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9
determiner
In most Indo-European languages, determiners are either independent words or clitics that
precede the rest of the noun-phrase. In other languages, determiners are prefixed or suffixed to
the noun, or even change the noun's form. For example, in Swedish bok "book", when definite,
becomes boken "the book" (suffixed definite articles are common in Scandinavian languages).
Some constructions, such as those that use names of school subjects ("Physics uses
mathematics"), don't use a determiner. This condition is called the "zero determiner" instance.
X-bar theory contends that every noun has a corresponding determiner. In a case where a noun
does not have a pronounced determiner, X-bar theory hypothesizes the presence of a zero article.
½
The determiner function is usually performed by the determiner class of words, but can also be
filled by words from other entities:
1.Y Ñasic determiners are words from the determiner class (e.g. P e girl, P ose pencils) or determiner
phrases (e.g. almosPall people, moreP anPo problems).
2.Y Subject determiners are possessive noun phrases (e.g. s daughter, P eboy's friend).
3.Y ÿinor determiners are plain NPs (e.g. aPolour carpet, P sse shoes) and prepositional
phrases (underPenPy meters, upPoPelve people).
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6 determiner establishes the referene of a noun or noun-phrase, including quantity, rather than
its aPPrbuPes as expressed by adjectives. Despite this tendency, determiners have a variety of
functions including, in English, modifiers in adjective phrases and determiner phrases, and even
markers of coordination.
This word class, or part of speech, exists in many languages, including English, though most
English dictionaries still classify determiners under other parts of speech. Determiners usually
include articles, and may include items like demonstratives, possessive determiners, quantifiers,
and cardinal numbers, depending on the language.
m Y
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½
Determiners, in English, form a closed class of words that number about 50 (not counting the
cardinal numerals) and include:
Y Definite determiners, which limit their reference back to a specific already-mentioned entity
Y Indefinite determiners, which broaden their referent to one not previously specified, otherwise
newly introduced into discourse
ÿany of these can also be either or, thus allowing such pairs as ¬ P e¬oP erone, or
¬ an¬oP erone.
While many words belong to this lexical category exclusively, others belong to a number of
categories, for example, the pronoun aP in aPsgood as opposed to the determiner aP in
aPonesgood. While numerals exist as nouns, it is debated whether numerals are determiners
or not[2]. For instance, the English numerals for 100 or larger need a determiner, such as "
hundred men." Similarly, while pronouns like my, your, etc. function as determiners in a noun
phrase, many grammars do not make the distinction between class and function and so lump
these in with determiners.
? Y
Y
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Traditional English grammar does not include determiners and calls most determiners adjectives.
There are, however, a number of key differences between determiners and adjectives. (The [*]
indicates intentionally incorrect grammar.)
1.Y In English, articles, demonstratives, and possessive determiners cannot co-occur in the same
phrase, while any number of adjectives are typically allowed.
1.Y 6 ½ book
2.Y * book (note however that Italian allows exactly this construction - lsuolbro)
2.Y ÿost determiners cannot occur alone in predicative complement position; most adjectives can.
1.Y He is .
2.Y * He is .
3.Y ÿost determiners are not gradable, while adjectives typically are.
1.Y happy, happier, happiest
2.Y (However in colloquial usage an English speaker might say [eg] "This is very much my
house" for emphasis)
4.Y Some determiners have corresponding pronouns, while adjectives don't.
1.Y ½ likes something different.
2.Y * Ñ likes something different.
5.Y 6djectives can modify singular or plural nouns, while some determiners can only modify one or
the other.
1.Y a person / people
2.Y people / * person
6.Y 6djectives are never obligatory, while determiners often are.
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Determiners such as P s, all, and some can often occur without a noun. In traditional grammar,
these are called pronouns. There are, however, a number of key differences between such
determiners and pronouns.
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è Y
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" #
Prepositions are the words that indicate location. Msually, prepositions show this location in the
physical world. -heck out the three examples below:
On, in, and beside are all prepositions. They are showing ere the puppy is. Prepositions can
also show location in Pme. Read the next three examples:
In the spring, I always vow to plant tomatoes but end up buying them at the supermarket.
During the marathon, Iggy's legs complained with sharp pains shooting up his thighs.
6t midnight, in the spring, and during the marathon all show location in time.
Ñecause there are so many possible locations, there are quite a few prepositions. Ñelow is the
complete list.
D Y
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among from round
apart from in since
around in addition to through
as in back of throughout
as for in case of till
at in front of to
because of in place of toward
before inside under
behind in spite of underneath
below instead of unlike
beneath into until
beside like up
between near upon
beyond next up to
but* of with
by off within
by means of on without
* Ñut is very seldom a preposition. When it is used as a preposition, but means the same as
except²Everyone ate frog legs but Jamie. Ñut usually functions as a coordinating conjunction.
Prepositions generally introduce prepositional phrases. Prepositional phrases look like this:
6t school
6ccording to us
Ñy chewing
] Y
Y
c ?
Y
In the crumb-filled, rumpled sheets
Some prepositions also function as subordinate conjunctions. These prepositions are after, as,
before, since, and until. 6 subordinate conjunction will have both a subject and a verb following
it, forming a subordinate clause.
If you find a noun [with or without modifiers] following one of these five prepositions, then all
you have is a prepositional phrase. Look at these examples:
6s a good parent
Ñefore dinner
Mntil midnight
$
" #
Verbs are a necessary component of all sentences. Verbs have two important functions: Some
verbs put static objects into motion while other verbs help to clarify the objects in meaningful
ways. Look at the examples below:
The important thing to remember is that every subject in a sentence must have a verb. Otherwise,
you will have written a fragment, a major writing error.
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* Y
Y
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ÿany words in English have more than one function. Sometimes a word is a subject, sometimes
a verb, sometimes a modifier. 6s a result, you must often analyze the job a word is doing in the
sentence. Look at these two examples:
The crunch of the potato chips drew the angry glance of Professor Orsini to our corner of the
room.
-runch is something that we can do. We can crunch cockroaches under our shoes. We can
crunch popcorn during a movie. We can crunch numbers for a math class. In the first sentence,
then, crunch is what the potato chips do, so we can call it a verb.
Even though crunch is often a verb, it can also be a noun. The crunch of the potato chips, for
example, is a thing, a sound that we can hear. You therefore need to analyze the function that a
word provides in a sentence before you determine what grammatical name to give that word.
Dance! Sing! Paint! Giggle! -hew! What are these words doingr They are expressing action,
something that a person, animal, force of nature, or thing can do. 6s a result, words like these are
called action verbs. Look at the examples below:
Ñecause of the spoiled mayonnaise, Ricky vomited potato salad all day.
Vomiting is something that Ricky can do²although he might not enjoy it.
Thunder boomed in the distance, sending my poor dog scrambling under the bed.
If you are unsure whether a sentence contains an action verb or not, look at every word in the
sentence and ask yourself, "Is this something that a person or thing can dor" Take this sentence,
for example:
o Y
Y
c ?
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During the summer, my poodle constantly pants and drools.
-an you duringr Is during something you can dor -an you ther Is there someone theing outside
the window right nowr -an you summerr Do your obnoxious neighbors keep you up until 2 a.m.
because they are summeringr -an you myr What does a person do when she's myingr -an you
poodler Show me what poodling is. -an you pantr Ñingo! Sure you can! Run five miles and
you'll be panting. -an you andr Of course not! Ñut can you droolr You bet²although we don't
need a demonstration of this ability. In the sentence above, therefore, there are two action verbs:
pant and drool.
Linking verbs, on the other hand, do not express action. Instead, they connect the subject of a
verb to additional information about the subject. Look at the examples below:
Ising isn't something that ÿario can do. Is connects the subject, ÿario, to additional information
about him, that he will soon have the FÑI on his trail.
During bad storms, trailer parks are often magnets for tornadoes.
6reing isn't something that trailer parks can do. 6re is simply connecting the subject, trailer
parks, to something said about them, that they tend to attract tornadoes.
Ñecame connects the subject, Jose, to something said about him, that he wasn't happy.
6 three-mile run seems like a marathon during a hot, humid July afternoon.
Seems connects the subject, a three-mile run, with additional information, that it's more arduous
depending on the day and time.
6t restaurants, Rami always feels angry after waiting an hour for a poor meal.
The following verbs are Prue linking verbs: any form of the verb be [am, were, has been, are
being, might have been, etc.], become, and seem. These true linking verbs are alays linking
verbs.
Then you have a list of verbs with multiple personalities: appear, feel, grow, look, prove, remain,
smell, sound, taste, and turn. Sometimes these verbs are linking verbs; sometimes they are action
verbs. Their function in a sentence decides what you should call them.
Ë Y
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c ?
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How do you tell when they are action verbs and when they are linking verbsr If you can
substitute am, is, or are for the verb and the sentence still sounds logical, you have a linking verb
on your hands. If, after the substitution, the sentence makes no sense, you are dealing with an
action verb. Here are some examples:
-hris is the grasshopperr I don't think so! In this sentence then, tasted is an action verb.
I am the delicious aromar Not the last time I checked. Smell, in this sentence, is an action verb.
The students are the equationr Of course not! Here, looked is an action verb.
This substitution will not work for appear. With appear, you have to analyze the function of the
verb.
Here, appeared is connecting the subject, Godzilla, to his state of mind, happiness.
You must remember that verbs can have more than one part. In fact, a verb can have as many as
four parts. 6 multi-part verb has a base or man part as well as additional helping or auxiliary
verbs with it. -heck out the examples below:
m Y
Y
c ?
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Harvey spilled chocolate milkshake on Leslie's new dress.
Harvey might have spilled the chocolate milkshake because the short dress distracted him.
Harvey should have been spilling the chocolate milkshake down his throat.
mm Y
Y