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Stage A
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A Stable Continental Craton

Imagine a very simple situation - a tectonically stable continental craton bordered by ocean
basins all around. The continent is eroded down nearly to sea level everywhere (a peneplain);
it is dead flat from edge to edge and corner to corner and there is no tectonic activity
anywhere. On the surface is a blanket of mature quartz sandstone (QFL, yellow field), the
result of millions of years of weathering and erosion and sorting. Limestones are probably
also well developed, if the climate is warm, but most shales (clays) have been wind blown or
washed off the continent into the surrounding ocean basins.
The continent is in perfect isostatic equilibrium; by itself it will not rise or sink. Nothing
exciting is happening; no earthquakes or volcanic activity - unrelenting boredom, perhaps for
tens or hundreds of millions of years.

Continents are composed of relatively light weight felsic igneous rock (granites,
granodiorites, etc.). Light enough that when eroded to a peneplain, and "floating" in isostatic
equilibrium, it's surface is a few hundred feet above sea level. Thus, granite gives us the dry
land we live on.
Ocean basins are composed of mafic igneous rocks (basalt and gabbro), and because these
are relatively heavy rocks they isostatically "float" on the underlying mantle a little over 5
miles below sea level. Continents and oceans are thus natural divisions on the earth, not only
because they are composed of very different rocks, but also because one lies naturally above
sea level, and the other naturally far below sea level.

Stage B
Hot Spot and Rifting
 Into the peaceful stable continent of Stage A
comes a disturbance. From deep in the mantle
a plume of hot mafic or ultramafic magma,
rises toward the surface and ponds at the base of the continent creating a hot spot. Heat from
the hot spot warms the continental crust causing it to expand and swell into a dome 3-4
kilometers high and about a thousand kilometers in diameter. As the dome swells it thins and
stretches like pulled taffy (or silly putty) until the brittle upper surface cracks along a series of
three rift valleys radiating away from the center of the hot spot. These form a triple junction.
Details of early rifting. Ideally the three rift valleys radiate from the center at 120o, but often
the triple junction is not symmetrical and arms may diverge at odd angles. Rifting is splitting
the original continent into two pieces, west and east, although they are still connected at this
stage.
Mafic volcanism is normal and appears as intrusive sills, or vent volcanos and/or flood
basalts from fissure volcanos rising along feeder dikes. The volcanics may be mostly
volcaniclastic, or lava flows of vesicular and columnar-jointed basalt. Subaqueous pillow
basalts are not unusual in later stages.
Mafic (hot spot) volcanoes are common and appear as vent volcanos and/or flood basalts
from fissure volcanos in the rift. Commonly the intense heat of the hot spot will fractionally
melt the lower continental crust composed of granodiorites or plagiogranites. The results are
alkali granitic magmas that rise to emplace as batholiths, frequently sending conduits to the
surface to create large felsic volcanoes. The simultaneous formation of these two very
different rock types (one from the bottom and one from the top of Bowen's Reaction Series) is
called a bimodal distribution.

Active Rifting
Axial rifts are typically tens of kilometers across, and the elevation from the rift floor to
the mountain crests on either side are as much as 4-5 km. Structurally, rift valleys are block-
fault graben bordered by horst mountains on either side (see Hot Spot/Thermal Doming cross
section). The edges of the major horsts bordering the axial graben are the continental terraces
(also called hinge zones) (see Foundering of Rift Valley/Marine Invasion cross section).
The major axial graben contains numerous smaller horsts and graben. The normal faults
are listric type. The fault surfaces are curved so that the graben blocks rotate as they subside,
trapping small basins between the down faulted-block and the wall behind the fault. It is also
typical for numerous, smaller lateral graben to form for several hundred kilometers on either
side of the axial graben. Initially the axial valley floor is subareal, that is above water (except
for lakes), but in time the axial graben subsides and the sea invades creating a narrow marine
basin (making it subaqueous).
A diversity of sedimentary rocks are deposited in the graben, mostly in short system
environments where facies changes are very rapid. The horst mountain highlands are
composed of felsic and high grade metamorphic continental basement which erode rapidly to
coarse, subareal arkosic breccias and conglomerates (fanglomerates) (red field on the QFL
diagram). All around the basin edges, at the base of the fault scarps, these accumulate in
steep-faced alluvial fans. Away from the alluvial fans, toward the basin axis, the fans give
way to braided rivers and then often lakes. See reconstructions for the Rifting of Pangaea.
The lakes are trapped depressions created when the graven floors drop and pond the water.
Many of the lakes are very deep and, based on modern rift lakes, may be extremely alkaline
with salt crusts floating on the surface. In the lake bottoms black, organic rich, anoxic clays
accumulate because there is no circulation or oxygen in the deep water.
After the sea invades the rift, fan deltas develop. Here alluvial fans still form next to the
mountains but now turbidity currents rather than braided rivers transport sediment toward the
basin center. The basin center is still frequently deep and anoxic, and thinly laminated black
clays and silts are deposited. Thousands of meters of sediment may accumulate during this
stage.
In a geologically short time (~ 10 million years) the basin finishes filling. As the former
great relief of the horst mountains and deep graben smooth out, shelf and near-shore
deposition takes over. Sands now dominate and abundant cross beds and ripples indicate
shallow water processes. By this time the Early Divergent Margin stage is beginning
(Foundering of Rift Valley).

Stage C
Creation of New Oceanic Crust: Early Divergent Margin

A hot spot may form, be active for a while, and then just die. But sometimes a string of hot
spots joint together to create convection cells. These turn the hot spot into a rifting system
poised to create a new ocean basin (the four layers that compose oceanic lithosphere are the
ophiolite suite).
The process of ocean basin formation begins with a great surge of mafic volcanic
activity along one side of the axial rift. Axial rifts do not usually split in two, down the
middle, but separate along one side or the other (detailed drawing). In this model the activity
is on the east (right) side of the rift and so the axial rift will remain with the western
continent. At first the magma is injected as a large number of basaltic dikes into the now
thinned and stretched granitic continental crust. So many dikes form in fact that it is finally
hard to decide looking at them what the original rocks were, granite invaded by basalt, or
basalt invaded by granite. This mixture of continental granite and injected basalt is called
transition crust (principally because the speed of seismic (earthquake) waves traveling
through it is transitional between the slower granite and the faster basalt.)
The mafic volcanic activity is concentrated at the rifting site, but is not confined there.
Feeder dikes cut through the crust at many places, sometimes hundreds of miles to the sides
of the axial rift. This magma may emplace as sills or laccoliths, or may surge to the surface
to form fissure volcanos and lava flows.
As the volcanic activity continues, the two pieces of the original continent begin to drift
apart and the gap between them fills with mafic igneous rock. Surge after surge of magma
rises from the convection cells in the mantle into the continuously spreading gap as the
continents move farther and farther apart. Within a few million years the two continents can
be separated by thousands of kilometers.
Because all this new igneous rock is mafic and ultramafic in composition (basalt/gabbro
near the surface and dunite/peridotite at depth), and high in density, it "floats" about 5 km
below sea level. These layers of rock that form the oceanic lithosphere are the ophiolite
suite.
The final result is that beginning with only one tectonic plate in Stage A, rifting has
created a new divergent plate boundary and two plates, one on the west (containing
Westcontinent) and one on the east (containing Eastcontinent).

Sedimentary Record
As the new ocean basin begins to form the edge of the continent cools and subsides
below sea level. And as the continental edge subsides below sea level the sea begins to
transgress, or migrate across, the edge of Westcontinent (and Eastcontinent too). This is the
beginning of deposition of Divergent Continental Margin (DCM) sediments, which will
become much more prominent in the next few stages (see Early Divergent Margin). But
initially, as the sea begins its transgression a layer of quartz sandstone is laid down as a
beach deposit by the transgressing sea. Off shore from it is shallow shelf deposition. Its
composition may be dominantly shale if there is a clastic source on the continent. But if the
continent is stable, as Westcontinent is, and the climate is warm, then carbonate (limestone)
deposition will dominate.

Stage D
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