Manual Main Content-VMD-512

Practical No.
: 1 Date: ______________
IDENTIFICATION OF IMPORTANT WILD ANIMALS-I
Hedge hog (Hemiechinus auritus)

 One of the insect-eating mammal like tree shrews, moles, ground shrews etc.
 Nocturnal animal like any other member of insectivora (but tree shrews are nocturnal)
 Pig-like snout yields the name
 Dense mat of spines or bristles are present and may roll into a ball
 Inhabits dry deserts and plains
 Blind and almost naked at birth
Pangolin (Manis crassicaudata)

 Presence of protecting scales as armour on whole body
 Curved and blunted claws are meant for effective digging of the ground
 Lives in burrows and glutinous tongue is present
 Except for the bear-cat, the pangolin is the only Indian animal that is with a prehensile tail
 Ant‟s eggs are more preferred than the ants
Black naped hare (Lepus nigricollis)

 Hares have long hind legs and ears than the rabbits
 Dark brown or black patch on the back of its neck from the ears to the shoulder, upper area of
tail is black in color
 Escapes from enemy by lying still
 Mostly nocturnal in nature
 Eyes are open at birth and able to move within 12 hours
Grizzled giant squirrel (Ratufa macroura)

 Live only in forests and are often seen in the summits of the higher trees and seldom come to
the ground
 Shy animals
 Dorsal surface and tail is grey or brownish grey, more or less grizzled with white
 When threatened, these rodents may not shy away but lies flattened against a branch or lies
behind a heavy trunk of the tree
Porcupine (Hystrix indica)

 Hair are modified into spines and rolls into a ball when in protest
 Each quill is with more deep brown or black and white rings
 They gnaw the bones, dropped antlers, barks etc
 They are nocturnal in nature
 Quills damaged are replaced
 Intelligent animal and drives the quill by forcibly placing the hindquarters with quills against
the attacking animal
Indian giant squirrel (Ratufa indica)

 These rodents also prefer the higher trees for a living in forests
 These squirrels like others have the habit of making sounds towards all directions like
monkeys
 Loud rattling call of these species are very famous
 An individual Indian giant squirrel may build nests in many trees within a small area
 Lives alone or in pairs
Practical Manual VMD-512 1

Wild pig (Sus scrofa)
 Elongated head with abruptly ending snout that is mobile in nature and snout ends in a flat disc
with nostrils. Upper canines curve upwards and outwards
 Tushes are well developed in males. Both the upper and lower tushes curve outwards and
project from the mouth. White hairs are present on body
 New born are striped
Gaur (Bos gaurus)

 Huge head, massive body and well set apart-horns
 Muscular ridge is present upon the shoulders that slopes down to the middle of the neck where
it ends in an abrupt dip
 White stockings in feet are present
 No white patch behind thighs
 Shy animal visits the salt, licks often
Mouse deer (Tragulus meminna)

 Called as Chevrotain also
 Closely related to pigs and camelids and has 3 chambered stomach
 Omasum is reduced and is almost vestigeal
 Upper canine teeth are long as tusks and protrude outside the lip and below the jaw
 Penis is spiral shaped with lobes on sides
 High hindquarters and have no antlers or preorbital glands
 Flanks are with rows of white spots that elongate and pass into the longitudinal bands
 Climbs up inside the hollow standing tree as a protective measure
Spotted deer (Axis axis)

 Also called as chital
 Lives in groups or herds
 Most beautiful of all deer
 Bright rufous-fawn profusely spotted with white in all ages and in all seasons
 The lower series of spots on the flanks are placed in longitudinal rows and indicates broken
linear markings
 Velvet and hard antlers are well appreciable
Sambar (Cervus unicolor)

 Largest one of Indian deer
 Prefers water resources
 Can make alarm call or activities
 General color is brown with a yellowish or greyish tinge
 Old stags tend to be almost black
 Coat is shaggy and coarse
 In the hot weather, much of the hairs are shed
 Nocturnal in general
 Stags clean their horns by rubbing against the trees
Barking deer (Muntiacus muntjak)

 Also called as „Muntjac‟
 Canines are present
 Antlers are small with short brow-tine and beam is unbranched.
 Antlers are set on bony pedicels that extend down each side of the faces as bony ridges. Hence,
also called as the Rib-faced deer
 Fairly diurnal in habits
 Call resembles the bark of a dog and is famous one

Musk deer (Moschus moschiferus)
 It is an undeveloped form of deer and have a place between antelope and deer
 Gall bladder is present
 Caudal gland is present in addition to the musk gland (in males)
 Standard color is a shade of rich dark brown speckled with grey
 Long pointed central hoof and unusually large lateral hooves are peculiar
 Tail is characteristic and is found buried in anal area
Swamp deer (Cervus duvauceli)

 Also called as Barasingha
 Coat is woolly in texture and shades from brown to yellowish brown
 Less nocturnal than the Sambar deer
 Young ones are spotted. Stags are darker
 Adults have well knit hooves
 Sense of smell is acute and when alarmed, the whole herd makes a shrill baying sound that is
followed by a running
Manipuri deer (Cervus eldi)

 Also called as Brow antlered deer or thamin
 In stags, the color is dark brown or nearly black and in the hinds, the color is light fawn
 The young are spotted
 Coat is sparse and shaggy
 Outline of the antlers is almost circular, which is a peculiar one
 Nocturnal in nature
 Raid agricultural fields also
Hog deer (Axis porcinus)

 Hog like movements and stouter
 Pig-like appearance and ventral sides are paler; areas inside ears and the underside of the tail
are white, but younger are spotted
 Some young stags and hinds may reveal spots particularly in summer but are not always
discernible
 White tips to individual hair materials gives the coat a speckly appearance
 When running, keeps its head low down and moves without the bounding action that is so
characteristic in deer
Black buck (Antilope cervicapra)

 Its striking color another characteristic feature
 Dark brown colored body is seen in adult ones at South India. When young, it is yellowish one
 In yearling bucks, the horns are without a spiral appearance
 Spiral horns are characteristic of males in addition to the chasing of females with raised head
 Lek (standing separately in isolated spot for selection by mating females) is a breeding
phenomenon seen peculiarly among males
Nilgai (Boselaphus tragocamelus)

 Also called as Blue bulls
 Adult bull has a coarse iron-grey coat
 A white ring below each fetlock and two white spots are present on each cheek
 Bulls have a stout cone-like horns
 White marks are on extremities
 Horse-like build is noticed
 Alarm cry is made in excitement periods
 Avoid the dense forests
 Resorts to the same spot to deposit the excreta

Indian gazelle (Gazella gazelle)
 Also called as chinkara
 Slender graceful build is noticed
 Body is light chestnut and the color deepens when joining with the white of the under-parts on
the flanks and back regions
 Visual white-streak down each side of the face is so characteristic of all gazelles, in addition to
the dusky patch above the nose
 Horns take a slightly S- shaped curve. Horns of female are smooth, unlike males
Nilgiri tahr (Hermitragus hylocrius)

 Larger than the Himalayan Tahr
 Of all the wild goats, the tahr selects the most difficult ground to live in
 General color of the animals are dark yellowish brown, paler on the undersurface
 Horns are almost in contact at the base, rise parallel for some length, then diverge and curve
downwards in a bold sweep
 Old tahr has a strong odour of goat
Camel (Camelus dromedarius)

 Camels are the pseudo-ruminants
 In male dromedary, gula or dulaa is present which is a fold of tissue arising from the soft palate
of camel. This is a bladder like structure
 Foot pad is unique in nature
 RBCs have remarkable osmotic swelling capacity, able to tolerate extreme dehydration and
known to lose body water equal to 40 % of its body weight
 Body acts as a heat sink during day time and in cool night, the heat is dissipated by conduction
 Concentrated urine is formed often
 The salt content of urine from a dehydrated camel may be twice the concentration of salt in sea
water
 No gall bladder
Giraffe (Giraffa camelopardalis)

 Mobile upper lips that overlap the hairy lower lip
 Tongue is extensile and prehensile
 Seven cervical vertebrae and four mammary nipples
 Un-branched skin-covered bony protuberances are present
 Absence of gall bladder
 Valves in the carotid arteries assist the balancing of the blood pressure of the head
 Giraffes do not swim and will not cross a water moat
Okapi (Okapia johnstoni)

 One of the members of giraffidae
 Bull and cows are attractive to look
 Only a male okapi has a pair of knobby horns, that are bare of skin at their tips
 Okapi do not defecate until they are ten to thirteen days old
 May be closely related to Nilgai antelope
 Okapi has a cotyledonary placentation like that of the nilgai and not like the diffuse
placentation as in giraffe
Nile hippo (Hippopotamus amphibius)

 Matriarchal social groups
 Reddish secretion from the skin (modified sebaceous gland secretion that can protect from
water and desiccation)

 Lower incisors form powerful tusks
 When submerged, often keeps eyes, nostrils and ears above surface of water
 Nostrils are provided with valves
 Nocturnal in nature and mark the territory with feces by swishing of tail
Pigmy hippo (Choeropsis liberiensis )

 Smooth skin that is hairless except at the tips of the tail and ears in addition to the sparse
growth around the lips as the case with Nile hippos
 Head is rounder than the Nile hippos
 Skin secretion is profuse but is clear one
 Mark their territory with feces
 Circular nostrils and eyes are set to the side of the head instead of raised up
 Size is small when compared to the Nile hippos
 Aggressive animals
Serow (Naemorhedus sumatraensis)

 It is a goat-antelope like serow, goral and takin
 Donkey like ears, short limbs, thick neck and large head are present leading to awkward
appearance
 Coat is sparse
 Black and conical horns are present
 Variable colors are present and withers are grizzled black
 Solitary creatures and are exceedingly active animals not only on rock but also on flat ground
 Capable of making a whistling scream
Sloth bear (Melursus ursinus)

 Elongated muzzle and lower lip
 Most have a whitish V-shaped breast patch
 The coat may be brownish tinged one, more rarely it is wholly brown
 Muzzle and tips of feet are dirty white or yellowish
 Claws are always longer on the forefeet and are ivory white in color
 Capable of climbing for fruit or honey bee hives and digging
Himalayan black bear (Selenarctos thibetanus)

 Shorter and smoother coat with black claws are present
 Generally black in color
 Very characteristic V-shaped breast-mark that may be white or yellow
 Spends day time in a rock cave or in hollow of tree
 Encounters with man have been documented
 Coat is thick especially in case of west Himalayan animals
Brown bear (Ursus arctos)

 Heavier build
 Coat is brownish in colour and may be varying from dark to light depending on the seasons
 The white tips to the fur may give the coat a silvery tinge
 When aged, the coat becomes tawny or reddish brown
 Thick coat is present before the onset of winter
 Brown bears seldom climb since much of their feed (grass, root, tubers etc.) is available on
ground

Red panda (Ailurus fulgens)
 Panda as resemble the teddy bear in life!
 They are clubbed in sub-family of the Racoons (Procyonidae), a North American tribe of
carnivores
 The red panda is also called as cat-bear
 It has got a rounded head, large erect pointed ears, stumpy muzzle and short airy-soiled legs
and in addition, the plantigrade gait also resembles bears
 A weak whistling note is given some times and is a means of communication
 They can be easily tamed but remember that they are wild animals governed by legal status
Signature

Practical No.: 2 Date: ______________
IDENTIFICATION OF IMPORTANT WILD ANIMALS-II
Asiatic lion (Panthera leo)

 Scantier mane than in African lions & a longer tuft of hair on the elbow joint and a fuller fringe
of hairs on its belly
 Mane is light or dark but is rarely quite black
 Cubs are striped or dotted in nature
 Roars are heard through out the night in lion-sanctuaries
 Lives in groups (prides)
Tiger (Panthera tigris)

 Rich colored animal with well-striped body and a short coat is present. Retractile claws are
unique
 Color varies in different regions according to season, age, area etc
 Driven by hunger, it may eat anything including carrion
 May become man eaters due to multiple reasons
 Astonishingly a good swimmer
 Prefers water bodies unlike lion when in captive conditions
 Shy or elusive animal in general & are crepuscular
 Tiger is less successful in adaptability than the panther
Snow leopard (Panthera uncia)

 Distinctively has a short muzzle, high forehead, and vertical chin
 Unbroken spots are seen on body
 Newly born cubs are darker than the adults
 Lives in high altitudes of Himalayan regions. At the onset of winter, comes down along with
the migration of animals that come down to low altitudes
 Nocturnal in nature and is called as „ounce‟
Jaguar (Panthera onca)

 One of the four big cats (lion, tiger & panther)
 Neck is short
 Head is sturdy in nature and animal has got enormous power
Panther (Panthera pardus)

 Highly adaptable to different environmental conditions
 Frequent encounters with man due to the habits of the panther
 Considerable color variations are seen. Sleek short haired felids with a fulvous or bright
fulvous coat marked with small and closely knit black rosettes
 Follows roads or pathways
 Can carry a full-grown chital stag in its mouth
Cheetah (Acinonyx jubatus)

 Also called as hunting leopard
 Long-legged felid with slim build & non-retractile claws are seen
 Coat varies from tawny to pale buff and is having a solid close-set black spots
 Deep outline of forehead and dome–like cranium.
 Prefers open grass lands
 Can attain a speed of 110 kms/hr, faster than the fastest greyhound and can keep it for about
366 mtr
Jungle cat (Felis chaus)
 Jungle cats have long legs but comparatively a short tail. The eyes are pale green in color
whereas the fur varies from sandy grey to yellowish grey
 The tail has a black colored tip and paws are pale yellowish, black or sooty brown in lower
areas
 Pale ventral sides are seen & ears are reddish in color ending in a small stripe of black hair
materials
 These animals are diurnal in nature & are swift in actions
Wild dog (Cuon alpinus)

 These animals are also called as „Dhole‟
 Hunt in packs and communicate by whistling sounds
 Red coat is very characteristic
 Ears are more rounded at the tip and the tail is quite bushy
 Dhole usually has 12-14 teats as against 10 teats in true dogs
 Lives in packs and usually hunt by day and rarely by night. The track is trailed by scent and
pursed at sight and has a tireless canter that finally overruns the prey species
Jackal (Canis aureus)

 Live in lowlands, about towns, villages and agricultural-fields, sheltering in holes in the
ground, among ruins or in dense grass and scrub lands
 Jackals adjust to any environment & live in groups and attacks any small or wounded animal
 Black backs to the upper half of its ears and tail‟s white tip differentiates it from foxes
 Gather in pack to hunt small deer or antelope as much as wild dogs do
 Comes out at dusk and retire at dawn
Indian fox (Vulpes bengalensis)

 Smaller in size than the jackal
 Commonly seen in plains and is slimmer in build than the red fox
 Its general color is grey, purer grey in winter and has rufous limbs that contrasts from the body.
Tail is bushy and end is blackish in color. Tail falls on ground when on slow walk and tail is
used for balance during movements
 Many live in cultivated lands, bordering irrigation channels & prefers open-country areas
Striped hyaena (Hyaena hyaena)

 Broad head with pointed and upstanding ears
 Its legs and feet are typically those of a dog
 Walks on its toes and massive head with weak hind quarters and a heavy dorsal crest of long
hairs that are sharply defined from the rest of the coat
 Transverse stripes are present on body and the limbs are well defined
 Bone-eater and are scavengers
 The excreta is peculiar and it dries into hard white balls and appears to have crushed bone
Wolf (Canis lupus)

 These canids have large skull and teeth
 Color is variable and have sandy fawn coats stippled with black
 Dense hair materials are present as winter coat
 Live in forests as well as in deserts where they shelter from the heat in burrows dug in sand
dunes
 Hunt by day or by night and prey mainly on cattle and occasionally carry off children!
Binturong (Arctictic bintourong)

 This is also called as „bear cat‟
 It lives in dense forests and is mainly arboreal in nature

 Its tufted ears, its long shaggy coat are suggestive of bear
 Tail is bushy in nature and is markedly thick at the base
 Rests by curling up in a hole of the tree
 Omnivorous in nature like any other civets
Common mongoose (Herpestes edwardsi)

 Size and shape of ears of mongooses differentiate them from civets
 Mongooses have smaller semi-circular ears that may not project above its head (civets have
comparatively larger ears)
 Grouped under Herpestidae
 Alternate light and dark rings on its hair provides its coat a grizzled „pepper and salt‟ tinge
 There is no black tip to the tail unlike the Ruddy Mongoose
 Hunt their food by day or by night
Common otter (Lutra lutra)

 Fuller, rougher coat is present and is identified by its grizzled dorsal surface due to the pale tips
of the longer hairs.
 Hairs of muzzle end above the naked nose in an angular line & having webbed-foot
 Social animals and excreta on rocks indicate the existence of these animals
 Lives up in streams of the mountains, lakes, river-beds, bushes etc.
Toddy cat (Paradoxurus hermaphroditus)

 Also called as „Common palm civet‟
 Black or blackish brown civet with long coarse hair
 Limbs are always black or dark brown in colour
 White patch is present below the eye, some times one above it and one on each side of the nose
 This animals are abundant in well-wooded regions
 Lives on trees, lying curled up by day among the branches or in a hole in the trunk
Asiatic rhinoceros (Rhinoceros unicornis)

 It is smaller than the African white rhino but is larger than the African black rhino
 Skin is divided into many shields by heavy folds
 Long boat-shaped head
 On the flanks, shoulders and hind-quarters, the skin is studded with masses of rounded
tubercles
 One horned animal and horn will re-grow, when lost or cut
 Solitary in nature
 Prefers swamp with grass lands
Wild ass (Equus hemionus)

 These equids have the reddish grey to fawn or pale chestnut coloured coat
 Erect and dark mane is continued as a dark brown stripe extending along the back to the root of
the tails
 Ventral regions are whitish in colour
 Single large hoof is present
 Sturdiness and speed are remarkable in these animals
 In-fighting occurs during breeding seasons among males
Asiatic elephant (Elephas maximus)

 Convex head & temporal gland secretion (musth status) is common in males
 Long trunk and males have long tusks that are the modified dentine tissues
 Ears are large and the trunk ends in a single lip
 Tusks of females rarely protrude (TUSHES)

 Tuskless males are called as makhnas and are very large in build with extraordinarily well-
developed trunks
 Gall bladder is absent and testes are intra-abdominal
African elephant (Loxodonta africana)

 Larger in size than Asiatic one.
 Trunk is shorter in length and two-equal sized lips are present in the end of the trunk
 Three nails on each hind feet. Hollow-back is present
 Temporal gland-secretion is seen both in male and female elephants
 Aggressive and hence, difficult to tame
Bonnet macaque (Macaca radiata)

 Medium sized but a long tailed macaque
 Bonnet of long dark hair radiates in all directions from a whorl on its crown
 Bonnet does not cover the forehead
 Sex-skin is present in females especially around genitalia, anal regions etc.
 Pale-faced animals that are social in nature
 Social life is based on a well marked dominance hierarchy among the males and live in troops
 Cheek-pouches are present
Rhesus macaque (Macaca mulatta)

 This is different from Bonnet macaques and significantly shorter tail is present unlike the
Bonnet macaques. Hairs radiate backwards from the forehead, without the neat- centre parting
 Sturdy-build up & are highly aggressive
 Omnivorous in nature
 Lives in troops and are present in temple premises also
 Heavier winter coat provides protection to these animals
 Cheek pouches are present
Lion tailed macaque (Macaca silenus)

 Great mane of long dark-grey or brownish grey hair materials growing from borders of face
including cheeks
 Glossy black coat is a characteristic feature in them
 Gregarious in nature like macaques in herds of 12-20 animals
 Call of males resemble the human voice
 Prefers dense forests
 Movements are slow in tree tops and are arboreal in nature
Common langur (Presbytis entellus)

 This is also called as „Hanuman monkey‟
 Long-limbed, long-tailed and black-faced non-human primate
 Himalayan animals especially the western ranges are the largest and heaviest
 Panther is the chief predator of this species
 Makes sound when leaping from tree to tree
 Average troop size is about 18 to 25
Nilgiri langur (Presbytis johni)

 Glossy black or blackish-brown animals with a yellowish-brown head. The rump and base of
the tail may be grizzled
 The young animals are reddish brown till they become ten weeks old and then, they assume jet
black color
 Lives in troops varying in size from 3 to 25 with 8 to 9 animals in a troop
 They produce an early morning sound
 Arboreal in nature

Golden langur (Presbytis geei)
 Uniformly deep cream color in dull light, bright golden in sunlight
 Hairs are longer and darker that are almost red, lighter in summer
 Face is black and the tail is mildly tassellated
 Lives in small troops of aout nine animals with one adult male and more females and many
sub-adults
Loris
 Round-head with large and round eyes
 Stout in body and limb with a coat of dense fur
 Head and shoulders may be silvery white, creamy or ash grey. Brown stripe is very distinctive
marking the middle line of its back and terminating on the crown
 Distinct brown circles around it‟s lustrous and owl-like eyes
 Two species are there
Hoolock gibbon (Hyalobates sp.)

 This is also called as white-browed gibbon
 Only gibbon in India
 Arms are much longer than the legs and a tail less body
 Males and young females are black
 Able to stand erect like man and walks with hands extended for balancing activity
 Each family hunts within its own territory & are diurnal.
Chimpanzee (Pan troglodytes )

 Exotic animal
 Intelligent animal
 Alert
 Needs always enrichment measures
Signature

IDENTIFICATION OF SIGNIFICANT SPECIES OF AVIFAUNA
HOUSE CROW
 Neck is grey colored one
 Sound is unique one
 Effective scavengers
 Lives in close association with man
JUNGLE CROWS
 Body is jet black unlike the house crows
 Deep and hoarse sound is made by these birds
 Heavier than the house crows
 Sexes are alike
 Associates with vultures to feed on carrion
RAVEN
 Larger and heavier birds
 Larger than the jungle crows
INDIAN MYNAH
 Dark brown bird with the bright yellow bill and legs
 Bare skin is seen around the eyes
HILL MYNAH
 They are seen as noisy-flocks in hill forests
 Jet black color is seen on the body
 Conspicuous white patch is seen on the wings
 Yellow bill and legs are present
SPARROW
 This is the most familiar bird
 Body is grey colored
 Lives in human association
BLACK DRONGO
 This is also called as king crow. Found through-out India
 Perched on telephone wires
 Commonly seen in previously-fire exposed areas
 Beneficial to farmers in general
BLUE ROCK PIGEON

 Slaty grey with metallic sheen of green, purple and magenta color are seen
 Two dark bars are seen on wings
EMERALD DOVE
 Bronze winged dove is the other name for this
 Brownish pink dove with bronze green color in upper areas
INDIAN CUCKOO
 Slaty grey above white regions are seen below and is barred with black
 Black tipped tail is diagnostic

PINK HEADED DUCK
 These birds have bright pink head and bill
 Head is partially tuffed
BAR HEADED GOOSE

 Two broad black bars are seen across the nape and the characteristic ones
WHITE IBIS
 Head, neck and long curved bill are black colored ones
 However body is white
EGRETS
Large egret
 Bill is black and yellow or black
 Lives in marshes and river-areas
Cattle egret
 These are seen in water bodies
 Yellow bill is unique in nature unlike the little egret
Little egret
 Smaller than the cattle egrets
 Bill is black coloured one
HERONS
Pond heron
 These birds are also called as Paddy birds
 Earthly brown at rest
 White colored wing, tail and rump are present
Night heron
 These are grey and black stocky birds
 Black colored crest is seen
OPEN BILL STORK

 Reddish black bill is present
 Arching mandibles with a gap in between
PAINTED STORK
 These are the only white storks with delicate rose-pink on shoulder and wing regions
SARUS CRANE
 Tall bird
 Naked red head and upper neck are characteristic in these birds
GREAT INDIAN BUSTARD

 Tall bird
 Black color is seen above the head
 Neck and lower areas are whitish in colour

PELICANS AND FLAMINGOS
Rosy or White pelican
 Feather is present on forehead ending in a point above bill
 Pouch like structure is seen at lower beak region
 Pink coloured legs are present
 Larger water bodies are chosen for living
Flamingo
 These are the long necked rosy white birds
 Heavy and curved bill that is pink coloured one
 Black bordered scarlet-wings are present
PARAKEET
Rose ringed parakeet
 Rose pink collar is present in case of male birds
 In females, such collar is absent
Alexandrine parakeet
 Called as large Indian parakeet
 Conspicuous maroon patch on each shoulder
Blossom headed parakeet

 Bluish red head
RED VENTED BULBUL

 Rump is white in colour
 Below root of tail, a conspicuous crimson patch is present
 Perky smoke-brown birds with crested black head and scale like markings on breast and back
BABBLER
 These birds are larger than the bulbul
 Color is of earthy brown with darkly streaked upper plumage
 Seen always in flocks of a six or more on ground
 Some times, they are seen on bushes that are low-lying ones
GREAT BLACK WOODPECKER

 Crimson colored cheeks are present in males
 Only the nape region is crimson colored one in case of females
 Seen in evergreen and moist deciduous forests
HOOPOE
 These birds have conspicuous fan-shaped crest
 Gently curved bill
MALABAR HORNBILL
 Seen in South India frequently
 Black and white colored body
 Massive yellow and black bill with a casque ending in a single point
WHITE BREASTED KINGFISHER

 These are white in front
 White wing-patch is seen during the flight of the bird

PIED KINGFISHER
 Speckled and barred black and white color is seen
 Beak is a characteristic one suited to peck at the thick woods of the trees
DARTER
 These birds have long neck which is slender and snake like one
 Pointed knife like bill is present
CORMORANT
 Little cormorant
 Have glistening black colour
 Long strong tail
 Small white-colored patch is seen on the throat region
PHEASANT TAILED JACANA

 Tail is long
 Sickle shape of tail is seen in case of breeding birds
 Black necklace like appearance is seen on upper breast in case of non-breeding birds
HUMMING BIRD
 Long bill and extensible tongue are suited to reach the nectar in flowers
 Able to hover on a spot
 Capable of rapidly beating the wings ( 22-78 beats per second)
 National bird of Jamaica
PARADISE FLYCATCHER
 Ribbon like feathers in tail is a characteristic feature
 Silver-white in colour
RED JUNGLE FOWL

 Golden brown and black color is seen
 This has a majestic appearance
PEACOCK
 Crest is seen in both sexes
 Males are having train of feathers unlike the females (peafowls)
 Sound is a characteristic one
 Seen in moist dry-deciduous forests and villages
BENGAL VULTURE
 This is also called as white backed vulture
 White coloured back is present
 White band is present on underside of wings and this is characteristic
BLACK EAGLE
 Seen in South India
 White patch is seen under eye
 Tail is black with grey-barred
PARIAH KITE
 Forked tail is characteristic of these birds
 Brown in colour

BRAHMINY KITE
 Bright rutsty red colour is seen in upper areas and white colored areas are seen in other regions
especially in anterior quarters
PEREGRINE FALCON
 Aereal predator
 Feeds on smaller sized mammals especially rodents, birds etc.
 Slaty black coloured head and black coloured cheek are present
 Black intermittent stripes are present in white ventral body regions
BARN OWL
 Also called as screech owls
 Large round head
 Monkey like facial-appearance
 Sexes are alike and may be seen singly or in pairs
SHIKRA
 Bluish grey color is seen on upper areas in case of male birds, along with white barred brown
color in lower areas
 In case of females, brownish color is seen in upper areas
INDIAN GREAT HORNED OWLS

 Legs are fully feathered
 Eyes are orange-yellow in color
 Horn like appearance of the forehead is a characteristic feature
OSTRICH
 Belongs to Ratites group
 Largest of living birds
 Seen in African plains
 Weight is about 160 Kg
EMU
 Seen in Australia
 Weight assumed is often 68 Kg
CASSOWARY
 Beak is a characteristic one and is heavy
 Large powerful birds
 Seen in northern Australia, New Guinea and adjacent islands
RHEAS
 These birds are from South America
 Wings are well developed for courtship and aggressive activities and display
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IDENTIFICATION OF IMPORTANT SPECIES OF REPTILES
SERPENTINES
It is to be remembered that nearly one third of snakes in the world are poisonous in nature to
some degree. Snakes are the most recently evolved reptiles and hence may have more features that are
in common with lizards. Of the 244 species of Indian snakes, 52 are poisonous in nature.
INDIAN (MONOCLED) COBRA

 Also called as „Monocellate cobra‟
 Medium to large sized snakes
 Shiny scales
 Wide head and neck
 Poisonous snake and is common in eastern India
 Feeds on rats, squirrels, toads, frogs etc.
 Distinctive hood mark is present that is different from that of the spectacled cobra
 Average length: 1 mt and at birth it is about 20 cm only
INDIAN (SPECTACLED) COBRA

 Also called as „Binocellate cobra‟
 Medium sized snakes
 Shiny scales
 Wide head and neck
 On dorsal side of hood, black and white spectacled mark is seen
 Poisonous snake and is ubiquitous in distribution
 Average length: 1 mt and at birth it is about 25 cm
BLACK COBRA
 Scales are barred
 Poisonous snake and is seen in extreme north-west India
KING COBRA
 Large sized snake
 Colour of body varies from blackish brown to light brown
 Smooth and shiny scales
 Distinct light cross bands mainly on the fore body
 Large head scales are found edged with black
 Most poisonous snake and is diurnal
RUSSELLS' VIPER
 Medium to large sized snakes
 Strongly keeled snakes and thick body is present
 Sensory pits are present between eye and nostril
 Distinctive bright chain pattern
 Large triangular head
 Poisonous snake
COMMON INDIAN KRAIT

 Medium sized snakes
 Smooth glossy scales are present
 Head is slightly wider than the neck
 Jet black with distinct white cross line
 Poisonous snake
SAW-SCALED VIPER
 Small sized snake
 Strongly keeled snakes
 Head is wider than the neck
 Dull color
 Cross mark on the top of head is distinctive
 Poisonous snake
 Average length: 30 cm and at birth it is about 8 cm
SEA SNAKE
 Mostly poisonous in nature
 Tail is paddle like and is laterally compressed
 Color is olive green above with yellowish bars
INDIAN ROCK PYTHON

 Large sized constrictor type of snake
 Massive snake
 Ventral side is yellowish
 Smooth scales are present
 Bright and blotched pattern is seen
 Non-poisonous snake and is nocturnal
RAT SNAKE
 Largest snake
 Commonly seen in agricultural fields and human habitations
 Non-poisonous snake
CHECKERED KEEL BACK WATER SNAKE

 Non-venomous snake
 Commonly seen in lakes, ponds, some times in wells
 Feeds on fishes and frogs
GREEN VINE SNAKE

 Common in bushes and trees
 Feeds on frogs, lizards etc.
COMMON WOLF SNAKE

 Commonly seen in stone piles, hollow trees and roofs of houses
 Feeds on lizards etc.
 Often mistaken for krait
CROCODILIA
The members of this order are amphibious in nature. The skin of crocodiles consists of leathery
and tough scales joined at their margins by thinner and more pliable skin. The dorsum has the ridged
or keeled scales but the belly are smooth. Scales may overlap and beneath the dorsal epidermal scales
are dermal ossifications that stiffen the body covering. Head is flattened and is adapted for the floating
on water. Musk glands are present on the medial side of each mandible and on either side of the cloaca
close to the vent. Tail is used as a repellant.
MUGGER CROCODILES
 Also called as „Marsh crocodile‟
 Seen through out India
 Large sized one
 Head is broad
SALT WATER CROCODILES

 Also called as estuarine crocodile or Indo-Pacific crocodile
 Found from the northeast coast of India and Sri Lanka
 These are the man-eaters like Nile crocodiles
 More aggressive ones
GHARIALS
 Also called as „Ghavials‟
 Snout is longer and is narrow
 In males, the tip of nostrils is swollen as a bulbous „pot‟
AMERICAN ALLIGATORS
 In general, the alligators are not found in India but are kept in various zoos
 They are from south-east USA
CAYMAN
 These are the members of alligator family
 These may grow up to one meter in length
Chelonians
This group comprises turtles, tortoises and terrapins. Turtles are the most ancient living
reptiles. Sea turtles are largest ones and females come to shore only to lay eggs. Variable sized
chelonians are available in general.
o Terrapins are the fresh water dwelling species
o Tortoises can also be called as „land turtles‟
Turtles Tortoises
Flippers are present Not present
Mostly sea living ones Land living
Skin is smooth Skin is thickest with large tuberculate scales
OLIVE RIDLEY TURTLE

 Color is olive brown above and yellowish in ventral side
 Presence of 5 or more coastal shields on carapace
 About 25-27 marginal shields are present
 Seen in Gahirmata of Orissa coasts and the large scale gathering of these turtles for the nesting
purposes is called as “Arribhadas”
GREEN SEA TURTLE

 Carapace is large and weight of this is about 155 Kg
 Adults are olive green in color with black spots
 Herbivorous reptile
 Feeds mainly on seaweeds
 Flippers are present
 Head is not retractable as in case with other sea turtles

STAR TORTOISE
 Typical humps are present on carapace and on each is a yellow spot or areola radiating into
yellow stellate streaks
 Has commercial value that is significant one
 Hind limbs are club-shaped and front limbs are flattened
 Large scales are present
ALDABRA TORTOISE
 Largest one. Weight of this is about 250 Kg
INDIAN POND TERRAPIN

 The size is smaller one
 Commonly seen in ponds and smaller water bodies
LIZARDS
Some lizards have lost their limbs in the evolution processes, like retaining of part of the hind
limbs by some snakes. Lizards are most widely distributed and are able to adapt to wide range of
habitats. Periodical renewing of skin occurs like snakes. The lizards differ from snakes in having
eyelids and an obvious ear opening. This comprises house geckos, garden lizards, chameleons,
Iguanas, monitor lizards etc. Growth of lizards is slow. Large geckos, monitors, iguanas live for about
10-20 years.
HOUSE GECKOS
 These are commonly seen in houses, alert and active insectivorous lizards
 These have adhesive pads and claws
 Sexes look alike
 Autotomy is a characteristic feature noticed
CHAMELEONS
 These are capable of changing the body colors frequently and this is possible because of the
presence of chromatophores in the skin areas
 Arboreal ones. Tail is a characteristic feature and is prehensile in nature
 Tongue is highly protrusible in nature
COMMON MONITOR LIZARD

 Monitors in general are the giants of the lizard family
 They have a body covering of small scales and are stocky in appearance
 Water monitor lizard
 This can grow up to 1.75 mt
 These reptiles are hunted to a great extent, all over the world for many commercial reasons
IGUANA
 These are the lengthy lizards and have specialized body requirements
 Long tongue is present which is forked in nature
KOMODO DRAGON
 This is also called as “Komodo lizard” or “Ora”
 Body has a covering of small scales
 Stocky in appearance
 They are seen in Indonesian islands and Komodo
 Weight is about 140 Kg and is 3 mt length, in general
 Occasionally it attacks and kills man
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PUG MARK IDENTIFICATION AND DOCUMENTATION
OBJECTIVES
1. To understand on significance of pug mark-model identification
2. Identification of pug mark by drawing the diagrams of different pug marks and seeing the live
pug mark-models made
3. Document the pug mark by glass tracer method and casting techniques
MATERIALS REQUIRED
 Pug mark design-models of different wild animal species
 Glass material
 Permanent marker pens
 Plaster of Paris
 Wax material
 Heating source
PRINCIPLE ASSOCIATED
 Pug mark identification is necessary because of the simple fact that in general no wild animal
may stand in one place for a long time to get sighted. This is much true in case of carnivores
which may be always seen running or hiding in most of the periods.
 Hence, animal census needs to be taken by some indirect measures like identification of pug
marks in case of free ranging wild life areas. Hence, it becomes a need to simulate the
existence of pug marks in an area, so that you can understand well about the pug marks of
different species of wild animals.
PUG MARK AND CENSUS

Census of wild animal species is taken by a variety of direct methods like sample-animal
census, aerial count, beats, road side count of wild animals, breeding bird census, water hole-count
method, salt lick-count method etc. Similarly, many indirect methods are also adapted for taking the
census of the concerned wild animal species, like kill-evidence count, fecal-deposit count, parasite-
count method, counting of tracks, pellet-group count, count on burrows or dens of wild animal species,
nest count etc. Hence, it should be understood that pug mark identification and documentation are
highly required especially in case of tiger related census, as followed throughout this country.
METHODS OF DOCUMENTATION OF PUG MARK

There are three methods of documentations as given below:
1. Glass tracer method
2. Making of cast using plaster of Paris
3. Making of cast using wax material
GLASS TRACER METHOD

 First, take a rectangular piece of glass suited to accommodate the pug mark-margins.
 Check up the transparency of glass in a clean manner.
 Place the glass material on the pug-mark made on the ground by the live pug mark-models.
 Fix it well by screws in corners or tightly place it on the ground over which the pug marks
made with models are sighted.
 Keep the eyes fixed in a straight line over the glass material.
 Identify the borders of the concerned pug mark.
 Draw the diagram by continuing the pen over the borders of the pug mark found below the
glass material by using the permanent marker pen.

 Mention the date, area, species, details on adult or sub-adult or young one etc. if possible over
the glass material.
MAKING OF PUG MARK-CAST USING PLASTER OF PARIS

 Take plaster of Paris powder of good quality.
 Take a vessel or mug.
 Place this powder inside the vessel or mug.
 Pour adequate amount of water.
 Mix thoroughly by a stick.
 Now secure the borders of the pug mark made earlier with the live pug mark-models over the
earth and card board or as a matter of fact any thick sheet may be used for securing the
material used for cast-making.
 Now, pour the water added plaster of Paris in liquid condition carefully over the depressions
found in pug marks made.
 Wait for few hours.
 Later remove the pug mark-casts made in a careful manner.
 Mention by permanent marker pen the details as followed in case of glass tracer method.
MAKING OF PUG MARK-CAST USING WAX MATERIAL

 Take adequate amount of wax material.
 Cut them into many shreds by using knife.
 Melt these materials over a heating source.
 Secure the borders of the pug mark made earlier with the live pug mark-models over the earth.
 Now, pour the melted wax material over the depressions of pug mark carefully without any
spillage to the sides or outside the pug mark.
 Wait for few minutes.
 Now remove the pug mark-casts made in a careful manner.
 Mention by permanent marker pen the details as followed in case of earlier said methods.

TIGER PUG MARK
Rear pug marks are always undertaken in forests for the identification purpose because in
tigers, the rear pugmarks always remain undisturbed because of its superimposing of front pugmark.
Always count from left in the pug mark-cast. Third toe is the largest one among the toes.
MALE AND FEMALE TIGER-PUG MARKS

o In males, it is almost a square in outline (the box drawn around the pugmark of male is
almost a square). Further, in males more round-impressions are seen on both front and
hind limb-impressions.
o In tigress, it is clearly rectangular. Further, the female toe pad is distinctly pointed in
the front.
 It is impossible to tell a pugmark of a leopard track from that of a young tiger of six months of
age. However, you need to understand that the tiger-cubs of that age are always accompanied
by their mother and hence, a solitary track of suitable size is assumed to have been made by a
leopard, in general.
In male tigers In tigress

PUG MARKS OF CANID, SLOTH BEAR AND ELEPHANT
 Since the wild dogs or canids have non-retractile claws in all limbs, the paw impression is
always accompanied by claw-marks, in front.
 In case of sloth bear tracks, the foot prints appear flat due to the presence of flat sole in their
limbs.
 In case of elephants, the size itself reveals the elephant‟s foot marks.
 In fox, the pugmarks are very close to the median line, creating an impression of rope walking.
FOOT MARKS OF CLOVEN FOOTED ANIMALS AND EVEN TOED ANIMALS

 In case of cloven footed animals, the size varies according to the species of the cloven
footed wild animals.
 In wild boar
o Wide opening is there in between the hooves. Further, impressions of laterally
displayed dew claws may be seen.
 In even toed animals, the hoof mark itself will indicate the very nature of the wild animal
species.
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LOADING OF DART
MATERIALS REQUIRED
 Darts or special syringes for the darting equipments
 Dart needles
 Stabilizers if required
 Deventing pin
 Disposable syringes (2 ml, 5 ml, 10 ml, 20 ml)
 Concerned medicaments related to the chemical immobilization
PROCEDURE
 Depending on the type of wild animal species select the dart or the specialized syringe with a
fixed volume like 2.5 ml, 3 ml or 5 ml etc.
 By using the deventing pin, just remove the pressure of air from the given dart.
 Push the plunger in the drug chamber down to the possible extent, so as to hold the required
volume of the medicament to be used for the chemical immobilization.
 Now, you have to take the disposable syringe of required volume depending on the volume of
the drug to be taken.
 Attach the 21 gauze or suitably sized needle to the hub of the syringe and draw the required
drug to be used to make immobilizing effects in the concerned wild animal under examination.
 Draw the immobilizing agent carefully after wearing gloves and/or other protective like
coverall or face cover etc.
 Now place the drug into the drug chamber of the dart.
 Take the dart-needle subsequent to the selection of the dart needle (whether it is to be a
collared one or barbed one or a plain one).
 Attach it now with the drug-chamber end of the dart.
 Take the sleeve that is more suitable for that concerned dart-needle and apply over this needle
and close the outlet of the dart-needle well.
 Check for the patency of the sleeve and it has to be tight during both placement and
experimental movement over the dart-needle.
 Now by either using the ten ml syringe or a mini gas filler, pressurize the dart carefully by
attaching with the air-chamber end or with the fixed stabilizer-end of the dart.
 You may have resistance subsequent to the filling of right amount of air into the air chamber of
the dart. At this time, stop pressurizing the dart.
 Further, you have to monitor side by side the movement of top layer of drug to the maximum,
in the dart syringe.
 Attach the stabilizer to the air-chamber end of the dart syringe, properly.
 Keep the duly pressurized dart away from the face or eyes.
 Now the dart is ready for the projection.
FACTORS ASSOCIATED WITH DART-PREPARATION

1. If the dart is not pressurized properly, the delivery of drug may not happen.
2. If the needle is loosely attached before the pressurization of dart, there are chances of dropping
of needle during the pressurization act and hence, accidental falling of drug component into the
operator‟s eyes may happen, mostly. Hence, it is better to wear even protective goggles.
3. If any hazard-causing drug like etorphine is used, it is better to have a coverall and hence,
accidental falling on body may be avoided, if spillage occurs due to multiple reasons during the
operation.
4. Check up the patency of the dart prior to the loading of dart as a first step.
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APPLICATION OF TRAP AND SQUEEZE CAGES IN WILD ANIMALS
OBJECTIVES
1. To demonstrate the capture by usage of bait and trap cage.
2. To have a better restraint by use of squeeze cage.
MATERIALS REQUIRED
 Suitable bait materials
 Trap cage-model
 Squeeze cage-model
PRINCIPLE INVOLVED
Baiting of wild animals has to be understood as a student who wants to learn the application of
trap cage or squeeze cage. Different wild animals may get attracted to different kinds of bait materials
that are available on commercial basis in various countries. However, there are some facts with regard
to the usage of baits in case of wild animals that need to be clarified before proceeding for the actual
trap or squeeze cages in case of wild animals.
BAIT
These are the substances that may lead to the visit of wild animals to the concerned and pre-
planned site for getting them trapped in a scientific manner. Bait materials have to be clarified earlier
about their suitability for the concerned wild animal species. Multiple types of bait materials are
available in reality for use in wild animals. Mobbing reactions may be seen by placing a stuffed owl
near the trap-site set up. Different types of baits are available, in general.
VISION BASED BAITS

 Puppet model may attract cranes in an area. Similarly, felines are dependent on the co-
dominance of sight and hearing than the sense of smell.
 Dogs attract panthers and bonnet macaques may attract tigers or panthers.
MOVEMENT BASED BAITS

 Fluttering of wings by birds may attract the felids like caracal or others. Similarly, birds have a
better vision and the raptors may get highly attracted by the movement of animals like rodents,
young ones of reptiles like turtles or tortoises.
 Birds of prey in particular get more attracted towards moving materials as defined by
experimental studies on moving decoy.
SOUND BASED BAITS

 Sound can be used to attract the wild animal species. For example, waterfowl or crane or duck
whistles are available commercially.
 The sound made from these whistles help to form the spot of attraction for the concerned
aviary species.
SMELL BASED BAITS

 Anal gland secretions, pheromone like compounds etc. help a lot pertaining to the attraction by
the smell-based bait materials.
 Commercially pheromone compounds are available to attract different kinds of wild animals

FOOD BASED BAITS
Animal Bait Materials

Elephant Sugarcane, tender bamboo, salt etc.
Mongoose Live chicks (in a secured state)
Bear Honey
Herbivores Greens
Carnivores Kids, lambs, calves, sheep, goat, etc.
PROCEDURE TO BE ADAPTED FOR SETTING UP OF TRAP CAGE DESIGN-MODEL

 First understand on the food habits of the concerned wild animal species.
 Design a suitable trap cage that may vary from species to species or use the already available
trap cage-model that has been specifically designed for this purpose.
 Draw the line diagram of the exhibited design-model and indicate the parts.
 Take the trap cage to the concerned area or in the pathway of the concerned animal species that
has more chances of visit by the concerned animal species.
 Place the trap cage at suitable position for the entry of the concerned or targeted animal
species.
 Select the suitable bait material first.
 Hook the bait material inside the trap cage design model, developed.
 Fresh feed based bait may be chosen for this purpose.
 Check up the hooked bait material, so that even a slightest movement of the cage may lead to
the closure of the trap cage design-model.
 The trap should be inspected every 12 or 24 hours.
PRECAUTIONS THAT ARE TO BE ADAPTED

 Animal repelling substances or factors are to be avoided always during the usage of the trap
cage design-model. Usage of bare hands may leave some smell of sweat that may lead to the
repelling of the targeted animal to the expected spot in the area.
 Always use the fresh type of bait as the case with fresh food material.
 Take care during the placement of the trap cage and the place should be known for the
movement of the concerned animal species.
 Place the trap cage at suitable height, so that the entry of the concerned wild animal should not
get discouraged by the position of the trap cage design-model.
 The place of trap-setting should not be however frequently disturbed in order to avoid the
frightening of the concerned animal species.
 „Test-response methods‟ should be exercised in order to trap the target species.
PROCEDURE TO BE ADAPTED FOR UNDERSTANDING ON SQUEEZE CAGE

 Carefully handle the parts of squeeze cage, so that the movements of the central partition can
be possible in a gentle manner without any sound that can cause excitement of the animal if
placed inside.
 Take care of the handle and make sure it is functioning easily and freely.
PRECAUTIONS THAT ARE TO BE ADAPTED

1. Tight squeezing of cage is to be discouraged because it may lead to the suffocation or
maximum inconvenience of the concerned animal species.
2. At the same time, it should not be kept loose also because it may lead to turning of the animal,
so that you may get hurt by the concerned wild animal species.
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APPLICATION OF DARTING EQUIPMENTS
OBJECTIVES
1. To dart the wild animal under target correctly by knowing the procedures.
2. To learn about the sites on which dart is to be projected during the usage of different
immobilization equipments.
3. To learn about the precautions to be taken while using the immobilization-equipments.
APPARATUS REQUIRED
 Blow gun or blow pipe (1-3 meter length)
 Remote distance delivery equipment like short range projector (Pistol) and long distance
projectors (Rifle)
 Foot pump to pressurize the individual dart
 Pressure-gauze with tube that can be attached with either foot pump or pistol
 Prepared dart
 Wild animal model for darting
APPLIACTION OF BLOW GUN

 Silently approach the concerned wild animal, without causing any excitement or sound to the
possible extent.
 Aim the concerned targeted site of wild animal to be chemically immobilized.
 Now insert the prepared dart well into the blow pipe.
 Dart has to be inserted beyond the margin of mouth cuff-end of the blow pipe.
 Fix the mouth cuff well.
 Always make a double check- up about the good fixation of the mouth cuff.
 Silently assess the approximate distance between the wild animal and yourself.
 Now, blow the air effectively through the mouth-cuff
 Now the dart may be seen moving from the blow pipe towards the targeted site.
 If the wild animal moves away before all the material is injected, a second injection may be
necessary.
 Have repeated practices associating the wild animal model and record the number of times of
success you have.
 Remember that the range is only up to 15 meters.
Merits
 Silent projection is possible by usage of blow gun.
 Highly adaptable for use in small wild animals in particular.
 Easy maintenance is possible with this type of immobilizing agent.
 Impact developed by usage of this equipment on the wild animal is less when compared to
usage of pistol or rifle.
 Less trauma occurs due to usage of this equipment on wild animals.
Demerits
 This may not be a fit one for use in distantly existing wild animal (more than 15 meters, in
general).
 Chances of missing of the targeted site of targeted wild animal/s or wild animals‟ for darting
are more when the operating veterinarian is not well versed with the usage of blow pipe.
 The operator has to have a good stamina with good pulmonary capacity to deliver an effective
blow esp. when the wild animal is in considerable distance.

Precautions During the Usage of Blow Gun
 Take care of any persons interfering the pathway of darting by accident. This is most
important.
 Check the attachment of the mouth cuff firmly before the blow pipe –operation.
 Always have a check up of the „dart on‟ whether it is on „ready to use‟ condition.
 Have additional prepared darts ready for use as in case of missing the targeted site or animal
itself, during the darting using different types of gadgets.
APPLICATION OF SHORT RANGE PROJECTOR (PISTOL BASED ON PRESSURE BASIS)

 Take the pistol and clean it well before the usage.
 Check up the working condition of the given pistol.
 Carefully place the prepared dart into the barrel to be fitted with the pistol.
 Take the foot pump and pressure is made by repeated pumping.

 Monitor the pressure in the pressure gauze with tube and have required pressure.
 Disconnect the pressure gauze with tube from the foot pump.
 Attach the free end of the pressure gauze-tube of foot pump with the pistol‟s lower end meant
for such attachment.
 Now the wild animal‟s targeted site is to be aimed.
 Triggering the click may now help to project the prepared dart over the targeted site on the
wild animal.
 You have to remember that pistol helps to dart the subject at a long distance. Hence, the wild
animal standing at a great distance may be darted successfully by using the pistol.
 Do it repeatedly, associating the wild animal model and record the number of times of
successful darting at the expected site.
Merits
 Assured strike is there
 Fast delivery of drug
 No need of blowing air
Demerits
 Larger impact when compared to the blow gun
 If pressure is not enough as shown in the pressure gauze, then the dart may not be projected
well.
Precautions During the Usage of Pistol

 Aiming is to be done correctly before usage because the speed of travel of dart is fast when
compared to the blow gun.
 Take care in avoiding any accidental entry of persons in the pathway of the dart to be projected
by the pistol.

APPLICATION OF LONG RANGE PROJECTOR (RIFLE)
 Take the rifle and carefully load the dart in to the anterior end of the barrel.
 Close it carefully.
 Attach either carbon di-oxide capsule or pressure causing cartridge duly.
 Aim it on the subject.
 Click the trigger.
 Mind that this is meant for usage in long distance-standing wild animals. Its range is often 35
meters.
 Mind that now a day, laser guided projectors and telescope guided projectors are also available
for easy projection of the filled darts.
Merits
 Can be able to have an assured strike on very distantly standing wild animal.
 Safety to the operator is assured from the concerned wild animal.
SITES OF DARTING BY VARIOUS IMMOBILIZATION EQUIPMENTS

Muscular region is the best site to be selected for the due deposition of drug component into
the animal‟s body.
Shoulder region is the better site.
Avoid the scapular area of the animal.
Avoid injecting in to the eye or over the bony prominences or over the genitalia.
In animal like giraffe, pectoral muscle-area may be the suitable area for darting because of the
presence of adequate masses of muscular tissues at this site. (However, take care of the
frequently moving head).
In elephant and rhino, it is better to dart at the hind quarters from behind, well below the
ischial-tuberosities and base of the tail.
In rhinos, neck may also be a better site of darting
In felids, shoulder or thigh region may be the better sites of darting.
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BLOOD COLLECTION METHODS IN SIGNIFICANT WILD ANIMALS
GENERAL PROCEDURE
 First, there is need to understand that suitable restraining procedure has to be adapted as a
safety measure in all types of wild animals.
 Before collection of blood sample, remove dirt and apply alcohol-swab over the selected area.
 After collection of blood sample, transfer it carefully into the tube with EDTA.
 Also transfer the blood sample into a sterile glass tube without any additive for the separation
of serum.
 During withdrawal from the vein in general, always apply pressure over the needle, so that the
pain factor will get minimized in the concerned wild animal species.
 Always make it a point to use only the disposable syringes and disposable needles to prevent
the chances of contamination of the site by microbial organisms.
Elephants
Ear Vein blood collection

 It appears safe to make the elephant to assume the recumbent-position, for which mahout‟s
assistance may be sought.
 Ear veins on the posterior aspect of the ears are used for the collection of blood samples in case
of elephants.
 Apply a lukewarm water based wet cloth over the base of the ear in the elephant and this may
help for the easy visibility of the ear vein.
 After applying alcoholic swab, insert the 18 gauze needle attached with a 10 ml syringe.
 However, it is to be understood that the collection of blood sample may be done in standing
position also. But more care has to be taken to avoid the trapping of your leg under the
elephant‟s leg.
Tiger, Lions and Panthers

 In case of immobilized wild felids, jugular vein, femoral vein and meta-tarsal vein etc. may be
useful for the collection of blood samples.
 In case of live animals, following procedures are generally being used in captive wild animal
places like zoo, zoological park, zoological garden etc:
 Keep the wild felid in the squeeze cage.
 Carefully squeeze the animal without causing suffocation.
 However, it needs to be adequately tight in order to avoid the turning-around of the
concerned felid in the squeeze cage.
 Now wet the area approximately 5 to 10 cm from the base of the tail.

 Apply a pressure causing tourniquet above to this site at the base of the tail.
 Now you can see the enhanced lateral coccygeal vein, in the lateral side of the tail.
 Using the 21 gauze needle attached with a disposable syringe, blood may be withdrawn
carefully.
Cervids, Antelopes, Wild Goat, Wild Sheep, Giraffe, etc.

 Jugular vein may be used after the suitable restraint procedures in the concerned wild animal
species.
 In giraffe, best securing of head is necessary to prevent trauma to the neck-regions during the
blood collections.
Canids and Bears

Canids
 Similar to domestic dogs, the sampling is done in case of wild canids like jackals, foxes, wild
dogs, wolf etc.
Bears
 Because of the thick fat layer, blood collection is generally difficult in case of bears. However,
jugular vein is the accessible vein in an easy manner in this species.
 Femoral veins may also be used despite the fact that they are hidden heavily by the thick layer
of fat materials.
Camelids and Wild Equids

 Jugular vein at the proximal end may be the preferred site for the collection of blood sample in
camelids. In case of llamas, select the area that is within 8 cm from the proximal end. In other
areas, the good visualization of veins is not satisfactory.
 In case of wild equids, jugular vein, saphenous or recurrent tarsal veins may be used.
Wild pigs
 Cranial vena cava is the preferred site for the collection of blood sample in large volume. After
the restraint by physical means, head is extended and lifted up to expose the site of blood
collection. Place the thumb in the right jugular groove and slip along caudally to the
termination of the groove. Right side is preferred since the accidental trauma to the right vagus
nerve is less likely to cause the pro0found cardiac as well as the respiratory dysfunction. Direct
the needle slightly caudally and dorsally toward the left dorsal scapula for effecting the blood
collection.
 Caudal auricular vein may be used after enhancing blood vessel by application of tourniquet
around the base of the pinna.
Non-Human Primates
 Saphenous vein may be used after applying pressure at the proximal site to the collection area.
 Femoral vein (medial aspect of thigh) may be used.
Rhinoceros and Hippopotamus

 In rhinos, ear veins may be used.
 In hippos, blood can be drawn from the lateral tail veins despite some difficulties. However,
femoral vein or brachial vein may also be used for this purpose.
SAMPLING IN MARINE MAMMALS

Seal
 Animal is to be placed on its routine posture.
 Assess the vein via L3/L4 inter-vertebral space halfway between the last rib and the iliac crest.
 Then insert 18 to 20 gauze needle of 6-9 cm length if it is an adult seals and use 21 gauze
needle of 2.5 to 5 cms in case of seal-pups.

Cetaceans
 In case of strandings, the collection technique may be applied.
 Choose the dorsal fin for I/V or choose either central tail veins or caudal peduncle vein.
Chelonians and Lizards

 Venipuncture may be done at the jugular vein in chelonians that are duly restrained. But it is
generally difficult to extend the head of chelonians except in case of turtles in which the head
is always in extended position. Tail vein may also be used in chelonians. Infra-orbital sinus
technique may be carried out in case of chelonians like in rats.
 If it is a large sized lizards like monitor lizard, jugular vein may be of useful for the collection of blood
sample. Tail vein may also be used in case of lizards.
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RESTRAINT OF ELEPHANT AND NON-HUMAN PRIMATE
OBJECTIVES
1. To learn about the details related to the restraint of elephants (physical and chemical) in a safe
manner models and slides.
2. To learn about the features pertaining to the restraint of non-human primate-Bonnet macaque.
MATERIALS REQUIRED
 Immobilization equipments like blow pipe, pistol and rifle
 Immobilization related drugs that are commonly used like xylazine and/or etorphine with
acepromazine, atropine sulphate, doxapram hydrochloride, suitable antidotes like yohimbine
and diprenorphine hydrochloride
 Infrastructures related to the restraint of elephant like elephant-chain, ropes, trained elephants
etc.
PHYSICAL RESTRAINT OF THE ELEPHANTS

Best concept is to train the elephants properly, so that it can be ensured that the drug
administration, blood collection procedures, treatment related procedures and other clinical
examination techniques including inspection of the general body regions and specific body parts like
foot pad of the elephants can be made simple and effective in short time.
Elephant Hook
 These are generally applied on elephants and it helps to ensure the standing-still in one place
without moving away to another area in general.
 However, the legal status for using the elephant hooks has to be looked into.
Chaining of Elephant
 Animal ethics related issues are to be taken care of while using such physical restraint
measures in case of elephants. However, it appears better to pad the chains that are used for
physical restraint of the elephants.
 This helps a lot in minimsing the probabilities of injuries on the limbs of elephants to a greater
extent.
 It is to be understood that skin related wounds may take comparatively a long time for a better
healing because of poor circulation of blood in skin of elephants.
Krall
 Newly caught elephant–calf may be kept in the krall that is erected with thick bamboo sticks
etc.
 This is one of the better means of exercising the physical control over the movement of the
newly caught wild elephant.
Hydraulic Elephant Crush

 A hydraulic crush or squeeze chute is one of the method of physical restraint that can help the
procedures of collection of blood samples, musth fluid and urine from male elephants in
particular with complete safety of the personnel and this helps to administer the various
medicaments to elephants. However, the cost of establishment is to be taken care of.
CHEMICAL RESTRAINT OF ELEPHANTS

For the chemical restraint of elephants, many drugs are being used in a systematic manner.
However, one should understand about the safety measures to be taken for both the animal as well as

the operator. Animal may be kept in starved status for a considerable period of time before the
chemical immobilization.
Pre-requisites for Chemical Restraint of Elephant

Planning of chemical restraint in case of elephants is to be done in a fool-proof manner before
starting the actual chemical immobilization of the elephants that is a captive one or a free ranging one.
Procurement of following items is a must before the restraint

 Required drugs (immobilization drugs, antidotes if any, steroids for combating shock,
respiratory stimulant, fluids and antibiotic)
 Physical restraining tools like strong-ropes with adequate length and chains
 Darting equipments
 Antidotes
Usage of Xylazine
 Xylazine is the sedative, analgesic and muscle –relaxing drug. Darting may be done in the
thigh regions or in posterior regions correctly. The dose rate is 0.08 mg per Kg body weight to
be given I/M route by blow pipe or pistol or rifle or by syringe. In case of excited elephants, a
higher dose of 0.15 mg per Kg body weight may be given. Atropine sulphate may be given at
the rate of 4 to 5 mg/100 Kg body weight to avoid the hypostatic congestion and adverse
cardio-depressant effects.
 However, the clinical condition during the time of immobilization is most important to be
assessed by the attending veterinarian. Induction may not be smooth if xylazine is given by I/V
route and in general xylazine is not given by I/V route. However, it is to be understood that
xylazine may be given intravenously at one half the intramuscular dose (0.04 mg per Kg body
weight). Yohimbine is the antidote and twice the dose of xylazine may be the dose of
yohimbine by I/V route.
Effects of Xylazine Administration in Elephants

 Relaxation of genital organs (relaxation of clitoris if it is a female elephant and relaxation of
penile tissue if it is a male elephant).
 Absence of coordinated movements of legs, feet etc.
 Propensity to remain standing.
 Snoring sound may be audible at a distance esp. in heavy dosing with xylazine
 Relaxation of trunk is a characteristic feature.
Precautions
a. The elephant should not be in sternal-recumbency for more than 10 minutes on safe side. This
is due to the lack of pleural space that can lead to cardiac as well as respiratory system-
embarrassment due to the heavy weight of visceral organs pushing the thorax.
b. The rope in case of captive elephants should be checked earlier for the presence of adequate
length. If not, rope or chain needs to be changed because the inadequate length of rope or chain
may lead to medical problem like choking if the effects of immobilization start.
c. Finish the clinical procedures as soon as possible.
d. Take care of hypothermia or hyperthermia that can develop during the immobilization event in
an elephant
e. Doxapram hydrochloride may be given at dose rate of 2 mg per Kg body weight by IM route,
in general to stimulate respiratory activities at the end of the clinical procedures.
Usage of Etorphine
 Dose is 1 mg per 450 Kg body weight, in general as the case with African elephants. This is a
narcotic drug and hence, human health hazards are common with this if it spills on body
regions. It is better to overdose with etorphine than to under dose. Hence, one has to be more
careful while handling this drug in case of wild animals of any species.

 Inclusion of acepromazine which is a phenothiazine derivative helps to reduce the initial
excitement and to maintain the residual tranquilizer effects even after the reversal of the drug
but being a phenothiazine derivative, the photosensitization related reactions are to be taken
care of well.
 Intravenous route of administration may be done with fluids or alone. The dose of antidote
(diprenorphine) for etorphine is 2 mg per Kg body weight by means of I/V route.
Drug Effects of Etorphine

 Elephants will not usually lie down voluntarily but may stagger and fall down or collapse.
 Hyperthermia may develop in case of elephants subsequent to the usage of etorphine.
Physical Restraint of Non-Human Primate-Bonnet Macaque

 Specially designed cages are there to trap the bonnet macaques.
 You need to accustom the animal for entry into the designed cage for some days.
 Finally operate the specially designed cage in order to close it when bonnet macaques enter the
cage.
 Food may be used as bait materials.
Chemical Restraint of Non-Human Primate-Bonnet Macaque

 Animal may be kept in starved status for a considerable period of time before the chemical
immobilization. Ketamine alone or ketamine along with xylazine may be used.
 High therapeutic index, a short onset of action and good muscle relaxation are the preferred
ones for selection of ketamine as the immobilizing agent. Dose of ketamine is 10-40 mg per
Kg body weight by means of intramuscular route.
Precautions
 Take care of the immobilized macaque because other macaques nearby in the troop may
disturb that or try to bite that animal.
 Try to avoid the darting while the animal is near the water-source.
 Avoid the darting of non-human primate while in height because it may lead to the fracture of
bones during falling from a great height. If it is to be done, take effective precautionary
measures to avoid the impact of falling on the ground.
 Plan about what to do after the capture-operation.
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ELEPHANTS: SPECIAL FEATURES, CLINICAL EXAMINATION AND

DRUG ADMINISTRATION
Special features
 Largest of all living land animals
 Skin is thinner in shoulder and forelimbs but thickest over the hindlimbs and hindquarters.
Sweat glands are present in sparse manner but above toe nails, sweating may be seen.
 Hairs are more prominent in young animals than the adults.
 Presence of air-filled sinus activities are present in the skull
 Dental formula:
o Incisor : 1-1/0-0
o Canines : 0-0/0-0
o Premolars : 3-3/3-3
o Molars : 3-3/3-3
Generally two pairs of teeth are present at a time and the anterior tooth is pushed forward by the
backwardly placed tooth. Generally, six complete sets of grinding teeth are present called simply as
molars. Complex ridges or lamellae are present on each tooth.
 Fibro-elastic fatty pad is present in all the four feet.
 Trunk is a specialized structure that is heavily muscled one and is devoid of bones. Nearly
seventy per cent of air is taken through the trunk.
 Males have tusks in pair which are the modified dentine tissues.
 Tushes (smaller ones) may be present in some females.
 Secretion from temporal glands is a unique feature esp. in case of males of Asiatic elephants
 Mammary glands are present in between the forelegs like non-human primates.
 Stomach is an unusual cylindrical shape.
 Total length of small intestine and large intestine together is 35 meter (hence, it takes 24 hours
for the digestion in case of elephants)
 Vertebral formula is C7 T20-21 L3-4S4-6 Cy18-33
 Absence of gall bladder
 Lack of pleural space
 Anterior venacavae are double and bifid apex of heart is seen unlike in most of the mammals in
which a single pointed apex is generally seen.
 Anal fold is the characteristic loose skin present covering the anal regions.
 Vertically placed limbs are present and are sturdy in nature to support a huge body weight.
 Penis can reach the length of about 40 cm. When erected, it assumes a „S‟ shaped flexure.
 Clitoris can reach the length of about 40 cms
 Vagina is separated from vulva by an uro-genital canal that averages between 40 and 100 cm
long.
 Penis is similar to horse that is capable of making search like motion.
 Testis may never descend and are placed in abdomen through out the life
 Lobulated kidney
REPRODUCTIVE FEATURES IN MALE ELEPHANTS

 Musth is a physiological condition occurring in male Asiatic elephants. Aggression is one of
the signs of musth most of the times. Silent musth is also noticed in certain female elephants.
 Period of persistence of musth may be from several days to several months and musth may
occur once in a year.
Signs of musth
 Restlessness
 Aggressive behavior
 Dribbling of urine
 Secretion of black colored oily fluid from cheeks
 Disobedience of the commands given in case of captive male elephants
REPRODUCTIVE FEATURES IN FEMALE ELEPHANT

 Oestrus cycle is 16 weeks long
 Gestation period is 17-26 months. Normal new born elephant calf should stand up and walk in
15-60 minutes.
 Pregnancy may be diagnosed by radioimmuno assay technique based on hormonal estimations.
Progesterone-level gets elevated in pregnant elephants and remains elevated at 16 weeks.
Progesterone level reduces rapidly within 5-10 days before the parturition. But in case of non-
pregnant elephants, the level of progesterone rises but falls and low again at 16 weeks.
CLINICAL EXAMINATION OF ELEPHANTS

 Check for body temperature (Non-contact infra-red thermometer may be used).
 Check for pulse rate (Palpation of arteries that serve the ears is useful for this purpose).
 Check respiratory rate by observation (6 breaths per minute in case of calm elephants and in
excited elephants, it may be 15 breaths per minute).
 Heart rate may be counted by using amplified stethoscope and in case of small elephants, it
may be possible by routine manner.
 Normal heart rate in unexcited elephant is 25 to 35 beats per minute.
 Have a record on height of the animal which in general means the perpendicular height at
shoulder and this may be of helpful in recording the growth rate of elephant calf or others.
Take the measurement of height, twice a year.
 Housing arrangement should facilitate the proper clinical examination in these mega
herbivores.
ESTIMATION OF BODY WEIGHT

 Arrive at the approximate body weight of the elephant or the correct body weight of the
elephant from the health-record available with authorities.
The normal body weight of the adult and young Asiatic elephant
Animal Body weight

Male Asiatic elephant (bull elephant) 3700-4500 kg
Female Asiatic elephant (cow elephant) 2300-3700 kg
African male elephant 4100-5000 kg
African female elephant 2300-4000 kg

Formula to estimate body weight of elephant
Body weight of the elephant may be undertaken by using a formula as follows:
Weight in Kg = -1010 + 0.036 (L x G)
Where,
L= Length from base of forehead (mid-point of supra-occipital crest) to the base of the tail in
centimeters
G= Chest girth in centimeters
SIGNS OF HEALTH IN ELEPHANTS

 Frequent movement of limbs, tail, trunk and ears
 Active and alert
 Free passage of dung
 Free passage of urine
 Routine eating habits
 Routine watering habits
 Absence of any signs of aggression
 Absence of any abnormality on the body
 Making sounds when commands are given
SIGNS OF ILLNESS IN ELEPHANTS

 Anorexia and absence of appetite
 Reduced alertness
 Frequent groaning
 Ceasing or slowing of normally found or the incessant movements of trunk or tail or ears or
legs
 Restlessness
 Aggression
 Disobedience
 Placing the trunk in the mouth in a frequent manner
 Biting the trunk-tip
 Assuming abnormal posture like crossing the hind legs.
 Frequent sitting and raising up
 Absence of defecation or reduced frequencies
 Constipation
 Absence of urination or reduced frequencies
 Diarrhoea or passing of dung with abnormal odour
 Evidence of blood in dung or parasites in dung
 Pushing of head or tusk against tree for a long time
 Pyrexia
 Limping due to foot lesions like crack with infections of sole and foot pad or nail or cuticle
regions

Crack with infection of sole and foot pad
HAEMOTOLOGICAL PARAMETERS
Haematocrit value 34-44 %

Haemoglobin 10-13 gm %
RBC 2-4 million/Cmm
WBC 8000-15000/ Cmm
Lymphocytes 50-75 %
 Neutrophils-20-40 %
 Eosinophils- 0-4 %
 Basophils - 0-2 %
 Monocytes - 2-8 %
BIOCHEMICAL PARAMETERS
BUN 75-200 mg %
Creatinine 1.3-1.8 mg %
Total protein 8.0-9.2 gm %
Albumin 2.3-3.5 gm %
Cholesterol 41-61mg %
Total bilirubin 0.1-0.3 mg %
Direct bilirubin 0.0-0.1 mg %
Glucose 75-200 mg %
IMPORTANT PARASITES IN ELEPHANTS

 Fasciola sp.
 Paramphistomum sp.
 Trypanasoma evansi
 Filarial worms
 Strongylus and Strongyloides sp.
 Cestodes like anoplocephala sp.
DRUG ADMINISTRATION BY USING IMPORTANT ROUTES
 Select drugs that do not do any harm to this mega-herbivore.
 All drugs to be given to the elephants should be administered in the same recommended doses
per kilogram of body weight as those used in horses and cattle.
 However, factors like age, clinical condition, body status, weight and potential side effects of
the drugs are to be taken care of always as in the case with any other wild animal species.
ORAL ROUTE OF DRUG ADMINISTRATION

 Tasteless drugs are easy to administer in case of elephants. Flavoured human drugs are
generally palatable in case of elephants.
 Mix the drug with highly palatable food of elephants like loaves of bread, etc.
 Tubing can be done provided the animal is duly restrained and specially designed mouth gag is
placed in between the molars. However, entry of tube into trachea is to be taken care of always.
INTRAMUSCULAR INJECTIONS
 Use one and half inch needle in the large triceps area.
 Long needles may be necessary for the I/M injections into the hind quarters of elephants. Dose
up to 30-50 ml may be given in one site.
 However, it may produce swelling. Hence, monitor the elephant frequently. Darts may be used
for I/M injections.
INTRAVENOUS INJECTIONS
 Use the blood vessels at the posterior aspects of ears that are easily accessible for I/V
injections.
 Large veins on the proximal foreleg and disto-medial rear leg can also be used for this purpose
but be careful with the safety measures.
 In young elephants, the large superficial vein running up the medial aspect of the hind leg is a
good site for I/V injection.
SUBCUTANEOUS INJECTIONS
 Not much desirable as the I/M route.
 Use it only when specifically recommended.
 Shoulder-skin area or anal fold area may be used.
ENEMA ADMINISTRATION
 Use a well lubricated sleeved arm and insert into the rectum
 Insert as far as possible
 Take a lubricated hose
 Pass the hose into the rectum aiming the hose antero - dorsally.
 Pass the hose till you encounter the resistance
 Now administer the enema solution (liquid paraffin or soap-water may be used as enema).
 Racking may be done with manual removal of dung material in case of constipation based
colic cases.
 Useful in case of severe constipation
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APPLICATION OF PULSE-OXIMETER IN WILD ANIMALS
OBJECTIVES
 To learn the technique on the utilization of pulse oximeter for capture related and clinical
investigation purposes in animal
APPARATUS REQUIRED
 Pulse oximeter
 Sensors
PRINCIPLE
 The color of blood is the function of oxygen saturation, the color change with oxygen
saturation is due to the optical properties of the hemoglobin molecule and more, specifically
the heme component, as the blood deoxygenates, it becomes increasingly less permeable to red
light. The tissue then losses its pink appearance and takes a blue tint, an oximeter only needs to
measure the blueness of the arterial blood, venous blood and any other major absorbents of
light between the two halves of the sensor and to display value in terms of saturation
 The presence of light emitting diodes (LED) of given wavelength at one end and a photo-
detector at the other end helps to measure the wavelength of light during exposure. It is the
sensor that converts the light intensity into electrical current.
 The difference in the intensity of the transmitted light between the LED is caused by the
difference in the oxygen contained within vascular bundle and the relative amount of light that
is transmitted to the photo-detector forms the basis for the pulse oximeter, to compose the
arterial hemoglobin saturation.
PROCEDURE
 In animals, first make an effective restraint with suitable technique
 The sites chosen for application of electrodes:
o Ear, tongue, rectal mucosa, lips, toes, prepuce, etc
o Generally tail region should be chosen
 Since the skin folds may obstruct the assessment, before applying the procedure, the hair
material should be clipped away, before applying the pressure and this also facilitates the
avoidance of slipping of the probes /electrodes.
 In aviary species: Site for attachment of light emitting diode (LED) is the point just below the
hock joint
FACTORS THAT LIMIT THE USAGE OF PULSE OXIMETER

 External light interference
 Motion artifacts
 Darkly pigmented skin
 Thick skin
 Excessive hair
MERITS
 Useful for continuous assessment of saturated pressure level of oxygen (SpO2)
 Easy to operate
 It is not on invasive procedure
 More useful for the assessment of arterial blood flow
 It is an early warning system, in critically ill wild animals that are in recumbent and comatose
condition
 Rapid technique
DEMERITS
 Lack of more scientific information on wild animals
 If low perfusion occurs, a negligible volume of blood flows through the artery
NORMAL VALUES IN PERCENT

 The SpO2 level should be >90% in general
o In Asian elephants
 Young elephants (<14yrs): 84.44±2.87
 Adult elephants : 85.31±2.99
o In aviary species
 Blue rock pigeon : 80.5±3.129
 Rose ringed parakeet : 86.0±4.835
 Budgerigar : 84.0± 3.809
 Little egret : 94.9±0.619
 Night heron : 95.5±2.5
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IDENTIFICATION OF IMPORTANT PARASITES IN WILD ANIMALS
APONOMMA SP. TICK IN INDIAN COBRA

 These are the common ecto-parasites found in between the scales of the snake. These Ixodid
ticks exclusively are found in reptiles.
 The scutum of the ticks have ornamentation with self pattern and the males are without ventral
plates and these hard ticks often will be missed during the routine health assessment in captive
reptiles because of the similarity of the color between them and the host species and
additionally, since these ticks often get embed in between the scales, these ticks cannot be
differentiated often.
CAPILLARIASIS IN INDIAN COBRA

 The lifecycle of the trichurid worms is indirect, involving usually earthworms and crustacean
as paratemic hosts. Although these worms inhabitat the intestinal tract, it can also invade other
vital organs.
 This has also been reported from oviduct of a snake. The eggs are colour less, more barrel
shaped with parallel sides and the bipolar plugs do not project as far as in the other Trichurid
eggs.
OPHIDASCARIASIS IN COMMON KRAIT

 Eggs of the ophidascarids are similar to the eggs of domestic animals, with thick walled and
compact yolk mass. As with most nematode species, eggs of these parasites undergo larval
development in intermediate host such as earth worms and become infective to other snakes.
 These larval stages undergo somatic migration which is a characteristic feature of these
nematodes. The commonly encountered ascarids are Ophidascaris and Polydelplus sp. which
snakes acquire from frogs and rodents.
STRONGYLOIDIASIS IN RUSSELLS’ VIPER

 These peculiar nematodes lead a heterogenetic lifecycle.
 The parasitic forms are usually parthenogenetic and produces generations without fertilization.
 The eggs are small, oval, with developing larvae inside.

KALICEPHALUS SP. IN PYTHONS
 Small to medium sized strongyle worms are the routine inhabitants in the alimentary tracts.
The eggs are transparent, thin shelled, oval with developing larvae inside.
 These worms are highly resistant to routine anthelmintics and several generations of these
nematodes occur in reptiles at a given period of time. Because of their complex life cycle, it is
very difficult to completely eradicate these strongyles from the reptiles.
HAEMOPROTEUS COLUMBAE IN CHELONIANS

 The Haemoproteus columbae infection is commonly observed in birds and reptiles. The halter
shaped gametocytes are usually found in the erythrocytes.
 The cosmopolitan hippoboscid flies are the vectors of this infection. The affected reptiles
usually become anaemic and emaciated.
OPHIDASCARIASIS IN WATER MONITOR LIZARDS

 These ascarid eggs are circular with thick pitted shell, having an unembryonated yolkmass
inside; Ophidascarid eggs are similar in size and shape to the ascarid eggs of domestic animals.
 These parasites are highly prolific and the mature female lay thousands of eggs every day.
Larvae sometimes may be carried by transport host like earth worms and other lower
invertebrates; frogs and rodents also act as intermediate host.

ANISAKIASIS IN CHAMELEONS
 Anisakids are nematode parasites of marine mammals, birds, fishes and reptiles occurring in
alimentary canal (or) intestinal tissue. These are reddish white worms transmitted by earth
worm and cyclops with presence of cylindrical ventriculus in oesophagus.
 Reduced weight gain, diarrohea with discharges from the nose have been usually observed in
the affected reptiles.
MENACANTHUS SP. LOUSE IN CROWS

 Commonly called as 'Body louse' and are commonly seen in crows etc. It's a very active louse
laying eggs in clusters mainly in the oral region.
 These lice are usually seen on the skin of those parts which are densely feathered. Because of
it's voracious feeding, severe irritation occurs in affected birds with subsequent development of
scab in the vent region and in the young birds in head region .

HAEMOPROTEUS COLUMBAE IN DOVES
These aviary haematozoan infection is commonly observed and the stages observed in the
cytoplasm of the nucleated erythrocytes are gamonts consisting of micro gametocyte and macro
gametocyte which are halter shaped; The cytoplasm of the parasite shows vacuoles and scattered
pigment granules.
RAILLIETINA SP. IN WILD BIRDS

 These tape worms are of large sized ones, consisting of ribbon like strobila with a large
rostellum; Hundreds of tiny hammer shaped hooks with spiny suckers are present in these
worms.
 A wide variety of dung and ground beetles act as intermediate hosts for these cestodes. Like
other cestodes, these worms also lack a mouth or an alimentary canal and they feed by
absorbing nutrients from the host‟s intestinal tract through it‟s characteristic long body wall.
SYNGAMUS TRACHEA IN PEAFOWLS

 These gape worms are bright red in colour and found permanently in population in the trachea
of many wild birds. These worms posses a cup shaped buccal capsule and usually migrate
through lungs.
 Invertebrate arthropod such as earth worms, snails, slugs, flies become encysted where it may
live for several months (or) even years. There transport hosts render the larvae more infective
thus enabling strains from wild birds to pass on to domestic chickens.

FLUKE INFECTION IN PARIAH KITES
 The eggs are oval and measured 100 x 60 μ, light brownish, thin shelled and embryonated.
Enormous no. of eggs are seen in the sample.
 Diplostomatid fluke and cryptocotyle spp have been reported in the raptors inhabitating the
digestive tract. The infection usually causes emaciation and diarrohea.
PLASMODIUM SPECIES IN BUDGERIGARS

 Among the haemosporids, plasmodium, haemoproteus and Leucocytozoon are commonly
noticed in wild avifauna; Biting flies serve as vectors and the commonly noticed mosquitoes
are often involved in the transmission of malarial disease in birds.
 On biting by these mosquitoes, the infective stages namely the sporozoites enter the tissues and
blood of a new host.
CAPILLARIASIS IN COCKATOO
 The Eggs are more or less barrel shaped with fine bipolar plugs resembling Trichuris eggs.
These worms are commonly called as 'Thread worms' and are frequently found in newly
imported macaws and in aviaries.
 Further they have been encountered in wild passerines. Depending on the species the life cycle
is direct or indirect involving earthworm as intermediate host.

FLEA INFESTATION IN SQUIRRELS
 Ceratophyllus sp and spilopsyllus are the two common fleas seen in rats, field mouse and wild
rodents. The oriental rat flea of the genus Xenopsylla is associated with the transmission of
plague.
 Finding of flea droppings over hair material also helps for the diagnosis.
POLYPLAX SP. LOUSE INFESTATION IN BANDICOOTS

 These louse commonly are noticed in lab mouse and lab rat and also in wild rodent hosts.
There are slender lice, long, yellowish brown, with well formed lateral plates on the dorsal and
ventral aspects of abdomen.
 Though many rodent ectoparasites are of not host specific, the lice are generally host specific
in rodents. However closely related species of rodents may be infested with the same species of
louse. These are also vectors of Haemobartonella and eperythrozoon in the rodents.
RHIPICEPHALUS SANGUINEUS IN LIONS

 This Ixodid tick a native tick of Africa originally, has been distributed throughout the world.
 Mostly parasitic on wild and domestic carnivores and these are popularly known as 'Brown
dog tick'. These ticks are incriminated as a vector of Babesiosis, Hepatozoonosis and
Ehrlichiosis.

LIPOPTENA CERVI IN HOG DEER
 This is a common wingless fly found in various species of deer and are popularly known as
Deer kids and Louse flies. These flies with piercing mouth parts shed their wings as they find
the suitable hosts.
STRONGYLOSIS IN SQUIRRELS
 This round worm is one of the commonly observed nematodes in squirrels in addition to
Ascarids. These worms are usually present in large numbers.
 The eggs are oval shaped, thin shelled with compact yoke mass. The life cycle is direct through
third stage infective larvae present in the vegetation
HAEMAPHYSALIS SP. IN MONGOOSE

 Ticks of this small genus inhabit humid and well vegetated habitats in tropical countries. These
are three host ticks with larvae and nymphs feeding on small mammals/birds, while adults
infesting larger mammals.
 The males of these ticks lack chitinous plates. They have a wide host range affecting birds and
mammals, including the rodents. They have a short rectangular mouth parts.
ENTAMOEBA HISTOLYTICA IN BONNET MACAQUES

 Non-human primates get infected by ingesting contaminated food, water cockroaches,
unwashed vegetables, fruits, flies, faeces. The trophozoites and cysts may be identified by
keeping them in normal saline (or) iodine solution.
 The organisms invade mucous membrane of colon and caecum and they may access into portal
circulation, producing hepatic abscess.

TRICHURIS SP. IN SPOTTED DEER
 The specific diagnosis is made upon finding operculated, yellowish coloured egg in the faecal
sample of the infected cervid. The cross infection from domestic to wild and from wild to
domestic ruminants is possible.
 Trichuriasis has been reported in block bucks, sambar deer, in addition to the non-human
primates in which case, it is zoonotic.
STRONGYLOIDES SP. IN SAMBAR DEER

 These peculiar nematode has an alternate free living saprophytic generation and a parasitic
generation in the gut of vertebrates. These endoparasites migrate through blood, lungs, trachea
and pharynx finally reaching small intestine.
 Enteritis, diarrohea and debilitation are the pathogenic effects produced by these nematode
parasites.
BUNOSTOMIASIS IN BLACKBUCKS
 Bunostomum spp. is considered to be one of the most dangerous nematodes in animals. These
hook worms have a well developed buccal capsule with well developed chitinous plates and
lancets.
 The infection occurs through penetration of infective larvae into month or skin. The eggs are
like strongyle with thin shell and are darkly pigmented with compact yolk mass and parallel
sides.

ANOPLOCEPHALID CESTODE IN GAURS
 This is a common cestode in wild ruminants with grass mites as intermediate hosts. The widely
available highly resistant grass mites of the genus Oribatid sp. are the potential sources of this
infection.
 Because of the large size of the cestodes, their presence is obvious and frequently over looking
the tree is underlying cause of the parasitism.
TOXOCARA CATI IN TIGERS

 Characteristically, the eggs have a pitted egg shell. The infection is mainly by the consumption
of eggs with an infective second stage larvae.
 The pathogenesis leads to death of cubs in captive animal places and depending on the areas of
migration of larvae (through lungs or aberrant site like bile duct or through the bowel wall) the
pathogenic effects get established.
ANCYLOSTOMOSIS IN CIVET CAT

 The eggs are oval, thin shelled with compact unembryonated yolk mass. These hook worms
usually inhabitates the small intestinal segments in captive fields.
 These parasites enter the host mostly by skin-penetration through oral infection, prenatal and
lactogenic infection can occur. Among the various Ancylostomes, Ancylostoma ceylanicum
has been recorded from civet cat in Asia.

TRYPANOSOMA EVANSI IN WILD DOG
 Trypanosomes are haemo-protozoan parasites occur in wide range of vertebrates principally in
blood and tissue fluids and transmitted by blood sucking arthropods. These affect the domestic
and wild canids severely and also other species like felids etc.
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CROCODILES
IMPORTANT BASELINE FEATURES

Crocodiles (Muggers, Estuarine crocodiles and Gharials) have following important base line
features:
 Ectotherm or cold blooded animal
 Dorsum is keeled or ridged
 Head is flattened with adaptation to float on surface of water
 Eyelids are well developed
 No bony ossicles are present in the sclera of the eye
 External ear is not conspicuous
 Tongue is not protrusible in nature
 Teeth grows continuously throughout life and in case of crocodiles, teeth are visible well when
the mouth is kept in the closed position unlike alligators
 Four chambered heart is present but a „Foramen of Panizza‟ is present in between the
ventricles.
 Diaphragm is present and the large lung is divided into many chambers.
 Penis is present and is protrusible when pressure is applied at this region
 Urinary bladder is absent
 Oviparous in nature
 Shedding of skin occurs but in pieces unlike serpentines
 Osteoderms are present
 Renal portal system is an important component of venous system in any reptile
BASKING
 This is the procedure by which the heat is obtained by the crocodiles and in this the mouth
parts are kept opened, so as to have more surface areas of oral region exposed to the direct sun
rays.
 Since the crocodiles are the ectotherms, the animals need to depend on the external heat
resources.
PHYSICAL RESTRAINT
 Take utmost care in the physical restraint of crocodiles.
 Use a longer pole with a snare at the end.
 Carefully catch the crocodile with the snare and bring it to the ground by dragging in water
 Better to have this near a tree or wooden plank that is strongly grounded vertically.
 Close the eyes of the crocodile with a gunny bag or thick cloth
 Experienced persons will immediately hold on the head and tie the mouth with a rubber tube.
 At the same time, the tail has to be secured and then the legs have to be secured (forelimbs and
hindlimbs separately)
 Now, you can undertake the clinical inspection.
CHEMICAL RESTRAINT
 In reptiles, ketamine may be given at dose rate of 22-44 mg per Kg body weight by I/M route
Larger reptiles need a smaller per kilogram dosage than the smaller ones.
 Surgical anesthesia may be given with dose rate of 55-88 mg per Kg body weight.
 Recovery may be a prolonged one when ketamine is given esp. in sick or debilitated reptiles.
Xylazine may also be used for the chemical restraint of crocodiles.
 Neuromuscular blocking agent like succinylcholine may be given at dose rate of 3-5 mg per kg
body weight by IM route for muscle relaxation effects. Etorphine is most successfully used in
crocodilians like chelonians.
 Halothane may be used in crocodiles like in any other reptiles.
CLINICAL EXAMINATION
 Observe the crocodile before restraint
 Watch the movements of the crocodile
 See for any abnormalities on the body like hunch-backed appearance, bleeding wound or
injuries, swelling on skin region, dragging of limbs, eye-status in general etc.
 Collect the fecal samples for parasitic examination.
BLOOD COLLECTION
 First they need to be restrained well and it needs experienced animal keepers in a zoological set
up. More care is to be taken before the sampling technique in case of crocodiles. This will
surely help to avoid the casualties associated with the sampling technique in case of crocodiles.
 Toe-nail clipping may be done to obtain minimum amount of blood or to obtain the blood
smears from the oozing blood sample. However, for getting of large volume of blood sample,
one has to go for other techniques associating the supra-occipital site or cardiac site, in these
species.
SUPRA-OCCIPITAL SINUS TECHNIQUE IN CROCODILES

 The site for this route should be understood by veterinarian.
 A 22 gauze needle of appropriate length may be taken.
 Pass this disposable needle perpendicularly through the skin into the occipital sinus that is
located behind the nuchal crest.
 Advance the needle until it enters the occipital sinus and blood may be drawn using a 10 ml-
disposable syringe in case of crocodiles.
CARDIOCENTESIS TECHNIQUE
 Identify the line drawn in between the lower line linking both lower margins of fore limbs.
 Count the horizontal rows of regularly placed scutes from this line in the ventrally placed and
well restrained crocodile with its mouth tied by a rubber tube.
th th
 The 7 to 9 complete horizontal row of scutes may be identified in the crocodile.
 Centre point may be chosen for piercing by a disposable needle of 20 gauze with 1.5 inch
length.
 Then attach the 10 ml syringe with the syringe after sighting the gushing of blood sample
through the needle and carefully withdraw the blood sample.
COMMON PARASITES
 Collect the fecal sample in fresh condition. Examine for evidences of the parasites using
standard laboratory techniques :
 Commonly occurring parasites are :
o Leeches are commonly seen on the crocodiles.
o Coccidian parasites like Eimeria sp., trichomonas sp., ascarids etc. are encountered in
crocodiles
BREEDING FEATURES
 In crocodilians, scent glands in the lower jaw and cloaca secrete attractant chemical agents.
 Neck–rubbing and tail-thrashing are the courting activities in addition to the circling around
one another.
 In females, mild turning of the body with raising of tail is seen in females for mating purpose.
 These animals are the egg layers.
 About 50-70 eggs are laid in a clutch.
 Fifty to seventy days is the incubation period.
 Before egg laying, the female crocodile builds the nest of loose vegetation and twigs.

 Many females may even bury the eggs in sand and it is the temperature that has an effective
influence over the determination of sex in the developing egg.
SEXING
 This is done by deep digital palpation of the penis in the cloacal regions in case of males.
 Absence of feeling of penis is the positive clue for the female crocodiles. Appearance wise
differentiation is difficult in general. However, it requires more experience.
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SERPENTINES
BASELINE FEATURES
 Ectotherm or cold blooded animal
 Dorsum is full of scales
 Head is flattened
 Transparent fused eyelids are present
 External ear is absent
 There is no tympanic membrane or middle ear cavity
 Tongue is forked and is lengthy
 Fang is a specialized structure and when unused, it is covered by a membranous flap. Venom
glands secrete venom
 Three chambered heart is present due to the incomplete ventricular septum.
 Diaphragm is absent
 In most snakes, the left lungs is reduced
 Urinary bladder is absent like crocodiles
 Cecum is present in some snakes of boidae and in python
 Oviparous or ovoviviparous
 Heat pits are present in vipers, boa etc.
 Spurs are present in boids and are the vestigial limbs
 Elongated spindle shaped liver is present
 Renal portal system is an important component of venous system in any reptile
ECDYSIS
 It means the shedding of skin periodically. The skin is mostly shed in one piece except the
giant snake and the shedding of skin begins from the head region.
 Incomplete shedding occurs due to general illnesses including the mite infestation, dermatitis,
trauma and also due to incorrect humidity or handling, malnutrition etc. During the shedding,
the skin has a glossy blue coloration due to the presence of lymph in between two layers.
 The shedding period is preceded by an inactive period for a week, during which time the eyes
may appear dull or bluish white.
PHYSICAL RESTRAINT
 Use transparent tube for a better control
 Snake hooks may be used
 Tongs may also be used for a better control of snake
 Never restrain the python by a single person. Always a minimum of three persons is a better
one for effective restraint of the pythons.
 Regardless of the species, the head needs to be secured well in case of snakes to avoid being
bitten
 Safety to both snake and the operator is the important feature to be taken care of during the
physical restraint of the snakes of any species
CHEMICAL RESTRAINT
 Ketamine may be used in all reptiles including snakes. Dose varies with size and nature of
snake. In general, the dose rate of ketamine is 22-44 mg per Kg body weight by Intra-muscular
route and for surgical anesthesia, it may be at 66-88 mg per Kg body weight.
 Halothane may be used in snakes like in all reptiles. Induction is generally rapid at
concentration of 3-4 % given by a face maksk or an induction chamber. The gas mixture may
have 1:3 combination of oxygen and nitrous oxide respectively and anesthesia can be
maintained at 1-1.5 % halothane and recovery is usually rapid.
BLOOD COLLECTION FROM TAIL-VEIN
 Place the snake on its back.
 Position the needle about one third the distance back from the vent toward the tail. After the
advancement of the needle through the skin gentle aspiration is applied until either bone or
blood is encountered.
 However, it is to be remembered that the size of the disposable needle to be used in case of
snakes varies depending on the size of snake.
BLOOD COLLECTION BY CARDIOCENTESIS

 Locate the heart by palpation between the index finger and thumb in case of a well restrained
snake. Heart‟s beating activity may be seen or felt often.
 Select that area for the intervention.
 Then by using a disposable needle of suitable size (21 gauze), prick that area till you feel the
piercing of heart with subsequent flow of blood through the needle.
 Now carefully draw the blood sample
COMMON PARASITES
 Entamoeba invadens which is a commonly encountered protozoal organisms in snakes. Banana
shaped intraerythrocytic hemogregarines in blood smear of water snakes, Eimeria in fecal
samples of snakes, haemoproteus sp., renifer eggs etc. are commonly seen in snakes.
 The commonly encountered snake mite is Ophionyssus sp.
 Similarly, among ticks, it is the Aponomma species which is frequently encountered in
serpentines.
BREEDING FEATURES
 Most of the snakes are viviparous in nature. Some are ovo-viviparous in nature. (embryo inside
the egg that develops inside the body of the mother and young ones are born. Eg. Sand boa
SEXING
 Oophiprobe is used for sexing. The snake is kept on its back and carefully restrain the snake
without getting bitten. Insert the oophiprobe and if it passes to more distance (at least 9-15 sub
caudals), it is a male and if it passes only to a shorter distance (not more than 1-3 sub-caudals),
it is female.
 Male snakes tend to have a longer tail than the female snake.
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CARE OF ORPHANED NEONATAL ELEPHANT CALF AND MANAGEMENT
OBJECTIVES
 To know the management aspects of neonatal elephant calf that is orphaned. (For this, you are
expected to know the situations in which the need arises, any facts lying related with feeding or
care taking of such elephant calves, any veterinary care to be taken specially in such occasions
etc.)
REASONS
 Many times, the calf of the elephant gets orphaned due to many reasons like death of the
mother or care taking elephant.
 Calf may get trapped in the mud or other problematical areas like pit etc. and finally the cow
elephant may leave the calf.
 Rejection of the calf by mother if it has painful mammary glands or mammitis.
TRANSPORT OF THE CALF

 Provide pads as floor as well as supports in the vehicle.
 It may be better if the care taker is also allowed to travel side by side.
 Provide enough shade during the transport
 Avoid transport during the middle of the hot day
 Don‟t transport the calf without rest
 Avoid the transport of elephant in trucks for more than 5-8 hours, in general.
 Avoid the vehicle route that may lead to severe jerk during the transport.
CARE TAKING OF ELEPHANT CALF

 Understand the legal status of the calf in any country.
 Don‟t allow visitors to disturb the elephant calf by unnecessarily touching it because the
animal is already under stress.
 Taming of elephant calf is to be done in a gradual manner.
 Care taker should not be changed frequently because the elephant calf appears to have
attachment to the care taker.
 Provide adequate space arrangement

 Provide enough exercise to the calf
 Materials and utensils used for feeding should be cleaned daily
 Feeding to be done in scientific manner.
 Weaning of the calf may be done when the calf is of 15-18 months.

SIGNS OF HEALTH IN ELEPHANT CALF
 Alertness
 Absence of hypothermia or hyperthermia
 Free passage of urine and dung
 Appreciable sleeping activities
 Frequent probing of trunk
 Free movements of tail
 Free movements of legs
 Making some sounds when hungry or in distress
 Trying to charge when caught newly
CLINICAL EXAMINATION
 Examine the body parts of elephant calf including base of tail, perineum, external and internal
ear regions, foot regions, trunk and oral commissures for evidence of any injuries
 See for the general signs of health in an elephant calf
 Check the body temperature of the animal
 Check for any pain causing lesion/areas to rule out the myositis like problems
 Examine for evidence of any parasitic infestation
 Examine for signs of constipation like straining of animal during defecation with solid dung or
signs of abdominal contraction but with no defecation activity
 Examine for signs of diarrhea
SAMPLING AND EXAMINATION OF SAMPLES

Sampling
 Ear veins may be used for the collection of blood sample.
 Blood smears may be prepared from the blood sample obtained.
 Dung sample has to be collected freshly.
 Parasites may be collected if any on the body.
 Swab from any fresh wound or abscess
 Exudate from wound
 Discharge from trunk for evidence of diseases.
Examination of samples
Samples Parameters to be examined

Dung To find the evidence of bleeding, fauna, abnormal consistency, abnormal
odour, sand materials, evidence of parasitic fauna like strongyles etc.
Peripheral blood smear To rule out the differential leukocyte count and evidence of
haemoprotozoa
Blood in EDTA For haematological investigations like hematocrit value, hemoglobin,

RBC, WBC, ESR, clotting time, Mean Corpuscular Volume, Mean
Corpuscular Hemoglobin and Mean Corpuscular Hemoglobin
Concentration
Whole blood in tubes For biochemical investigations like total protein, albumin, globulin, A/G
that can be centrifuged ratio, total bilirubin, direct bilirubin, indirect bilirubin, BUN, creatinine,
for serum separation aspartate aminotransferase, alanine aminotransferase, total cholersterol,
calcium, phosphorous, alkaline phosphatase etc.

ADMINISTRATION OF DRUGS
 What ever the technique adapted in case of adult elephants, the same may be adapted.
 However, take care of the medications that are given by sub-cutaneously or by intravenous
route in ear veins. If the medicament is irritating one, this may lead to soughing of ears
subsequently.
Routes
1. Oral route may be chosen like any other simple-stomached wild animal
2. I/V : Ear veins
3. I/M: Gluteal region or thigh where muscle mass is felt
4. S/C : Anal fold region or skin at the neck
FEEDING OF NEONATAL CALF

Identify the signs of hungry status
 Frequent making of sound
 When hungry, the calf often attempts to suckle the tip of the finger kept near the mouth.
 When stomach is full, the calf tends to go for sleep with snoring sounds that are well audible.
Mode of feeding
 Large sized enema or a big-sized bottle like container with tube may be used and
approximately ten per cent of the body weight may be taken as a rough estimate of feed
requirement.
 Regular calf nipples attached to bottles of adequate volume or buckets have worked well for
the successful feeding of orphaned elephant calf.
 Elephant calf may be taught to drink on own. This may require a tub with milk. Dip the trunk
in the milk of tub and it may thus get accustomed to suck the milk through the trunk and place
it in mouth.
Time of feeding
 Increase the frequencies of feeding in case of calf unlike the adult elephant and in the
beginning feeding is to be done in day and night.
 When the calf reaches 2 or 3 months of age, night feedings may be gradually stopped.
 When the calf is 9 months old, 4 feedings are enough per day.
Amount of feeding
 The elephant calf consumes 1.5 to 2 litres of diluted milk at a time in one to two hours and 12
to 16 liters may be needed in a day, in general.
 Try to remember that always leave them little hungry.
 Over feeding is always more harmful than slight under feeding of calf
TYPES OF FEED
 Protective immuno-globulins may be given soon after the birth and this is in-order to establish
the calf‟s immune status.
 Older calf should be given immuno-globulins by subcutaneous administration because these
would not be well absorbed if given by oral route.
 The volume of the colostrums consumed by a newborn elephant during the first 24 to 48 hours
of life is approximately 2 to 10 litres.
 Tender coconut water may be given frequently to quench the thirst.
 Coconut oil is the nearest artificial replacer to the fat of the elephant‟s milk.

COMPOSITION OF MILK OF ELEPHANT
 While understanding the composition of milk of elephant, it is better to have some more ideas
about milk of various animals or man, as given below.
Milk Protein (%) Fat (%) Carbohydrate (%) Solids (%) Fiber (%)
Cow‟s milk 2.8-3.6 3.1-5.2 4.0-5.5 8.5-19 -
Human‟s milk 0.7-2.0 1.3-8.3 5.0-9.2 8.5-15 -
Elephant‟s milk 19.9 0.63-6.2 4.0-8.36 8.27-17.3 -
ARTIFICIAL FEED FORMULAS

Artificial feed formulas
 Introduce in a gradual manner.
 Monitor for signs of indigestion if any.
Item Protein Fat Carbohydrate Solids Fiber

(%) (%) (%) (%) (%)
Rice-based formula for elephant 1.7 1.5 8.0 12.4 0.04
calf
 Elephant calf under artificial feed formula should always gain a minimum of 0.5 kg body
weight per day (recordings are available even with a weight gain of about 1.5 kg per day for
extended periods of time).
Weight Energy requirement per day Rice based formula required per day
100 kg 6000-8000 kcal 400-550 oz
200 kg 16,000-20,000 kcal 1100-1333 oz
Artificial feed formula intolerance

 Monitor for the signs of ill health after you introduce the new artificial feed formula
 Rule out pathogen or intolerance of artificial feeding formula
 If formula intolerance is suspected, discontinue the artificial feed formula
 If discontinued, feed water or 5 to 10 per cent dextrose until the elimination of the most of the
old feed formula and subsequent introduction of a new artificial feed formula.
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HANDLING AND CLINICAL EXAMINATION OF BIRDS
HANDLING METHOD FOR CAPTURE AND HOLDING OF BIRD

 Capture the bird in semi-dark condition to prevent stress. Never make any excitement related
activities and this may stress the aviary species.
 Place the palm of your hand as support for the bird.
 Place the thumb on side of cheeks or beak or above the birds crest
 Fingers should be wrapping around the bird‟s sides and back.
METHOD FOR OPENING OF MOUTH IN BIRD

o After properly holding the bird, place the index finger‟s tip beneath the jaw or above the crest
on the side that is away from you.
o Don‟t make undue or heavy pressure over the bird that is held.
o Apply little pressure at anterior and lower areas of cheek
o Now the bird opens the mouth.
HANDLING METHOD FOR DIRECT ADMINISTRATION OF LIQUID IN BIRD

 Restrain and hold the bird properly.
 Hold the head between index and middle finger.
 Use right hand for the control of syringe
 Apply gentle pressure at cheek to open the mouth.
 By gentle delivery of drug through syringe, drop medicine. If the bird swallows well without
any evidence of leaking through the sides of mouth, then continue slowly. If not, attempt again
after providing rest for few seconds or minutes to the bird.
 Always place the tip of the syringe in side of mouth and push the medicine towards opposite
side of the mouth. Never place medicine directly into esophagus.
TUBE FEEDING METHOD IN BIRDS

 Select the sterile feeding tube for each bird.
 Hold the bird gently and straighten the neck vertically with the head that is grasped under
mandibles.
 Pass the selected tube into the oral cavity and down the esophagus on the right side of the neck.
 Now you can see the passage of tube if you wet the area of proximal neck or you can feel the
passage of tube by palpation of proximal neck region.
Note
 If the bird is with crop, pass the tube directly into the crop
 If the bird is without crop, pass the tube up to the distal end of esophagus; if not, this may lead
to the development of iatrogenic trauma to the proventriculus and/or gizzard.

CLINICAL EXAMINATION OF BIRDS
 Just observe the bird and its movements
 Patiently hear the history about the problem in the bird species.
 Rule out any abnormal activity like circling, star-gazing etc.
 Trace for evidence of any trauma like limping, reduced speed of gait etc.
 Find out any loss of proprioception with head tilt or nystagmus which may indicate the central
vestibular lesions.
 Observe for any evidence of blood in mouth, ears, eyes etc.
 Look for any evidence of feather loss or mutilated area of skin/feathers
 Rule out erythema, discoloration of areas or discharge from outer ear etc.
 Look for any ventral odema (ventral edema may be due to thiamine or selenium or vitamin E
deficiency in case of birds in addition to the protein deficiency or trauma, in general)
 Look for haematuria (This is considered as one of the indications in case of lead toxicosis in
case of Amazon parrots).
SAMPLING IN BIRDS
 Sampling in case of birds need special care and management measures. In general, the bird
should not be held tightly.
 Always use gentle methods during the holding procedures in case of any aviary species.
 Maintain calmness at the place of sampling to avoid the excitement of the bird under
investigation
 Cover the eyes of the bird regardless of the species to minimize the stress factors that may act
on the concerned aviary species.
 Plan about the kind of samples required well in advances.
GADGETS REQUIRED FOR SAMPLING

1. Gloves (rubber gloves or thick cloth based gloves)
2. Disposable tuberculin syringe
3. Disposable syringe (2ml/5ml)
4. Antiseptic solutions
5. Capillary tubes
6. Glass slides and cover slips
7. Glass tubes for larger sized aviary species.
COLLECTION OF BLOOD SAMPLE

 Total blood volume of the aviary species is approximately 10 % of their body weight in general
and you have to take care of this factor always, while you attempt to collect the blood sample.
 Hence, a bird with 30 gm body weight may have 3 ml of blood and in this up to 10 % (0.3ml)
can be safely removed without any detrimental effects.
 In certain bird species (Corvidae, Gruidae, Struthionidae and Alcedinidae), mixing of blood in
EDTA causes progressive hemolysis of red blood cells and hence, lithium heparin may be the
better anticoagulant to be used for the collection of blood samples in such types of birds.
 There are generally four methods for the collection of blood samples in case of birds
o Toe nail clipping method
o Jugular venipuncture
o Bacilic venipuncture
o Medial metatarsal venipuncture
TOE NAIL-CLIPPING TECHNIQUE

 Restrain the bird carefully and without any excitement
 Using aseptic technique, make a small cut at the end of the toe nail.
 Use capillary tube for collection of blood sample
 Use absorbable cotton for the arrest of blood after the completion of collection by using this
route.

JUGULAR VENIPUNCTURE-TECHNIQUE
 Carefully extend the neck of the bird without much excitation.
o Identify the location of right jugular vein.
o Wet the area of this vein by alcohol-swab
o Carefully insert a disposable 21 gauze needle attached with a disposable 2 ml or 5 ml
syringe depending on size of the aviary species and collect the blood sample.
o Apply light pressure while you withdraw the needle
o Transfer the contents into tube with anticoagulant as well as into tube without any
additive for serological examination.
o This route is of useful in case of large sized birds in particular like cranes, storks etc.
BASILIC VENIPUNCTURE OR WING VEIN BASED VENIPUNCURE

 Restrain the bird properly
 Extend the wing carefully
 Wipe the medial elbow (humeral radio-ulnar joint) with alcoholic swab
 Apply pressure by fingers in a gentle manner above the site of collection, so as to enhance the
visibility of engorging blood vessel.
 Then insert a disposable 21 gauze needle attached with a disposable 2 ml or 5 ml syringe
depending on size of the aviary species and carefully collect the blood sample.
 Apply light pressure while you withdraw the needle
 Useful mostly in medium to large sized aviary species like dove, pigeon, younger barn owl etc.
MEDIAL METATARSAL VENIPUNCTURE

 Locate the blood vessel (medial metatarsal vein) at the dorso-medial leg, just above or below
tarsal joint. For this you have to spread the wing well.
 Apply pressure over this point to enhance the visibility of filled vessel
 Use 23 gz or 25 gz needle attached with tuberculin syringe and collect blood sample.
 Apply light pressure while you withdraw the needle
 Use antiseptic soaked cotton for antiseptic purposes.
BLOOD SMEAR PREPARATION

 Slides may be used to obtain the smears by using the standard laboratory technique by
adaptation of toe nail clipping technique in case of aviary species.
 However, use antiseptic solutions to prevent the contamination with microbes at the cut-areas
of toe nail.
 Cover slides may also be used in the preparation of slides, using standard techniques.
ESTIMATION OF WEIGHT
 Body weight should be approximately known for each species.
 Preferably an electronic balance may be used to assess the body weight of the concerned aviary
species.

ADMINISTRATION OF MEDICAMENTS
 One has to be thorough in case of administration of different kinds of medicaments in aviary
species.
 Routes used are given below
1. Oral route
2. Intra-muscular route
3. Intra-venous route
4. Sub-cutaneous route
5. Intra-nasal route
6. Intra-osseous route
7. Intra-sinal route
8. Intra-tracheal route
9. Intra-peritoneal route
10. Cloaca- route
ORAL ROUTE
 Administration of medicines by oral route
 The medication may be given by food or water.
Merit
 Easy to administer
 Animal keeper or the owner himself can administer
Demerit
 There is no assurance that the bird will take adequate amount of drug mixed water or
food esp. while in sick status.
 Some birds rarely drink water in general.
 Tastes of the drug has influence on the intake of water or water containing the drug.
I/M ROUTE AND SUB-CUTANEOUS ROUTE

Administration of medicines by I/M route and Sub-cutaneous route
 In general, preferably the pectoral muscles or quadriceps muscle areas are used for the
depositing of drugs in case of intra-muscular injections.
Birds Volume of drug to be given by I/M route at a site

Budgerigars, canaries, finches etc. 0.1 ml
African gray parrot or Amazon parrot 0.5 ml
Cockatiel, small conure etc. 0.2 ml
Brids weighing more than 1.5 Kg Volume upto 1.5 ml per site can be given
 Sub-cutaneous route is chosen at the axillary region or loose skin in shoulder.
INTRAVENOUS ROUTE
Administration of medicines by I/V route
 This route is mainly used in case of emergency or in case of larger sized birds like cranes,
storks etc.
 Take care of the hematoma development or bleeding that may often occur.
 This is very important esp. in case of smaller sized aviary species.
 The veins to be used for the administration of medicaments are dealt under the chapter of
„Collection of blood sample‟.

INTRA-NASAL ROUTE
Administration of medicines by intra-nasal route
 Intra-nasal route may be of useful in birds but bulk volume of drugs may be difficult to
administer by this route.
 This route is used for nasal flushing also as done in case of infra orbital sinus infection in
which cases 1-3 ml of chosen drug is used in budgerigars and up to 10-15 ml is used for
cockatoo or larger macaw and may be even up to 40 ml in case of falcons.
INTRA-OSSEOUS ROUTE
Administration of medicines by intra-osseous route
 This is useful when I/V route or S/C route is not possible to be used due to smaller size of the
birds etc.
 Intra-osseous cannula is used to administer blood, fluids, colloids etc.
Site
 Proximal tibia for short-term therapy
 Distal ulna in medium sized to large birds that requires days of therapy.
Merits
 Reduced patient-resistance is observed during the adaptation of this route of administration of
drugs.
 Less stress is experienced when compared to the repeated venipunctures.
 In birds in which the venin can not be traced as in case of highly sick birds or in smaller sized
birds, this route may be of tremendously useful for drug administration.
CLOACAL ROUTE AND NEBULIZATION

 Cloacal route may be chosen in case of administration of enemas with liquid paraffin etc. This
route is more useful during the infection of lower gastro-intestinal tract esp. in raptors or in
suspected urolith conditions that might have lead to impaction of cloaca.
 Nebulization is used for therapy of air sacs and it is to be borne in mind that air sacs are the
seat of infections like aspergillosis, mycoplasmosis, E‟ coli infections etc. Doxycycline,
enrofloxacin, cefotaxime, amikacin sulfate, tylosin etc. are the commonly used nebulizing
agents in aviary species, in general.
OTHER ROUTES OF ADMINISTRATION

 Infra-orbital sinus may be the chosen site (in the medial canthus of ocular region) for the
administration of drugs in birds through the intra-sinal route. This route is used in case of
therapy of sinusitis. Also this is useful to collect samples from the sinus for cytology, culture
and sensitivity.
 For intra-tracheal route the tracheal cartilaginous ring is the site for this injection. This route
may be of much useful for respiratory infections in general.
 Intra-peritoneal route is to be used with much care to prevent the infection of visceral organs
in the abdomen.
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Hedge hog (Hemiechinus auritus)

Pangolin (Manis crassicaudata)

Black naped hare (Lepus nigricollis)

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Spotted deer (Axis axis)

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Okapi (Okapia johnstoni)

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