and rear widths. If
wwthe frame width is not correct, centre line cannot be laid out from checking points at
the end of frame. It can be drawn through intersections of any two pairs of equal
2.
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diagonals.
With the centre line properly laid out, the distance is measured between points over
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the entire length of chassis. If the frame is in a proper alignment, the measurement
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should not vary. .:
3.
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The point is located at which the frame is sprung. Then, diagonals marked as A-B, B-
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C and C-D are measured. If the diagonals in each pair are within the limit, then the
part of the frame included between points of measurements may be kept as satis-
values do Dot satisfy above-mentioned rin

factory alignment. These diagonals should intersect at the centre line. If the measured
limits, it indicates the further correction to be
made between those points.
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o c B A
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o c B A
F.Wure 1.24 Checking/rame alignment
1.8. BODY
The basic form of the modem automobile bcdy is older horse d-ver carriage. They have
5. a single seat type body construction which provides less safety to the passenger from weather.
Larger and more stylish bodies were developed and manufactured with passage of time to
provide increased space, safety or protection to the passengers.
/

Automobile EnglOeering
Body is the super-structure for all vehicles. It may either be constructed separately and
bolted to the chassis or manufactured integral with the chassis (i.e. Frameless construction).
The chassis and the body make the complete vehicle.
A body consists of windows and doors, engine cover, roof, luggage cover etc. The
electrical system in the body is connected to the chassis electrical units so that the battery and
the generator/alternator can furnish the required electrical energy to the system.
1.8.1. Importance of Vehicle Body Design
1. Weight of the body is 40% of total weight of the car and 60 to 70% of total weight of
buses. Therefore, the reduction in body weight is important.
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2. If the weight of the body is reduced, it will also improve the fuel economy (i.e.
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mileage).
3. The body of the vehicle determines its aerodynamic characteristics. Better
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aerodynamic structure leads to fuel economy at high speed and stability in cross
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winds. The positive pressure at the front of the vehicle should be minimized and it
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should be deflected smoothly to prevent the creation of eddies.
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4. The body is also important for aesthetic and ergonomics consideration. It should give
pleasant appeal and style for the customer.
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1.8.2. Requirements of Vehicle Body
The vehicle body should fulfill the following requirements. g.n

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1. It must be strong enough to withstand all types of forces acting on the vehicle. The
..
forces are including the weight of the car, inertia, luggage, braking and cornering
forces.
2. Stresses induced in the body should be distributed evenly to all portions.
3. Weight of the body should be as minimum as possible.
4. It should be able to cope with impact loads of reasonable magnitude.
5. It should have reasonable fatigue life.
6. It must provide adequate space for both passengers and the luggage.
7. It should have minimum number of components.
8. It must have sufficient torsional stiffness i.e., ability to resist the twisting stresses
produced by irregular road surface.


9. It should have good access to the engine and suspension elements.
10. It must ensure a quite ride, easy entry and exit.
11. It should create minimum vibration during running.
12. The shape of the body should be minimum drag.
13. It is easy to manufacture as well as cheap in cost.
14. It should be designed in such a way that passengers and luggage are protected from
bad weather.
15. It should give appeal finish in shape and colour.
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1.8.3. Types of Vehicle Body
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For different types of auto-vehicles, passenger space and overall dimensions vary. Various
types of bodies for different vehicles can be listed as below.
1. Car
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2. Straight truck
3. Truck - half body type E ngi
4. Truck-platform type
5. Tractor nee
6. Tractor with articulated trailer
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7. Tanker
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8. Dumper truck
9. Delivery van e t
10. Station wagon
11. Pick-up
12. Jeep
13. Buses
14. Mini-buses
15. Three wheeler (i.e., Auto rickshaw)
The car bodies have great resistance to wind. For high-speed vehicles, a special attention
is given to streamline the body. The streamlining is the process for shaping the body to reduce
air resistance. It is mainly used for racing cars.

Truck Punjab body or straight truck Truck IIall body
Truck platform type Tractor
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Pick-up
Tructor wUlt articulated trailer
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Dumper truck
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Tanker
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Dumper truck.
Car Jeep
Figure 1.25 Different types of bodiesfor different vehicles
Straight truck vehicle bodies are constructed into two parts. One is driver cabin and other
one is goods carriage. Goods carriage is a closed type with particular standard height. These

Vehicle Structure and

vehicles are used to carry goods which are affected by weather conditions. Example.
Vegetables, sugar, rice, sea foods etc.
Truck half body is having driver cabin as usual but the goods carriage has open at the top.
It is used to carry various goods which are not affected by weather. Truck platform type has
also a separate driver cabin. Its goods carriage is a platform type. It usually carries goods such
as iron billets, barrels, concrete slabs etc.
Tractor consists of small length body in addition to driven cabin. Usually, an articulated
trailer is attached to the rear end of the trailer. This trailer has various cabins. Figure 1.25
shows different types of bodies normally designed for different vehicles. It may be an open
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type or a closed type depending on the purpose of use. It is used to carry passenger cars,
mopeds, motor cycles etc. Most of these vehicles have six wheels.
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Tanker is the vehicle which consists of a tank to carry fluids of various natures. The tank
may be welded or bolted to the chassis frame behind the driver cabin. The tank has an opening
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at the top to pour fluid and a drain cock at the bottom to drain the fluid.
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Dumper truck has heavy goods carrying panel with open top in the rear side. The rear side
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can be tilted up and down by hydraulic cylinders. It is used to carry brick, stones, marbles etc.
1.8.4. Body Construction and its Components nee

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The main purpose of designing the car body is for containing and protection of the engine
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and accessories as well as the passenger. To fulfill above requirements, the vehicle body has
various components which are grouped under the following three groups.
(a) Structure: All load carrying elements are defined as structure. e t

(b) Finish: This group includes all unstressed units such as bonnet, boot, lid, bumper etc.
(c) Equipment: This group includes various parts such as rim, seats, doors, window etc.
The various components of car body are: body, sheets, pillar-less frame, front and rear
doors, front panel, roof panel, floor panel with engine beams, wheel arches, bonnet, wind
screen pillar, wind screen, front and rear window, front and rear bumper, cowl assembly, front
and rear seats, luggage space as a continuation of passenger compartment, folding roof with
windup windows, sliding roof and folded flat windscreen, hood etc.
All steel sections of bodies are stamped out by dies separately and welded to other
sections for forming the steel bodies. The body of the car is made up of many sheet metal
panels. Each panel is so designed to give enough strength and rigidity to the assembled unit.

locations of the body, the reinforcing members are incorporated at proper
interspaces,
Front
Roof Doorpiller
Wind window
screenpillar-\----:T--t--~_
Wind
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Door
panels
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Figure 1.26 Components of car body
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The main skeleton of the car body has two types of panels: 1. Outer panel. 2. Inner panel.
The outside panels provide the shape of the car body whereas the inner panels reinforce the
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shell of the body. The various curved shapes are given to outer panels to provide the strength
to panels. The inner panels provide mounting locations for various trim panels and connecting
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assemblies. These two panels are welded together to pillars and rails so as to form the skeleton
of the car body.
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Initially, the floor of the cal"body is assembled and then pillars, rails and panels are
welded in order to form the complete car body. The floor is made up of 3 pressed steel panels
such as front, centre and rear sections as shown in Figure 1.27.
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'Each unit is so designed that it gives a low profile and the Cal" accommodates more
passengers. In order to give additional strength, rigidity and prevent excessive vibration, metal
.
strips have been welded at different places of the floor panel. Then the rear wheel houses
inner panels and rocker panels are welded to the floor. The wheel house panel is welded to the
floor to provide sufficient clearance for the up and down movement of wheels while running
on the road. The box shaped rocker panels which are fixed to sides of the floor, as shown in
Figure 1.28, provide additional strength to the floor panel.

Rear section
Front section
Centre section
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Figure 1.28Rocker panels attached tofloor
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The cowl assembly or the front portion of the car is made up of many smaller panel
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stampings of steel sheet metal shown in Figure 1.29. Usually, the cowl assembly is welded to
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the rocker panel and floor panel. The wind-shield opening frame accommodates the front
glass which is curved in shape in many cars. The top outer cowl panel is sometimes vented to
allow the fresh air to enter into the car. The dashboard panel accommodates different warning
and indicating devices required to operate the car. The instrument panel is usually welded to
the cowl but in some design, it is also bolted to the cowl. The pillars on sides of the cowl are
used for fastening the front door hinges and cowl side panels. The fire wall of the cowl
assembly is the sheet metal panel which separates the front passenger space from the engine
space. This wall is insulated in such a way that the engine heat and noise are prevented from
entering into the passenger space.

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Cowl body mounts
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Cowl side panels
Figure 1.29 Cowl assembly
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Figure 1.30 Construction 0/ centre pillars and roo/rails

The centre pillar supports the rear doors and hinges and sticker plates of front doors. It
also supports the roof rails and centre pillars as shown in Figure 1.30. The roof rails and
centre pilJars are usually of box section. It gives maximum strength to the body. Drip
mountings are added to side rails of the roof panel as shown in Figure 1.31. The drip
mountings are U shaped channel. It is used to catch and direct the water of the roofto the back
of the car during raining: 'rhe, roof panel is welded to the top side rails. The rear window and
front windshield frames are attached to the roof.panel by spot welding.
U-shaped drip moulding
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g. net
Drain trough
Figure 1.32 Quarter panels
The rear quarter panels are welded to the rear wheel house panel, the floor panel and the
rear of the rocker panel as shown in Figure 1.32. The trunk lid provides cover for the trunk
compartment. It is attached to the body with the help of hinges as shown in Figure 1.33. In
order to prevent the water and dust to enter into the compartment, a rubber weather strip is
provided. Locking arrangement is also provided for the rear compartment.

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Figure 1.33 Trunk lid
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Engine compartment is formed by assembling different sheet metal panels. This
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assembly covers the frent wheels and therefore, it prevents the dirt, mud, snow etc. being
thrown off by front tyres on engine and body of the car. The radiator support is provided to
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support the radiator by means of bolts. A stone shield is bolted to the radiator support and the
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fenders. It prevents the striking of small flying stones on to the radiator grills and radiator and
thus, it avoids their damage. The two tenders which cover the front wheels are connected by
the radiator support.
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The arrangement of engine hood is shown in Figure 1.34. It is constructed in the same
manner as the trunk lid. It has inner and outer panels. The inner panel acts as the
reinforcement to the engine hood. It provides mounting locations for the hood lock and
hinges. The outer panel gives the shape to the body. The hood is attached to the car body by
means of hinges.
One of the most important components inside the car body is a seat. The seats of the car
are of various types such as folding back, bucket or rigid. The seats of the present day cars are
generally of the bucket type. The seats are mounted Uli laiiS wiucl; :::~L: them adjustable. The

back can also be tilted at the convenient position and they are also provided with head rest for
safety in case of accident.
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Present day cars use four doors, two in front and two in rear. The front doors are hinged
on front pillars whereas rear doors are hinged on centre pillars. Each door is provided with a
check arm consisting of an articulated plate secured on pillar and sliding into a slot in door.
The rubber weather strips are bonded with a special compound around doors. Each the door
consists of door handle, window, window glass regulator crank, arm rest, drop glass panel as
shown in Figure 1.36. In modern cars, five doors are provided. Fifth door is used as a trunk

lid. The special glass used in automobiles prevents the passenger seriously injured in case of
any accident. It is specially designed in such a way that it does not form sharp edges when
broken.
Four way
adjustable headrest
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Figure 1.35Self adjusting seat
Anti-draft
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Figure 1.36Front door of Fiat 1100 select car


Bumpers are provided at the front and rear end of the car. These are used to protect the
front end and rear end of the car from damage in case of light collisions. They are
manufactured by heavy gauge steel sheet. It is of £. channel section with the open side turned
inwards. It is bolted or riveted to ends of the longitudinal members of the car frame or front
body rails. Bumpers of modern cars are manufactured using fibre reinforced composite sheets.
1.8.6. Materials for Body Construction
The materials usedfor construction of various parts of the body are steel, wood, plastics,
toughened glass and aluminium. In earlier days, wooden bodies were used for construction.
But now-a-days, steel is mainly used for body construction because of low cost and easy to
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manufacture.
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WQoden bodies require a separate steel chassis frame to carry the load. The body
structure was ~eavy. Further, wooden bodies are flexed considerably and hence, they have
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short life: Initial cost is also high. Therefore, these bodies become obsolescence now-a-days.
Sheet metal is widely used for body construction. It has high stiffness which results
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negligible non-flexing and hence, it has longer life. Its initial cost is also less. Aluminium has
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also been used by some manufactures because of its good formability, light in weight and
rigidity. ee
more resistance to corrosion qualities. But, its main disadvantage is lesser stiffness and
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Present day, plastic bodies are popular. Thermoplastics are quite often used for many
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components such as boot covers, grills etc., whereas thermosetting plastics are mainly used for
net
body shells. ~temost widely used thermosetting plastic is glass fibre reinforced resin. This
material can be moulded to any shape easily. The resulting structure is of light weight. The
latest type of plastics used for body construction is carbon fibre reinforced plastics. It is
stronger than steel and also weightless. But the cost is very high.
Wind screen/and window panels are made by toughened glass. As already mentioned in
the previous section, it has a special property when broken. It does not form sharp edges or
pieces. All broken pieces are in the form of rounded granules which do not cause injury. There
are two different types of safety glasses, namely, laminated safety glass and tempered safety
glass. Laminated safety glass consists of two layers of glass bonded together with the help of
another inner layer of vinyl transparent plas~ic under heat and pressure. When this glass is
shattered by impact, the centre layer of plastic holds the broken pieces of glass together and
thus it is not allowing them to fly. These glasses are generally used for windscreen of the
vehicle. The tempered safety glass is made from a single piece of case-hardened or heat-

treated glass. Initially, it is cut to the required shape and then heat treated until it becomes soft.
Then it is blasted with cold air to the outer surface to create tension between inner soft and
outer hard surface. Thus, it becomes five times harder than ordinary glass. These glasses are
used for side or rear windows.
1.9. VEHICLE AERODYNAMICS

1.9.1. Resistances to Vehicle Motion
The fundamentals of vehicle design involve the basic principles of Newton's second law
of motion. According to Newton's second law the acceleration of an object is proportional to
the net force exerted on it. Hence, an object accelerates when the net force acting on it is not
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zero. In a vehicle, several forces act on it and the net or resultant force governs the motion
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according to the Newton's second law. The propulsion unit of the vehicle delivers the force
necessary to move the vehicle forward. This force of the propulsion unit helps the vehicle to
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overcome the resisting forces due to gravity, air and tire resistance. The acceleration of the
vehicle depends on.
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the power delivered by the propulsion unit
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the road conditions
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"the aerodynamics of the vehicle
the composite mass of the vehicle.
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(i) Air resistance or Aerodynamic drag
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Broadly the resistances can be categorized into the following categories.
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(ii) Gradient resistance
(iii) Rolling resistance
(iv) Inertia force.
All the above produce a restraining force working against the tractive force. The tractive
force must be greater than or equal to the resistive forces in order to maintain a sustainable
motion.
1.Air resistance / Aerodynamic drag:

A vehicle traveling at a particular speed in air encounters a force resistmg its motion. This
force is known as aerodynamic drag. Simply speaking, it is the resistance offered by air to the
vehicle motion. It depends upon the following factors.
(I) Size of the vehicle

..
I Vehicle Structure and Engines ,

(2) Shape of the vehicle
(3) Speed of the vehicle
(4) Wind velocity.
2. Gradient resistance:
It is the component of the vehicle's weight which is parallel to the plane of the road.
When a vehicle goes up or down a slope, its weight produces a component of force that is
always directed downwards. If the vehicle travels uphill, a component of its weight works in a
direction opposite to its motion. If some energy is not supplied to overcome this backward
force, then the vehicle would slow down, stall and roll backwards. If the vehicle is trading
" a slope of 8, then the weight of the vehicle. W has two components. one
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uphill at.
perpendicular to the road surface (with a value W x Cos 8) and the other along the road
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surface (with a value W x Sin 8). The component along the road surface is the one that tries to
restrict the motion.
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The gradient resistance is given by. FG = W x Sin 8
J. Rolling resistance:
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The rolling resistance of tyres on hard surfaces is due to hysteresis it. the tyre material.
When a vehicle rolls, it rolls with its tyres in contact with the road surface. The relative
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motion of two hard surfaces produces a friction. Further, neither the road, nor the tyre is
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perfectly rigid. Hence, both flex under the load slightly. As there is a gradual deformation at
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the contact between the road and the tyre, greatest at the bottom most point and least at the
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entry and exit points, the slip of the tyre with respect to the road produces another type of loss
of energy which results in a resistance.
Rolling resistance is the sum of the following components.
). Tyre Rolling resistance: Resistance from tyre deformation

). Road rolling resistance: Resistance from tyre penetration and surface
compression.
). Resistance due to tyre slip angle: Resistance from tyre slippage and air
circulation around wheel.
). Resistance due to bearing friction and residual braking.

I·M Automobile Engineering

4.lnertiaforce:
In addition to the driving resistance occurring in steady state motion, inertia forces also
occur during acceleration and braking. The total mass of the vehicle and the inertia mass of
those rotating parts of the drive accelerated or braked are the factors influencing the resistance
to acceleration. The rotational component is a function of the gear ratio. The moment of
inertia of the rotating drive elements of engine, clutch, gearbox, drive shaft, etc., including all
the road wheels are reduced to the driving axle.
1.9.2.Aerodynamics of Automobile Body
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Aero means air, dynamics means motion. Aerodynamics is the behaviour of air in motion
relative to the vehicle body. The body design pertaining to shape and size of the vehicle must
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have acceptable aerodynamic characteristics.
The following are various aerodynamic forces acting on the vehicle.
(i) Dragforce (Fj: asy

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Force of air drag is acting in the direction of vehicle motion with the wind acting along
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the longitudinal direction axis. This force is also called air resistance.
It offers the resistance to motion of the vehicle. The various factors such as profile drag
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(57% of total vehicle), induced drag (8%), skin friction (10%), interference drag (15%) and
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cooling and ventilation system drag (10%) affect the total drag. The total aerodynamic drag
can be calculated by using the equation.
2A
Ii. ~ =C .r pV -2
g. net
where
C,= drag coefficient
p = den~~ of air
V = Velocity of air
A = Proj~ area of the vehicle viewed from front.
The main causes of aerodynamic drag are:

);> shape drag
);> skin friction drli
The shape drag is due to the shape of the vehicle. The forward motion of the vehicle
pushes the air in front of it. However, the air cannot instantaneously move out of the way and

I Vehicle Structure and Engines 11m i

its pressure is thus increased. This results in high air pressure in the front of the vehicle. The
air behind the vehicle cannot instantaneously fill the space left by the forward motion of the
vehicle. This creates a zone of low air pressure. Hence, the motion of the vehicle creates two
zones of pressure. The high pressure zone in the front of the vehicle opposes its movement by
pushing. On the other hand, the low pressure zone developed at the rear of the vehicle opposes
its motion by pulling it backwards. The profile of the body should be carefully selected to
avoid the drag force.
The air close to the skin of the vehicle moves almost at the speed of the vehicle while the
air away from the vehicle remains still. The difference in speed between two air molecules.
produces friction. Skin friction drag can be reduced by using very smooth and well-polished
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body. Avoiding excessive projections such as door handles, mirrors, aerials helps in reducing
drag.
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Rolling
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moment
Figure 1.37Forces ami moments acting on the vehicle body

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(ii) Lift force (FJ:
Aerodynamic lift force is the vertical component of the resultant force caused by the
pressure distribution on the body.
Lift force can be calculated by using the equation

2A
F_ =C_pV -
- - 2
where
Cz = lift coefficient
p = density of air.
The aerodynamic lift will tend to reduce the pressure between tyres and ground which
causes the loss of steering on the front axle and loss of traction on the rear axle.

'Automobile Engineering
(iii) Cross windforce (Fy):
Cross wind force is acting in the lateral direction on the side of the vehicle. It is formed by
the asymmetric flow of air around the vehicle body. These forces are acting at the centre of
pressure instead of centre of gravity and hence, they cause various moments as follows.
a. Pitching moment (My) is caused by the drag force F, or lift force F, about Y axis.
This moment makes the rear wheels lift off from the ground and further it reduces
the available traction.
b. Yawing moment (MJ is caused by the cross wind force Fy about Z axis.
c. Rolling moment (My) is caused by the cross wind force Fy about Z.
wwFigure 1.37 shows the forces and moment acting on the vehicle body.
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1.10. INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINE (IC ENGINE)
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An engine is a prime mover. It is a heart of the automobile. It is one of the important and
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biggest units in automobiles. If it fails to work, the vehicle is dead. Internal Combustion
engine (K' engine) is a heat engine which converts the chemical energy of fuel into
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mechanical energy. The chemical energy of a fuel is first converted into thermal energy by
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means of combustion or oxidation with air inside the engine. This thermal energy is again
converted into useful work through mechanical mechanism of the engine. Most of the IC '
ing
engines are reciprocating engines having pistons that reciprocate back and forth inside a
cylinder internally within the engine.
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1.11. ENGINE CONSTRUCTION
Figure 1.38 shows the construction details of an IC engine (Four stroke petrol engine).
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The main components of a four stroke cycle engine are cylinder, piston, connecting rod,
piston rings, cam shaft, crank shaft, crank case, inlet and outlet valves, spark plug, cylinder
head, push rod, gudgeon or piston pin, rocker arm, cam follower, valve spring, big end
bearing, inlet port, exhaust port etc.
The piston reciprocates inside the cylinder. Piston rings are inserted in the circumferential
grooves of the piston. The cylinder and cylinder head are bolted together.

Vehicle Structure and Engines lliiJI

Rocket
Inlet
port
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Figure 1.38 Constructional details of IC engine
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The reciprocating motion of the piston is converted into rotary motion of the crankshaft
by means of a connecting rod and crank. The small end of the connecting rod is connected to
the piston by a gudgeon pin or piston pin. The big end of the connecting rod is connected to
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the crank pin. Crank pin is a bearing surface and it is rigidly fixed to the crankshaft. The
crankshaft is mounted on the main bearing. The main bearings are housed in the crankcase.
Camshaft is driven by the crankshaft through timing gears. The camshaft actuates the inlet
and outlet valves. The valve springs are provided to bring back the valves to the closed
position. The oil sump containing lubricating oil is ~rovided at the bottom of the crankcase.
Lubricating oil is circulated to various parts of the engine from the oil sump. A spark plug is
provided in petrol engines to ignite the air-fuel mixture in the engine cylinder. An injector is
provided in diesel engines to inject the fuel into hot compressed air during power stroke.

Automobile Engine-ering
1.12. COMPONENTS OF IC ENGINE
The following are the list of major components found in most of the reciprocating I.e.
engines.
1.12.1. Cylinder Block

It is the main body of an engine which contains cylinders. The piston reciprocates inside
the cylinder to develop power. The cylinders are accurately finished to accommodate pistons.
The cylinder block also houses crank, crankshaft, piston and other engine parts. During
combustion, high pressure and temperature will be developed inside the cylinder. Therefore, it
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should be made of material which can resist high temperature and pressure. It is made of grey
cast iron or aluminium with steel sleeves. In water-cooled engines, the cylinder block is
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provided with water jackets for the circulation of cooling water as shown in Figure 1.39.
a Cylinder head
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Hole for spark plug
Cylinder
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Water Jackets
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Figure 1.39 Engine cylinder
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1.12.2. Cylinder Head
The cylinder head is bolted at the top of the cylinder block. It houses the inlet and exhaust
valves through which the charge is taken inside of the cylinder and burnt gases are exhausted
to the atmosphere from the cylinder. It also contains a spark plug hole or injector hole and
cooling water jacket. The materials used for cylinder heads are cast iron, aluminum alloy etc.


1.12.3. Crankcase
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It may be cast integral with the cylinder block. Sometimes, it is separately cast and bolted
to the cylinder block. It supports crankshaft and camshaft with the help of bearings.
Sometimes, the bottom of crankcase may be used as oil sump. It is made of cast iron,
-aluminum alloys or alloy steels.
1.12.4. Oil Sump or Oil Pan
Oil sump is fitted at the bottom of crankcase by using a gasket. It contains lubricating oil.
A drain plug is provided to the oil-sump to drain out the oil. It is made of pressed steel sheet.
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1.12.5.
, Cylinder Liners
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Inside the cylinder, the piston constantly moving up and down which will cause wear in
cylinders. When the cylinder diameter is increased beyond certain limit, the entire cylinder
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block should be discarded and it is costly. To avoid cylinder wear, a separate liner which is in
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the form of sleeve is inserted into the cylinder bore. Here, the wear will take place in the liner
only which can be replaced easily when worn out. There are two types of liners.
1. Wet liner: ngi

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The liners are surrounded by cooling water shown in Figure 1.40. It provides wear-
2. Dry liner: r
resisting surface for the piston to reciprocate. It also acts as a seal for the water jacket.
ing
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Dry liners have metal-to-metal contact with the cylinder block. They are not directly in
touch with cooling water. Liner material should withstand abrasive wear and corrosive wear.
Chromiumplated mild steel tubes are used as liners.
Cylinder Block Cooling water Cylinder Block
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Dry liner
Figure 1.40 Cylinder liners

Imll Automobile Engineering

1.12.6. Piston
It is a cylindrical shaped mass which reciprocates inside the cylinder. The piston serves
the following purposes.
,_. It acts as a movable gas tight seal to keep gases inside the cylinder.
,_. It transmits the force of explosion in the cylinder to the crankshaft through connecting
rod.
Lands
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boss
pin
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E Figure 1.41Piston
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The top Of the piston is called crown and sides are called skirt. It has grooves to hold
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piston rings and oil ring. It is opened at the bottom end and closed at the top. Sometimes, T-
slots are provided in the skirt to allow expansion.
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Piston is made of cast iron, Aluminium alloy, chrome-Nickel alloy, nickel-iron alloy and
cast steel. They are manufactured by casting orforging method.
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Various types of automotive pistons:
(i) Trunk piston:

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Trunk pistons are long relative to their diameter. They act both as piston and as a
cylindrical crosshead. As the connecting rod is angled for a part of its rotation, there is also a
side force that reacts along the side, of the piston against the cylinder wall. A longer piston
helps to support it.
Trunk pistons have been a common design of piston since early days of the reciprocating
internal combustion engine. They were used for both petrol and diesel engines although high
speed engines have now adopted the lighter weight slipper piston.


A characteristic of most trunk pistons particularly for diesel engines is that they have a
",-
groove for an oil ring below the gudgeon pin not just the rings between gudgeon pin and
crown.
lands
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Piston Boss
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(ii) Crosshead piston: gin
Figure 1.42 Trunk piston
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Large slow-speed diesel engines may require additional support for the side forces on the
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piston. These engines typically use crosshead pistons. The main piston has a large piston rod
extending downwards from the piston to a second smaller-diameter piston. The main piston is
responsible for gas sealing and it carries the piston rings. The smaller piston is purely .ne a
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mechanical guide. It runs within a small cylinder as a trunk guide and also carries the gudgeon
pin. Because of the additional weight of these pistons, they are not used for high-speed
engines.
Cross head
Piston rod
:::::::~.:::::~-·-..:::O""----I
Figure 1.43 Crosshead piston

(iii) Slipper piston:
A slipper piston, also called as partial skirt piston, is a piston for a petrol engine which
has been reduced in size and weight as much as possible. In extreme cases, they are reduced to
the piston crown, support for the piston rings and just enough of the piston skirt remaining to
leave two lands so as to stop the piston rocking in the bore. The sides of the piston skirt
around the gudgeon pin are reduced away from the cylinder wall. The purpose is mostly to
reduce the reciprocating mass, thus making it easier to balance the engine and so, it permits
high speeds. A secondary benefit may be some reduction in friction with the cylinder wall.
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Figure 1.44 Slipper piston
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(iv) Deflector piston:
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Deflector pistons are used in two-stroke engines with crankcase compression where the
gas flow within the cylinder must be carefully directed in order to provide efficient
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scavenging. With cross scavenging, the transfer (inlet to the cylinder) and exhaust ports are
directly on facing sides of the cylinder wall. To prevent the incoming mixture passing straight
across from one port to the other, the piston has raised a rib on its crown. It is intended to
deflect the incoming mixture upwards and around the combustion chamber.
Much effort and many different designs of piston crown are taken in developing
improved scavenging. The crowns developed are from a simple rib to a large asymmetric
bulge usually with a steep face on the inlet side and a gentle curve on the exhaust as shown in
Figure 1.45.

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Various types of piston failure:
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Figure 1.45 Deflector piston
(i) Piston wear: r ing

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Problems are related to the piston and rings will usually fall into one of two categories,
excessive wear or piston seizure. Excessive wear can often be detected visually even before
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any measurements are taken. From normal operation, the wear pattern on the thrust face of a
piston will cover 20-40% of the face. If it covers 50% or more with visible vertical scratches,
there has been contamination between piston and cylinder wall causing excessive wear.
(ii) Piston erosion:

The erosion at the top edge of the piston is also due to wear. As the rings wear, oil
consumption increases thereby more combustion deposits results and a carbon ridge forms at
the top of the cylinder.
In the area near the exhaust valve, the carbon becomes hard and abrasive from e .haust
temperatures. When the piston repeatedly hits those hard deposits, the material is gradually
eaten away.

Damage from contamination entering an engine can occur over an extended period of
time with very slight leakage or it can be quite rapid if a significant amount of dirt is entering.
(iii) Piston crack:
If a user ignores the first signs of wear (oil consumption and blue exhaust smoke) and
continues to run the engine, the wear will progress to the point that the piston begins to "slap"
because of excessive running clearance. The piston slap puts increased stress on the piston
skirts and they can begin to crack. With continued operation, the cracks will progress across
the thrust face and towards the oil ring groove.
(iv) Piston seizure:
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Piston seizure is also a common type of failure but it can be little more difficult to
analyze. There are a number of possible causes but the appearance does not vary much from
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one to another. Possible causes include overheating from insufficient cooling air, lack of
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lubrication, insufficient running clearance, oil additives and contamination or foreign material
in the engine.
1.12.7. Connecting Rod En

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Shank
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ing
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Big end
Figure 1.46 Connecting rod


It is used to connect the piston and crankshaft with the help of bearings. It is usually steel
forging of circular, rectangular, I, T or H cross-sections. Its small end is connected with the
piston by the piston pin and its big end is connected to the crank by the crank pin. It has a
passage for the transfer for lubricating oil from the big end bearing to small end bearing.
The connecting rod must withstand heavy thrust. Hence, it must have great strength and
rigidity. They are generally made of plain carbon steel, Aluminium alloy and nickel alloy
steels.
1.12.8. Piston Rings
They are used to maintain air tight sealing between piston and cylinder to prevent gas
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leakages. Piston rings are fitted in grooves which are provided for them at the top portion of
the piston skirt. Two types of piston rings are used in a piston.
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Ends .ne
Compression ring
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Oil ring
Figure 1.47 Piston rings

a) Compression rings:
These rings provide an effective seal for high pressure gases inside the cylinder. Each
piston is provided with at least two compression rings.
b) Oil rings:
These rings wipe off the excess oil from cylinder walls. It also returns excess oil to the
oil sump through slots provided in rings. The materials used for piston rings are cast iron,
alloy cast iron containing silicon and manganese, alloy steels etc. Piston rings are generally
coated with chromium or cadmium.
1.12.9. Crank Shaft
ww
It is used to convert the reciprocating motion of the piston into rotary motion. Big end of
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the connecting rod is connected to crank shaft. It can be a single crank type for single cylinder
engines and a multiple crank type for multi cylinder engine. The crankshaft is held in position
asy
by main bearings. There are minimum two bearings provided to support the crankshaft.
Figure 1.48 shows the cranks shaft of a four-cylinder in-line engine. The counter weights
E ngi
are provided to keep the system in a perfect balance. Crankshaft gear, vibration damper and
fan belt pulley are connected to the front end of the crankshaft. Flywheel is mounted at the
nee
rear end of the crankshaft. The material of the crankshaft should be strong enough to resist
heavy impact force of the piston. They are made from a hot billet steel, carbon steel, nickel-
chromium and other heat treated alloy steels.
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Main journals
g.n
Bearing for flywheel
et
Crank pins
Figure 1.48 Crank shaft
1.12.10. Flywheel
The flywheel is heavy and perfectly balanced wheel usually connected to the rear end of
the crankshaft. Flywheel serves as an energy reservoir. It stores energy during power stroke

Vehicle Structure and Engines qta

and releases energy during other strokes. Thus, it gives a constant output torque. It is usually
made of cast iron or cast steel.
1.12.11. Cam Shaft

It is used to convert rotary motion of the camshaft into linear motion of the follower or
lifter. Thus, it operates the inlet and exhaust valves through rocker arms. It has as many cams
.as the number of valves in an engine. An additional cam is also' provided to drive the fuel
pump. The camshaft rotates inside the plain bearings. It is driven by crankshaft through chain
or gear train. It is rotated at half of the speed of crankshaft. Camshaft is usually made of
chilled cast iron and billet steel; however forged steel, gray cast iron or nickel steel may be
ww
used depending upon the application.
w.E Bearing
Cam
/asy
En
gin
eer
Figure 1.49 (a) Cam shaft
ing Chain sprocket
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t
Bearing Eccentric tor mechanically

shells operated fuel pump
Figure 1.49 (b) Cam shaft asse".~ly

I'"
1.12.12. Spark Plug
The function of the spark plug is to ignite the air-fuel mixture after completing the
compression stroke in the petrol engine. It is usually mounted in the cylinder head. It is only
used in petrol engines.
Reasons for the spark plug failure:
The following are four reasons due to which the spark plug may fail to function properly.
a) Sooted spark plug: Insulator nose, electrodes and air space are covered in velvety
black soot due to faulty carburation.
b) Spark plug insulator damage: Scorching is due to sparks jumping across the insulator
ww which may be caused because of a spark plug adaptor worn out, the rubber gasket
tom, brittled or hardened.
w.E
c) Worn spark plugs: Center and ground electrode show a visible material loss due to
aggressive fuel or oil additives, thermal overload and exceeding replacement interval.
asy
d) Incorrect tightening torque causes traces of hydrocarbons on spark plug body, broken
ground electrodes.
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1.12.13. Valves
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Valves are used for closing and opening the passage of a cylinder. There are two valves
in an engine cylinder such as inlet and exhaust valves.
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Fresh air-fuel mixture or air alone enters into the cylinder through the inlet valve.
Exhaust gases are forced out through the exhaust valves. Valves are operated by cam and
et
rocker arm mechanisms. There are three types of valves such as sleeve valve, rotary valve and
poppet valve. A poppet valve (also called mushroom valve) valves are most commonly used.
Figure 1.50 shows a poppet valve. Normally, the valve contains head or poppet (angular
face ground 30° to 45°), face, stem and spring retainer lock groove. The head of the inlet
valve is bigger than the head of the exhaust valve.
Inlet valve is made of plain nickel, nickel-chrome or chrome-molybdenum. The exhaust
valve is subjected to more heat. Hence, it should be made of high heat resistance material such
as silicon-chrome steel, high speed steel, cobalt-chrome steel and tungsten steel.

I Vehicle Structure and Engines UM

Head
'c----""'"-----. _j
Valve
angle
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lock groove
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Figure 1.50Partsof poppet valve
1.12.14.Valve Mechanisms rin

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The valves are actuated by cams mounted on a cam shaft. The different types of valve
operating mechanisms are as follows.
(i) side valve mechanism
e t
(ii) overhead valve mechanism
(iii) overhead inlet and side exhaust valve mechanisms.
(i)Side valvemechanism:
This mechanism is shown in Figure 1.51. The cam mounted on the camshaft operates the
valve tappet during its rotation. The valve tappet is pushed up. The valve tappet pushes the
valve from its sheet against the spring force. Thus, the valve is opened. When the cam is not
in action, the valve returns to its seat by the valve spring and spring retainer.

(ii) Overhead valve mechanism:

Figure 1.52 shows overhead valve mechanism.. Here, the valves are located in the
cylinder head. When the cam rotates, the valve lifter pushes the push rod upwards. The push
rod moves the rocker arm. Since the rocker arm is pivoted at its centre, it pushes the valve off
its seat against the spring force. Thus, the valve is opened. When the cam is not in action, the
valve returns to its seat by the valve spring and spring retainer.
Adjustable screw Rocker
ww Engine block
w.E Valve steam

guide
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E ngi Piston rod
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Valve lifter
or tappet
et
Figure 1.51 Side valve mechanism Figure 1.52 Overhead

valve mechanism
(iii) Overhead inlet and side~ exhaust

, .,'
.:. ,
valve mechanism:
In this system, inlet valve is located in the cylinder head whereas the exhaust valve is
located in the cylinder block. The inlet valve is actuated by overhead valve mechanism. The
exhaust valve is actuated by a side valve mechanism.


1.13. CLASSIFICATION OF IC ENGINES
Ie engines are classified on the basis of following parameters.
(i) Type of ignition:
a. Spark Ignition (SI) engines
b. Compression Ignition (CI) engines.
(ii) Cycle of operation (Thermodynamics, cycle):

a. Otto cycle engine
b. Diesel cycle engine
c. Dual cycle engine
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(iii)Engine cycle per stroke:
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a. Four stroke cycle
b. Two stroke cycle
(iv) Types offuel used: asy

a. Petrol engine
b. Diesel engine
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c. Gas engine
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(v) Method of cooling:
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a. Air-cooled engines
b. Water-cooled engines. g.n
(vi) Number of cylinders:
a. Single cylinder engine
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b. Two cylinder engine
c. Three cylinder engine
d. Four cylinder engine
e. Six cylinder engine
f. Eight cylinder engine
g. Twelve cylinder engine
h. Sixteen cylinder engine.

(vii) Valve location:

a. Square engine
b. L-head engine
c. I-head engine
d. F-head engine
e. T-head engine.
(viii)ArrangemJIl1of cylinders:
a. Vertical engine
b. Horizontal engine
ww c. Radial engine
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d. V-engine engine
e. Opposed cylinder engine.
(ix) Speed of the engine:

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a. Low speed engine
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b. Medium speed engine
c. High speed engine gin
(x) Types of lubrication system: eer
a. Wet sump lubrication system
ing
b. Dry sump lubrication system
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(xi) Metlwd of governing:
a. Quantity governing t
b. Quality governing
c.Hit and Miss governing
(xii) Field of application:

a. Automobile, truck, bus
b. Locomotive engine
c. Stationary engine
d. Marine engine
e. Aircraft engine.


1.14. WORKING PRINCIPLE OF IC ENGINES
1.14.1. Working of Four Stroke Cycle (petrol) SI Engine
As name implies, four stroke cycle engine operation consists of the following four
strokes.
1. Suction stroke
2. Compression stroke
3. Power or expansion stroke
4. Exhaust stroke.
ww
1. Suction stroke:
At the beginning of the stroke, the piston is at the top dead centre (TOC) and it is ready to
w.E
move downward. As the piston moves downwards. the vacuum is created inside the cylinder.
Due to this vacuum, the air fuel mixture from the carburetor is sucked into the cylinder
asy
through inlet valves till the piston reaches bottom dead centre (BOC). During suction stroke.
the exhaust valve remains in a closed condition and inlet valve remains open. At the end of'the
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suction stroke, the inlet valve will be closed as shown in Figure 1.53(a).
2. Compression stroke:
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During the compression stroke, both the inlet and exhaust valves are in closed condition
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and the piston moves upward from BOC to compress the air fuel mixture. This process will
continue till the piston reaches TOC as shown in Figure 1.53(b). The compression ratio of
g.n
engine varies from 6 to 8. The pressure at the end of compression is about 600 to 1200kNlm2•
e
The temperature at the end of the compression is 250 to 300°C. At the end of this stroke, the
mixture is ignited by a spark plug. It instantaneously leads to increase both pressure and
temperature of the mixture.
t
3. Power or expanslon stroke:
Both pressure and temperature ranges of the ignited mixture are 1800 to 2000°C and
3000 to 4000KNlm2 respectively. During the expansion stroke, both valves are in closed
condition. The rise in pressure of the mixture exerts an impulse on the piston and pushes it
downward. Therefore, the piston moves from TOC to BOC. This stroke is known as power
stroke which is shown in Figure 1.53(c).
4. Exhaust stroke:
During exhaust stroke, the piston moves from BOC-to TOC, the exhaust valve is opened
and inlet valve is closed. The burnt gases are released through the exhaust valve when the

ImJI Automobile Engineering

piston moves upward. As the piston reaches TOe, the inlet valves will again open and the
fresh air fuel mixture enters into the cylinder for the next cycle of operation. Similarly, only
one power stroke is produced in each and every four stroke of the piston or two revolution of
the crankshaft. Hence, it is termed esfour-stroke engine.
Delivery valve
Delivery valve
Inlet valve
ww Connecting rod
tot
Inlet valve
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a syE
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(a) Suction stroke
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(b) Compression stroke
r ing
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(c) Power stroke (d) Exhaust stroke
Figure 1.53 Working offour stroke Sf engine


1.14.2. Working of Four Stroke Cycle (Diesel) CI Engine
The working of four-stroke cr engine is similar to SI engine except. Here, the fuel
injector is placed instead of a spark plug and only air is sucked into the cylinder during suction
stroke. The operations are described as follows.
Delivery valve
Delivery valve
Fuel injector
Inlet valve
ww Connecting rod
tot
Inlet valve
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asy
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(a) Suction stroke
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l 0 l tot e t
(e) Power stroke (d) Exhaust stroke
Figure 1.54 Working of four stroke CI engine

lrml Automobile Engineering

1. Suction stroke:
During suction stroke, the piston moves from TOC to BOC. The inlet valve is in open
condition whereas the exhaust valve is closed. When the piston moves from top to bottom, the
fresh air is admitted inside the cylinder through inlet valve as shown in Figure 1.54(a).
2. Compression stroke:
During compression stroke, both the inlet and exhaust valves are closed. The piston
moves from BOC to TOC to compress the air. In case of CI engines, the compression ratio
varies from ]2 -to 18. The pressure at the end of compression is from 3500 kNlm2 to
4000kNlm2. The temperature of the compressed air reaches from 600°C to 700°C.
3. Power stroke:
ww
In this stroke also, both inlet and exhaust valves are in a closed position. The fuel injector
opens just before the beginning of the third stroke, it injects the fuel in atomized form. The
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ignition of fuel automatically takes place at high pressure and temperature. Both pressure and
temperature will further increase due to combustion, it pushes the piston towards down. Thus,
it produces power stroke.
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4. Exhaust stroke:
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During this stroke, the inlet valve is closed and the exhaust valve is opened. The piston
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moves from BOC to TOC. It blows out the burnt gases from the cylinder. Thus, one cycle of
operation is completed and repeated again and again in the same manner.
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1.14.3.Working of Two Stroke Cycle SI Engine (Petrol Engine)
The working principle of two stroke SI engine is described as follows. g.n

1..First stroke (suction and compression): et
The first stroke consists of the suction and compression processes: During the first stroke,
the piston moves upward from BOC to TOC. When the piston is at BOC, the partially
compressed air fuel mixture from crank case enters into the cylinder through a transfer port as
shown Figure 1.55(a). Then, the piston moves upward and compresses the air contained in it
till the piston reaches TOe. At the end of the compression stroke, the spark plug produces the
spark, it will ignite the compressed high pressure fuel air mixture. When the piston is at TOC,
the inlet port opens and the air fuel mixture from the carburettor enters into the crankcase as
. shown in Figure 1.55(b). Thus, one stroke of the piston is completed.


2. Second stroke (expansion or power and ex/must stroke):
mal
When air fuel mixture is ignited, both pressure and temperature of the products of
combustion will suddenly increase. Therefore, the piston receives power impulse from the
expanded gas and it pushes the piston downward and it also produces the power stroke. This
process is described in Figure 1.55(c). During expansion stroke, some of the heat energy
produced is converted into mechanical work.
Spark plug
ww Deflector
w.E Piston
asy Connecting rod
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(a) Suction stroke
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Fiuure 1.55 Working of two stroke SI engine

During downward stroke of piston, already entered air fuel mixture in the crankcase is
partially compressed by the underside of the piston. This pre-compression process is called
·crankcase compression. At the end of power stroke, the exhaust port opens and burnt gases
are sent out of the engine through this port as shown in Figure 1.55(d). At the same time, all
burnt gases are not exhausted. Some portions will remain in the cylinder. When the piston
moves to BDC, the fresh air fuel mixture from crankcase enters into the cylinder to sweep out
the burnt gases. The process of sweeping out·the exhaust gases with help of fresh air fuel
mixture is known as scavenging. The scavenging helps to remove the burnt gases from the
cylinder.
ww
1.14.4.Working of Two Stroke Cycle CI Engine (Diesel Engine)
The working of two stroke CI engine slightly differs from SI engine. Instead of
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sparkplug, the fuel injector is placed at the top of the cylinder.
a
1. First stroke:
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In the first stroke, the piston moves from BDC to TDC. When the piston is at BDC,
partially compressed air from the crank case enters into the cylinder through the transfer port
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as shown in Figure 1.56(a). Then, the piston moves upward and further compresses the air into
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high pressure and temperature till the piston reaches TDC. At the end of the compression
stroke, the fuel injector injects the fuel in atomized form and automaticatly ignited by the
r ing
compressed air. During the upward movement of the piston, a slight vacuum will be produced
at the crankcase to suck the air from atmosphere.
2. Second stroke:
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t
When the fuel and air are ignited, it suddenly increases the pressure and temperature 0':-
the gas. Therefore, the gases will expand and push the piston downward and producing the
power stroke as shown in Figure 1.56(c). During expansion, some of the heat energy produced
is converted into mechanical work.
During downward stroke of the piston, it first uncovers the exhaust port·and the burnt
gases are sent out of the engine as shown in Figure 1.56(d). At the same time, all burnt gases
are not exhausted. Therefore, the scavenging takes place in the cylinder.
At the time of downward movement of the piston, already entered air in the crankcase is
partially compressed by the underside of the piston. This process is called crankcase
compression.


Fuel injector
••
Deflector
Connecting rod
ww Crankcase
w.E (a) Suction stroke (b) Compression stroke
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Figure 1.56 Working of two stroke CI engine
1.14.5.Comparison of 51 Engine and CI Engine
S.No. SI or Petrol engine CI or Diesel engine
1. During suction stroke, the air fuel During suction stroke, the air is only
mixture is drawn from carburettor. drawn from the atmosphere.

tag Automobile Engineering l

2. Carburettor is used to mix the air Fuel injector or atomizer is required
and fuel in required proportion. to inject the fuel into cylinder in
atomized form.
3. Spark plug is required to ignite the Fuel is ignited automatically by high
fuel air mixture. pressure and temperature air.
4. The compression ratio varies from The compression ratio varies from 12
6 to 8. to 18.
5. It is operated by Otto cycle or It IS operated by Diesel cycle or
constant volume cycle.
ww6.
constant pressure cycle.
The starting is easy due to lower The starting is little difficult due to
7. w.E
compression ratio. higher compression ratio.
Running cost is high because of Running cost is less because of lower
8.
high cost of fuel.
asy cost of fuel.
required. En
For the same power, less space is For the same power, more space is
required.
9. Initial cost is low.
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Initial cost is high.
10.
eer
Maintenance cost is less because Maintenance cost is more because of
of few parts. more number of parts.
ing
11. Thermal efficiency is low.
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Thermal efficiency is considerably
12. These are used for high speed These are
applications. operations.
used for low speed
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1.14.6.Comparison of Two-Stroke and Four-Stroke Engines
Two stroke cycle engine Four stroke cycle engine

S.No.
Advantages Disadvantages
1. A cycle is completed in 2 strokes A cycle is completed in 4 strokes or
or one revolution of the two revolution of the crank shaft.
crankshaft.
2. It develops twice the number of It develops half the number of power


power strokes than the four stroke stroke than two stroke engine:
0:'.
engines.
3.
For the same power developed,
For the same power developed, the
the two stroke engine is much
four stroke engine is bulky, heavier
lighter, less bulky and it occupies
and it occupies more floor area.
less floor area.
4. Turning moment is more uniform

Turning moment is not uniform and
and hence, lighter flywheel is
hence, heavier flywheel is required.
required.
ww5. It contains ports which are
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therefore,
by the
no
piston itself
separate
It contains valves which are operated
by separate mechanisms.
asy
mechanisms are required.
6.
complexity in mechanism. E
Initial cost is low due to less
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Initial cost is high because of heavier
and complicated mechanisms.
7.
8.
Mechanical efficiency is more.
It is easy to start. nee

Mechanical efficiency is low.
It requires separate starting motor.

-_
9. It can be run in either direction rin
which is useful in marine engines.
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It can be run in only one direction.
s.
No.
Two stroke cycle engine
Disadvantages
Four stroke cycle engine
Advantages
e t
1. Thermal efficiency is low. Thermal efficiency is high.
2. Volumetric efficiency is low. Volumetric efficiency is more.
3. Greater cooling and lubrication Lesser cooling and lubrication are

are required. required.
4. Overall efficiency is less. Overall efficiency is mo. ~.
5. Greater rate of wear and tear. Lesser rate of wear and tear.
6. It is used in light vehicles only

Used in heavy vehicles such as cars,
(e.g.) scooters, motor cycles,

Ilmi Automobile Engineering I

mopeds etc. buses, trucks etc.
7. Release of exhaust gas is more

Sudden release of exhaust gases
uniform and hence noiseless
makes the exhaust noisier.
operation.
8. Specific fuel consumption IS

Specific fuel consumption IS less
more because of escaping of the
because of separate exhaust stroke.
fresh charge with exhaust gases.
9. Less compression ratio. More compression ratio.
ww
1.15. CLASSIFICATION BASED ON NUMBER OF CYLINDERS
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(i) Single cylinder engine.
It has only one cylinder. A single cylinder engines are generally used in light motor
asy
vehicles such as mopeds, motor cycles and scooters. Maximum size of the cylinder is
choice due to few parts to manufacture E

restricted to 250-300CC. Although a single cylinder engine seems to be the most popular
ngi
and maintain, the disadvantages
advantages. Since, it requires heavy construction for more power due to higher unbalanced
are more than
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forces. Also the weight increases at a greater rate in comparison to the power providing a
lower power to weight ratio. A single cyl inder engine may be two stroke or four stroke cycle
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engine. Some of the vehicles which consist of single cylinder engine with their CC are given
below.
g.n
Vehicle cc e t
Rajdoot => 175
Vespa => 150
TVSXL => 50
Bajaj M80 => 80
TVS Max 100R => 100
Bajaj pulsar => 150 and 180
Yamaha RX 100 => 100

Vehicle Structure and Engines lID I

Reasons 0/ using single cylinder two stroke petrol engines on two wheelers:
The following are the reasons for using single cylinder two stroke petrol engines on two
wheelers.
(i) Two stroke cycle engines are compact in size than the four stroke cycle engines for
the same power capacity.
(ii) Since two wheelers such as mopeds, scooters, bikes etc. are light duty vehicles
used for carrying one or two passengers only, the power developed by single
cylinder is sufficient to carry the load.
(iii) Since the single cylinder two stroke petrol engines are lighter engines, the vehicle
ww using these engines are also lighter in weight. Therefore, for the same tractive
force, a two wheeler gives higher acceleration.
(iv)
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A petrol engine runs at a lower compression ratio than a diesel engine. Therefore,
the weight to power ratio of a petrol engine is less than a diesel engine.
(v)
asy
Single cylinder two stroke engines are air-cooled engines and they do not require
En
water, radiator and circulating pump. Therefore, weight to power ratio of such
engine is less.
(ii) Mutt! cylinder engines:gin

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Multi cylinder engine has two, three, four, six, eight twelve or sixteen cylinders which
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are arranged in many different ways. As compared to single cylinder engine, the unbalanced
more power can be developed with less weight to power ratio. g.

forces due to reciprocating parts are much lesser as the number of cylinders increases. Also
net
Reasons/or using multi cylinder diesel engines in commercial vehicles:
The following are the reasons for using multi cylinder diesel engines 111 commercial
vehicles such as trucks and busses.
(i) A multi cylinder engine develops marc power required to propel the commercial
vehicles as it carries greater load.
(ii) Diesel engines normally run at higher compression ratio of 18.1. At this high
compression ratio, the thermal efficiency of a multi cylinder engines is higher than
an Otto cycle petrol engine. Therefore, a diesel engine gives better fuel economy.
(iii) The swept volume of the multi cylinder engine is high and also surface volume ratio
is increased. It results a greater power output and also better cooling which is

IIDII Automobile Engineering

esseritial for the protection of engine parts such as cylinder head, cylinder liner,
piston etc. The lubricating oil is also prevented from partial oxidation.
(iv) Vibrations in multi cylinder engine are less due to balancing of the crank.
1.16. CLASSIFICATION BASED ON ARRANGEMENT OF CYLINDERS
The cylinders can be arranged in several ways such as vertical, horizontal, inline, V-type,
flat or pancake, radial. Single cylinder engines can be arranged in either vertical or horizontal
direction as shown in Figure 1.57.
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a
.,. ..
"..
I
I
I
I
/'
I
....
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,
I
,
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•
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I (b) Horizontal engine
\, /
", "
.............. _-_ ....,.... '
(a) Vertical engine
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Figure 1.57Single cylinder engines
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Merits of horizontal engines:
I. The inertia forces of the reciprocating parts i.e. primary and secondary forces .ne
combine together to give an impulse to the chassis frame of the vehicle as the
stroke of the engine piston is horizontal. If the cylinder head is towards the front
: ..
t
end of the vehicle, then a driving impulse is obtained from the engine. This
impulse force slides the engine forward on a smooth floor when the running
engine is placed on the floor. Therefore, a vehicle fitted with horizontal engine
tends to push forward the moped or the scooter by its impulsive force.
2. Fuel economy is also more.
Demerits of horizontal engines:

I. The crankcase cannot be used for storing lubrication oil for splash lubrication.

Vehicle Structure and Engines liD

2. There will be excessive wear at the lower side of the piston and cylinder liner
where the cylinder liner gives support to the engine because the weight of the
piston is carried by the cylinder liner.
3. Consumption of lubricating oil is more due to the lubricating oil which dribbles
from bearings not returning to the crankcase but it is thrown out by the centrifugal
forces.
Cylinders
Cylinders
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Crankshaft
~"
~\
Bearing
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(a) Inline vertical engine
(b) V-type engine
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(c) Opposed cylinder engine
Figure 1.58 Two cylinder engines
Two cylinder engines have two cylinders which can be arranged in three ways such as
inline vertical, opposed cylinder and V-type. In inline engine, the cylinders are arranged in
side-by-side, one row and parallel to each other.shown in Figure 1.58 (a). The cylinders are
zenerally placed in a vertical direction. The range of size of the twin cylinder engine varies


from 500 to 1000CC for heavy vehicles and three wheelers. It varies from 600 to 800CC for
small cars.
In V-type engines (Figure 1.58 (b)), the cylinders are arranged in two rows. The two
rows are set at an angle of 60° or 90° to each other. This arrangement is more compact and
economical than inline type.
In opposed cylinder arrangement, the two cylinders are arranged horizontally opposite to
each other. The piston and connecting rod movements are identical. The crankshaft and cam
shafts are positioned between two cylinders shown in Figure 1.58 (c).
In three cylinder engines, cylinders are arranged vertically in-line with the crankpins
ww
arranged at 120° intervals around the shaft. They produce power impulse every 120° of crank
rotation indicating that the torque produced is comparatively smooth. Three cylinder engines
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are only confined to two strokes. The crankcase serves as intake and pre-compression
chamber. The crankcase is divided into three compartments. Each sealed off section of the
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crank case is provided to one of the cylinders. Figure 1.59 shows a three cylinder inline four
stroke cycle engine.
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Bearing
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Figure 1.59 Three cylinder inllne four stroke engine
Four cylinder engines have become increasingly popular in recent years. A basic reason
is the trend towards small, lightweight and fuel-efficient cars. 1800 crankshaft arrangement is
always used. The balance of the four cylinder engines is not as good as the balance of the
opposed two-cylinder engines. But the torque is much more uniform. In these engines, two
pairs of four cylinders are moving in the opposite direction. The pairs move up and down
together with each cylinder being on a different stroke. In case of four cylinder four stroke
engines, four power strokes in two revolutions of the crankshaft with firing interval of 180°


are produced. In a four cylinder engine, the cylinders may be arranged inline, opposed, square
four or flat 4 and V-four manner.
ww Figure 1.60 Four cylinder inline engine

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In inlinefour cylinder engines, piston 1 and piston 4 are always moving in pair opposite
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to the direction of piston pair 2 and 3 shown in Figure 1.60. In this arrangement, firing interval
is regular. Since, this engine is similar to two, two-cylinder engines arranged end to end, the
E
overall balance is very good due to the two rocking coup~es by neutralizing each other, the
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engine is not completely balanced and a secondary vibration is produced. It can be reduced by
using light weight pistons and connecting rods.
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Piston
4 g.n
Cylinders
e t
3
§1~Bearing
Connecting
rod
Figure 1.61 Opposedfour cylinder engine
In an opposed four cylinder engin~, the cylinders are arranged horizontally in pairs on
each side of a flat four crankshaft. Here, the engine balance is superior to inline engine. In this
engine, one power stroke is occurred in every 1800 of crankshaft rotation. The torque is also


smooth. Figure 1.61 shows this type of arrangement. This arrangement is also called flat four
or pancake engine. This arrangement is found in air cooled Volkswagen and water cooled
Jewett's Javelin.
\
V-four engines have cylinders arranged in two rows of two cylinders each. The two rows
are set at an angle (preferably 60°) to each other. The crankshaft and cam shafts are positioned
between two cylinders as shown in Figure 1.62. It is similar to two cylinder V engines having
a common crank shaft. This arrangement is more compact and economical than inline type.
The engine has a firing order of 1, 3, 4 and 2 with firing interval of 180°. This engine is
balanced by using a balance shaft that runs in a direction opposite to the crankshaft.
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E Figure 1.62 V-4 engine
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Figure 1.63 Six cylinder inline engine
Some five cylinder automotive engines are being built. Mercedes produces a five-
cylinder diesel engine. Volkswagen has a five cylinder inline spark-ignition engine for a front-
drive car.
Six-cylinder engines give a better dynamic balance and a more uniform tor.quethan four-
cylinder engines: Most of the high powered as well as modern cars of the moderate powers are
employing six cylinder engines. Though expensive and complication involve in these engines,

they are much smoother; more flexible and quieter running. It requires only a light flywheel
due to the lower ratio of maximum to mean torque.
Six cylinder engines are generally inline engines built with 120° crank shafts. The
arrangement of crank shaft is as shown in Figure 1.63. This arrangement is such that the crank
throws of cylinders 1 and 6, 2 and 5, and 3 and 4 are in the same revolution of the crankshaft.
The possible firing order for good distributions of fuel is 1-5-3-6-2-4 and 1-4-2-6-3-5.
Six cylinder V-engines are very important engines which are built to have a bank of three
cylinders set at an angle or at V to each other. Same crank pin is used to attach connecting
rods from opposing cylinders in two banks. The arrangement of cylinders in V-6 engine is
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shown in Figure 1.64.
Opposed six-cylinder engines are also av_,ailable.The arrangement of cylinders is in the
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similar manner of a four cylinder opposed engine. Three cylinders are placed in each side of
two rows but they are opposite to each other.
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Figure 1.64 V-6 engine g.n
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The eight-cylinder engines have many advantages over six cylinder engines. They
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provide more uniform torque and better acceleration while the balance is not very good. Eight
cylinder inline engines provide a long engine with long and expensive crank and camshaft.
The interval of explosions of this engine is 90°. The crank throws for different pairs of
cylinders are in the same radial plane such as cylinders 1 and 8, cylinders 2 and 7, 3 and 6,
and 4 and 5. The firing order is 1-6-2-5-8-3-7-4 or 1-8-2-6-4-5-3-7. The disadvantages of this
engine are long and expensive crankshaft and its liability to torsional oscillation of the
crankshaft.
Eight cylinder V-engines employing two banks of four cylinders each at right angle have
replaced the inline eight-cylinder models in most of the higher power automobiles. The angle
between cylinder rows in V-8 engine is usually kept as 90°. These engines can operate
smoothly and silently. V-8 engines are almost universally in use. The Rolls Royce and

Daimler car manufacturers are producing different V-8 model engines. Three big
manufactures of car i.e., Ford, Chrysler and General Motors are employing V-8 engine as
standard engines.
ww Figure 1.65 V-8 engine
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Advantages of V-engines over inline engines:
The main advantages ofV-8 engines are summarized as follows.
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1. It is the shortest of all the eight-cylinder engines other than radial engines. It is also a
on small wheel base. E

lighter and more rigid engine. The shorter engine provides more space for passenger
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2. It provides relatively a simple valve gear, arranged both for the side valve or
overhead valve type engine, enabling a single crankshaft to be located above the
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crank shaft for 90° angle arrangement of two cylinder banks.
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3. It permits the use of intake manifolds that assure relatively even distribution of air-
fuel mixture to all cylinders since all cylinders are relatively close together.
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4. Good engine balance can be obtained by suitable choice of crankshaft angles. A good
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balance would be resulted if two outer cranks at 90° to the parallel inner pairs in the
same plane are provided.
5. It is not affected by similar torsional vibrations similar to an in-line type.
6. Since, the carburetor and other parts are rested between two rows of cylinders, it
permits lowering the engine load line and thus it lowers the car profile.
7. Instead of an eight-throw as inline type, only a four throw crankshaft is used. In this
case, same crank pin is used for operating two connecting rods from opposite
cylinders. This arrangement provides even firing intervals between cylinders.
Twelve cylinder engines were originally designed for aeroplanes. But certain cars such as
Rolls Royse, Daimler and Lincoln Zephyer also use these engines. These engines consist of


two sets of six cylinder inline engines with each forming a bank V-inclined at 60° or 75°.
They have common crankshaft and camshaft with six sets of forked and plain connecting rods.
The Italian Ferrari is the only car which is being manufactured with a twelve-cylinder engine.
Sixteen-cylinder engines having two sets of straight light cylinders inclined at an angle of
V have been used in Cadillac cars. These engines have been perfectly balanced with top gear
performance. The cylinders arranged in two banks of eight cylinders each are inclined at 135°.
Radial engines are mostly used in aircrafts, These engines are air-cooled and they have
cylinders arranged in a star form about the crankshaft axis. The cylinders are radiating from a
common centre similar to spokes of the wheel. A common crankpin is employed for all
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connecting rods. To get uniform firing intervals, the cylinders are odd in number such as 5, 7,
9 etc. These engines are compact with low weight per horsepower and accessibility, simplicity
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of the single throw crank shaft and single cam ring for operating the valves. But, they are not
used in motor vehicles due to more frontal area and more complicated exhaust pipe system.
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Figure 1.66Radial engine
1.17. CLASSIFICATION BASED ON l.ENGTH OF CYLINDERS
(i) Square engine:

Engine which has same bore and stroke is called square engine. Usually, engines have a
bore/stroke ratio of 0.95 to 1.04 referred as square engines.
(ii) Oversquare engine:

A piston engine is oversquare or short stroke if its cylinders have a greater bore than
stroke. Since a shorter stroke means less friction and less stress on the crankshaft. An
oversquare engine is generally more reliable, wears less and it can be run at higher speed. In

oversquare engines, power does not suffer but low-speed torque does to some degree since
torque is relative to crank throw. An oversquare engine cannot have as high compression ratio
as which is similar to an engine with a lower bore/stroke ratio and using the same octane fuel.
It causes the oversquare engine to have poor fuel economy and poor exhaust emissions.
Engines can be modified by being "de-stroked", shortening the stroke to increase maximum
rpms and top-end horsepower at the expense of low-end torque.
Oversquare engines are lighter and shorter than similar undersquare engines along the
direction of piston travel but they are wider in directions perpendicular to piston travel. As the
length is not a large problem, these engine types are highly favored by many manufacturers
because of their power and compact size.
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(ii) Undersquare engine:
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A piston engine is undersquare or long stroke if cylinders have a smaller bore than
stroke. Since a longer stroke usually means greater friction, more stress on the crankshaft and
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a smaller bore means smaller valves which restrict gaseous exchange. An undersquare engine
usually has a lower redline than an oversquare engine but it may generate more low-end
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torque. In addition, a long stroke or undersquare engine can have a higher compression ratio
with the same octane fuel compared to a similar displacement engine with higher bore/stroke
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ratio. It also equals better fuel economy and better emissions. An undersquare engine does not
overheat as easily as similar oversquare engine. Engines can be modified with a "stroker"
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crankshaft which increases engine stroke from stock thereby increasing torque. Undersquare
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engines typically are shorter in length, heavier and taller than equivalent oversquare which is
one of the reasons why this type of engine is not generally used.
1.18. CLASSIFICATION BASED ON ARRANGEMENT OF VALVES

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(i) L-Ilead engine:
Spark plug
Figure 1.67 L-head engine

I Vehicle Structure and Engines i ••

In this arrangement, all valves are arranged in one line (except in case of V-8 engine)
with the intake and exhaust valves are arranged side by side. The combustion chamber and the
cylinder are arranged in the form of inverted 'L'. All valves can be operated by a single
crankshaft. Figure 1.67 shows this arrangement.
Advantages:
I. One cam shaft is only required.
2. Height is reduced.
3. As valves are arranged in one line, the- removal of the cylinder is quite easy for
servicing.
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4. It is more dependable.
Disadvantages:
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1. More space for combustion chamber is required.
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2. Knocking tendency is more than T-head engine.
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3. Location of spark plug is difficult.
4. High compression ratio is not possible.
(ii) I-head engine: gin

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In these engines, the cylinder head carries the valve. It is also called overhead valve
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engine. In case of inline engines, valves are arranged in a single row and valves may be
actuated by a single crankshaft. g.

~arranged in a single row or double row in each bank in case of V-engines. All valves are
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Cylinder head
Cylinder
block
Figure 1.68 I-head engine
Advantages:
1. A single camshaft actuates all valves.
2. Clearance volume is less. Hence, the compression ratio can be increased
considerably.
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3. The spark plug can be located at the centre.
4. Smooth operation can be obtained.
Disadvantages:
1. More valve mechanism parts are involved.
2. The cylinder head requires more cooling.
3. It is more complicated design.
4. The size of the inlet and exhaust valves is limited.
(iii) T-head engine:

It has the inlet valve on one side and the exhaust valve on the other side of the cylinder.
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Thus, two cam shafts are required to operate them. The combustion chamber and the cylinder
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form a letter' T . Generally, small engines are made with T-head arrangement.
Spark plug
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Figure 1.69 T-head engine rin
Disadvantages: g.n
1.
2.
Unequal temperature occurs in the cylinder.
More power is wasted in operating two camshafts.
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3. Cost and weight are more.
(iv) F-head engine:
Figure 1.70 F-head engine


In this arrangement, inlet valves are located in the cylinder head and exhaust valves by
sides of cylinders. These engines being combination of L-head and l-head engineers are
known as F-head engines. Both inlet and exhaust sets are driven from the same camshaft.
Advantages:
1. More turbulence is possible.
2. More speed is possible.
Disadvantages:
1. More space is required for the combustion chamber.
2. Location of spark plug is difficult.
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3. Design of combustion chamber is difficult
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1.19. CLASSIFICATION BASED ON METHODS OF COOLING
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(i) Air-cooled engines:
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In these engines, cylinders are usually mounted separately. They have metal fins which
provide a large surface area. It permits the engine heat to be carried away from cylinders. Air-
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cooled engines have shrouds which direct the airflow around cylinders for cooling. Air-
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cooling is generally provided in one cylinder or two cylinder engines such as mopeds, motor
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cycles and scooters. Some of the earlier car models were air-cooled.
(ii) Water cooled engines:

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Most of the present day engines are water-cooled. These engines use a liquid i.e. water to
take heat from engines. These engines have water jackets around cylinders and combustion
chambers. The water is passed through all parts of the engine and it takes away the heat from
it and passed through the radiator for cooling. In the radiator, water is cooled by passing air
around the fined tube.
1.20. WANKEL ENGINE
This engine was introduced by Felix Wankel in 1954. The engine works on ordinary Otto
cycle. It is a rotary combustion engine. The piston in this engine undergoes rotary motion.
This engine has been developed by Dr. Walter Froede of Germany for installation in NSU
motor vehicles. This engine was installed in two seater NSU spider sports car for the first
time. Several automobile manufacturers in various countries have obtained licenses and
started the manufacture of Wankel rotary engine.

Automobile Engineering, I
Construction details:
The engine rotor has three lobes. The rotor rotates in an eccentric pattern. The lobes are
in contact with the oval housing to form a tight seal. This seal is equivalent to the seal formed
by piston rings against the cylinder wall in a reciprocating engine. The rotor is mounted on the
crankshaft through external and internal gears. The rotor lobes A, Band C are placed tightly
against the side of oval housing shown in Figure 1.71 (a). Th"erotor also has over-shaped
recesses which are shown as dashed lines. The oval chamber not only revolves about its own
centre but also it is a circular path around the output shaft. This engine has inlet and exhaust
parts. The housing is surrounded by water jackets for cooling. When the engine runs, the four
cycles of operation will also take place around the rotor simultaneously. The working of
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engine and its action during one complete rotation of the rotor are shown in Figure 1.71.
Working:
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1. Intake process:
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In Figure 1.71 (a), lobe A has passed the intake port and the air fuel mixture is starting to
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enter (1). As the rotor moves as the space between lobes A and C will increase (2) as shown in
Figure 1.71(b). This motion produces vacuum which causes the air fuel mixture to enter. The
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air fuel mixture continues to enter as the space between lobes A and C are continued to
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increase in (3) of Figure 1.71(c). The lobe C starts to move past the intake port as shown in
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Figure 1.71 (d). Further movement of rotor carries lobe C past the intake port. So, the air fuel
mixture is sealed between lobes A and (C) at (4).
2. Compression process: g. net

In Figure 1.71 (a), the air fuel mixture has been trapped between lobes and A and B at
(5). Further rotation of the rotor decreases the space between lobes A and B at (6). By that
time, the rotor reaches the position shown in Figure 1.71 (c) and the space (7) is minimum.
This position is same as TOC position of the piston on the compression stroke in the
reciprocating engine. Now, the spark plug fires and ignites the compressed mixture.
3. Power or expansion process:

Pressure exerted on the side of the rotor when the combustion takes place and it forces
the rotor to move around. This process is similar to a power stroke of the reciprocating engine.
The high pressure of the burnt mixture in (8) forces the rotor around to position (9) again.
Expansion continues to rotate the rotor until the leading lobe passes through the exhaust port.


IS => Ignition Start
EVO => Exhaust Valve Open
EVC => Exhaust Valve Close
TDC => Top Dead Center
BOC => Bottom Dead Center.
Theoretical valve timing diagram:
The exact moment at which each of the valves opens and closes with reference to the
position of piston and crank can be shown graphically in a diagram. This diagram is known as
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"valve timing diagram".
In theoretical valve timing diagram, inlet and exhaust valves open and close at both dead
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centers. Similarly, all processes are sharply completed at TDC or BOC. Figure 1.72 shows
theoretical valve timing diagram for four stroke SI engines.
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EVO I
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Figure 1.72 Theoretical valve timing diagramjOf'1jour stroke Sf engines
Actual valve timing diagram:
Figure 1.73 shows actual valve timing diagram for four stroke SI engine. The inlet valve
opens 10-30° before TOC. The air-fuel mixture is sucked into the cylinder till the inlet valve
closes. The inlet valve closes 30-40°' or 'even 60° after BOC. The charge is compressed till the
spark occurs. The spark is produced 20-40° before TDC. It gi\leS sufficient time for the fuel to

111m Automobile Engineering

burn. Both pressure and temperature inc~ease.The burnt gases are expanded till the exhaust
valve opens.
The exhaust valve opens 30-60° before BOC. The exhaust gases are forced out from the
cylinder till the e:>dtaustvalve closes. The exhaust valve closes 8-20° after TOC. Before
closing, the inlet valve again opens 10-30° before TOC. If the piston is positioned between
fourth stroke (exhaust) and the first stroke (intake) at TOC, both valves open. The period
between NO and EVC is known as valve overlap period. The angle of valve overlap is the
sum of the angle of opening the intake valve before TOC and closing of the exhaust valve
after TOC. In Figure 1.73, the angle of overlap is specified as 10°.
TOC
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1.22. VALVE TIMING DIAGRAM FOR A FOUR STROKE CI ENGINE
Figure 1.74 shows the actual valve-timing diagram for four-stroke diesel (CI) engine.
The inlet valve opens (IVO) 10° to 25° before TOC. Fresh air is sucked into the engine
cylinder till the inlet valve closes. The inlet valve closes (IVC) 25° to 50° after BOC. The air
is compressed till the fuel is injected. The fuel injection starts (FIS) 5° to 10° before TOC in
the compression stroke. The air-fuel mixture burns. Both temperature and pressure increase.
The burning gases are expanded till the exhaust valve opens.
The exhaust valve opens (EVO) 30° to 50° before BOC. The exhaust gases are forced out
of the cylinder till the exhaust valve closes.

I Vehicle Structure and Engines '.,11

The exhaust valves close (EVC) 10° to 15° after TDC. Before closing the exhaust valve,
the inlet valve again opens 10° to 25° before TDC. The period when both the inlet and exhaust
valves are opened is known as valve overlap period. The angle between these two events is
known as angle of valve overlap. In Figure 1.74, the angle of overlap is specified as 5°.
Toe
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Figure 1.74 Actual valve timing diagram for four stroke CI engines
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1.23. VARIABLE VALVE TIMING (VVT)
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Fixed valve timing has been a standard feature of all engines until relatively recent times.
The valves opened and closed at a fixed period in relation to crankshaft rotation at all engine
speeds and loads. When the inlet and exhaust valve timing is fixed, the timing is not suitable
for all engine operating speeds and loads. So, there is increase in use of mechanisms to
provide variable valve timing (VVT). The variable valve timing systems alter the valve timing
to suit engine speed and load conditions. Although systems are purely mechanical-based
systems, most modern systems make use of the electronic engine management system to
regulate the mechanical actuation of changes to the valve timing.
A petrol engine has to operate at varying engine speeds from idle, typically 750 rpm
through to high speeds up to 7000 rpm and above. So, the engine will have valve timing more
suitable for one particular engine speed which is generally at around 50% to 60% of the
engine's maximum speed. Therefore, the variable valve timing results the increased
combustion efficiency at the selected engine speed.

TOC
IVO EVC
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Figure 1.75 Variable valve timing for four cylinder engine
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Variable valve timing optimises the overlap period during engine operation. It allows
different overlap periods to be used at different engine speeds. Practically, VVT systems are
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used to enable good power or torque to be achieved over the whole engine speed range but the
added benefit of valve overlap is to facilitate the mixing of some exhaust gas with the fresh
charge of air. Therefore, the combustion temperature and NOx emission are reduced.
(i) Slow engine speeds:

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At slow engine speeds, if the inlet valve timing is altered so that it is retarded or opened
late, all of the exhaust gas will be expelled through the exhaust valve and the cylinder will fiI
with fresh uncontaminated mixture. So, a fresh mixture will provide a good bum of the gas
during next power stroke. Therefore, the engine is stable when it is at idle.
(ii) High engine speeds:

At high speed, if the inlet valve timing is advanced, the fresh mixture can be drawn into
the cylinder by the depression caused by the flow of exhaust gas through the exhaust valve.
The flow of exhaust gas will improve the gas flow. through the cylinder at higher engine
speeds.

Vehicle Structure and Engines msl

(iii) Valve opening period:
The valve opening period is dictated by the profile of the cam lobe which is constant with
conventional valve operating gear. When the engine is at low to medium speeds, the valve
opening period allows sufficient fresh mixture into the cylinder to provide good engine
performance. At higher engine speeds, the volumetric efficiency of an engine will increase if
the opening period of the valve is increased. It is possible to increase the valve opening period
by increasing the valve lift. Increasing the valve lift at high engine speeds provides an increase
in the volume of fresh mixture drawn into the cylinder. So, it results an increase in engine
power.
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1.23.1. Types of Variable Valve Timing
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There are three types of variable valve timing such as cam changing VVT, cam phasing
VVT and combined cam changing and cam phasing VVT.
1. Cam changing VVT:

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This type ofVVT uses various cam profiles to lift valves based on load and speed. It also
uses two rocker arms for normal working in its two intake valves and third rocker arm is
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placed between other two arms. If the engine runs more than 5000 to 6000 rpm, the Electronic
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Control Unit (ECU) activates an oil pressure controlled pin to lock these three rocker arms
movement to intake valves in keep opening it for longer period. r

simultaneously. The center rocker arm follows the random profile and transfers the same
ing
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Similarly, when the engine speed reduces below the threshold speed, the spring
connected to it will deactivate the pin to reduce the oil pressur~ because rocker arms are not
locked. It is due to less control of valves by outer lobes. It is carried out in three stages.
Stage 1. Low speed

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Both intake and exhaust valves are configured for slow speed.
Stage 2. Medium speed

In this stage, intake valves are configured for high speed and exhaust valves are
configured for slow speed. So, medium speed is obtained.
Stage 3. High speed

In this stage, both intake and exhaust valves are configured for high speed. Therpfnrp
high speed is obtained.
~.

lam Automobile Engineering

Advantage:
It is very much powerful at top end.
Disadvantages:
1. Stage 2 or stage 3 is non-continuous and not much improvement to torque.
2. It is also complex in nature.
2. Cam phasing VVT:

It is the simplest, cheapest and most commonly used mechanism in recent days. It is
obtained by just shifting the phase angle of camshafts. At high speed, the inlet camshaft
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rotates 30° advance to enable previous intake. It can be achieved by engine management
system based on the need and type of actuation. Generally. the actuation is done by hydraulic
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valve gears.
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This arrangement does not alter the duration of valve opening but it allows valve to open
early or late based on the requirement. If the valves are opened early, they also close early.
Advantages:
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I. It is cheap and simple.
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2. It improves the torque throughout the running process.
Disadvantage:
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It provides lack of variable lift.and variable opening duration. It results the less top end
power.
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3. Combined cam changing and cam phasing VVT:
It offers the benefit of both cam changing and cam phasing VVT in terms of top end
power and flexibility throughout running. The only drawback is more complex in design.
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Toyota and Porsche have this design.
1.23.2. Advantages of Variable Valve Timing

1. It allows to recirculate internal exhaust gas.
2. Increased torque can be obtained.
3. It ensures better fuel economy.
4. It reduces nitrogen oxide.
5. Hydrocarbon emissions can be controlled.


1.23.3. Applications of Variable Valve Timing
Different manufacturers use different types ofVVT as listed below.
S.No. Type of valve Configuration Type of automobile
1. Valvetronic It offers continuous variable valve BMW

timing and valve lift on intake cam
only. It can be relied for amount of
valve lift to throttle the engine.
2. VANOS It allows to vary the timing of BMW

valves by moving the position of
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gear.
3. VTEC It uses two camshaft profiles and Honda
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profiles.
selects between
4. VarioCam
-
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5. AVCS/AVLS
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the tension of a cam chain.
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- It allows to change the Subaru Mitsubishi
timing
pressure.
(phase) with
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ing
MIVEC
AVLS - It varies duration, timing

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and lift by switching between two
different sets of cam lobes. t
1.24. TWO MARK QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS
1. Explain tile various applications 0/ automobiles. {Anna Univ. Dec'OBI

Automobiles are used for the transportation of passengers and goods from one
place to the other on the ground.
2. How are automobiles classified? {Anna Univ. May'I21

Automobiles can be classified with respect to different purposes which are as
follows.

AUWIIJ1oJ'Jile Engineering
(i) With respect to the purpose:
(a) Passenger vehicles. Examples: Car, Bus, Jeep, Scooter, Mopeds, Motor
cycle.
(b) Goods carriers. Examples: Trucks, Lorrys.
(ii) With respect to thefuel used:

(a) Petrol vehicles
(b) Diesel vehicles
(c) Gas vehicles
(d) Electric vehicle
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(iii) With respect to capacity:
(a) Heavy Transport vehicle or Heavy Motor vehicles. Example: Bus, Lorries,
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Trucks, Tractors.
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(b) Light transport vehicle or light motor vehicles. Example: Car, Scooter,
Mopeds, Motor cycles, Jeeps.
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(iv) With respect to the number of wheeIs:
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(a) Two wheelers. Examples: Scooters, Motor cycles, Mopeds.
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(b) Four wheelers. Examples: Car, Jeep, Buses, Trucks.
(c) Three wheelers. Examples: Auto, Tempos ing
(d) Six wheelers. Example: Heavy trucks. .ne
(v) With respect to the drive of the vehicle:
(a) Single wheel drive vehicles
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(b) Two wheel drive vehicles
(c) Four wheel drive vehicles
(d) Six wheel drive vehicles.
J. How are automohiles classified based on capacity? Give examples.

[Anna Univ. May']
(i) Heavy transport vehicle or heavy motor vehicles. Example. Bus, Lorri
Trucks, Tractors.

I Vehicle Structure lind Engines Rl

(ii) Light transport vehicle or light motor vehicles. Example. Car, Scooter,
Mopeds, Motor cycles, Jeeps.
4. What is meant by self-propelled vehicle?

A vehicle producing power within itself for its propulsion is known as self-
propelled vehicle.
5. Give examples to self-propelled vehicles.

Examples to self-propelled vehicles are scooters, mopeds, cars, lorry, bus, jeep,
tractors, ship, aeroplanes, helicopters, rockets etc.
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6. What is known as unitary or monocoque construction ill all atuomobile?
{Anna Univ. Dec'l3]
w.E Unitary or monocoque construction combines the bodywork and its underlying
structure into a single load-bearing unit.
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7. State the major types of automobiles according to the fuel used.
(a) Petrol vehicles
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(b) Diesel vehicles
(c) Gas vehicles gi nee
(d) Electric vehicle
(e) Solar vehicle. r ing
8. Brieflyaplain lI
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offroad" vehlcle willi example. [Anna Univ. May'08 & May'll]
An off-road vehicle may be any type of a vehicle which is capable of driving on
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and off paved or gravel surface. It is generally characterized by having large tires with
deep, open treads and a flexible suspension or even caterpillar tracks. Other vehicles
which do not travel public streets or highways are generally known as off-highway
vehicles which are tractors, forklifts, cranes, backhoes, bulldozers and Golf carts.
9. Classify automobiles with respect to the number of wheels.

(a) Two wheelers. Examples: Scooters, motor cycles and mopeds.
(b) Four wheelers. Examples: Car,jeep, buses and trucks.
(c) Three wheelers. Examples: Auto and tempos
(d) Six wheelers. Example: Heavy trucks.

IIImI Automoblfe Engineering

10. Classify automobiles witl, respect to the drive of the vehicle.
(a) Left hand drive
(b) Right hand drive.
11. How automobiles are streamlined based on type of transmission used?

(a) Conventional automobiles
(b) Semi-automatic automobiles
(c) Automatic automobiles.
12. Mention any four requirements of an automobile.
ww 1.
2.
It should develop power by itself.
The rate of power development must be easily controlled.
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wheels.
4.
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An arrangement must exist to continue and discontinue power flow to the
wheels.
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13. How are tile requirements of an automobile fulfilled?
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The rate of power development is controlled by an accelerometer.
2. The power developed by the engine is transmitted to wheels by a
transmission system.
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3.
4.
The gear box is provided for varying or changing the torque.
.ne
The driving thrust is carried to the chassis frame through the suspension
5.
system.
Directional control is maintained through the steering.
t
6. The moving vehicle is stopped by means of brakes.
14. Wluu is the difference between normal control and forward control in commercial
vehicles? {Anna Univ. Dec'14/
In normal control commercial vehicles, engine is located at the front of the
driver's cab to give more cab space, less noise, heat and ease entry and exit
Forward control is a body style of truck or van that has a vertical front or "flat
face" with the cab sitting above the front axle. In other words, it can be stated that
engine is located either at the side or below the driver's cab.

I Vehicle Structure and Engines mpi

15. How does EMS operate? {Anna Univ. Dec'14J
Emergency Medical Services (EMS) provide out-of-hospital acute medical care
and transport to definitive care for those in need.
16. What is the needfor a gearbox in an automobile? {Anna Univ. Dec'UJ

The main function of the gear-box is to provide the necessary variation to the
torque applied by the engine to the road wheel according to the operating
conditions.
17. Describe briefly the machine portion in bullock cart.

Machine portion consists of a frame in which wheels are attached through the
wwaxle. A yoke is fixed at the front end of the frame through which the bullocks pull the
cart.
w.E
18. Mention the various parts of II car.
asy
Various parts of a car are generator, starter, steering, clutch, rear axle,
differential, universal joint, wheel, tyres, body, lamp etc.
En
. 19. What is meant by the term "chassis"?
gi
It is the main structure of a vehicle which is used to the complex vehicle except
nee
the body. A vehicle without body is called chassis.
r
20. What is chassis? How its design is related to vehicle aerodynamics?
ing
{Anna Univ. Dec'Uj.
.ne
A vehicle without body is called chassis. Chassis design is related to vehicle
aerodynamics due to various loads such as loads of short duration, combined loads of
moment any duration, inertia loads, impact loads, load due to road camber, load due
to wheel impact, static loads and overloads.
t
21. List any four compartments of a chassis.
1. Frame
2. Steering mechanism
3. Engine, clutch and gear box.
4. Radiator
5. Wheels
6. Rear and front springs and shock absorber

111m Automobile Engineering

7. Differential unit
8. Propeller shaft and Universal joint.
22. Classify chassis based on number of wheels.

(a) 4 x 2 drive chassis - It has four wheels out of which 2 are driving wheels.
(b) 4 x 4 drive chassis - It has four wheels and all of them are driving wheels.
(c) 6 x 2 drive chassis - It has six wheels out of which 2 are driving wheels.
(d) 6 x 4 drive chassis - It has six wheels out of which 4 are driving wheels.
23. How chassis system is classified based onflttlng engine?
ww 1. Full-forward
2. Semi-forward
w .Ea
3. Bus chassis
4. Engine at back
5. Engine at centre.
syE
ngi
24. List any six characteristics of a good chassis.
1. Durability
2. Dependability nee
3. Ease of control
rin
4. Quietness
5. Speed g.n
6. Power accessibility. et
25. List out the various materials used in the construction of chassis frames.
[Anna Univ. May'07j
The various steels used in conventional pressed frame are mild steel sheet,
carbon steel sheet and nickel alloy steel sheet.
26. Enumerate the merits and demerits offront engine rear drive chassis layout.
[Anna Univ. May'07j
The drive of the engine can be connected or disconnected from the gearbox by
the driver with the help of a clutch pedal.

27. How does frame act?

The frame is the main part of the chassis. It is the backbone of the vehicle. All
other parts of the chassis are mounted on the frame. It is the rigid structure which
forms a skeleton to hold all major parts together.
28. Whyframe is narrow at the front?
Frame is narrow at the front to provide a better steering lock so that turning
radius should be small or minimum.
29. What are the functions of'frames in automobile? {Anna Univ. May'l1J
1. To form the base for mounting engine and transmission systems.
ww 2. To withstand the engine and transmission thrust and torque stresses as well as
accelerating and braking torque.
w.E3. To accommodate the suspension system.
asy
4. To carry the other parts of the vehicle and its passengers.
5. To resist the effect of centrifugal forces when cornering a curve.
En
6. To withstand bending and twisting stresses due to the fluctuating or rear and
front axle.
gi
30. Give any two requirements of goodframe.
nee
r
(a) Horizontal forces provided by road irregularities.
ing
(b) Upward twisting forces caused by road shocks to provide a torsional effect.
.ne
31. Name and sketch the various types of sectionsfor automobile frames.
t
Channel section Box section Tubular section I-section
Figure 1.76 Types offrame sections
32. What are the shapes offrame section?

1. Channel section
2. Box section
3. Tubular section, and

lam Automobile Engineering

4. I - section.
33. Which section of'frame offers maximum resistance to Torsion and bending?
Frame with X-member provides a better resistance to twisting or torsion effect
whereas to resist bending moment, a frame should have double section frame.
34. List out the various loads acting on the chassis frame.
1. Loads of short duration
2. Combined loads of moment any duration
3. Inertia loads
4. Impact loads
ww 5. Loads due to road camber
w.E 6. Loads due to wheel impact

7. Static loads
8. Overloads.
asy
En
35. What types of components are mounted on the chassisframe?
l. Engine and radiator
2. Transmission system gi nee
3. Suspension system
4. Road wheels r ing
5. Steering system
6. Brakes. .ne
36. State the composition of sheet nickel alloy. t
Carbon 0.25 to 0.35%
Magnanese 0.35 to 0.75%
Silicon 0.30% (Maximum)
Nickel 3%
Phosphorus 0.05% (max)
Sulphur 0.5% (max.)
37. Classifyframes.
1. Conventional frame construction


2. Semi-integrai frame construction
3. Integral or Frameless construction.
38. Describe briefly semi-integral frame construction.

In this type of frame, the rubber body mountings are replaced by relatively stiff
mountings. This arrangement transfers a part of the frame load to the body structure.
This type of frame is mainly used in European cars and American cars. At the same
time, the construction is heavy in nature as compared to the conventional type.
39. What do you understand byframeless frame?

Frameless frames are frames in which floor is strengthen by cross members and
ww these member is welded together. Sometimes, sub members are also used as per the
requirement.
w.E
40. State the advantages of'frameless construction. {Anna Univ. Dec'12j
asy
1. The construction provides a stiff light construction particularly suitable for mass-
produced vehicles.
En
2. No separate frame is used.
gi
3. All assembly units are attached to the body.
nee
4. It reduces weight and consequent saving in fuel consumption.
5. It lowers manufacturing cost
r ing
6. During collision the body crumbles, it absorbs the shock due to impact and thus
providing safety to the passengers.
.ne
7. Compared to framed construction lower body position may be obtained, thus it
results the increased stability of the automobile.
41. Write short note on sub frames.

t
In normal vehicles, various components are bolted on the main frame.
Sometimes, components on vehicle are mounted on sub frames which are bolted on
the main frame. The sub frame provides a greater strength besides it is supported at
three points on the main frame.
The advantage of sub frame is the component bolted on the sub frame which is
isolated from the main frame on which various types of forces act such as tv-isting
force, bending force etc. It reduces the vibration. It also helps to simplify the 0\ erhead
or repair and increases the production of vehicle in assembly line.

42. What are the adl'!lntages ofsub-frames?
1. The mass of the sub frame alone helps to damp vibration.
2. The provision of sub frame simplifies the production on the assembly line and
facilities the subsequent repair.
43. What are the defects that can appear in a chassis body? [Anna Unlv. Dec'09]
(a) Dislocated parts
(b) Cracks
(c) Broken welds
(d) Buckling.
ww
44. What is the role of body in automobiles?
w.E Body is the super-structure for all vehicles. It may either be constructed
separately and bolted to the chassis or manufactured integral with the chassis (i.e.
asy
Frameless construction). The chassis and body make the complete vehicle.
45. List the importance of vehicle body design.
En
1. Weight of the body is about 40% of total weight of the car and 60 to 70010 of total
gi
weight of buses. Therefore, the reduction in body weight is important.
nee
2. If the weight of the body is reduced.jt improves the fuel economy (i.e. mileage).
r ing
3. The body of the vehicle determines its aerodynamic characteristics. Better
aerodynamic structure leads to fuel economy at high speed and stability in cross
wind.
.ne
t
4. The body is also important for aesthetic and ergonomics consideration. It should
give pleasant appeal and style for the customer.
46. Mention any four requirements of the vehicle body.

1. It must be strong enough to withstand all types of forces acting on the vehicle.
The forces are including the weight of car, inertia, luggage, braking and
cornering forces.
I
2. Stresses induced in the body should be distributed evenly to all portions.

3. Weight of the body should be as minimum as possible.
4. It should be able to cope with impact loads of reasonable magnitude.
47. Classify vehicle body.
1. Car 2. Straight trUCK

Vehlcl. StructUTe and Engines

3. Truck half body 4. Truck-platform type
5. Tractor 6. Tractor with articulated trailer
7. Tanker 8. Dumper truck
9. Delivery van 10. Station wagon
II. Pick-up 12. Jeep
13. Buses 14. Mini-buses
15. Three wheeler (i.e. Auto Rickshaw).
48. How are main components 0/ body grouped?
ww (a) Structure: All load carrying elements are defined as structure.

(b) Finish: This group includes all unstressed units such as bonnet, boot, lid,
w.E bumper etc.

(c) Equipment: This group includes various parts such as rim, seats, doors,
window etc.
asy
En
49. What are the materials used/or cylinder block and oil pan? {Anna Univ. May'll]
For cylindrical block.
(1) Grey cast iron
(2) Aluminium.
gi nee
For oil pan. r ing
(I) Hybrid nylon
(2) Aluminium modular .ne
(3) Rubber edged metal.
50. State the functions of centre pillar in automobiles.

t
The centre pillar supports the rear doors and hinges. It also supports the sticker
plates of the front doors.
51. Where are bumpers provided? Wlty?

Bumpers are provided at the front and rear end of the car. They are used to
protect the front end and rear end of the car from damage in case of light collisions.
52. Give the materials usedfor manufacturing of autol1Wbilebody.

The materials used for construction of various parts of the body are steel, wood,
plastics, toughened glass and aluminium. In earlier days, wooden bodies were used

IIII'lI Automobile Engineering

for construction. But now-a-days, steel is mainly used for body construction because
of low cost and easy to manufacture.
53. What is. double over head camshaft engine? [Anna Univ. May'12}
Double Over Head Camshaft (DOHC) engine has two camshafts located within
the cylinder head. One is operating the intake valves and the other one is operating
exhaust valves. This design reduces the valve train inertia more than a single overhead
camshaft engine since the rocker arms are reduced in size or eliminated.
54. Name the resistances to vehicle motion. [Anna Univ. May'15}

1. Loads of short duration
ww 2. Combined loads of moment any duration
w.E 3. Inertia loads

4. Impact loads
asy
5. Load due to road camber
En
6. Load due to wheel impact
7. Static loads
8. Overloads. gi
55. Wluu is meant by dragforce and lift force? nee
r ing
Force of air drag is acting in the direction of vehicle motion with the wind acting
along the longitudinal direction axis. This force is also called air resistance.
.ne
Aerodynamic lift force is the vertical component of the resultant force caused by
the pressure distribution on the body.
56. Define cross windforce.

t
Cross wind force is acting in the lateral direction on the side of the vehicle. It is
formed by the asymmetric flow of air around the vehicle body.
57. What are the three moments acting in cross windforce?

1. Pitching moment (M;,.)
2. Yawing moment (MJ
3. Rolling moment (My)

~/e Structureand Engines am

58. Define 'bouncing' and 'pitching',
The vertical movement of the complete body is called bouncing. In other words,
the complete body of the vehicle moves up and down called bounce or bouncing.
Rocking chair action or rotating action about a transverse axis through the
vehicle parallel to ground is known as pitching.
59. Whatis meant by IC engine?

Internal Combustion engine (IC engine) is a heat engine which converts the
chemical energy of a fuel into mechanical energy. The chemical energy of a fuel is
first converted into thermal energy by means of products of combustion or oxidation
ww with air inside the engine. This thermal energy is converted into useful work through
the mechanical mechanism of the engine.
w.E
60. Whatis theprincipleof ignitionin CI engine? [Anna Univ.Nov'lOJ
asy
The pressurised air is combusted by injecting atomised fuel in CI engines. Due to
high pressure and temperature at the end of compression, the fuel gets ignited
En
automatically when it is injected in an automised form.
externalcombustionengines. gi
61. Discuss the relative advantages and disadvantagesof internal combustion and
nee [Anna Univ.May'l1J

Advantages of internal combustion engines:
r
1. It provides lower weight to power output ratio.
ing
2. It is simple in design.
3. It needs less initial cost. .ne
4. It produces high efficiency.
Advantage of external combustion engines.

t
Cheaper fuels can be used.
Disadvantages of internal combustion engines:
1. As much as rich fuel hydrocarbon based fuel should be used.
2. They need of some governing mechanisms to stabilize the output power
throughout cycle.
Disadvantages of external combustion engines:

1. It is large in size.
2. Transportation of heat in place to place needs special devices.

IIIDI Automobile Engineering

62. Mention any four engine components along with materials.
[Anna Univ. May'08 & May'I5]
1. Cylinder block: It is made of grey cast iron or aluminium with steel sleeves.
2. Cylinder head: The materials used for cylinder heads are cast iron, aluminum
alloy etc.
3. Crank case: It is made of cast iron, aluminum alloys or alloy steels.
4. Oil sump: It is made of pressed steel sheet.
5. Cylinder liners: Chromium plated mild steel tubes are used for manufacturing
liners.
ww 6. Piston: Piston is made of cast iron, Aluminium alloy, chrome-Nickel alloy,

nickel-iron alloy and cast steel.
w.E
63. State the purpose of providing piston in IC engines.
asy
I. Piston acts as a movable gas tight seal to keep the gases inside the cylinder.
En
2. Piston transmits the force of explosion in the cylinder to the crankshaft
through connecting rod.
gi nee
64. Why should a material for cylinder block or head have higher thermal
conductivity? What happens if this factor is overdone? [Anna Univ. Dec'I2]
r ing
As the engine cylinder block has to withstand high temperature and vibration
when the engine is in running conditions, it should have good thermal conductivity to
.ne
give out the heat produced during the combustion process in minimum time. Engine
seizer will happen due to overheating if this factor is overdone.
65. What are the purposes of using cylinder liners?

Inside the cylinder, the piston constantly is moving up and down which will
t
cause wear of cylinder. When the cylinder diameter is increased beyond certain limit,
the entire cylinder block should be discarded which is costly. To avoid early cylinder
wear, a separate liner which is in the form of sleeve is inserted into the cylinder bore,
Then, the wear will take place in the liner only which can be replaced easily when
worn out.
66. Name the prominent material for the manufacture of valves ami valve seat inserts.
[Alina trc« Dec'07]
Inlet valve is made of plain nickel, nickef~chromeor chrome-molybdenum. The
exhaust valve is subjected to more heat. Hence, it should be made of high heat


resistance material such as silicon-chrome steel, high speed steel, cobalt-chrome steel
and tungsten steel.
67. What are the types of piston rings?
);> Compression rings
);> Oil rings.
68. What are the functions of piston rings? {Anna Univ. Apr'08j
The functions are to maintain air tight sealing between piston and cylinder to
prevent gas leakages, to wipe off the excess oil from the cylinder walls and also to
return the excess oil to the oil sump through slots provided on the rings.
ww
69. State any four reasons due to which, the spark plug may fail tofunction properly.
{Anna Univ. Dec'13j
w.E The following are the four reasons due to which the spark plug may fair to
function properly.
asy
a) Sooted spark plug: Insulator nose, electrodes and air space are covered in velvety
En
black soot due to faulty carburation.
gi
b) Spark plug insulator damage: Scorching due to sparks jumping across the
nee
insulator which may be caused because of spark plug adaptor worn out, the rubber
gasket torn, embrittled or hardened.
r ing
c) Worn spark plugs: Center and ground electrode show visible material loss due to
aggressive fuel or oil additives, thermal overload and exceeding replacement
interval. .ne
d) Incorrect tightening torque causes traces of hydrocarbons on spark plug body and
broken ground electrodes.
t
70. What is the use of connecting rod?
It is used to connect the piston and crankshaft with the help of bearings.
71. What is the purpose ofthejlywheel in an Ie engine? Where is it located?

{Anna Univ. Nov'10j
Flywheel serves as an energy reservoir. It stores energy during power stroke and
o it releases energy during other strokes to give a constant output torque. It is located on
the crankshaft.

Engineering
72. How are diesel engines identified at the moment of seeing any IC engines?
Absence of spark plug
73. What is the function of push rod and rocker arm? {Anna Univ. Nov'07j
The push rod and rocker arm actuates valves according to the engine stroke by
cams.
74. Classify IC engines according to cycle of operation.

b. Two stroke cycle.
75. What is known as valve overlap? ,{Anna Univ. Dec'13}
ww Valve overlap is the period during the valve timing where both intake and
w.E exhaust valves open. The valve overlap is the sum of the angle of opening the intake
valve before TOC and closing of the exhaust valve after TOC. If the piston is
asy
positioned between 4th stroke (exhaust) and lSIstroke (intake) at TDC, both valves
open.
En
76. Compare two-stroke andfour-stroke engine.
S.No.
gi
Two stroke cycle engine
nee Four stroke cycle engine
Advantages
1. Cycle is completed in two stroke or

r Disadvantages
ing
One cycle is completed in four stroke
one revolution of the crankshaft.
.ne
or two revolution of the crank shaft.
2. It develops twice the number of

power strokes than four stroke
t
It develops half the number of power
stroke than two stroke engine.
engines.
3. Thermal efficiency is low. Thermal efficiency is high.
4. Volumetric efficiency is low. "-

Volumetric efficiency is more.
Greater cooling and lubrication are Lesser cooling and lubrication are
5.
required. required.
6. Overall efficiency is less. Overall efficiency is more.


77.Mention anyfour applicationsof twostrokeengine andfour strokeengine.
[Anna Univ.Dec'llj
1. Automobiles such as trucks, bus, scooters etc.
2. Marine applications
3. Aircraft applications
4. Power plants, such diesel power plants
5. Hybrid power generation, such as combined solar-diesel power plant, wind-diesel
power plant etc.
78. CompareSI and CI engines.
ww
S.No. SI or Petrolengi~e CI or Dieselengine
w.E
1. During suction stroke, air fuel During suction stroke, air is only drawn
asy
mixture is drawn from carburetor. from the atmosphere.
2.
En
Carburetor is used to mix the air and
fuel in required proportion.
Fuel injector or atomizer is required to
inject the fuel into cylinder in atomized
gi form.
nee
Spark plug is required to ignite the Fuel is ignited automatically by high
r
3.
fuel air mixture.
ing
pressure & temperature air.
4. Compression ratio varies from 6 to 8.

.ne
Compression ratio varies from 12 to 18.
5. It IS operated by Otto cycle or It is operated by Diesel cycle or

t
constant volume cycle. constant pressure cycle.
6. The starting is easy due to lower The starting is little difficult due to
compression ratio. highei compression ratio.
79. Classify IC engines according to cycle of lubrication system and field of

application.
Types of lubrication system:
a. Wet sump lubrication system
b. Dry sump lubrication system.

Ima Automobile Engineering

Field of application:
a. Automobiles, truck, bus and locomotive engine
b. Stationary engine
c. Marine engine
d. Aircraft engine.
80. What is a square engine? [Anna Univ. Dec'07}

Engine which has same bore and stroke is called square engine. Usually, engines
that have a bore/stroke ratio of 0.95 to 1.04 are referred as square engines.
81. Write down the firing order of 4 and 6 cylinder engine. [Anna Univ. May'11}
ww 1. For 4 cylinders engine, the firing order is 1 - 3 - 4 - 2 or 1 - 4 - 3 - 2.
w.E 2. For six cylinders engine, the firing order is 1 - 5 - 3 - 6 - 2 - 4

2 - 6 - 3 - 5.
or 1 - 4-
asy
82. Write any two merits and demerits of horizontal engines? [Anna Univ. Dec'13}
Merits of horizontal engines:

En
gi
1. The inertia forces of the reciprocating parts combined together to give an
nee
impulse to the chassis frame of the vehicle as the stroke of the engine piston
is horizontal. If the cylinder head is towards the front end of the vehicle, then
r ing
a driving impulse is obtained from the engine. This impulse force slides the
engine forward on a smooth floor when the running engine is placed on the
.ne
floor. Therefore, a vehicle fitted with horizontal engine tends to push
forward the moped or the scooter by its impulsive force.
2. Fuel economy is also more. t
Demerits of horizontal engines:
1. The crankcase cannot be used for storing lubrication oil for splash
lubrication.
2. There will be excessive wear at the lower side of the piston and cylinder
liner where the cylinder liner gives support to the engine because the weight
of the piston is carried by the cylinder liner.
3. Consumption of lubricating oil is more due the lubricating oil which dribbles
from the bearings returning to the crankcase but it is thrown out by the
centrifugal forces.


83. List down the classification of LC engines based on the number of strokes and
method of charging. {Anna Univ. Dec'OS]
(i) Engine cycle per stroke:
b. Two stroke cycle
(ii) Types offuel used or methods of charging:

a. Petrol engine
b. Diesel engine
c. Gas engine.
ww
84. What are the advantages of diesel engines in cars? {Anna Univ. May'14]
w.E I. The running cost of diesel engine is low because of the lower cost of diesel and
higher fuel economy i.e. mileage.
asy
2. The thermal efficiency is up to about 40%.
En
3. Overheating trouble is less due to high thermal efficiency.
gi
4. Diesel engines are more easily turbo-charged.
85. Define the term valve timing diagram.

nee
The exact moment at which each of the valves opens and closes with reference to
r ing
the position of piston and crank can graphically be shown in a diagram. This diagram
is known as "valve timing diagram".
.ne
86. Differentiate between ideal and actual valve timing diagrams of a petrol engine.
Theoretical valve timing diagram:

t
[Anna Univ. Oct' 01}
In theoretical valve timing diagram, both inlet and exhaust valves open and
close at both dead centres. Similarly, all processes are sharply completed from TDC
orBDC.
Actual valve timing diagram:
The inlet valve opens to-30° before TDC. The air-fuel mixture is sucked into
the cylinder till the inlet valve closes.
The inlet valve closes 30-40° or even 60° after BDC. The charge is compressed
till the spark occurs.

A Engineering
The spark is produced 20-40° before TOC. It gives sufficient time for the fuel
to burn. Both pressure and temperature increase. The burnt gases expand till the
exhaust valve opens.
The exhaust valve opens 30-60° before BOC. The exhaust gases are forced out
from the cylinder till the exhaust valve closes.
The exhaust valve closes 8-20° after TDC. Before it closes, again the inlet valve
opens 10-30° before TOC.
87. Draw the valve timing diagram/or a CI engine. [Anna Univ. Dec'lOJ
ww TOC
w.E
asy
En i
:s
gi nee
'"o·
:s
r ing
.ne
BOC
t
Figure 1. 77Actual valve timing diagram
IVO => Inlet Valve Open IVC => Inlet Valve Close
EVO => Exhaust Valve Open EVC => Exhaust Valve Close
TDC => Top Dead Center BOC => Bottom Dead Center
IVO => Inlet Valve Open IYC => Inlet Valve Close
EVO => Exhaust Valve Open EVC => Exhaust Valve Close
IS => Ignition Start

88. What are the types of VVT?

1. Cam changing VVT
2. Cam phasing VVT
3. Combined cam changing and cam phasing VVT.
89. How is medium speed obtained in cam changing VVT?

Intake valves are configured for high speed and exhaust valves are configured for
slow speed. So, medium speed is obtained.
90. List down the advantages and disadvantages of cam changing VVT.
Advantage:
ww It is very much powerful at top end.
w.E
Disadvantages:
1. Stage 2 or stage 3 is non-continuous and not much improvement to torque.
asy
2. It is also complex in nature.
En
91. Mention the various advantages and disadvantages of cam phasing in VVT.
Advantages:
gi
1. It is cheap and simple.
nee
Disadvantage: r
2. It improves the torque throughout the running process.
ing
.ne
It provides lack of variable lift and variable opening duration. It results the less
top end power.
92. What is combined cam changing and cam phasing VVT?

t
It offers the benefit of both cam changing and cam phasing VVT in terms of top
end power and flexibility throughout running. The only drawback is more complex in
design. Toyota and Porsche have this design.
93. List down the advantages of VVT.

1. It allows to recirculate internal exhaust gas.
2. Increased torque can be obtained.
3. It ensures better fuel economy.
4. It reduces nitrogen oxide.
S. Hydrocarbon emissions can be controlled.

94. Tabulate any two applications of VVT.
Type of valve Configuration Type of automobile

Valvetronic It offers continuous variable valve BMW
timing and valve lift on intake cam
only. It can be relied for amount of
valve lift to throttle the engine.
VANOS It allows to vary the timing of BMW
valves by moving the position of
ww camshafts relative to the driving

gear.
w.E VTEC It uses two camshaft profiles and

electronically selects between
Honda
asy profiles.
1.25. SOLVED QUESTIONS En

gi
1. Describe the brief history of the automobile.
Refer chapter 1.1.1 in page 1.2. nee
r ing
2. What are the aspects considered in the design and construction of a body?
Refer chapter I.S.4 in page 1.43. .ne

[Anna Univ. Dec'l4j
3. Classify automobiles.
Refer chapter 1.3 in page 1.6.
t
4. Explain vehicle construction of a bullock cart with its neat sketch.
5. Draw the layout of an automobile and indicate its various components.

[Anna Univ.Dec '05, May' 10, May' 12 & Dec' 12]
6. List the various requirements of a good chassis and frame.

Refer chapter 1.6.4 in page 1.22.

I Vehicle Structure and Engines -" .....

7. Draw the layout of conventional chassis with a neat diagram and explain about the
various parts on it. [Anna Univ.May' 11]
8. Explain the construction of various frames used in automobiles with neat sketch.
[Anna Univ.May'07, Dec '09 & May '11]
Or
Discuss the frame type chassis construction with neat sketch. [Anna Univ. May'15]
9. List out the functions of frame in an automobile and explain anyone type of semi
ww integral frame. [Anna Univ.Dec '07]
w.E Refer chapter 1.7.1 in page 1.27 and refer page 1.31.
10. Explain briefly semi integral and integral type vehicle body construction.
asy [Anna Univ. Dec' 14]
En
Refer page 1.31.
gi
11. Write a note on sub-frames. [Anna Univ. Dec' 12]
nee
12. Write short notes on the following with respect to vehicle motion.
(i) Aerodynamic drag r ing
Refer page 1.52.
(ii) Gradient resistance .ne
Refer page 1.53.
(iii) Rolling resistance. [Anna Univ. May'll,Dec'J3&
t
Dec'U]]
Refer page 1.53.
13. Explain briefly the construction of an S.1. engine. [Anna Univ. May '06]
14. Explain the various components of engine with a neat sketch.

[Anna Univ. May '06, Dec '08 & Dec' 14]
Or
List the engine parts, materials, methods of manufacture and their func .ons.
[Anna Univ. May'14 & Dec '14]

M' Automobile :Englneerlng

15. Describe in detail on various types of automotive pistons. [Anna Univ. Dec'12]
16. Discuss in detail various types of piston failure. [Anna Univ. Dec'12]
Refer page 1.63.
17. What are the types of valve used to control air fuel mixture in the engine cylinder to
force the exhaust gaseous out at correct time? [Anna Univ. May'12]
18. Classify IC engines.
ww Refer chapter 1.13 in page 1.71.
w.E
19. Give reasons.
(i) For using single cylinder two stroke petrol engines on two wheelers
asy
En
(ii) For using multi cylinder diesel engines in commercial vehicles.
[Anna Univ. May'14]
gi
nee
20. Explain engine classification based on valve arrangement with a neat diagram.
Qefer chapter 1.18 in page 1.92.

r ing
[Anna Univ. May'11]
.ne
---------_._---- END of Unit 1'------------ t

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I Vehicle StrUcture and Engines

1.1. INTRODUCTION asy

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1.1.1.Brief History of Automobiles

1. U.S.A.: General Motors, Ford-Ford cars, Chrysler, Dodge

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Vehicle Structure and Engines

Captain Nicholas Cugnot, a French engineer is considered to be the father of

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History of automobile in India:

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VehicleSttvcture and Engines

1. It should develop power by itself.

ww 7. It must have a directional control.

1. Single unit vehicles or load carriers

1.2.1.Single Unit Vehicles

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1.3. TYPES OF AUTOMOBILES E ngi

(i) With respect to the purpose:

(ii) Weight of the vehicle: e t

(iii) With respect to the fuel used:

(e) Solar vehicle.

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Vehicle Structure and Engines

(iv) With respect to body style:

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(vi) With respect to the number of wheels:

ww (d) Six wheelers. Example: Heavy trucks.'

(ix) With respect to the side of power drive: g.n

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I Vehicle Structure and Engines

(xii) With respect to motion:

vehicles are given in Table 1.1.

Maruti Suzuki Alto,

(xv) With respect to combination of number of wheels and axles:

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I.. Automobile Engineering

A bullock cart consists of the following main parts.

The basic construction of automobile is similar to a cart. An automobile also consists of a

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Vehicle Structure and Engines II1'II

Figure 1.4 Layout of a car

The body or superstructure is built up to fulfill the requirements or trends of the

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I" Automobile Engineering

1.5. DIFFERENTLAYOUTS OF A CAR

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Vehicle Structure and Engines

1.5.1.3. Central or Mid-Engine

Generally, the central or mid-engine location is applied in sports cars. In a rear-engined

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Figure 1.8 Front enginefront wheel drive

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Vehicle Structure and Engines .....

ww drive vehicles to understeer which can improve drivability when cornering.

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Vehicle Structure and Engines

1.5.4. Rear Engine Rear Wheel Drive

Figure 1.10 Rear engine rear wheel drive