1

CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

1.1 GENERAL

A public water supply scheme has to realise the desirable objectives

of adequacy, acceptability, convenience and economy. In realising these
objectives, among the various components in the scheme, the role of the
water distribution system is significant. The purpose of the distribution
system is to convey wholesome water to the consumer at adequate residual
pressure in significant quantity at convenient points.

The distribution network of any water supply system involves a

major portion of the total cost of the system. Furthermore, the proportion
of water distribution cost, in relation to total cost, increases with decreasing
population. This is because collection and purification contributes little, in
terms of cost, to water supply system for small towns and villages. Water
distribution usually accounts for 40 to 70 % of the capital cost of the water
supply system (CPHEEO 1991).

The requirements of the distribution system may be classified as

functional and hydraulic. A geometrical configuration of pipes, reservoirs
and booster, selection and proper location of valves and specials for efficient
operation and maintenance and overall economy in cost constitute some of
the functional aspects. Adequate residual pressure at maximum demand
depends upon the hydraulic capacity of the system (CPHEEO 1991).
 2

1.2 CATEGORIES OF PIPE NETWORK PROBLEMS

In general, the pipe network problems can be categorised based on

(i) the manner in which the water demand pattern is considered in tire
analysis (steady, varied), (ii) type of the layout of the network (branched,
looped), (iii) the way in which the design is made (trial and error,
optimisation method) and (iv) the way in which the simulation is done.

1.2.1 Water demand pattern

The nodal demands fluctuate with the time of the day, day of the
week and the season and thus are variable. However, it is common practice
to assume that the demands remain constant in the analysis. Such analysis
is for steady state conditions and is termed static analysis as opposed to the
dynamic analysis, in which the fluctuations in water demand are considered.

1.2.2 Types of the layout of pipes

The common layouts adopted for water distribution pipe network

are branched and looped types. A branching or dead end network is a
tree like network without any loop. The direction of flow in all the pipes is
fixed and is along the direction from the source to several pipes.

A loop is a closed figure obtained by starting from a node,

travelling only once along the connected pipes, passing only once through
any of the nodes and returning back to the starting node. An independent
or primary loop is one which does not overlap any other loop. Although the
direction of flow in a pipe is fixed for a particular demand pattern, it may
change for another demand pattern.

Pipe networks seldom consist of loops only. However it is usual ly

possible to reduce the composite network to a looped network for analysis.
Supply through a branching network is less reliable when compared with
that through a looped one where alternative paths exist. However,
branching networks are cheaper (Bhave 1991).

Looped type water distribution pipe networks are now widely used
for public water supply systems especially in urban water supply schemes.
However, there is also considerable use of branched pipe network systems,
particularly in rural and industrial water supplies. In practice, loops are
essential feature of actual distribution systems as they provide an
alternative flow path if there is pipe failure or for maintenance. However,
the networks consisting of loops make the synthesis problem difficult to
solve with known mathematical tools, mainly because flow directions and
flow rates are not known a priori.

1.3 DESIGN AND ANALYSIS OF NETWORK

The pipe network design problems involve decision making with

respect to pumping heads, pipe materials and pipe diameters in the
distribution system.

In its simplest form, the problem of pipe network design is to find

the combination of pipe sizes that gives the minimum cost, for a given
layout of pipes and specified demands at the nodes, subject to the following
constraints :

(i) Continuity of flow must be maintained at all junctions or

nodes in the network.
(ii) Minimum pressure head limitations must be satisfied at t he
nodes in the network.
(iii) Minimum and commercially available pipe diameters
constraints must be applied to the pipes in the network.
 4

1.3.1 Methods of Design

In the conventional method of design of water supply pipe

networks, the pipe diameters are selected by trial and error, based on thumb
rules or by experience and then the residual pressure head requirement is
checked. If the requirement is met, the selected pipe diameters are adopted.
Otherwise, they are changed randomly and checked again. This is continued
until the requirement is met. Such a design may not be the best possible
design in terms of cost. Therefore, application of the optimisation techniques
in designing the network is mandatory.

1.3.1.1 Optimisation in perspective

Optimisation principles are of undisputed importance in modern

design and system operation. Over the past few decades there has been a
steady shift in optimisation from the status of an art to that of a scientific
discipline. To a large degree, this trend has been fostered by the
development of high speed computers with which large scale problems can
be solved which otherwise remained unsolved. Innovation in computing
capability has given rise to the development of new methodologies in
optimisation identified as advanced optimisation techniques.

The six steps on which evaluations and decisions are made in the
solution of engineering problems as stated by Pierre (1969) are :

(i) Recognition of need.

(ii) Formulation of the problem.
(iii) Resolving the problem into concepts that suggest a solution.
(iv) Finding elements for the solution.
(v) Synthesising the solution.
(vi) Simplifying and optimising the solution.
The order in which these steps are followed can differ considerably from one
problem to another. Insight gained at any given step may be employed to
modify conclusions of other steps.

As with most ideals, the ideals of optimisation are not easily

achieved : the identification of all significant forms of solution to a given
problem can be accomplished in special cases only, and limitations on time
available to produce the solution to a given problem are always present.
Thus, a good designer or manager does the best that he can, all factors
considered.

Whenever we use "best" or "optimum" to describe a system, the

immediate question to be asked is, "Best with respect to what criteria and
subject to what limitations?" Given a specific measure of performance and
a specific set of constraints, we can designate a system as optimum (with
respect to the performance measure and the constraints) if it performs
better than any other system.

Performance measures

The term ‘performance measure’ denotes that which is to be

maximised or minimised (to be extremised). Other terms that are also used
in this regard are performance index, performance criterion, cost function
and return function.

Constraints

Any relationship that must be satisfied is a constraint. Constraints

are classified either as equality constraints or as inequality constraints.
Arguments of constraint relationships are related in some well defined
fashion to arguments of corresponding performance measures. Thus, if a
particular performance measure depends on parameters and functions to be
 6

selected for the optimum, the associated constraints depend, either directly
or indirectly, on at least some of the same parameters and functions.
Constraints limit the set of solutions from which an optimal solution is to
be found.

Conditions for Optimality

Of all possible solutions that satisfy the constraints of a given

problem, an optimal solution is one which yields the maximum (minimum)
of the given performance measure. Only in the most trivial cases it is
feasible to test all possible solutions that satisfy the constraints of a problem
to determine, by comparison, a solution which yields the maximum
(minimum).

Much of the research to date is on application of deterministic

optimisation techniques (including linear programming, dynamic
programming, and non-linear programming) to the problems of network
design. A relatively new and developing field involves the application of
stochastic optimisation techniques such as genetic algorithms and simulated
annealing.

Comparitive evaluation of methods

A method of optimal design of water distribution network can be

evaluated based on the followings norms :

(i) The level of mathematical complexity involved in the

optimisation exercise.
(ii) The robustness of the method to be applicable for designing
large distribution networks.
(iii) The efficiency of the method (measured in terms of the cost
involved) vis-a-vis other methods.
 7

(iv) Time taken for computation usually measured in terms of

CPU time of a computer and
(v) Computer memory required if programmed for a computer
application.

1.3.2 Analysis of Network

The analysis or simulation of a network has the objective of

determining some unknown parameters with the help of the known
parameters and the available interrelating equations. In its simplest form,
the objective may be to determine the rate of flow and head losses in the
pipes (and hence pressure heads at the nodes) for a network fed by source(s)
with known pressure head(s) and demand pattern. The interrelating
equations are head loss equation for pipe flow, and Kirchoffs loop and node
laws.

Several parameters are involved in the analysis of pipe networks.

They are : (i) The configuration of a pipe network involving the location of
sites for various elements such as elevated service reservoirs, pumps, pipes
and several types of valves and accessories, (ii) The pipe lengths obtained
from the known geometrical layout of the network, (iii) The pipe diameters
known in the analysis, (iv) The Hazen-Williams Coefficient for the selected
pipe material suitably assumed and treated as a known parameter, (v)
Water demand pattern commonly assumed to remain constant in the
analysis, (vi) Source supply pattern commonly considered to be steady in the
analysis, (vii) Hydraulic grade line elevations at source nodes which are
known and remain fixed in the static analysis, (viii) Hydraulic grade line
(HGL) elevations at demand nodes which are unknown and obtained from
the analysis.
 8

1.3.2.1 Methods of Analysis

A network is said to be "balanced" if it satisfies the Kirchoffs node

and loop laws. The Kirchoffs node law is that the flow towards the node
should be equal to the flow away from the node. The Kirchoff s loop law is
that the algebraic sum of the head losses around a loop should be zero. For
this, conventionally, the head loss in clockwise flow is considered as positive
and the head loss in anticlockwise flow as negative. In the analysis of the
network, attempt is made to balance the network and under the balanced
condition, the unknown parameters are estimated. The balancing of the
network can be done in two ways depending on what is known : (i) by the
method of balancing heads by correcting the assumed flows and (ii) by the
method of balancing flows by correcting the assumed head losses. Of the
two, the first approach is used widely and the same has been adopted in the
present methodology also.

Three methods are commonly used in practice for the analysis of

water distribution networks. They are : Hardy Cross method, Newton-
Raphson method and the linear theory method. A detailed treatment of
these and other methods can be found in literature such as Walski (1987)
and Bhave (1991).

The Hardy Cross method attempts to solve the non-linear equations

involved in network analysis by making certain assumptions. The effect of
neglecting higher power correction terms is tolerable, and a small number
of iterations are required for a simple loop even when the initial guess is
poor. However, the effect of neglecting adjacent loops and considering only
one correction equation at a time is considerable, and the number of
iterations required for convergence increases as the size of the network
increases. Even the partial consideration of the effect of adjacent loops in
the modified Hardy Cross method does little to improve the situation. In
spite of several techniques proposed to improve convergence and reduce the
 9

number of iterations, this number can be quite large for networks.

Therefore, instead of considering only one correction equation at a time and
solving it, if the effect of all adjacent loops is considered and if all the
correction equations are solved simultaneously, convergence can be achieved
in a small number of iterations. The Newton-Raphson method and the linear
theory method attempt to solve all the concerned equations simultaneously.
However, because the equations are non-linear, an iterative procedure is
necessary for their solution.

A comparison of the Hardy Cross, Newton-Raphson and linear

theory methods of analysis is presented in Table 1.1.

1.4 PROBLEMS IN WATER DISTRIBUTION

In the context of the conditions prevailing in India, a water supply

engineer has to face several problems in planning, design and operation of
water supply systems. The major problems are discussed below.

1.4.1 Fund availability

In any government setup, there is always competing demands for

the limited resources available at the disposal of the government for the
welfare of the people. Decision regarding the allocation of funds is not
always made on technical terms, neither it is made by technical people
alone. People with very little stake at the provision of protected water
supply to the community prove to be the deciding authorities in this regard.

On their part, not all engineers are inclined to use the

advancement in science and technology for the design and analysis of the
water distribution network. Funds available are usually scarce. But, the
question is : are the available funds made use of effectively? The answer will
be ‘no’ in most cases.
 Table 1.1
Comparison of common network analysis methods (Bhave 1991)

N ewton-Raphson Linear theory m ethod based on

Hardy Cross m ethod based on m ethod based on
SI.
Item
No. Balancing Nodal Pipe Nodal heads (finite
Balancing heads flows heads Loops discharges elem ent method)
H
Unknown parameters and AQ AH H AQ Q
equations used
Number of unknowns Minimum Medium Medium Minimum Maximum Medium
Initialisation Necessary Not Necessary
Mode of analysis Analysis in parts, considers one loop Analysis as a whole, all loops or nodes are considered
or node at a time. simultaneously.
Suitability for hand Suitable, networks with several Not suitable except for small networks.
calculation nodes can be analysed if sufficient
time and manpower are available.
Number of iterations Usually large. Small and usually not more than 10
Effect of network size on Increases as the size of the network Generally independent of the size of the network.
the number of iterations increases.
Time per iteration Small Large
Effect of network size on Increase gradually as the size of the Increases rapidly as the size of the network increases.
time per iteration network increases.
01
Problem of convergence May be present. Reported to be absent.
II
Computer storage capacity Small and increases gradually with Large and increases rapidly with the size of the network.
requirement the size of the network.
Note : AQ - Correction to flow
AH - Correction to pressure head
10
1.4.2 Complex nature of water distribution systems

A typical water distribution system does not exist (Walski 1987).

Each one has some unique characters and the only commonality is that
there are water sources, water users and that they are connected by pipes.

For example, water may be supplied from one or more sources -

well(s) or water treatment plant(s), with or without the use of pumps. Even
though most systems use storage in the form of underground and overhead
tanks, valves are essential parts of a water supply system to operate the
system efficiently. Sluice, air and scour valves, pressure reducing valves and
surge tanks play important roles. Booster pumps are required to provide
adequate pressure in certain areas where there is a significant variation in
elevation. On the other hand, pressure reducing valves serve the opposite
purpose. Thus, each and every water distribution system has some unique
characters.

Usually, an analogy is drawn between a doctor treating a patient

and an engineer trying to understand the functional aspects of a water
distribution system. Scientific advancement has bestowed the doctor with
more or less the essential tools and equipment he needs in his job, whereas
the same can not be said in the case of an engineer. Understanding the
functioning of the water distribution system is proving to be more difficult
than the other one. The main reason is that the pipes are buried
underground and the engineer has insufficient tools and equipment to deal
with the distribution system.

1.4.3 Design inputs

The engineer has to decide upon several planning factors before

designing the distribution system. Important among them are the design
population, water demand and the water consumption pattern. These factors
are so complex that it is very difficult to enumerate them correctly.
Therefore, the engineer is called upon to judge these factors to the best of
his ability. But how far he is willing/allowed to use his judgement is a point
for debate. Because, not all engineers are conscious of their responsibilities
in this regard and even if they are, factors like "senior officers" and "existing
practice" may work against his judgement.

1.5 NEED FOR ECONOMY

In view of the facts that (i) water distribution system plays a very
important role in realising the objectives of protected water supply schemes,
(ii) water distribution accounts for a major portion of the outlay for a water-
supply scheme, (iii) funds made available for water supply schemes are not
effectively utilised and (iv) large investments are made in water supply
sector, there is a need for research to develop simple optimisation
techniques useful to practicing engineer in the context of maximising service
to the population with limited resources.

1.6 OBJECTIVE OF THE PRESENT STUDY

The objective of the present study was to develop a methodology f or-

selecting the minimum cost combination of pipe diameters in a water supply
distribution network of known layout, fed by gravity from a single source to
meet a known single demand pattern.

That is, knowing the layout of the network (pipe connectivity),

source node pressure, pipe lengths, pipe material, nodal demands, ground
elevations at nodes and minimum desirable residual pressure heads at
nodes, the objective was to find the minimum cost combination of the pipe
diameters in the network which will meet the nodal demands and maintain
the desirable minimum residual pressure head at nodes.