Original article

Textile Research Journal

2017, Vol. 87(19) 2379–2387

Dyeing silk and cotton fabrics ! The Author(s) 2016

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using natural blackcurrants DOI: 10.1177/0040517516671125
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Akemi Yasukawa1, Ayumi Chida1, Yoji Kato1 and Miki Kasai2

Abstract
Silk and cotton fabrics were dyed using the extract from blackcurrants, and the properties of the dyed fabrics were
investigated. The natural dyes present in the blackcurrants were identified as four types of anthocyanins, i.e. delphinidin-
3-glucoside, delphinidin-3-rutinoside, cyanidin-3-glucoside, and cyanidin-3-rutinoside. The colors of the fabrics dyed with
and without five types of mordants, including Mg2+, Ca2+, Al3+, Fe3+, and Cu2+, were measured and expressed according
to the CIELAB color system,
E* value, and K/S value. The affinity of the extracted dye for the silk fabric was higher
compared with that for the cotton fabric. The crystallinity of silk was lower than that of cotton. The fabrics dyed with
blackcurrants had UV shielding ability, especially at 330–400 nm, and antibacterial properties. Although color fastness to
light and washing (color change) was not sufficient, treatment with Mg2+, Fe3+, and Cu2+ mordants could enhance the
color fastness.

Keywords
silk fabric, cotton fabric, UV shielding ability, antibacterial ability, dyeing, blackcurrant

Mankind has long worn clothes dyed using various nat-
ural dyes obtained from plants. The purpose of coloring
fabric is not only for aesthetics but also for protection
against insects, as an expression of social standing or
class, to prevent decay, and so on. Plants shield them-
selves from the ultraviolet (UV) rays of the sun by using
pigments. Therefore, it is expected that UV rays will be
blocked by cloth dyed with extracts from plants. We
have reported that cotton fabric supported by cerium–
calcium hydroxyapatite particles had UV shielding prop-
erties in a previous study.1 If dyeing gives various fabrics
the ability to shield the wearer against UV light, aes-
thetic and functional fabrics can be made.
Previously, we studied dye properties using antho-
cyanin dyes, which were extracted from red cabbage.
We reported that the fabric could be dyed various
colors using different mordants under acidic condi-
tions.2,3 Although the color fastness to light of the
dyed fabric was not high, the color of the fabrics
could be maintained for more than six months by keep-
ing the fabric in the dark in a small container with a
drying agent. Moreover, the contributions of different
types of mordant on color fastness were investigated.
There are many reports of dyeing fabric with antho-
cyanin extracted from various natural plants, such as
Hibiscus rosa sinensis flowers,4 H. mutabilis (Gulzuba),5
black cowpea seed coats6, Liriope platyphylla fruits,7
and wine pomace,8 and so on. In addition to anthocya-
nins, Crocus sativus,9 Terminalia arjuna, Punica grana-
tum, Rheum emodi,10 Acacia catechu, and Tectona
grandis have been used for dyeing fabric.11 These
reports describe the methods used to extract dye from
plants and compare the color of fabrics dyed under
various conditions, including pH, mordant treatment,
and type of fiber. Many reports have also investigated
the color fastness of dyed fabrics.
We used blackcurrant extract as a dye in the present
study. The blackcurrant is a small dark red colored
fruit and is one of the local agricultural products of
the Aomori prefecture in Japan. The pulp and peel of
1
School of Home Economics, Faculty of Education, Hirosaki University,
Japan
2
Department of Living Science, Faculty of Home Economics, Tohoku
Women’s College, Japan
Corresponding author:
Akemi Yasukawa, School of Home Economics, Faculty of Education,
Hirosaki University, 1-bunkyo, Hirosaki, Aomori 036-8560, Japan.
Email: yasukawa@hirosaki-u.ac.jp
2380
the blackcurrant are said to contain anthocyanin pig-
ment.12–19 Although the blackcurrant looks similar to a
blueberry, it tastes sour and, unlike blueberries, is
hardly ever eaten raw. Currently, blackcurrants are
used in many types of processed foods, including
drinks, jams, sweetss, and so on. However, to the best
of our knowledge, there have been no reports in which
blackcurrants are used in textile dyeing applications.
In the present study, we dyed silk and cotton fabrics
using blackcurrant extract with and without several
mordants. The types of anthocyanins contained in
blackcurrants were identified. The structure of the fab-
rics before and after dyeing was investigated. The color
hue of the dyed fabrics was evaluated by CIELAB,
E*
value, and K/S value. The UV protecting ability, anti-
bacterial properties, and color fastness of the dyed fab-
rics were also determined. If the method of fabric
dyeing using the blackcurrant can be established and
the positive aspects of the dyed fabrics are fully shown
in this study, it will contribute to the use of various
other natural dyes for fabric dyeing.
Materials and methods
Preparation of the dye solution
Aqueous colorants of blackcurrants were extracted as
follows. First, 500 g of frozen blackcurrants and 250
cm3 of water were mixed in a liquidizer. The solid was
then removed from the mixture using a net, and the
liquid was filtered. The obtained solution was used for
dyeing. The main colorant in blackcurrants, as well as in
red cabbage,2,3 blueberries,12–18 and other plants,4–8 is
thought to be anthocyanin. We previously reported
that silk fabric can be dyed using extract from red cab-
bage under acidic conditions.2,3 The extract obtained in
the present study had a pH of 3.0, which was suitable for
dyeing fabric with anthocyanin. Therefore, the liquor
was used without any pH adjustment. The blackcurrant
extract used for the present study is not a chemical dye
but is a plant extract, and the quantity of anthocyanins
in the plant extracts varies. Therefore, the blackcurrant
extract was obtained at one time and was distributed for
all of the fabric dyeing.
Dyeing the fabric
The substrate samples were plain-woven silk fabric
‘‘habutae’’ (smooth silk) and plain-woven cotton
fabric ‘‘kanakin’’ (unbleached muslin) #3 supplied by
the Japan Standard Association. These fabrics were
used because silk is easily dyed using traditional natural
dyes, and cotton has long been an important material
for clothing. The structure of the silk fabric was as
follows: EPI/PPI was 135/98, the weight was
Textile Research Journal 87(19)
54.6 g m2, and the thickness was 0.10 mm. The struc-
ture of the cotton fabric was as follows: EPI/PPI was
79/69, the weight was 96.5 g m2, and the thickness was
0.20 mm. The silk and cotton fabrics were washed in
30 C and boiling water, respectively, for 10 min twice
and dried under ambient conditions before use. A piece
of the silk or cotton fabric (5  5 cm2) was immersed
into 5 or 10 cm3 of a dyeing solution, respectively, in a
300 cm3 beaker at room temperature for 24 h. The ratio
of the fabric to dye solution was 1:40. In the case of
mordant-free dyeing, the fabric was twice washed in
1.5 dm3 of water, dried under ambient conditions, and
then kept in a shaded desiccator. The dye solution was
diluted to 10, 25, 50, and 75% to investigate the anti-
bacterial activity of the fabrics. The solution was
adjusted to pH 3 using HCl.
Mordant dyeing was performed using five types of
metals. Mg(NO3)2  6H2O (Mg2+), Al(NO3)3  9H2O
(Al3+), Ca(NO3)2  4H2O (Ca2+), FeCl3  6H2O (Fe3+),
and CuSO4  5H2O (Cu2+) were dissolved at a concen-
tration of 0.01 mol dm3. After being dyed, a piece of the
fabric was immersed into the mordant solution in a
300 cm3 beaker at room temperature for 1 h. The ratio
of the fabric to the mordant solution was 1:40, and the
sample fabric was washed, dried and kept under the
same conditions as the mordant-free dyed samples
described above.
To analyze UV shielding properties, the silk and
cotton fabrics were also dyed using standard dyes for
comparison with the fabrics dyed using blackcurrants.
The silk fabric was dyed using the acid dyes Kiwacid
Red GS-N (a mixture of C.I. Acid Red 337, Acid Red
111, Acid Red 131, and Acid Violet 48) and Blue GL-N
(a mixture of C.I. Acid Blue 127:1, Acid Blue 264, and
Acid Blue 62) (Kiwa Chemical Industry Co., Ltd.,
Japan). The cotton fabric was dyed using the reactive
dyes Sumifix Supra Brilliant Red 3BF (C.I. Reactive
Red 195), Blue BRF (C.I. Reactive Blue 221), and
Yellow 3RF (C.I. Reactive Yellow 145) (Sumika
Chemtex Co. Ltd., Japan).
All chemicals were reagent grade, were supplied by
Nacalai Tesque Co., and were used without further
purification. Distilled water was used for dyeing the
fabrics.
Characterization
The types of anthocyanins in the blackcurrant extract
were investigated using high-performance liquid chro-
matography (HPLC) as follows. Frozen blackcurrants
(30 g) were homogenized in a Waring blender. The
homogenate was then diluted with water to a final
volume of 100 cm3 and centrifuged at 5000 r/min at
4 C for 30 min. The supernatant was filtered using a
0.45 mm membrane filter. The analysis of anthocyanins
Yasukawa et al.
in the filtrate was performed at 40 C on a Capcell Pak
C18 UG120 column (4.6 mm  250 mm, 5 mm, Shiseido)
using a flow rate of 1.0 cm3 min1. The filtrate (1.0 mm3)
was eluted with the following liner gradient profile: the
ratio of solvent A (0.5 % phosphoric acid) to solvent B
(0.1 % formic acid:acetonitrile, 4:1) at 0 min was 80:20,
at 15 min the solvent A:B ratio was 0:100, and then
100% solvent B was used for 10 min. Anthocyanins
were identified from UV–visible (UV-vis) absorption
spectra at 525 nm and detected by a photodiode array
detector (Hitachi L-4500) in the range 220–700 nm.
The fabric dyed by blackcurrant extract was charac-
terized as follows. The color of the dyed fabric was
evaluated using a spectrophotometer (SE-2000,
Nippon Denshoku Kogyo Co.) connected to a com-
puter and expressed according to the CIELAB color
system. L* defines lightness, lighter or darker; a*,
redder or greener; and b*, yellower or bluer. A color
measurement movement in the +a direction depicts a
shift toward red. The +b movement represents a shift
toward yellow. For the measurements, each fabric was
folded two times (four-ply), and the color of the four
different faces (two faces at the surface and two faces at
the back side) of each fabric was measured using a
10 mm aperture and was automatically averaged. The
color strength (K/S value) was used for comparison of
the dyed silk and cotton fabrics. The K/S value was also
used to compare dyed fabrics stored in different condi-
tions. The K/S value was assessed using the Kubelka–
Munk equation:
K=S ¼ ð1  RÞ2 =2R
where R is the reflectance of the samples at the wave-
length of the maximum absorption. The max was 550 nm.
The total color difference (
E*) was used for com-
parison between fabrics dyed using blackcurrant and
the fabrics dyed using a chemical dye. The value was
obtained as follows:
n o1=2

E ¼ ð
L Þ2 þð
a Þ2 þð
b Þ2
where
L* is the color difference between the L* values
of the fabrics before and after dyeing. Then,
a* and

b* were also obtained from a* and b* values of the
fabrics before and after dyeing.
The surface observation of the fabric was performed
using a field emission-scanning electron microscope
(FE-SEM, JEOL JSM-7000F) at an accelerating volt-
age of 10 kV. The samples were dried at 100 C for 3
days before the observation. The crystal structure of the
particles was determined by powder X-ray diffraction
(XRD) using a Rigaku diffractometer (Geigerflex 2013)
with Ni-filtered Cu Ka radiation (30 kV, 15 mA).
Transmission UV-vis spectra of the fabrics were
2381
obtained using an UV-vis spectrophotometer (Jasco
UV-vis V-600) between 260 and 800 nm with an inte-
grating sphere (ISV-722). The protection grade of UVA
(PA) and the sun protection factor (SPF) were obtained
as indications of the shielding effect of UVA and UVB
using a program (Jasco VWSP-966) installed into the
UV-vis system. The measurement of PA is based on
ISO 24442:2011.20 The measurement of SPF is based
on ISO 24444:2010.21 The bacteriostatic potency of the
fabrics was investigated using Staphylococcus aureus in
the Japan Textile Products Quality and Technology
Center (Kobe, Japan) according to the Japan
Industrial Standard method, JIS L 1902:2008,22 which
is based on ISO 20743:2007.23
The color fastness of the dyed fabrics was investi-
gated using silk fabric as follows. Color fastness to light
was tested using JIS L 0841:2004,24 which is based on
ISO 105-B01:1994/Amd.1:1998.25 The color change of
the fabrics was assessed against the blue wool stand-
ards. Any accelerated test methods were not adopted.
Wash fastness tests were carried out according JIS L
0844:2011,26 which is based on ISO 105-C06:2010.27
The adjacent fabrics for staining were silk and cotton.
A natural detergent was used for washing the silk.
Color change of the fabrics was assessed against the
standard grey scale for color change and for staining.
The color fastness test of the fabrics against NOx was
carried out in the Nissennkenn Quality Evaluation
Center (Tokyo, Japan) according to JIS L
0855:2005,28 which is based on ISO 105-G01:1993.29
The fabrics dyed with and without mordant were kept
in the laboratory (200–500 lx in the daytime), in a
shaded desiccator (0 lx), and at a window (3500–
4500 lx in the daytime) for three months, and K/S
values of the fabrics were compared.
Results and discussion
Types of anthocyanin contained in blackcurrants
The HPLC chromatogram of the blackcurrant extract is
shown in Figure 1. Four peaks were detected and
identified as delphinidin-3-rutinoside (Del-3-R, 45.1%),
cyanidin-3-rutinoside (Cya-3-R, 42.5%), delphinidin-3-
glucoside (Del-3-G, 7.8%), and cyanidin-3-glucoside
(Cya-3-G, 4.6%).16,17 The structure of cyanidin and
delphinidin are shown in Figure 2. Thus, four types of
anthocyanins were found in blackcurrants, which is less
than the number found in other berries and fruits.16
Color strength of dyed silk and cotton
The K/S values of silk and cotton fabrics dyed without
mordant were 3.23–3.67 and 2.10–2.42, respectively.
This indicates that the silk fabric was dyed a deeper
2382
Del-3-R
(45.1%)
Relative response
Del-3-G
(7.8%)
0 5 10
Retention time (min)
Figure 1. HPLC chromatogram of anthocyanins in
blackcurrants.
OH
HO O+
H OH
OH
Figure 2. Structure formula of anthocyanins contained in
blackcurrants. Cyanidin, R ¼ H; delphinidin, R ¼ OH.
color than cotton. The color strength of the fabric is
due to the affinity between the dye and the fiber. Thus,
the functional groups of the anthocyanins combine
with animal fibers more easily than with the vegetable
fibers. Protein fibers have carboxyl (–COOH) and
amino (–NH2) end groups. Anthocyanin assumes a
protonated flavylium ion structure under acidic condi-
tions with a pH of 3. Therefore, the protein fibers and
anthocyanin dye are thought to link through ionic
bonds. Cellulose fibers do not have these functional
groups. Only weak van der Waals forces and hydrogen
bonds exist between the hydroxyl groups on the cellu-
lose surface and the hydroxyl groups of anthocyanins.6
In addition, cellulose fibers are highly polymerized and
have less amorphous regions that the dye can physically
enter compared with protein fibers. The difference in
the crystallinity between silk and cotton will be shown
by XRD measurements later.
Textile Research Journal 87(19)
Cya-3-G (a)
(4.6%)
Cya-3-R
(42.5%)
Silk (b)
(c)
15 20
Cotton
(d)
OH
20 µm 5 µm
R Figure 3. FE-SEM pictures of silk and cotton fabrics before
and after dyeing using blackcurrant without mordant. (a) Silk
before dyeing, (b) Dyed silk, (c) Cotton before dyeing, (d) Dyed
cotton.
Structure of fabric before and after dyeing
Figure 3 compares FE-SEM pictures of silk and cotton
fabrics before and after dyeing without mordant. The
pictures of the silk before and after dyeing are shown in
Figure 3(a) and (b), respectively. Both of the fibers are
smooth. The pictures of the cotton fibers before and
after dyeing are shown in Figure 3(c) and (d), respect-
ively, and both of the fibers are wrinkled. The morph-
ology of the silk and cotton fibers after dyeing are
similar to the morphology before dyeing. It can be
observed from the pictures at both magnifications
that dyeing the fabrics with blackcurrant does not
affect the fibrous morphology. Changes were also not
observed on the FE-SEM images of the fabrics dyed
with various mordants (data not shown).
Figure 4(a) and (b) show XRD patterns of the silk
fabrics before and after dyeing without mordant,
respectively. The pattern of the silk before dyeing has
a peak at approximately 21.5 , which has also been
reported in the literature.30,31 XRD patterns of the
Yasukawa et al. 2383

mordant none

silk
(a)

cotton
(b)

15
+ b*
10 (Yellow)
Intensity

5 - a* + a*
(Green) (Red)
(c) 0

-5

-10

-15
- b*
(d) -20 (Blue)

2 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 -25
2θ, degree
-10 -5 0 5 10 15 20 25 30

Figure 4. XRD patterns of silk and cotton fabrics before and
after dyeing using blackcurrant without mordant. (a) Silk before
dyeing, (b) Dyed silk, (c) Cotton before dyeing, (d) Dyed cotton.
Figure 5. a*b* plots showing the color of silk and cotton fab-

rics dyed with and without various mordants. , *: without
mordant; g, œ: Mg2+; t, S: Al3+; n, j: Ca2+; m, i: Fe3+
and p, k: Cu2+. Closed symbols: silk and open symbols: cotton.
Color pictures can be seen online.

cotton fibers before and after dyeing are shown in

Figure 4(c) and (d), respectively. Before dyeing, the
fabric has three XRD peaks at approximately 15.1
 and 23.1 (002), which is supported
(101), 16.8 (101),
by the literature.32,33 The peak intensity of the dyed silk
and cotton was slightly increased, and the peaks were
shifted toward lower angles. The XRD patterns of the
silk and cotton fibers dyed with various mordants were
similar to the patterns of the fibers dyed without mor-
dant. No observable changes occurred in the bulk
structure of the silk and cotton fibers as a result of
dyeing with blackcurrant. Comparing the silk and the
cotton, the crystallinity of the silk was lower than that
of the cotton. The crystallite size of the silk and cotton
fibers evaluated from the half height width of the XRD
peaks were 1.9 nm and 7.1 nm for silk and cotton,
respectively. According to the literature, the crystallin-
ity of silks is 10–40%,34 and the average value for the
crystallinity of cotton is given as 73%.35 Therefore, the
dye can more easily enter the amorphous regions of
the silk than the cotton.
Color of the fabrics dyed with mordant
In general, various metals are used as mordants in nat-
ural dyeing. The role of a mordant is to enhance the
color stability through the formation of a dye–metal
complex.7 In addition, varied hues of color are obtained
by treating fabrics with mordants.4–6 To investigate
the influence of mordants, the fabrics were treated
with the following mordants: Mg2+, Al3+, Ca2+,
Fe3+, and Cu2+.
Figure 5 shows plots of the a*b* values of silk
(closed symbols) and cotton (open symbols) fabrics
dyed under different conditions. The circle symbols rep-
resent the values of the fabrics dyed without mordant.
The different mordants led to differences in the hues of
the silk and cotton fabrics. All of the values of the
fabrics are in the red-blue region except for the cotton
dyed with Fe3+ (i) and Cu2+ (k) mordants. The plot
of the cotton fabrics extends across a larger area than
the silk.
UV shielding properties
Figure 6(a) shows the transmission UV-vis spectra of
the silk and cotton fabrics before and after mordant-
free dyeing with blackcurrant. The spectra of silk and
cotton are represented by bold and thin lines, respect-
ively. SPF and PA values are also shown. The UV spec-
trum of cotton before dyeing does not exhibit a strong
2384
(a) 60
Silk before dyeing (SPF:2.7; PA+)
50
Transmittance, %
40 Cotton before dyeing
(SPF:2.0; PA+)
30
Dyed cotton
20 (SPF:11.4; PA+++)
10
Dyed silk (SPF:22.8; PA+++)
0 0
300 400 500 600 700 800
Wavelength, nm
Figure 6. Transmission UV-vis spectra of various fabrics. (a) Silk and cotton fabrics before and after dyeing by blackcurrant. (b) Silk
fabric after dyeing by blackcurrant, silk fabric after dyeing by an acid dye, and silk fabric after dyeing by blackcurrant and stored at a
window for 3 months.
absorption, and the SPF value of this sample is 2.0. The
spectrum of silk before dyeing shows a lower transmit-
tance in the region below 300 nm, and the SPF value of
the sample is 2.7. The PA values of the silk and the
cotton before dyeing are PA+. On the other hand,
the UV spectra of both the silk and cotton fabrics
dyed with the blackcurrant extract show a lower trans-
mittance in the visible and UV ranges below 700 nm.
Although a decrease of transmittance in the visible
range is due to coloring of the fabrics, it is noteworthy
that the transmittance of the dyed fabrics is very low in
the UV range below 400 nm. The SPF values of the silk
and cotton fabrics after dyeing with blackcurrant are
22.8 and 11.4, respectively. The PA values of the silk
and cotton are PA+++. The UVB rays (290–320 nm)
are more intense than the UVA rays (320–400 nm), and
the UVA rays are more prevalent than the UVB
rays.36–38 Therefore, shielding against both UVA and
UVB rays is needed. The fabric dyed with blackcurrant
is capable of shielding against UVA and UVB light.
To investigate in detail the ability of the blackcur-
rant dye to shield against UV light, the silk fabric was
also dyed with two acid dyes. The color and strength
were adjusted to match the dyeing with the blackcur-
rant extract by controlling
E* value within 2.0. The
dyeing process using the acid dyes was repeated nine
times. The UV-vis spectra of the silk fabrics dyed with
the blackcurrant and the acid dyes are shown by bold
and thin solid lines, respectively, along with the SPF
and PA values in Figure 6(b). Both spectra show a
very similar transmittance within the visible region
between 400 and 800 nm. The SPF values of the fabrics
dyed by blackcurrant and the acid dye are 22.8 and
21.9, respectively. The fabric dyed with blackcurrant
shows a lower transmittance (a higher UV shielding
Textile Research Journal 87(19)
(b) 60
Silk dyed by blackcurrant and
stored at a window for 3 months
50 (SPF:17.4; PA+++)
Transmittance, %
40
Silk dyed by
30 an acid dye
(SPF:21.9
20 PA+++)
10
Silk dyed by blackcurrant (SPF:22.8; PA+++)
300 400 500 600 700 800
Wavelength, nm
ability) at 330–400 nm than that of the fabric dyed by
the acid dyes. Therefore, the fabric dyed by blackcur-
rant is better at shielding against UVA light at 330–
400 nm than the fabric dyed by the acid dye. The UV
shielding ability is a result of both the color and the
original properties of the blackcurrant. The UV-vis
spectrum of the fabric dyed and stored at a window
for three months is shown by circle symbols in
Figure 6(b). The SPF and PA values of the fabrics
dyed and stored at a window for 3 months were 17.4
and PA+++, respectively. Although the transmit-
tance of the fabric in the visible light region was chan-
ged by light exposure, the UV shielding ability of the
fabric was relatively consistent. Therefore, the materials
that have UV shielding properties seem to not be
decomposed by light exposure.
The cotton fabric was dyed by reactive dyes men-
tioned above. The color and strength were adjusted to
match the dyeing with the blackcurrant extract by con-
trolling
E* value within 2.0 as well as the silk fabric.
Although the results for cotton are not shown here,
similar tendencies to those mentioned above were
observed with silk. The SPF values of the silk and
cotton fabrics dyed with the five types of mordants
ranged from 15.7 (Ca-mordant) to 39.0 (Fe-mordant)
and 7.0 (Mg-mordant) to 8.9 (Fe-mordant), respect-
ively. The PA values of the fabrics dyed with the vari-
ous mordants were PA+++ for all of the silk samples
and were PA++ for all of the cotton samples.
Antibacterial properties
To investigate the antibacterial activity of the fabrics
dyed with blackcurrant, the bacteriostatic potency of
the silk and cotton fabrics was evaluated. The silk
Yasukawa et al. 2385

and cotton fabrics were dyed in blackcurrant solutions
with different concentrations without mordant.
Figure 7 shows the bacteriostatic potency of silk ()
and cotton (*) in relation to the concentration of the
dye solution. The bacteriostatic potency of the undyed
silk and cotton fabrics was 0 and 0.3, respectively. The
values for both of the fabrics increased as the concen-
tration of the dye solution increased. Silk had higher
antibacterial activity than cotton at the same dye
concentration.
Table 1 compares the bacteriostatic potency of vari-
ous cotton fabrics dyed with and without mordant. The
concentration of the dyeing solution was 50%. The bac-
teriostatic potency of the original white cotton before
dyeing was 0.3. The value of the cotton fabric dyed
without mordant was 2.9. The bacteriostatic potency
of the five types of metals used as a mordant were
investigated by immersing cotton fabrics into solutions
containing the specific metal ions for 1 h. This was
6 dants was grade 2, which was the same as the mor-
5 Mg2+, Fe3+, and Cu2+, enhanced the color fastness
Bacteriostatic potency
performed to test the antibacterial properties of the
metals alone. The values of the cotton immersed into
the solution with dissolved Mg2+, Ca2+, and Fe3+
were 1.9, 1.3, and 1.8, respectively. The values of the
fabrics dyed using blackcurrant with Mg2+, Ca2+, and
Fe3+ mordant were 4.0, 4.0, and 4.8, respectively. The
bacteriostatic potency of the fabrics treated with mor-
dant was higher than the fabric dyed without mordant.
Therefore, the antibacterial properties of the dyed fab-
rics come from both the blackcurrant and the mordant.
Color fastness of dyed fabric
To investigate the color fastness of the fabrics dyed
using blackcurrant with and without mordant, color
fastness tests to light, to washing (for color change
and staining), and to NOx were performed using the
silk fabric. The results are shown in Table 2.
Color fastness to light of the fabric dyed without
mordant was not sufficient to reach grade 2.
However, the fabric dyed with Al3+ and Ca2+ mor-
dant-free dyed fabric. The other mordants, including

4
of the dyed fabrics; fabrics treated with Mg2+ and
Cu2+ mordants were grade 2–3 and fabrics treated
3 with the Fe3+ mordant were grade 3–4.
Color fastness to washing for color change of the
2 fabric dyed without mordant was grade 2. The fabrics
1
dyed with the five types of mordants ranged from grade
2–3 to grade 4–5, which was higher than the mordant-
0 free dyed fabric. All of the fabrics showed good color
0 25 50 75 100 staining (grade 5).
Concentration, % Color fastness against NOx was grade 4 for the mor-
dant-free dyed fabric. The fabrics dyed with Mg2+,
Figure 7. Antibacterial activity of silk and cotton fabrics dyed Al3+, Ca2+, and Cu2+ were grade 3 to grade 3–4,
without mordant by dyeing solutions with different concentra- which was lower than the value of the mordant-free

tions. : silk; *: cotton. fabric. The fabric dyed with the Fe3+ mordant had a

Table 1. Bacteriostatic potency of various cotton fabrics

Bacteriostatic Table 2. Fastness properties of the silk fabrics dyed with and
potency Bacteriostatic potency without mordant

Color fastness to wash

Immersed in
Before solution After dyeing Color Staining Color
dyeing Mordant dissolving metal by blackcurranta fastness Color fastness
Mordant to light change Silk Cotton to NOx
None – 2.9
Mg2+ 1.9 4.0 None 2 2 5 5 4
0.3 Al3+ 5.1 – Mg2+ 2–3 3 5 5 3–4
Ca2+ 1.3 4.0 Al3+ 2 3 5 5 3–4
Fe3+ 1.8 4.8 Ca2+ 2 3 5 5 3–4
Cu2+ 6.0 – Fe3+ 3–4 4–5 5 5 4–5
a Cu2+ 2–3 2–3 5 5 3
Concentration of dyeing solution is 50%.
2386
4 Conclusions
3
K/S value
2
1
0
0 1 2 3
Period (month)
Figure 8. Change of K/S values against storage period. Open
symbols: dyed without mordant and settled, *: in the labora-
tory; œ: in a shading desiccator; and i: at a window.
Closed symbols: dyed with mordant and settled at a
window, t: Al3+; m: Fe3+; and : Cu2+.
grade of 4–5. These results show that none of the mor-
dants, except Fe3+, used in the present study improved
the color fastness against NOx.
Because the fabric dyed with blackcurrant had a low
color fastness to light, the storage conditions required to
maintain the color of the dyed fabrics were investigated.
The silk fabrics dyed with the blackcurrant extract with-
out a mordant were placed in three different locations:
the laboratory (200–500 lx), in a shaded desiccator (0 lx),
and at a window (3500–4500 lx). Changes in the K/S
values of the fabrics are shown in Figure 8 by the open
symbols. As shown in Figure 8, the K/S values of the
fabric change in the following order: at a window
(i)>in the laboratory (*)>in a shading desiccator
(œ). The K/S values of the fabrics stored at a window
changed the most in the first month. The shading desic-
cator kept the color of the dyed fabric for a long period.
To investigate the influence of the mordant, the silk
fabrics dyed using blackcurrant with five types of mor-
dants were kept at a window. Figure 8 shows the K/S
values of the fabrics treated with the mordants using
closed symbols: Al3+ (t), Fe3+ (m), and Cu2+ ().
The K/S values of the Mg2+ and Ca2+ mordant-treated
fabrics were close to the values of fabric treated with
the Al3+ mordant (t) (data not shown). The K/S
values of the mordant-treated fabrics changed more
slowly than the value of mordant-free dyed fabric
(i). Thus, the use of a mordant enhances the color
fastness of the dyed fabrics, but the degree of the
effect is not the same for each type of mordant. The
use of Fe3+ as a mordant can maintain the color of
the dyed fabric for a long time.
Textile Research Journal 87(19)
Natural dye was extracted from blackcurrants. Four
types of anthocyanins, including Cya-3-G, Cya-3-R,
Del-3-G, and Del-3-R, were present in the blackcur-
rants. The extract was acidic and was used to dye silk
and cotton fabrics without a mordant at room tempera-
ture. Silk fabric was less crystalline and was dyed a
deeper shade than the cotton fabric. XRD measure-
ments and FE-SEM observations of the silk and
cotton fabrics revealed that dyeing did not affect the
structure of the fabrics. Dyeing the fabrics with differ-
ent mordants resulted in differences in color hues.
Although the fabric dyed without mordant had low
color fastness to light and washing for color change,
fabrics treated with Mg2+, Fe3+, and Cu2+ mordants
had enhanced color fastness to light, and all of the
mordant metals used in the present study enhanced
the color fastness to wash for color change. In particu-
lar, the fabric dyed with the Fe3+ mordant showed
superior overall color fastness. The fabrics dyed with
blackcurrant exhibited UV shielding and antibacterial
properties. Mordant treatment enhanced the antibac-
terial properties of the dyed fabrics.
The present study revealed that the blackcurrant
could be used as a natural dye for cloth and that this
dye has UV shielding properties and antibacterial prop-
erties. There are many plants containing natural dyes,
which are expected to be environmental friendly dyes.
The technique and insights of the present study will
contribute to the dyeing of fabrics using various natural
dyes. The useful properties of natural dyes reported in
this study will encourage others to find the novel advan-
tages of many other plants.
Declaration of conflicting interests
The authors declared no potential conflicts of interest with
respect to the research, authorship, and/or publication of this
article.
Funding
The authors disclosed receipt of the following financial sup-
port for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this
article: This work was supported in part by JSPS KAKENHI
(grant number 25350063).
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