Principles of Protection by AREVA. 2008

TRAINING ON POWER
SYSTEM PROTECTION
RELAYING
ENERGIZE YOUR EXPERTISE
APPS Training - 2008

TECHNICAL TRAINING
AREVA T&D
Basic Protection Philosophy
> Basic Protection Philosophy - January 2004

Protection - Why Is It Needed?
All Power Systems may experience faults at some

time.
PROTECTION IS INSTALLED TO :
X Detect fault occurrence and isolate the faulted
equipment.
SO THAT :
X Damage to the faulted equipment is limited;
X Disruption of supplies to adjacent unfaulted
equipment is minimised.
PROTECTION IS EFFECTIVELY AN INSURANCE POLICY

- AN INVESTMENT AGAINST DAMAGE FROM FUTURE
FAULTS.

FAULTS ON POWER SYSTEMS RISK :
Severe damage to the faulted equipment :

X Excessive current may flow;
X Causes burning of conductors or equipment
windings;
X Arcing - energy dissipation;
X Risk of explosions for oil - filled switchgear, or when
in hazardous environments.
Damage to adjacent plant :

X As the fault evolves, if not cleared quickly;
X Due to the voltage depression / loss of supply.

FAULTS ON POWER SYSTEMS RISK :
Danger to staff or the public :

X Risk of shock from direct contact with the faulted
equipment;
X Danger of potential (voltage) rises in exposed
metalwork – accessible to touch;
X Fumes released by burning insulation;
X Burns etc.
Disruption to adjacent plant :

X Prolonged voltage dips cause motors to stall;
X Loss of synchronism for synchronous generators /
motors.
SUMMARY :
Protection must :
X Detect faults and abnormal operating conditions;
X Isolate the faulted equipment.
So as to :
X Limit damage caused by fault energy;
X Limit effect on rest of system.

Important Considerations When Applying
Protection
X Types of fault and abnormal conditions to be protected against

X Quantities available for measurement
X Types of protection available
X Speed
X Fault position discrimination
X Dependability / Reliability
X Security / Stability
X Overlap of protections
X Phase discrimination / Selectivity
X CTs and VTs
X Auxiliary supplies
X Back-up protection
X Cost
X Duplication of protection

Faults Are Mainly Caused By Insulation Failure
Underground Cables
Diggers
Overloading
Oil Leakage
Ageing

Overhead Lines
Lightning
Kites
Trees
Moisture
Salt
Birds
Broken Conductors

Machines
Mechanical Damage
Unbalanced Load

Types of Fault
a
b
Ø/E
c
a
b
Ø/Ø/E
c
e
a
Ø/Ø b
c
a a
3Ø b b
c 3Ø/E c

Types of Fault
a a'
CROSS b b'
COUNTRY c c'
FAULT
e e

Types of Fault
a
OPEN
b
CIRCUIT
+ Ø/E c
FAULT
BETWEEN
ADJACENT
PARALLEL
LINES

Types of Fault
a
CHANGING
FAULT IN
CABLE
b c

Types Of Protection

Types of Protection
X Fuses
For : LV Systems, Distribution Feeders and
Transformers, VTs, Auxiliary Supplies
X Direct Acting AC Trip

For : LV Systems, Pole Mounted Reclosers
X Overcurrent and Earthfault

Widely used in all Power Systems
Non-Directional
Voltage Dependant
Directional

Types of Protection
X Differential
For : Feeders, Busbars, Transformers, Generators,
etc.
High Impedance
Restricted E/F
Biased (or low-impedance)
Pilot Wire
Digital

Types of Protection
X Distance
For : Distribution Feeders and Transmission
and Sub-Transmission Circuits
Also used as Back-up Protection for
Transformers and Generators
X Phase Comparison
For : Transmission Lines
X Directional Comparison
For : Transmission Lines

Types of Protection
X Miscellaneous
Under and Over Voltage
Under and Over Frequency
Special Relays for Generators,
Transformers, Motors, etc.
X Control Relays
Auto-Reclose, Tap Change Control, etc.
X Tripping and Auxiliary Relays

Overcurrent Protection Direct Acting AC Trip
51
Trip Coil
IF
X AC series trip
common for electromechanical O/C relays

Overcurrent Protection Direct Acting AC Trip
IF '
+
Sensitive
51 Trip
Coil
-
IF
X Capacitor discharge trip

used with static relays where no secure DC
supply is available

Overcurrent Protection DC Shunt Trip
IF
IF '
51
DC SHUNT
BATTERY TRIP COIL
X Requires secure DC auxiliary

No trip if DC fails
Overcurrent Protection Co-ordination Principle
X Relay closest to fault

R1 R2 must operate first
IF1 X Other relays must have
adequate additional
operating time to
T prevent them operating
X Current setting chosen
to allow FLC
X Consider worst case
conditions, operating
modes and current
IS2 IS1 Maximum I flows
Fault
Level

Differential Protection Principle (1)
Protected
Circuit

Differential Protection Principle (2)
Protected
Circuit

Basic Principle of Distance Protection
Relay
ZS PT.
IR ZL
Normal
VS VR ZLOAD
Load
VR
Impedance measured ZR = = Z L + Z LOAD
ΙR

Basic Principle of Distance Protection
ZL
ZS IR ZF
VS VR ZLOAD Fault
X Impedance Measured ZR = VR/IR = ZF

X Relay Operates if ZF < Z where Z = setting
X Increasing VR has a Restraining Effect ∴VR
called Restraining Voltage
X Increasing IR has an Operating Effect

Plain Impedance Characteristic
jX ZL Impedance Seen At
Measuring Location
For Line Faults
TRIP STABLE

Impedance Characteristic Generation
jIX
IF zF
IZ
V2 V1
VF V3
IR
Trip TRIP STABLE
Spring
Restrain Voltage to Relay = V

Operate
Current to Relay = I
Replica Impedance = Z
Ampere Turns : VF IZ
Trip Condition : S2 < S1
Trip Conditions : VF < IFZ
where : S1 = IZ ≈ Z
S2 = V ≈ ZF

Buchholz Relay Installation
3 x internal pipe
Conservator
diameter (minimum)
5 x internal pipe
diameter (minimum)
Oil conservator
3 minimum
Transformer

Autoreclose Benefits (1)
X Improved continuity of supply
Supply restoration is automatic (does not require

human intervention)
Shorter duration interruptions
Less consumer hours lost
X Use of instantaneous protection for faster fault clearance

(NB: some healthy circuits may also be tripped)
Less damage
Less pre-heating of circuit breaker contacts (reduced
maintenance?)
Less chance of transient fault becoming permanent

Autoreclose Benefits (2)
X Less frequent visits to substations
More unmanned substations

Reduced operating costs

Definitions & Considerations

Classes of Protection
Non-Unit, or Unrestricted Protection :
No specific point downstream up to which

protection will protect
X Will operate for faults on the protected

equipment;
X May also operate for faults on downstream
equipment, which has its own protection;
X Need for discrimination with downstream
protection, usually by means of time grading.

Classes of Protection
Unit, or Restricted Protection :
Has an accurately defined zone of protection
X An item of power system plant is protected as

a unit;
X Will not operate for out of zone faults, thus no
back-up protection for downstream faults.

Co-ordination
LOAD
SOURCE
LOAD
LOAD
F1 LOAD F2
F3
Co-ordinate protection so that relay nearest to

fault operates first – minimises amount of
system disconnection.

ANSI Reference Numbers
2 Time Delay 51 Time Delayed Overcurrent

21 Distance 51N Time Delayed Earthfault
25 Synchronising Check 52 Circuit Breaker
27 Undervoltage 52a Auxiliary Switch - Normally Open
30 Annunciator 52b Auxiliary Switch - Normally Closed
32 Directional Power 59 Overvoltage
37 Undercurrent or Under Power 60 Voltage or Current Balance
40 Field Failure 64 Instantaneous Earth Fault (High Impedance)
46 Negative Sequence 67 Directional Overcurrent
49 Thermal 67N Directional Earthfault
50 Instantaneous Overcurrent 74 Alarm
79 Auto-Reclose 85 Signal Receive
81 Frequency 86 Lock-Out
85 Signal Receive 87 Differential
86 Lock-Out

Protection
X Speed
Fast operation :
Minimises damage and danger
Very fast operation :
Minimises system instability
Discrimination and security can be costly to
achieve as it generally involves additional
signaling / communications equipment.

Protection
X Fault Position Discrimination

Power system divided into PROTECTED ZONES
Must isolate only the faulty equipment or section

Zones of Protection
TRANSF- BUSBAR
BUSBAR ORMER ZONE
ZONE ZONE
FEEDER
ZONE
GENERATION ZONE
BUSBAR
ZONE FEEDER
ZONE

Protection
X Overlap of Protections
No blind spots
Where possible use overlapping CTs

Protection Overlap
BBP BBP
‘1’ ‘2’
H J
‘Z’
G LP LP K L
‘H’ ‘J’
LP LP
‘K’ ‘L’

Protection
X Dependability / Reliability
Protection must operate when required to
Failure to operate can be extremely damaging
and disruptive
Faults are rare. Protection must operate even
after years of inactivity
Improved by use of: Back-up protection and
duplicate protection

Protection
X Security / Stability
Protection must not operate when not required to,
e.g. due to : Load switching
Faults on other parts of the system
Recoverable power swings

Protection
X Phase Discrimination
Correct indication of phases involved in the fault
Important for single phase tripping and auto-
reclosing applications

Cost
The cost of protection is equivalent to an insurance

policy against damage to plant, and loss of supply
and customer goodwill.
Acceptable cost is based on a balance of economics

and technical factors. Cost of protection should be
balanced against the cost of potential hazards.
There is an economic limit on what can be spent.
MINIMUM COST : Must ensure that all faulty

equipment is isolated by
protection.

Cost
TOTAL COST should take account of :
X Relays, schemes and associated panels and

panel wiring
X Setting studies
X Commissioning
X CTs and VTs
X Maintenance and repairs to relays
X Damage repair if protection fails to operate
X Lost revenue if protection operates
unnecessarily

Cost
DISTRIBUTION SYSTEMS
X Large numbers of switching and distribution

points, transformers and feeders
X Economics often overrides technical issues
X Protection may be the minimum consistent
with statutory safety regulations
X Speed less important than on transmission
systems
X Back-up protection can be simple and is often
inherent in the main protection
X Although important, the consequences of
maloperation or failure to operate is less
serious than for transmission systems

Cost
TRANSMISSION SYSTEMS
X Emphasis is on technical considerations rather

than economics
X Economics cannot be ignored but is of
secondary importance compared with the need
for highly reliable, fully discriminative high speed
protection
X Higher protection costs justifiable by high capital
cost of power system elements protected
X Risk of security of supply should be reduced to
lowest practical levels
X High speed protection requires unit protection
X Duplicate protections used to improve reliability
X Single phase tripping and auto-reclose may be
required to maintain system stability
Protection
Current and Voltage Transformers
X These are an essential part of the protection scheme

to reduce primary current and volts to a low level
suitable to input to relay.
X They must be suitably specified to meet the
requirements of the protective relays.
X Correct connection of CTs and VTs to the protection is
important. In particular for directional, distance, phase
comparison and differential protections.
X VTs may be electromagnetic or capacitor types.
X Busbar VTs : Special consideration needed when
used for line protection.

Current Transformer Circuits
X Never open circuit a CT secondary circuit, so :

X Never fuse CT circuits;
X VTs must be fused or protected by MCB.
X Do wire test blocks in circuit (both VT and CT) to
allow commissioning and periodic injection testing of
relays.
X Earth CT and VT circuits at one point only;
Wire gauge > 2.5mm2 recommended for mechanical
strength.

Auxiliary Supplies
Required for : TRIPPING CIRCUIT BREAKERS

CLOSING CIRCUIT BREAKERS
PROTECTION and TRIP RELAYS
AC AUXILIARY SUPPLIES are only used on LV and MV systems.

DC AUXILIARY SUPPLIES are more secure than AC supplies.
SEPARATELY FUSED SUPPLIES used for each protection.
DUPLICATE BATTERIES are occasionally provided for extra
security.
MODERN PROTECTION RELAYS need a continuous auxiliary
supply.
During unoperated (healthy) conditions, they draw a small
‘QUIESCENT’ load to keep relay circuits energised.
During operation, they draw a larger current which increases due to
operation of output elements.

Relay Outputs
TRIP OUTPUT CONTACTS :
X Check that these are rated sufficiently to make and
carry the circuit breaker trip coil current. If not, a
heavier duty tripping relay will be needed.
X Use a circuit breaker normally open (52a) contact to
interrupt trip coil current. This extends the life of the
protection relay trip contacts.
TYPE OF CONTACTS :
Make (M) / Close when energised, typically
Normally Open (NO) used for tripping.
Break (B) / Close when de-energised.

Normally Closed (NC)
Changeover (C/O) Can be break before make (BBM)

or make before break (MBB).

Design and Application of Protective Relay
Equipment
EAI
Field of Activities
Level
AREVA
4 National Control
T&D EMM
WAN
3 Area Control
LAN
2 Substation
AREVA LAN
T&D P&C 1 Bay
Field Bus
Optical
0 transducers Field
CT & VT
3 > Relay design tutorial - Feb 2005 3

Protective Relays
Primary Function
¾ Detection of faults on primary power system plant

Feeders
Transformers
Busbar
Generators
Motors
¾ The relay must identify faults on the protected plant
section and isolate this from power system.
¾ The relay should remain stable for faults, or system
instabilities outside of protected section, unless required
to do so as back-up protection.

Design of Modern Protective
Relaying Equipment
Outline
¾ What technologies have been employed
¾ What are the key elements of modern protective
relays
¾ Design Considerations
¾ Impact on the Design of protection and control
systems

Protective Relays
Technologies Employed (1)
¾ ELECTROMECHANICAL (1950)
These relays typically use attracted armature or
induction disc type elements to implement the
protection functions. The emphasis is on an
electromagnetic force causing mechanical operation
of the relay.
¾ Single Function Devices
¾ Configured by selection and manual settings
¾ Outputs via contact, need for auxiliary relays
¾ Local Indications via Flag

Protective Relays
¾ STATIC (1970)
Static implies that the relay does not have moving
parts to create its characteristic, however the trip
output contacts would generally be of attracted
armature type. Static relays use discrete
electronic components (generally analogue
devices) for creation of the operating
characteristics.
¾ More Compact, higher level of integration
¾ Lower maintenance
¾ Configuration via switches
¾ Indication via LED

Protective Relays
¾ DIGITAL (1980)
Digital relays use microprocessors/micro-controllers
to implement protection elements, rather than relying
on discrete analogue components. Protection
functions are not generally implemented by
mathematical algorithms - the only numerical states
within the relay are high/low logic (logic one or zero).
¾ Internal logic is more flexible using DIP switches
¾ Devices and smaller, less expensive
¾ Use of keypad/LED interfaces on some digital units
¾ Application of scheme not significantly altered

Protective Relays
¾ NUMERICAL (Today)
Numerical technology implies sampling of the relay
inputs, then A/D conversion into number format.
These numbers are then used by mathematical
algorithms which generate the relay operating
characteristics.
Integration of multiple protection and
control functional blocks
High level of flexibility
Each device implements complex sub-
module of complete scheme
Integrated measurement and recording
facilities
Advanced communication facilities

Protective Relay
Key Elements - contextual
Level
4 National Control
WAN
3 Area Control
LAN
2 Substation
LAN
1 Bay
Field Bus
Optical
0 transducers Field
CT & VT

Protective Relay Design
Key Elements - implementation
Power Digital Digital Analogue

Supply Outputs Inputs to Analogue
Digital Inputs
(Relays) (Optos) Conversion
Interconnection Bus
User Interface
Signal Processing Communications (HMI)

- A Modular Approach

Digital Inputs
Interconnection Bus
User Interface

Analogue Inputs
Filter Multiplexer
Isolation
V
Sample ADC
1011011...
Requires accurate measurements

Calibrate for Magnitude and phase error
Dynamic range (Fault and load conditions)
Tranducers
Digital conversion
Sample rate - protection elements and recording

Analogue Input Limiting
+Vref
Vref
Vout
V Vref
in
-Vref
Input signal must not exceed electronic circuitry operating voltage

Input Signal Problem - Scew Correction
Multiplexer
Inputs sampled sequentially

Most widely used (cheaper - only 1 A-D required)
Scew correction?

A-D Conversion 1
Analogue N-bit Digital

sample A/D
magnitude number
converter
for 12-bit A/D :-
212 = 4096 digital number values possible

A-D Conversion 2
Example ± 10V, 12-bit A/D
+10V xn = 5 x 4096
5V
(10 + 10)
0
= 1024
-10V
5V 1024 0100 0000 0000
-5V -1024 1100 0000 0000
Sign bit

Input Signal Problem - Conversion Errors
10110111...
Dynamic Range, Quantisation Effects
12 bit ADC equivalent to 4096 numbers

For dynamic range of 64 In
Resolution = 30mA (In = 1A)
For 16bit, resolution = 2mA

Signal Distortion - Aliasing
Sampling element
Apparent Signal
Actual Signal
Sample Points
Sampled waveform appears to be a lower frequency

This phenomena is known as ALIASING
Eliminate aliasing using a low pass filter
Input Signal Problem - CT Saturation
Ip
Φsat
Average flux
Is
Saturation of the CT magnetic core causes :-

Current waveform distortion
Harmonics

Input Signal Problem - CT Saturation
Solution
To ensure correct relay operation when

waveform is distorted:
Eliminate aliasing - (low pass filter)

Extract fundamental component - (Fourier filter)

Non-conventional Instrument Transformers
¾ Use of alternative
technologies to measure
voltage and current
¾ Improved linearity
¾ Interface unit to convert to
sampled data
¾ Fixed sample rate
¾ Interface is via digital link
Electrical - RS485
Fibre - Ethernet
¾ Example shows non-
conventional CT

Digital Inputs
Interconnection Bus
User Interface

Digital Outputs
Miniature relays
8-bit
data
Verify

Digital Inputs
Interconnection Bus
User Interface

Digital Inputs
Considerations
¾ Wetting currents
¾ Burden
¾ Isolation
¾ How many ?
¾ How fast ?
¾ Thermal dissipation
¾ Safety
¾ Operation for different voltage levels

Digital Inputs
Operation
External Trigger
+ +5V
Input state
(Block Operation ?)
Station
battery
0V
Strobe
Mono-stable
-- 0V
Opto isolation


Digital Inputs
Interconnection Bus
User Interface

User Interface Front panel
Fixed function
LEDs Alarm viewer
Menu browser
Programmable
LEDs
Battery
back-up Download/
Monitor port
Local
communications
MiCOM_29

Integrated Protection and Bay Control


Digital Inputs
Interconnection Bus
User Interface

Communications
Standards z Modbus
z DNP3.0
Protocols
z IEC60870-5-103
Media z UCA2
z IEC61850
RS485/Fibre/Ethernet

- computing

Digital Inputs
Interconnection Bus
User Interface
Software

Computing Unit - Hardware
¾ Microprocessors:
Microcontroller
Digital Signal Processor
¾ Memory
RAM
FLASH EPROM
NV RAM
¾ Real-time Clock
¾ User Interface
¾ Communication Interfaces

Computing Unit - Software
z Software
– Acquisition
Application – Filters
Software – Algorithms
– Scheme logic
Operating Communications
– Communications
Platform – Event logging
BIOS – Recording
– HMI
Hardware – RTOS

Software Design(1)
¾ Multi-tasking operating system

Threads of execution
¾ Task priorities
¾ Interrupts for time critical information
¾ Polling for other data
¾ Deterministic operation of protection functions
¾ Use of structured design
¾ Aim for re-usable code modules

Software Design (2)
Signal Processing
¾ Accurate operation of measurement imperative

¾ Most relays operate on power system fundamental
quantities
¾ Possible causes of interference
DC Offset
CT Saturation
Primary distortions (DC conversion, series capacitors,
standing wave oscillation, noisy loads)
Capacitor voltage transformer transients
¾ Balance of requirements
Speed / Stability

Protective Relaying Equipment
Other considerations
¾ Design for manufacture
¾ Field maintenance and diagnostics
¾ Performance requirements
IEC 60255
. . .
¾ Mandatory requirements
CE marking
z LVD
z EMC
¾ Changes to Legislation
Environmental (WEEE Directive)
Safety issues (Company liability)

Numerical Relays
Physical Structure

Testing of Numerical Relays
¾ Algorithm simulation
¾ Module testing
¾ Integration testing
¾ Environmental testing
¾ Automated testing
¾ System simulation tests
RTDS shown
¾ Complex functionality
requires extensive testing
¾ Software modifications
require regression tests

External Influences on Relay design
¾ Global Products
Language issues
Local practices
¾ Customer changes
Privatisation
Loss of skills
¾ Environmental Issues
¾ Technology
Component obsolescence
¾ Competition

Modern numeric protection
additional features
Bay Monitoring
& Control
Programmability
& Customisation
Comprehensive
Protection
Instrumentation
Self Diagnostics
& Commissioning
Tools Fault
Analysis Tools
Communications

Instrumentation
¾ Instantaneous measurements (fundamental)

Phase and line voltages and currents
Sequence Quantities
¾ RMS measurements
¾ Frequency
¾ Thermal state
¾ Single and three phase power
¾ Active, reactive and apparent power
¾ Peak, average and rolling demand
¾ RTD (Resistive Temperature Device)
¾ Check sync values (angle and slip frequency)
¾ Hardware - dynamic range CT/VT requirements
MiCOM40-43

Disturbance Records
zAnalogue and digital channels

zHigh resolution recording
MiCOM40-44B zPermits post-fault analysis
Event Recording

Customisation :
Programmable Scheme Logic
Relay
Optos contacts
Gate
Logic
&
Protection
Elements 1
&
Control Timers
Fixed LEDs
scheme
logic User programmable scheme
logic

Self Diagnostics & Commissioning
¾Self diagnostics ¾ Commissioning features

Power-on diagnostics available to user
Continuous self-monitoring Input states
Output states
Condition based
maintenance for plant Internal logic status
Measurements
MiCOM_47

Application of Electromechanical Relays
¾ Relay selected to form complete protection scheme
¾ Each function is contained within a separate unit
¾ Control logic is implemented by hardwiring protection
relays with auxiliary relays
¾ Limited Information is available locally

Substation based on Electromechanical Relays

Scheme design using static/digital relays
¾ As devices remain single function relays are combined

using hardwired logic.
¾ Specific logic functions can be implemented within a
device-with some customisation options
¾ Use of early Substation control systems to gather
information - inputs taken from output contacts
¾ Measurement and recording facilities available within
separate units - transfer of measured data using
analogue interface

Numerical Relays - Impact on Scheme Design
¾ Integration of a suite of protection and control functions

¾ Each product replaces several discrete relays
¾ Requirement for flexibility as to how these functions are
combined (previously controlled by external wiring)
¾ Allocation of functions to physical inputs/outputs
¾ Interface into sub-station control system (SCADA)
Hardwired link
Use of communications
¾ Management of information

Scheme Implementation using
Programmable Logic
Physical Protection Physical

Inputs Function Outputs
Protection Programmable
Function Logic Local
Indications
Control
Control Function
System
Inputs
Indications
Scheme Subsystem

Programming the Relay

Application of P&C Schemes
¾ Integration of Scheme sub-modules within each device

¾ Use of programmable logic to implement scheme
¾ Scheme defined by:
Hardwired connections
Relay selection and configuration
Programmable logic
¾ Bay-control functions
May be within Bay computer
Peer-peer communications available within new protocols
¾ IEDs (Relays, Measurement devices, RTU) collect data
¾ Data management to provide upstream information

Ethernet Based Sub-station
Master clock
(GPS)
WEB access
SCADA Interface
DNP3 & IEC 60870-5-101
Hubs
HV FEEDER
Fast Ethernet
BAY
Hubs UCA2-IEC 61850 Hubs
HV FEEDER
BAY Hubs
I/Os
I/Os
COMMON BAY MV FEEDER
BAYS
TRANSFORMER
Cubicle/Switchboard
EXISTING
BAY integration MV FEEDER
BAYS
55
Protection Scheme using Numeric Products

Numerical Relays - what are the benefits ?
¾ Additional features found in numerical relays

Multiple functions in same relay
Scheme logic
Intelligent Communications
Fault recording
Re-configurable inputs and outputs
Programmable logic
¾ Flexibility
Soft-configured for application
Common hardware
¾ Cost-Effective
¾ Reliability, repeatability, ….

Fault Analysis
Power System Fault Analysis (1)
All Protection Engineers should have an understanding

TO :-
z Calculate Power System Currents and Voltages during Fault
Conditions
z Check that Breaking Capacity of Switchgear is Not
Exceeded
z Determine the Quantities which can be used by Relays to
Distinguish Between Healthy (i.e. Loaded) and Fault
Conditions
z Appreciate the Effect of the Method of Earthing on the
Detection of Earth Faults
z Select the Best Relay Characteristics for Fault Detection
z Ensure that Load and Short Circuit Ratings of Plant are Not
Exceeded
z Select Relay Settings for Fault Detection and Discrimination
z Understand Principles of Relay Operation
z Conduct Post Fault Analysis
3 > Fault Analysis – January 2004 3
Power System Fault Analysis (2)
Power System Fault Analysis also used to :-
X Consider Stability Conditions

Required fault clearance times
Need for 1 phase or 3 phase auto-reclose

Vectors
Vector notation can be used to represent phase

relationship between electrical quantities.
Z
V I
V = Vsinwt = V ∠0°
θ
I = I ∠-θ° = Isin(wt-θ)

j Operator
Rotates vectors by 90° anticlockwise :
j = 1 ∠90°
90° 90°
j2 = 1 ∠180° 1
= -1
90° 90°
j3 = 1 ∠270°
= -j
Used to express vectors in terms of “real” and

“imaginary” parts.

a = 1 ∠120 °
Rotates vectors by 120° anticlockwise

Used extensively in “Symmetrical Component Analysis”
1 3
a = 1∠120° = - + j
2 2
120°
120° 1
120°
1 3
a = 1∠240° = − − j
2
2 2
a = 1 ∠120 °
Balanced 3Ø voltages :-
VC = aVA
a2 + a + 1 = 0 VA
VB = a2VA

Balanced Faults

Balanced (3Ø) Faults (1)
X RARE :- Majority of Faults are Unbalanced

X CAUSES :-
1. System Energisation with Maintenance Earthing
Clamps still connected.
2. 1Ø Faults developing into 3Ø Faults
X 3Ø FAULTS MAY BE REPRESENTED BY 1Ø CIRCUIT

Valid because system is maintained in a BALANCED state
during the fault
Voltages equal and 120° apart
Currents equal and 120° apart
Power System Plant Symmetrical
Phase Impedances Equal
Mutual Impedances Equal
Shunt Admittances Equal

GENERATOR TRANSFORMER
LINE ‘X’ LINE ‘Y’
LOADS
3Ø FAULT
Ea ZG ZT ZLX IaF ZLY
Eb IbF
Ec IcF
ZLOAD

IcF
Ea
IaF
Ec Eb
IbF
Positive Sequence (Single Phase) Circuit :-

Ea
ZG1 ZT1 ZLX1 F1 ZLX2
Ia1 = IaF ZLOAD

N1

Representation of Plant

Generator Short Circuit Current
The AC Symmetrical component of the short circuit current varies with time
due to effect of armature reaction.
i
TIME
Magnitude (RMS) of current at any time t after instant of short circuit :
Ι ac = (Ι" - Ι' )e- t/Td" + (Ι' - Ι )e- t/Td' + Ι

where :
I" = Initial Symmetrical S/C Current or Subtransient Current
= E/Xd" ≈ 50ms
I' = Symmetrical Current a Few Cycles Later ≈ 0.5s or
Transient Current = E/Xd'
I = Symmetrical Steady State Current = E/Xd

Simple Generator Models
Generator model X will vary with time. Xd" - Xd' - Xd

Parallel Generators
11kV 11kV
XG=0.2pu 11kV
j0.05 j0.1
20MVA
XG=0.2pu
20MVA
If both generator EMF’s are equal ∴ they can be thought of as

resulting from the same ideal source - thus the circuit can be
simplified.

P.U. Diagram
j0.05 j0.1 j0.05 j0.1
j0.2 j0.2 j0.2 j0.2
IF
⇒ IF
1.0 1.0 1.0

Positive Sequence Impedances of Transformers
2 Winding Transformers
P S ZP = Primary Leakage Reactance

ZS = Secondary Leakage
Reactance
ZM = Magnetising impedance
P1 ZP ZS S1 = Large compared with ZP
and ZS
ZM ZM Æ Infinity ∴ Represented by
an Open Circuit
N1 ZT1 = ZP + ZS = Positive
Sequence Impedance
P1 ZT1 = ZP + ZS S1
ZP and ZS
both expressed
on same voltage
N1 base.

Motors
X Fault current contribution decays with time

X Decay rate of the current depends on the system.
From tests, typical decay rate is 100 - 150mS.
X Typically modelled as a voltage behind an
impedance
Xd"
M 1.0

Induction Motors – IEEE Recommendations
Small Motors
Motor load <35kW neglect
Motor load >35kW SCM = 4 x sum of FLCM
Large Motors
SCM ≈ motor full load amps
Xd"
Approximation : SCM = locked rotor amps

SCM = 5 x FLCM ≈ assumes motor
impedance 20%

Synchronous Motors – IEEE Recommendations
Large Synchronous Motors
SCM ≈ 6.7 x FLCM for Assumes X"d = 15%

1200 rpm
≈ 5 x FLCM for Assumes X"d = 20%

514 - 900 rpm
≈ 3.6 x FLCM for Assumes X"d = 28%

450 rpm or less

Analysis of Balanced Faults

Different Voltages – How Do We Analyse?
11kV 11/132kV 132/33kV

20mVA 50mVA 50mVA
O/H Line Feeder
ZG=0.3pu ZL=40Ω ZL=8Ω

ZT=10% ZT=10%

Per Unit System
Used to simplify calculations on systems with more

than 2 voltages.
Definition
: P.U. Value = Actual Value

of a Quantity Base Value in the Same Units

Base Quantities and Per Unit Values
11 kV 11/132 kV 132/33 kV
20 MVA 50 MVA 50 MVA
O/H LINE FEEDER
ZG = 0.3 p.u. ZL = 40Ω ZL = 8Ω

ZT = 10% ZT = 10%
X Particularly useful when analysing large systems with

several voltage levels
X All system parameters referred to common base quantities
X Base quantities fixed in one part of system
X Base quantities at other parts at different voltage levels
depend on ratio of intervening transformers

Base Quantities and Per Unit Values (1)
Base quantites normally used :-
BASE MVA = MVAb = 3∅ MVA

Constant at all voltage levels
Value ~ MVA rating of largest item
of plant or 100MVA
BASE VOLTAGE = KVb = ∅/∅ voltage in kV
Fixed in one part of system

This value is referred through
transformers to obtain base
voltages on other parts of system.
Base voltages on each side of
transformer are in same ratio as
voltage ratio.

Other base quantites :-
(kVb )2
Base Impedance = Zb = in Ohms
MVAb
MVAb
Base Current = Ιb = in kA
3 . kVb

Per Unit Values = Actual Value

Base Value
MVA a
Per Unit MVA = MVAp.u. =
MVAb
KVa
Per Unit Voltage = kVp.u. =
KVb
Za MVAb
Per Unit Impedance = Zp.u. = = Za .
Zb (kVb )2
Ιa
Per Unit Current = Ιp.u. =
Ιb

Referring Impedances
X1 R2 X2
R1
N : 1
Ideal
Transformer
Consider the equivalent CCT referred to :-

Primary Secondary
N2R2 X1 + N2X2 X1/N2 + X2
R1 + R1/N2 + R2

Transformer Percentage Impedance
X If ZT = 5%
with Secondary S/C
5% V (RATED) produces I (RATED) in Secondary.
∴ V (RATED) produces 100 x I (RATED)
5
= 20 x I (RATED)
X If Source Impedance ZS = 0
Fault current = 20 x I (RATED)
Fault Power = 20 x kVA (RATED)
X ZT is based on I (RATED) & V (RATED)

i.e. Based on MVA (RATED) & kV (RATED)
∴ is same value viewed from either side of transformer.

Example (1)
Per unit impedance of transformer is same on each side of

the transformer.
Consider transformer of ratio kV1 / kV2
1 2
MVA
kVb / kV1 kVb / kV2
Actual impedance of transformer viewed from side 1 = Za1
Actual impedance of transformer viewed from side 2 = Za2

Example (2)
Base voltage on each side of a transformer must be in the

same ratio as voltage ratio of transformer.
11.8kV 11.8/141kV 132/11kV
OHL Distribution
System
Incorrect selection
of kVb 11.8kV 132kV 11kV
Correct selection 132x11.8 132kV 11kV

of kVb 141
= 11.05kV
Alternative correct 11.8kV 141kV 141x11 = 11.75kV

selection of kVb 132

Conversion of Per Unit Values from One Set of
Quantities to Another
Z p.u.1 Z p.u. 2 Za
Zp.u.1 =
Zb1
Za Z
Zp.u.2 = = Zp.u.1 x b1
Zb2 Zb2
Zb1 Zb2
MVAb1 (kVb1)2 MVAb2
= Zp.u.1 x x
MVAb2 MVAb1 (kVb2 )2
kVb1 kVb2 MVAb2 (kVb1)2
= Zp.u.1 x x
MVAb1 (kVb2 )2
Actual Z = Za

Example
11 kV 11/132 kV 132/33 kV
20 MVA 50 MVA 50 MVA
0.3p.u. 10% 40Ω 10% 8Ω

3∅
11 132 FAULT
kVb 33
MVAb 50 50 50
Zb 2.42Ω 349 Ω 21.8 Ω
= kVb2
MVAb ∴ I11 kV = 0.698 x Ib =
Ib 2625 A 219 A 874 A 0.698 x 2625 = 1833A
= MVAb
I132 kV = 0.698 x 219 = 153A
√3kV b
I33 kV = 0.698 x 874 = 610A
Zp.u. 0.3 x 50 40 = 0.115 8 = 0.367
20 0.1p.u. 349
p.u. 0.1
p.u. 21.8 p.u.
= 0.75p.u.
1.432p.u.
V 1p.u. IF = 1 = 0.698p.u.
1.432

Fault Types
Line - Ground (65 - 70%)
Line - Line - Ground (10 - 20%)
Line - Line (10 - 15%)
Line - Line - Line (5%)
Statistics published in 1967 CEGB Report, but are

similar today all over the world.

Unbalanced Faults

Unbalanced Faults (1)
In three phase fault calculations, a single

phase representation is adopted.
3 phase faults are rare.
Majority of faults are unbalanced faults.
UNBALANCED FAULTS may be classified into
SHUNT FAULTS and SERIES FAULTS.
SHUNT FAULTS:
Line to Ground
Line to Line
Line to Line to Ground
SERIES FAULTS:
Single Phase Open Circuit
Double Phase Open Circuit

LINE TO GROUND
LINE TO LINE
LINE TO LINE TO GROUND
Causes :
1) Insulation Breakdown
2) Lightning Discharges and other Overvoltages
3) Mechanical Damage

OPEN CIRCUIT OR SERIES FAULTS
Causes :
1) Broken Conductor
2) Operation of Fuses
3) Maloperation of Single Phase Circuit Breakers
DURING UNBALANCED FAULTS, SYMMETRY OF SYSTEM

IS LOST
∴ SINGLE PHASE REPRESENTATION IS NO LONGER VALID

Analysed using :-
X Symmetrical Components
X Equivalent Sequence Networks of Power
System
X Connection of Sequence Networks
appropriate to Type of Fault

Symmetrical Components

Fortescue discovered a property of unbalanced phasors

‘n’ phasors may be resolved into :-
X (n-1) sets of balanced n-phase systems of phasors, each
set having a different phase sequence
plus
X 1 set of zero phase sequence or unidirectional phasors
VA = VA1 + VA2 + VA3 + VA4 - - - - - VA(n-1) + VAn

VB = VB1 + VB2 + VB3 + VB4 - - - - - VB(n-1) + VBn
VC = VC1 + VC2 + VC3 + VC4 - - - - - VC(n-1) + VCn
VD = VD1 + VD2 + VD3 + VD4 - - - - - VD(n-1) + VDn
------------------------------------------
Vn = Vn1 + Vn2 + Vn3 + Vn4 - - - - - Vn(n-1) + Vnn
(n-1) x Balanced 1 x Zero

Sequence

Unbalanced 3-Phase System
VA = VA1 + VA2 + VA0

VB = VB1 + VB2 + VB0
VC = VC1 + VC2 + VC0
VA1 VA2
120° 240°
VC1 VB1 VB2 VC2
Positive Sequence Negative Sequence

Unbalanced 3-Phase System
VA0
VB0
VC0
Zero Sequence

Phase ≡ Positive + Negative + Zero

VA

VB = VB1 + VB2 + VB0
VC = VC1 + VC2 + VC0
VC
VA1 VB
VA2 VA0VB0
+ VC0
+ VC2
VC1
VB1 VB2
VB1 = a2VA1 VB2 = a VA2 VB0 = VA0

VC1 = a VA1 VC2 = a2VA2 VC0 = VA0
Converting from Sequence Components to
Phase Values
VB = VB1 + VB2 + VB0 = a2VA1 + a VA2 + VA0
VC = VC1 + VC2 + VC0 = a VA1 + a2VA2 + VA0
VA0
VA
VA2
VA1
VC
VC0
VC1
VC2 VB
VB1 VB0
VB2
Converting from Phase Values to
Sequence Components
VA1 = 1/3 {VA + a VB + a2VC}
VA2 = 1/3 {VA + a2VB + a VC}
VA0 = 1/3 {VA + VB + VC}
VA
VB
3VA0
VC
VA0

Summary
VB = ∝2VA1 + ∝VA2 + VA0
VC = ∝VA1 + ∝2VA2 + VA0
IA = IA1 + IA2 + IA0

IB = ∝2IA1 + ∝IA2 + IA0
IC = ∝IA1 + ∝2IA2 + IA0
VA1 = 1/3 {VA + ∝VB + ∝2VC}

VA2 = 1/3 {VA + ∝2VB + ∝VC }
VA0 = 1/3 {VA + VB + VC }
IA1 = 1/3 {IA + ∝IB + ∝2IC }

IA2 = 1/3 {IA + ∝2IB + ∝IC }
IA0 + 1/3 {IA + IB + IC }

Residual Current
Used to detect earth faults
IA
IB
IC
IRESIDUAL = IA + IB + IC
= 3I0
E/F
IRESIDUAL is Balanced Load IRESIDUAL is ∅/E Faults

zero for :- 3∅ Faults present for :- ∅/Ø/E Faults
Ø/∅ Faults Open circuits (with
current in remaining phases)

Residual Voltage
Used to detect earth faults
Residual voltage is measured

from “Open Delta” or “Broken
Delta” VT secondary windings.
VRESIDUAL is zero for:-
Healthy unfaulted systems
3∅ Faults
∅/∅ Faults
VRESIDUAL is present for:-
VRESIDUAL = ∅/E Faults
VA + VB + VC ∅/∅/E Faults
Open Circuits (on supply
= 3V0 side of VT)

Example
Evaluate the positive, negative and zero sequence

components for the unbalanced phase vectors :
VC
VA = 1 ∠0°
VB = 1.5 ∠-90°
VA
VC = 0.5 ∠120°
VB
Solution
VA1 = 1/3 (VA + aVB + a2VC)

= 1/3 [ 1 + (1 ∠120) (1.5 ∠-90)
+ (1 ∠240) (0.5 ∠120) ]
= 0.965 ∠15
VA2 = 1/3 (VA + a2VB + aVC)

= 1/3 [ 1 + (1 ∠240) (1.5 ∠-90)
+ (1 ∠120) (0.5 ∠120) ]
= 0.211 ∠150
VA0 = 1/3 (VA + VB + VC)

= 1/3 (1 + 1.5 ∠-90 + 0.5 ∠120)
= 0.434 ∠-55

Positive Sequence Voltages
VC1 = aVA1
VA1 = 0.965∠15º
15º
VB1 = a2VA1
VA2 = 0.211∠150° VC2 = a2VA2 -55º
150º
VA0 = 0.434∠-55º
VB0 = -
VC0 = -
VB2 = aVA2
Zero Sequence
Voltages
Negative Sequence
Voltages

VC2
VC1 VC0
VC
VA2
VC2
VA2 VA1
VA0
VA
VB2 V0
VB1
VB2
VB0 VB

Example
Evaluate the phase quantities Ia, Ib and Ic from the sequence

components
IA1 = 0.6 ∠0
IA2 = -0.4 ∠0
IA0 = -0.2 ∠0
Solution
IA = IA1 + IA2 + IA0 = 0
IB = ∝2IA1 + ∝IA1 + IA0

= 0.6∠240 - 0.4∠120 - 0.2∠0 = 0.91∠-109
IC = ∝IA1 + ∝2IA2 + IA0

= 0.6∠120 - 0.4∠240 - 0.2∠0 = 0.91∠-109

Representation of Plant
Cont…

Transformer Zero Sequence Impedance
P Q
ZT0
a a
P Q
b b
N0

General Zero Sequence Equivalent Circuit for
Two Winding Transformer
Primary Z T0 Secondary
Terminal 'a' 'a' Terminal
'b' 'b'
N0
On appropriate side of transformer :
Earthed Star Winding - Close link ‘a’

Open link ‘b’
Delta Winding - Open link ‘a’

Close link ‘b’
Unearthed Star Winding - Both links open

Zero Sequence Equivalent Circuits (1)
P S
P0 ZT0 S0
a a
b b
N0

P S
P0 ZT0
a a S0
b b
N0

P S
P0 ZT0
a a S0
b b
N0

P S
P0 ZT0
a a S0
b b
N0

Sequence Networks

Sequence Networks (1)
It can be shown that providing the system

impedances are balanced from the points of
generation right up to the fault, each
sequence current causes voltage drop of its
own sequence only.
Regard each current flowing within own

network thro’ impedances of its own
sequence only, with no interconnection
between the sequence networks right up to
the point of fault.

Sequence Networks (2)
X +ve, -ve and zero sequence networks are drawn for a

‘reference’ phase. This is usually taken as the ‘A’
phase.
X Faults are selected to be ‘balanced’ relative to the

reference ‘A’ phase.
e.g. For Ø/E faults consider an A-E fault

For Ø/Ø faults consider a B-C fault
X Sequence network interconnection is the simplest for

the reference phase.

Positive Sequence Diagram
E1
N1 Z1 F1
1. Start with neutral point N1

- All generator and load neutrals are
connected to N1
2. Include all source EMF’s
- Phase-neutral voltage
3. Impedance network
- Positive sequence impedance per phase
4. Diagram finishes at fault point F1

Example
Generator Transformer
Line F
N
E
E1 ZT1 ZL1
N1 ZG1 I1 F1
V1
(N1)
V1 = Positive sequence PH-N voltage at fault point
I1 = Positive sequence phase current flowing into F1

V1 = E1 - I1 (ZG1 + ZT1 + ZL1)

Negative Sequence Diagram
N2 Z2 F2
1. Start with neutral point N2

- All generator and load neutrals are connected
to N2
2. No EMF’s included
- No negative sequence voltage is generated!
3. Impedance network
- Negative sequence impedance per phase
4. Diagram finishes at fault point F2

Example
Line F
N
R
System Single Line
Diagram
E
N2 ZG2 ZT2 ZL2 I2 F2
V2
Negative Sequence Diagram (N2)
V2 = Negative sequence PH-N voltage at fault point
I2 = Negative sequence phase current flowing into F2

V2 = -I2 (ZG2 + ZT2 + ZL2)

Zero Sequence Diagram (1)
For “In Phase” (Zero Phase Sequence) currents to flow in

each phase of the system, there must be a fourth
connection (this is typically the neutral or earth
connection).
N IA0
IB0
IC0
IA0 + IB0 + IC0 = 3IA0

Resistance Earthed System :-
3ΙA0
Zero sequence voltage between N & E given by

R V0 = 3IA0.R
Zero sequence impedance of neutral to earth path
E
Z0 = V0 = 3R
IA0

Line F
N
RT
R
System Single Line Diagram
E
N0 ZG0 ZT0 ZL0 I0 F0
3R 3RT V0
E0 (N0)
Zero Sequence Network
V0 = Zero sequence PH-E voltage at fault point
I0 = Zero sequence current flowing into F0

V0 = -I0 (ZT0 + ZL0)

Network Connections

Interconnection of Sequence Networks (1)
Consider sequence networks as blocks with fault

terminals F & N for external connections.
F1
POSITIVE
SEQUENCE
NETWORK
N1
I2
F2
NEGATIVE
SEQUENCE V2
NETWORK
N2
I0
F0
ZERO
SEQUENCE V0
NETWORK
N0

Interconnection of Sequence Networks (2)
For any given fault there are 6 quantities to be considered at the fault
point
i.e. VA VB VC IA IB IC
Relationships between these for any type of fault can be converted

into an equivalent relationship between sequence components
V1, V2, V0 and I1, I2 , I0
This is possible if :-
1) Any 3 phase quantities are known (provided they are not all
voltages or all currents)
or 2) 2 are known and 2 others are known to have a specific
relationship.
From the relationship between sequence V’s and I’s, the manner in
which the isolation sequence networks are connected can be
determined.
The connection of the sequence networks provides a single phase

representation (in sequence terms) of the fault.

To derive the system constraints at the fault terminals :-
F
IA IB IC
VA VB VC
Terminals are connected to represent the fault.

Line to Ground Fault on Phase ‘A’
IA IB IC
At fault point :-
VA = 0
VA VB VC VB = ?
VC = ?
IA = ?
IB = 0
IC = 0

Phase to Earth Fault on Phase ‘A’
At fault point
VA = 0 ; IB = 0 ; IC = 0
but VA = V1 + V2 + V0
∴ V1 + V2 + V0 = 0 ------------------------- (1)
I0 = 1/3 (IA + IB + IC ) = 1/3 IA
I1 = 1/3 (IA + aIB + a2IC) = 1/3 IA
I2 = 1/3 (IA + a2IB + aIC) = 1/3 IA
∴ I1 = I2 = I0 = 1/3 IA ------------------------- (2)
To comply with (1) & (2) the sequence networks must be connected in series :-
I1 F1
+ve
Seq
N/W V1
N1 I2
-ve F2
Seq V2
N/W
I0
N2
Zero F0
Seq V0
N/W
N0
Example : Phase to Earth Fault
SOURCE LINE F
A-G
132 kV ZL1 = 10Ω FAULT
2000 MVA ZL0 = 35Ω IF
ZS1 = 8.7Ω
ZS0 = 8.7Ω
8.7 10 I1 F1
N1
8.7 10 I2 F2
N2
8.7 35 I0 F0
N0
Total impedance = 81.1Ω
I1 = I2 = I0 = 132000 = 940 Amps

√3 x 81.1
IF = IA = I1 + I2 + I0 = 3I0
= 2820 Amps
Earth Fault with Fault Resistance
I1 F1
POSITIVE
SEQUENCE
NETWORK V1
N1
I2 F2
NEGATIVE
SEQUENCE V2 3ZF
NETWORK
N2
I0 F0
ZERO
SEQUENCE V0
NETWORK
N0

Phase to Phase Fault:- B-C Phase
I1 I2 I0
F1 F2 F0
+ve -ve Zero
Seq V1 Seq V2 Seq V0
N/W N/W N/W
N1 N2 N0

Example : Phase to Phase Fault
SOURCE LINE F
B-C
132 kV ZL1 = ZL2 = 10Ω FAULT
2000 MVA
ZS1 = ZS2 = 8.7Ω
132000
√3 8.7 I1
10 F1
N1
8.7 10 I2 F2
N2
Total impedance = 37.4Ω IB = a2I1 + aI2

I1 = 132000 = 2037 Amps = a2I1 - aI1
√3 x 37.4 = (a2 - a) I1
I2 = -2037 Amps = (-j) . √3 x 2037
= 3529 Amps.
Phase to Phase Fault with Resistance
ZF
I1 I2
+ve F1 -ve F2
Seq V1 Seq V2
N/W N/W
N1 N2
I0
Zero F0
Seq V0
N/W
N0

Phase to Phase to Earth Fault:- B-C-E
I1 I2 I0
+ve F1 -ve F2 Zero F0
Seq V1 Seq V2 Seq
N/W N/W V0
N/W
N1 N2 N0

Phase to Phase to Earth Fault:-
B-C-E with Resistance
3ZF
I1 I2 I0
+ve F1 -ve F2 Zero F0
Seq V1 Seq V2 Seq V0
N/W N/W N/W
N1 N2 N0

Maximum Fault Level
Single Phase Fault Level :
X Can be higher than 3Φ fault level on solidly-

earthed systems
Check that switchgear breaking capacity > maximum

fault level for all fault types.

3Ø Versus 1Ø Fault Level (1)
E XT
Xg
3Ø
Xg XT
E E
ΙF = ≡
Xg + XT Z1
Z1
E IF

1Ø Xg XT
E Z1
Xg2 XT2
3E
ΙF =
Z2 = Z1 IF 2Z1 + Z0
Xg0 XT0
Z0

E 3E 3E
3∅FAULTLEVEL = = =
Z1 3Z1 2Z1 + Z1
3E
1∅FAULTLEVEL =
2Z1 + Z0
∴ IF Z0 < Z1
1∅FAULTLEVEL > 3∅FAULTLEVEL

System Earthing
System Earthing
Earth faults :- 70 Æ 90% of all faults.
EA
IF
System Earthing
Earthing method determines :-
z Fault current IF
z Damage caused
z Steady state overvoltages
z Transient overvoltages
z Insulation requirements
z Quantities available to detect faults
z Type of Protection
Earthing Method
Solid / Low Z High Z
IF High Low
Overvoltages in Low High
Sound Phases
Damage High Low
Cost of Insulation Low High
Low Voltage Systems For Safety
Medium Voltage Systems To limit current
cost of insulation
acceptable
High Voltage & To limit cost
EHV Systems of insulation
Methods of Earthing In Common Use
z Solid or Direct Earthing

z Resistance Earthing
z Reactance Earthing
z Resonant or Petersen Coil Earthing
z Insulated Earth
System Earthing
Solid
Lowest System Z0
IF High
- Damage
- Easy E/F Protn.
No Arcing Grounds IF >> ICHARGE
Lowest Overvoltages
System Earthing
Reactance
Lower IF
Higher Transient Overvoltages
Cheaper than resistance at high
volts
Overvoltages during E/Fs
0.8 Î 1 x VØ/Ø
Not often used except as tuned
reactor
System Earthing
Petersen Coil
XE ≈ ∑ XCHARGING
Arcing faults self extinguishing
- Good for transient faults
XE needs changing if XC alters
Overvoltages during E/Fs Î VØ/Ø
Insulation important
Tuned Restricts use of auto-transformers
Discriminative E/F protection
difficult
System Earthing
Resistance
Reduced IF
Reduced transient overvoltages
Not self extinguishing but E/F
easier to detect
System Earthing
Unearthed
Insulated
IF Capacitive
Can be self extinguishing if IF
small
Overvoltages during E/Fs = VØ/Ø
Arcing faults likely - high transient
overvoltages
Insulation important
System Earthing
Î 660 V Solid - Safety
Insulated - Special cases where continuity
of supply required
660 V Î 33 kV Resistance or reactance normally used
Solid - When IF is low

Resistance - IF limited to IFL
Reactance - IF(E/F) limited to IF(3Ø)
Petersen - Overhead lines. Lightning
Coil
> 33 kV Solid
Overvoltages more important (insulation)
Directly Coupled Resistance - Most common

Generators Solid and - Not recommended
Reactance (High IF )
System Earthing
Generator - Transformer Units
IF ~ 10 Î 15 A
IF ~ 200 Î 300 A
Low Voltage System Earthing
Safety :-
z Power system neutral solidly earthed at transformer.
z Metallic tools and appliances solidly earthed.
z Sensitive protection by :-
RCD’s :- Residual current devices
ELCB’s :- Earth leakage circuit breakers

Earth Fault Hazard
Unearthed
Appliance
ZF
ZP
ZF = Fault impedance VP
ZE
ZP = Human body impedance
ZE = Environmental impedance
VP = Case / earth potential
Earth Fault Hazard
RCD for High ZF
Unearthed
Appliance
Fuses for
High IF
IF
ZF
Protective Earth Conductor

VH ZP
ZF = Fault impedance VP
ZP = Human body impedance ZE
ZE = Environmental impedance
Without protective earth : -
VP = Case / earth potential
ZP
VH = E∅/N .
ZP + ZF + ZE
Unearthed L.V. Winding
Normal
V Conditions
H.V. L.V.
Breakdown Between HV and LV Windings
3000 / 440 V Transformer
A2
1730V a2
254V
N n
c2 b2
C2 B2
Normal voltage conditions

Neutrals earthed or unearthed
Breakdown Between HV and LV Windings
A2
95V
a2
xH x xL
1730V 254V
n
1009V
850V c2 b2 755V
C2 B2
Voltage conditions with breakdown

between HV and LV at point X on
phase
LV neutral unearthed
Hand to Hand Resistance of Living Body -
50Hz AC (Freiburger 1933)
6000
5000
Resistance - Ohms
4000
Very Dry Skin

3000
2000
1000 Very Moist Skin
0 100 200 300 400 500 600

Volts
Effects of Body Current
1mA Can be felt
> 9mA Cannot let go
15mA Threshold of cramp
30mA Breathing difficult

Rise in blood pressure
50mA Heart misses odd beat
50 → 200mA Heavy shock

Unconsciousness
> 200mA Reversible cardiac arrest

Current marks
Burns
Effects of Various Values of Body Current
Current at 50Hz Duration Physiological effects on humans
to 60Hz r.m.s. of shock
value mA
0-1 not Range up to threshold of perception.

critical Electrocution not felt.
1-15 not Range up to threshold of cramp.

Critical Independent release of hands from object gripped no longer possible. Possibly
powerful and sometimes painful effects on muscles of fingers and arms.
15-30 minutes Cramp-like contraction of arms. Difficulty in breathing. Rise in blood pressure.
Limit of tolerability.
30-50 seconds Heart irregularities. Rise in blood pressure. Powerful cramp-effect. to minutes
Unconsciousness. Ventricular fibrillation if long shock at upper limit of range.
less than No ventricular fibrillation. Heavy shock.

50 to a cardiac cycle
few hundred
above one Ventricular fibrillation. Beginning of electrocution in relation to heart phase not
cardiac cycle important. (Disturbance of stimulus conducting system?) Unconsciousness.
Current marks.
less than Ventricular fibrillation. Beginning of electrocution in relation to heart phase

cardiac cycle Important Initiation of fibrillation only in the sensitive phase.
Above (Direct stimulatory effect on heart muscle?) Unconsciousness. Current marks
few hundred
over one Reversible cardiac arrest. Range of electrical defibrillation. Unconsciousness.
cardiac cycle Current marks. Burns
Body Current / Time and Security
Threshold
of
10,000 Fibrillation
Threshold
of
Threshold Let Go
of
Perception
Time 1,000
(mS)
IEC Security
Curve
100 Let Go
Hold On
10
0.1 1.0 10 100 1000
Current (mA)
Earthing Impedance Affects Touch & Step Potentials
E
!
Touch RF
Step RE True IF
VH VH Earth
Surface
RG
Don’t forget
communications
cables etc.
entering S/S !
IF
IF
RG ' RG
VH = E True Earth
RE + RF + RG ' d
RG' = f(Distance)
Displacement of Neutral from Earth
during an Earth Fault
Z IF
Va
N
Vc Vb Z
ZE
Va
G G
ZE
VGN = ΙF ZE = VaN . N
ZE + Z
Vc Vb
Methods of Neutral Earthing (1)
Aspect Solid Resistance Resistance & High value Low value Tuned Insulated
reactance reactor reactor reactor
Normal Suitable for Suitable for Suitable for phase Suitable for Suitable for If used for Suitable for line
insulation phase voltage phase voltage voltage line voltage for phase voltage operation with voltage for long
continuously continuously continuously long periods continuously one line earthed
for long periods
insulation must
be suitable for
line voltage
Over voltages:
(a) Initiated by Not excessive Not excessive Not excessive provi- Can be very high Not excessive Not excessive if Arcing ground
faults, ding all three phases e.g. neutral no mutual coup- can give very
switching, etc are made or broken inversion ling between zero high voltages
simultaneously & positive seq-
uence networks
(b) Travelling Negative In general, “ Full reflection at Full reflection at Full reflection at Full reflection
waves reflection negative neutral neutral neutral at neutral
reflection at
neutral
Protection:
(a) Automatic No difficulty No difficulty No difficulty, normal Extremely diffi- No difficulty By using special Extremely
segregation normal methods normal methods methods can be cult if more than normal methods technique can be difficult
of faulty zone can be used can be used used one zone can be used done satisfac-
involved torily
(b) Travelling Diverters rated In general, In general, diverters Diverters rated In general, Diverter rated Diverters rated
waves for phase volts diverters rated rated for line volts for line volts are diverters rated for for line volts are for line volts
are suitable for line voltage are essential essential line volts are essential are essential
are essential essential
Methods of Neutral Earthing (2)
Aspect Solid Resistance Resistance & High value Low value Tuned Insulated
reactance reactor reactor reactor
Earth-fault
Current
(a) Value Highest value High value High value Negligible High value Negligible Capacitive if
small may be
self exting-
uished
(b) Duration Few seconds Few seconds Few seconds Long time Few seconds Few seconds or In general long
continuous, time
depending on
method of
application
(c) Effect on Electromagnetic Electromagnetic Electromagnetic Electrostatic Electromagnetic If used for Electrostatic
communica- interference interference interference interference interference may running contin- interference
tion circuits may necessi- depending on depending on necessitate current uously with one
tate current degree of degree of limitation limitation line earthed
limitation limitation requires partic-
ular consideration
Harmonic No limitation Partial limitations Partial limitation of Limits all Appreciably limits Appreciably limits -
currents in of harmonic of harmonic harmonic currents harmonic all harmonic all harmonic
neutral currents currents currents currents currents
Time rating of 30 sec. 30 sec. 30 sec. Continuous 30 sec. 30 sec. or -

neutral apparatus continuous
General remarks Maximum In general use In general use where Confined mainly Cheaper than Best continuity Some applica-
disturbance to a source neutral is to protection of resistor at very of supply. Can tions on short
system not available generator on high voltages be a danger to feeders, in
generator trans- personnel general to be
former unit avoided
Application of Non-Directional Overcurrent
and Earthfault Protection
Non-Directional Overcurrent and Earth
Fault Protection
Overcurrent Protection
Purpose of Protection
z Detect abnormal conditions

z Isolate faulty part of the system
z Speed
z Fast operation to minimise damage and danger
z Discrimination
z Isolate only the faulty section
z Dependability / reliability
z Security / stability
z Cost of protection / against cost of potential hazards
Co-ordination
F1 F2
F3
z Co-ordinate protection so that relay nearest to

fault operates first
z Minimise system disruption due to the fault
Fuses
Fuses
z Simple
z Can provide very fast fault clearance
z <10ms for large current
z Limit fault energy
Arcing Time
Pre Arc Time
Prospective Fault Current
Total t
Operating
Time
Fuses - disadvantages
z Problematic co-ordination
Fuse A Fuse B
z IFA approx 2 x IFB

z Limited sensitivity to earth faults
z Single phasing
z Fixed characteristic
z Need replacing following fault clearance
Tripping Methods
Direct Acting AC Trip
51
Trip Coil
IF
z AC series trip
z common for electromechanical O/C relays
Direct Acting AC Trip
IF'
+
Sensitive
51 Trip
Coil
-
IF
z Capacitor discharge trip

z used with static relays where no secure DC
supply is available
DC Shunt Trip
IF
IF'
51
DC SHUNT
BATTERY TRIP COIL
z Requires secure DC auxiliary

z No trip if DC fails
Principles
z Operating Speed
z Instantaneous
z Time delayed
z Discrimination
z Current setting
z Time setting
z Current and time
z Cost
z Generally cheapest form of protection relay
Instantaneous Relays
B A
50 50
IF2 IF1
z Current settings chosen so that relay closest to

fault operates
z Problem
z Relies on there being a difference in fault level
between the two relay locations
z Cannot discriminate if IF1 = IF2
Definite (Independent) Time Relays
TIME
TOP
IS Applied Current
(Relay Current Setting)
Definite (Independent) Time Relays
51 51
0.9 sec 0.5 sec
z Operating time is independent of current

z Relay closest to fault has shortest operating time
z Problem
z Longest operating time is at the source where
fault level is highest
IDMT
TIME
IS Applied Current
(Relay Current Setting)
z Inverse Definite Minimum Time characteristic

Disc Type O/C Relays
z Current setting via plug bridge

z Time multiplier setting via disc
movement
z Single characteristic
z Consider 2 ph & EF or 3 ph
plus additional EF relay
Static Relay
M CG G
A B C
INST INST No
Ph+
t t In Hz
Vx V
I > Is I > Is
0.1 0.05 0.05

0.1 0 0
0.2 0 Is = 0 Is =
0.4 0 0
Σ x Is Σ x Is
0.4 0 0
0.4 0 0
0.8 0 0
RESET
0 1 1
0 1 1
0 1 1
D
0.025 0.05 0.05
0.05 0.05 LT1
0 x t = x t =
0 0.1 0.1 t
Σ Σ
0 0.2 0.2
0.3 0.3 S1
0 V1
0 0.4 0.4 E1
I
0 1 1
I I
INST = INST =
0 2 2
0 4 4
0 8 8
0 10 Σ x Is 10 Σ x Is
0 ∝ ∝
z Electronic, multi characteristic

z Fine settings, wide range
z Integral instantaneous elements
Numerical Relay
I>1
I>2
Time
I>3
I>4
Current
z Multiple characteristics and stages

z Current settings in primary or secondary
values
z Additional protection elements
Co-ordination
Co-ordination Principle
z Relay closest to fault

must operate first
R1 R2 z Other relays must have
IF1 adequate additional
operating time to
T prevent them operating
z Current setting chosen
to allow FLC
z Consider worst case
conditions, operating
IS2 IS1 Maximum I modes and current
Fault flows
Level
Co-ordination Example
E D C B A
10
E
Operating time (s)
1 D
C
0.1
0.01
Current (A) FLB FLC FLD
IEC Characteristics
1000
100
z SI t = 0.14
Operating Time (s)

(I0.02 -1)
z VI t = 13.5 10
LTI
(I -1)
SI
z EI t = 80 1
(I2 -1) VI
z LTI t = 120 EI
0.1
(I - 1) 1 10 100
Current (Multiples of Is)
Operating Time Setting - Terms Used
z Relay operating times can be 1000

calculated using relay
characteristic charts
100
Operating Time (s)

z Published characteristcs are
drawn against a multiple of
current setting or Plug Setting 10
Multiplier
z Therefore characteristics can be 1
used for any application

regardless of actual relay current
0.1
setting 1 10 100
z e.g at 10x setting (or PSM of 10)
SI curve op time is 3s
Current Setting
z Set just above full load current

z allow 10% tolerance
z Allow relay to reset if fault is cleared by
downstream device
z consider pickup/drop off ratio (reset ratio)
z relay must fully reset with full load current
flowing
z PU/DO for static/numerical = 95%
z PU/DO for EM relay = 90%
z e.g for numerical relay, Is = 1.1 x IFL/0.95

Current Setting
z Current grading
z ensure that if upstream relay has started
downstream relay has also started
R1 R2 IF1
z Set upstream device current setting greater than

downstream relay
e.g. IsR1 = 1.1 x IsR2
Grading Margin
z Operating time difference between two devices to

ensure that downstream device will clear fault before
upstream device trips
z Must include
z breaker opening time
z allowance for errors GRADING
MARGIN
z relay overshoot time
z safety margin
Grading Margin - between relays
R1 R2
z Traditional
z breaker op time - 0.1
z relay overshoot - 0.05
z allow. For errors - 0.15
z safety margin - 0.1
z Total 0.4s
z Calculate using formula
Grading Margin - between relays
z Formula
z t’ = (2Er + Ect) t/100 + tcb + to + ts
z Er = relay timing error
z Ect = CT measurement error
z t = op time of downstream relay
z tcb = CB interupting time
z to = relay overshoot time
z ts = safety margin
z Op time of Downstream Relay t = 0.5s
z 0.375s margin for EM relay, oil CB
z 0.24s margin for static relay, vacuum CB
Grading Margin - relay with fuse
z Grading Margin = 0.4Tf + 0.15s over whole characteristic

z Assume fuse minimum operating time = 0.01s
z Use EI or VI curve to grade with fuse
z Current setting of relay should be 3-4 x rating of fuse to
ensure co-ordination
Grading Margin - relay with upstream fuse
Tf
Tr
I FMAX
z 1.175Tr + 0.1 + 0.1 = 0.6Tf

Allowance for CT CB Safety margin Allowance for fuse
and relay error error (fast)
or
z Tf = 2Tr + 0.33s
Time Multiplier Setting
100
z Used to adjust the operating

time of an inverse
Operating Time (s)

10
characteristic
z Not a time setting but a
multiplier
1
z Calculate TMS to give
desired operating time in
accordance with the grading
margin 0.1
1 10 100
Time Multiplier Setting - Calculation
z Calculate relay operating time required, Treq

z consider grading margin
z fault level
z Calculate op time of inverse characteristic
with TMS = 1, T1
z TMS = Treq /T1

Co-ordination - Procedure
z Calculate required operating current

z Calculate required grading margin
z Calculate required operating time
z Select characteristic
z Calculate required TMS
z Draw characteristic, check grading over whole
curve
Grading curves should be drawn to a common

voltage base to aid comparison
200/5 100/5
I
FMAX
= 1400 Amp
B A
Is = 5 Amp Is = 5 Amp; TMS = 0.05, SI
z Grade relay B with relay A

z Co-ordinate at max fault level seen by both relays =
1400A
z Assume grading margin of 0.4s
200/5 100/5
I
FMAX
= 1400 Amp
B A
z Relay B is set to 200A primary, 5A secondary

z Relay A set to 100A ∴ If (1400A) = PSM of 14
relay A OP time = t = 0.14 x TMS = 0.14 x 0.05 = 0.13
(I0.02 -1) (140.02 -1)
z Relay B Op time = 0.13 + grading margin = 0.13 + 0.4 = 0.53s
z Relay A uses SI curve so relay B should also use SI curve
200/5 100/5
I FMAX
= 1400 Amp
B A
z Relay B Op time = 0.13 + grading margin = 0.13 + 0.4 = 0.53s

z Relay A uses SI curve so relay B should also use SI curve
z Relay B set to 200A ∴ If (1400A) = PSM of 7
relay B OP time TMS = 1 = 0.14 x TMS = 0.14 = 3.52s
(I0.02 -1) (70.02 -1)
z Required TMS = Required Op time = 0.53 = 0.15
Op time TMS=1 3.52
z Set relay B to 200A, TMS = 0.15, SI
LV Protection Co-ordination
11kV
MCGG 4 CB 4
350MVA
2 x 1.5MVA
11kV/433V
5.1%
CTZ61 3 ACB CTZ61 3 (Open)
2
ACB
1 MCCB
1 Relay 1
2 Relay 2 27MVA
3 Relay 3
4 Relay 4 Fuse F K
F Fuse
Load 20MVA
ZA2118B
1000S
100S
TX damage
Fuse
MCCB (cold)
10S
Very
1.0S inverse
Relay 3
Relay 4
0.1S Relay 2
0.01S
0. 1kA 10kA 1000kA
ZA2119
11kV
KCGG 142 4 CB 4
350MVA
2 x 1.5MVA
11kV/433V
5.1%
KCEG 142 3 ACB 3 (Open)
2
ACB
1 MCCB
1 Relay 1
2 Relay 2 27MVA
3 Relay 3
4 Relay 4 Fuse F K
F Fuse
Load 20MVA
ZA2120C
1000S
Long time
inverse
100S
TX damage
Fuse
10S
MCCB (cold)
1.0S
Relay 3
0.1S Relay 2
Relay 4
0.01S
0. 1kA 10kA 1000kA
ZA2121
Blocked OC Schemes
Graded
protection
R3
R2
Block t >
Blocked
IF2 protection
R1 I > Start
IF1
M (Transient backfeed ?)
ZA2135
Delta / Star Transformers
Transformer Protection - 2-1-1 Fault Current
Turns Ratio
z A phase-phase fault on one = √3 :1
side of transformer
produces 2-1-1 distribution
on other side
z Use an overcurrent element
in each phase (cover the 2x Iline
phase)
Idelta 0.866 If3∅
z 2∅ & EF relays can be used
provided fault current > 4x
setting
Turns Ratio
= √3 :1
z Istar = E∅-∅/2Xt = √3 E∅-n/2Xt
z Istar = 0.866 E∅-n/Xt
z Istar = 0.866 If3∅

Iline
z Idelta = Istar/√3 = If3∅ /2
0.866 If3∅
Idelta
z Iline = If3∅
Ø/Ø
51 51
HV LV
z Grade HV relay with

respect to 2-1-1 for
∅-∅ fault
z Not only at max
fault level 86.6%If3∅ If3∅
Use of High Sets
Instantaneous Protection
z Fast clearance of faults

z ensure good operation factor, If >> Is (5 x ?)
z Current setting must be co-ordinated to prevent
overtripping
z Used to provide fast tripping on HV side of transformers
z Used on feeders with Auto Reclose, prevents transient
faults becoming permanent
z AR ensures healthy feeders are re-energised
z Consider operation due to DC offset - transient
overreach
Instantaneous OC on Transformer Feeders
HV2 HV1 LV
z Set HV inst 130% IfLV
z Stable for inrush
HV2
HV1 z No operation for LV fault
TIME
LV
z Fast operation for HV
fault
z Reduces op times
required of upstream
CURRENT
IF(LV) IF(HV) relays
1.3IF(LV)
Earthfault Protection
Earth Fault Protection
z Earth fault current may be limited

z Sensitivity and speed requirements may not be met by
overcurrent relays
z Use dedicated EF protection relays
z Connect to measure residual (zero sequence) current
z Can be set to values less than full load current
z Co-ordinate as for OC elements
z May not be possible to provide co-ordination with
fuses
Earth Fault Relay Connection - 3 Wire System
E/F OC OC OC E/F OC OC
z Combined with OC relays z Economise using 2x OC

relays
Earth Fault Relay Connection - 4 Wire System
E/F OC OC OC E/F OC OC OC
z EF relay setting must be z Independent of neutral

greater than normal current but must use 3 OC
neutral current relays for phase to neutral
faults
Earth Fault Relays Current Setting
z Solid earth
z Resistance earth
z 30% Ifull load
adequate z setting w.r.t earth fault
level
z special considerations
for impedance earthing
- directional?
Sensitive Earth Fault Relays
A
B
C
z Settings down to
0.2% possible
E/F
z Isolated/high
impedance earth networks
z For low settings cannot use residual connection, use
dedicated CT
z Advisable to use core balance CT
z CT ratio related to earth fault current not line current
z Relays tuned to system frequency to reject 3rd
harmonic
Core Balance CT Connections
NO OPERATION OPERATION
z Need to take care with core

balance CT and armoured CABLE GLAND
cables
CABLE
z Sheath acts as earth return BOX
path
z Must account for earth current E/F
path in connections - insulate CABLE GLAND/SHEATH
cable gland EARTH CONNECTION
Application of Directional Overcurrent
and Earthfault Protection
Application of Directional Overcurrent and Earthfault Protection - January 2004

Directional Protection

Need for Directional Control
Generally required if current can flow in both directions

through a relay location
e.g. Parallel feeder circuits
Ring Main Circuits
0.9 0.1 0.5 0.5 0.1 0.9
Relays operate for current flow in direction indicated.

(Typical operating times shown).

Ring Main Circuit
With ring closed :

Both load and fault current may flow in either
direction along feeder circuits.
Thus, directional relays are required.
Note: Directional relays look into the feeder.
Need to establish principle for relay.
51 67 67 67
Load Load
51 67 67 67
Load

Ring Main Circuit
Procedure :
1. Open ring at A
Grade : A' - E' - D' - C' - B'
2. Open ring at A'
Grade : A - B - C - D - E
Typical operating times shown.
Note : Relays B, C, D’, E’ may be non-directional.
A B' B C' C
1.7
0.1 1.3 0.5 0.9
0.9 D'
0.5 D
A' E E'
1.7
0.1 1.3

Ring System with Two Sources
Discrimination between all relays is not possible due to different

requirements under different ring operating conditions.
For F1 :- B’ must operate before A’

For F2 :- B’ must operate after A’
} Not
Compatible
B
F1
A B' B C' C
A'
F2 D D'

Ring System with Two Sources
Option 1
Trip least important source instantaneously then treat as normal ring
main.
Option 2
Fit pilot wire protection to circuit A - B and consider as common source
busbar.
B
A 50
Option 1 Option 1 Option 1
PW PW
Option 2 Option 2

Parallel Feeders
Non-Directional Relays :-
‘F’
51 A 51 C Load
51 B 51 D
“Conventional Grading” :- A&B

Grade ‘A’ with ‘C’
and Grade ‘B’ with ‘D’ C&D
Relays ‘A’ and ‘B’ have the same setting.
Fault level
at ‘F’
Parallel Feeders
Consider fault on one feeder :-

I1 + I2
I1
51 A I2 C 51 LOAD
51 B D 51
Relays ‘C’ and ‘D’ see the same fault current (I2).
As ‘C’ and ‘D’ have similar settings both feeders
will be tipped.

Parallel Feeders
Solution:- Directional Control at ‘C’ and ‘D’
I1 + I2
I1
C
51 A I2 67 LOAD
51 B D 67
Relay ‘D’ does not operate due to current flow in

the reverse direction.

Parallel Feeders
Setting philosophy for directional relays
E
51 A C 67 Load
51
51 B D 67
Load current always flows in ‘non-operate’ direction.

Any current flow in ‘operate’ direction is indicative of
a fault condition.
Thus Relays ‘C’ and ‘D’ may be set :-
- Sensitive (typically 50% load)
- Fast operating time (i.e. TMS=0.1)
Parallel Feeders
Usually, relays are set :-

- 50% full load current (note thermal rating)
- Minimum T.M.S. (0.1)
Grading procedure :-
1. Grade ‘A’ (and ‘B’) with ‘E’ assuming one
feeder in service.
2. Grade ‘A’ with ‘D’ (and ‘B’ with ‘C’) assuming
both feeders in service.

Parallel Feeders - Application Note
Grade B with C at If1 If2

P Q
Grade B with D at If2
(in practice) B D
Load
A C
Grade A with B at If Load If1:One Feeder
B D If2:Two Feeders
- but check that
sufficient margin
exists for bus fault at A
B
Q when relay A sees D
C
M = Margin
total fault current If2,
If2
but relay B sees only If2/2 M
If2/2. M M
If2/2 If1If2 If

Establishing Direction

Establishing Direction:- Polarising Quantity
The DIRECTION of Alternating Current may only be

determined with respect to a COMMON
REFERENCE.
In relaying terms, the REFERENCE is called the

POLARISING QUANTITY.
The most convenient reference quantity is

POLARISING VOLTAGE taken from the Power
System Voltages.

Directional Decision by Phase Comparison (1)
S1 = Reference Direction = Polarising Signal = VPOL

S2 = Current Signal = I
OPERATION when S2 is within ±90° of S1 :-

S1
S2 S2
S2
S2 S2
S2 S2

Directional Decision by Phase Comparison (2)
RESTRAINT when S2 lags S1 by between 90° and 270° :-
S1
S2 S2
S2 S2
S2 S2
S2

Polarising Voltage for ‘A’ Phase Overcurrent Relay
OPERATE SIGNAL = IA
POLARISING SIGNAL :- Which voltage to use ?

Selectable from
VA
VB
VC
VA-B
VB-C
VC-A

Directional Relay
Applied Voltage : VA
Applied Current : IA
VA
IA
Operate
IAF
VAF
Restrain
Question :
- is this connection suitable for a typical power system ?

Polarising Voltage
Applied Voltage : VBC
Applied Current : IA
VA
IA
IAF
MAXIMUM SENSITIVITY LINE

VBC
IVBC
X Polarising voltage remains

ØVBC healthy
X Fault current in centre of
ZERO SENSITIVITY characteristic
LINE

Relay Connection Angle
The angle between the current applied to the relay and the
voltage applied to the relay at system unity power factor
e.g. 90° (Quadrature) Connection : IA and VBC
IA
VA
90°
VBC
The 90°Vconnection
C
VB overcurrent relays.
is now used for all
30° and 60° connections were also used in the past, but no
longer, as the 90° connection gives better performance.

Relay Characteristic Angle (R.C.A.)
for Electronic Relays
The angle by which the current applied to the relay must
be displaced from the voltage applied to the relay to
produce maximum operational sensitivity
e.g. 45°
OPERATE
IA FOR MAXIMUM OPERATE

VA
RESTRAIN SENSITIVITY
RCA
45°
VBC

90° Connection - 45° R.C.A.
MAX SENSITIVITY
OPERATE LINE
IA
VA VA IA FOR MAX
RESTRAIN SENSITIVITY
45°
90° 45°
VBC VBC
135°
VC VB
RELAY CURRENT VOLTAGE

A IA VBC
B IB VCA
C IC VAB
90° Connection - 30° R.C.A.
OPERATE
MAX
SENSITIVITY
IA RESTRAIN
LINE
VA VA IA FOR MAX
30° SENSITIVITY
90° 30°
VBC VBC
150°
VC VB
RELAY CURRENT VOLTAGE

A IA VBC
B IB VCA
C IC VAB
Selection of R.C.A. (1)
Overcurrent Relays
90° connection 30° RCA (lead)

Plain feeder, zero sequence source behind relay

Selection of R.C.A. (2)
90° connection 45° RCA (lead)

Plain or Transformer Feeder :- Zero Sequence Source in Front of
Relay
Transformer Feeder :- Delta/Star Transformer in Front of Relay

Directional Earthfault Protection

Directional Earth Fault
Requirements are similar to directional overcurrent

i.e. need operating signal
and polarising signal
Operating Signal
obtained from residual connection of line CT's
i.e. Iop = 3Io
Polarising Signal
The use of either phase-neutral or phase-phase
voltage as the reference becomes inappropriate for
the comparison with residual current.
Most appropriate polarising signal is the residual
voltage.
Residual Voltage
May be obtained from ‘broken’ delta V.T. secondary.
A
B
C
VA-G VB-G VC-G
VRES = VA-G + VB-G + VC-G = 3V0
VRES
Notes :
1. VT primary must be earthed.
2. VT must be of the '5 limb' construction (or 3 x single
phase units)

Directional Earth Fault Relays
Relay Characteristic Angle
0 - Resistance earthed systems
45 (I lags V) - Distribution systems (solidly earthed)
60 (I lags V) - Transmission systems (solidly earthed)

Residual Voltage
Solidly Earthed System E S R F
ZS ZL
A-G
VA
VA
VC VB VC VB VC VB
VA VRES
VA VRES
VB VB VB
VC VC VC
Residual Voltage at R (relaying point) is dependant upon ZS / ZL ratio.

Residual Voltage
Resistance Earthed System
E S R F
ZS ZL
N
ZE
A-G
G
VA-G
S S V S
A-G
R G.F R G.F
G.F
VC-G VB-G VC-G VB-G VC-G VB-G
VRES VRES VRES

VB-G VB-G VB-G
VA-G VA-G
VC-G VC-G VC-G

Current Polarising
A solidly earthed, high fault level (low source impedance)

system may result in a small value of residual voltage at the
relaying point. If residual voltage is too low to provide a reliable
polarising signal then a current polarising signal may be used as
an alternative.
The current polarising signal may be derived from a CT located
in a suitable system neutral to earth connection.
e.g.
OP
POL
DEF Relay

Directional Control
Static Relay (METI + MCGG)
Characteristic Selectable M.T.A. Selectable
51 I
67 I
Overcurrent Unit Directional Unit

(Static) (Static)

Numerical Relay Directional Characteristic
Characteristic angle Øc Zone of

Øc = -180° --- 0° --- + 180° forward start
in 1° steps forward operation
+Is
Øc - 90° Øc Øc + 90°
-Is
Polarising
thresholds
Reverse start
Vp > 0.6V
Vop > 0.6 to 80V
in 0.2V steps
for example

TRANSFORMER PROTECTION
Issue A Slide 1
Causes of failure:
¾ Environment
¾ System
¾ Mal operation
¾ Wrong design
¾ Manufacture
¾ Material
¾ Maintenance
Issue A Slide 2
Transformer failures classification :
1. Internal failure
Causes:
È Winding & terminal faults

È Core faults
È Onload tap changer faults
È Overheating faults
Issue A Slide 3
Transformer failures classification :
2. External failure
Causes:
È Abnormal operating condition
È sustained or unclear faults
Issue A Slide 4
Vector Groups
Group 1 Yy0
Dd0
0 Phase displacement Zd0
Group 2 Yy6
Dd6
180 Phase displacement Dz6
Group 3 Yd1
Dy1
30 Lag phase displacement Yz1
Group 4 Yd11
Dy11
30 Lead phase displacement Yz11
Issue A Slide 5
Vector Configurations
12
11
300
1, DRAW PHASE- N EUTRAL VOLTAGE VECTORS
300
Issue A Slide 6
2. Draw Delta Connection
A
a
C B
c
Issue A Slide 7
3. Draw A Phase Windings
A
a
a2
A2
a1
b
A
1
C B
c
Issue A Slide 8
4. Complete Connections (a)
A
a
a
2
C1 A2
a1
c b
b1 b2
C A 1
2 1
c
B B
C B 2
1 2 c
Issue A Slide 9
Fault current distribution
Earth fault on Transformer winding

T2 T1
V2 V1
X
Fig.N
R
Fig.3 If
Issue A Slide 10
Therefore C.T.secondary current ( on primary side of transformer) =, X2
If differential setting =20% √3
For relay operation X2 > 20%
√3
Thus X > 59% ie. 59% of winding is unprotected.
Differential relay setting % of winding protected

10% 58%
20% 41%
30% 28%
40% 17%
50%. 7%
Issue A Slide 11
If Transformer star winding is solid earthed,
fault current limited only by the leakage

reactance Star side
of the winding
10
9
If as
8
multiple of
7
I F.L.
6
5
4
3 Delta side
2
1
.1 .2 .3 .4 .5 .6 .7 .8 . 9 1.0 x p.u Fig.Q
Issue A Slide 12
Basic Protection
¾ Differential
¾ Restricted Earthfault
¾ Overfluxing
¾ Overcurrent & Earthfault
Issue A Slide 13
Differential Protection
∗ Works on Merz-price current comparison principle
∗ Relays with bias characteristic should only be used
Applied
¾ Where protection co-ordination is difficult / not

possible using time delayed elements
¾ For fast fault clearance
¾ For zone of protection
Issue A Slide 14
Consideration for applying differential
protection
¾ Phase correction
¾ Filtering of zero sequence currents
¾ Ratio correction
¾ Magnetizing inrush during energisation
¾ Overfluxing
Issue A Slide 15
Differential Protection - Principle
• Nominal current through the protected equipment
I Diff = 0 : No tripping
R I diff = 0
Issue A Slide 16
• Through fault current
I Diff = 0 : No tripping
R I diff = 0
Issue A Slide 17
• Internal Fault
I Diff = 0 : Tripping
R I diff = 0
Issue A Slide 18
Biased differential protection
• Fast operation
• Adjustable characteristic
• High through fault stability
• CT ratio compensation
• Magnetising inrush restraint
• Overfluxing 5th harmonic restraint
Issue A Slide 19
Why bias characteristic ?
100 / 1 100/50 KV 200 / 1

LOAD
1A 1A = 200 A
R 0A
I2
I1
OLTC Setting is at mid tap

Issue A Slide 20
100 / 1 100/50 KV 200 / 1
LOAD
0.9 A 1A = 200 A
R
0.1 A
OLTC SETTING IS AT 10%
Differential current = 0.1 A

Relay pickup setting = O.2 A, So the Relay restrains
Issue A Slide 21
100 / 1 100/50 KV 200 / 1
9A 10 A
2000 A
R
1A
OLTC SETTING IS AT 10%

Relay Pickup Setting is O.2 A
So the Relay Operates
Issue A Slide 22
Role of Bias
3
2
Operate e
Differential current (x In)
l op
= I1+ I2 + I3 + I 4 S
%
80
1
Restrain
Setting range
lo pe
(0.1 - 0.5) 20% S
0 1 2 3 4
Effective bias (x In) = I 1 + I 2 + I 3 + I 4

2
Issue A Slide 23
USE OF ICT
Dy1(-30 )
Interposing CT provides
Vector correction
Yd11(+30 ) Ratio correction
Zero sequence
compensation
R
R
R
PROTECTION TRANSFORMATEUR
CURRENT DIFFERENTIAL PROTECTION
sur défaut interne: Protection différentielle
Vector Group Correction - Static Relays
Yd11
Dy1(-30 ) R
R
R
Vector and Ratio correction by interposing CT

Vector Group Correction - Static Relays
Yd11
R
R
R
Vector and Ratio correction by CT Connection

VECTOR GROUP CORRECTION
Dy1 (-30 )
Yy0 Yd11
0 87 +30
Yy0, Yd1, Yd5 , Yy6, Yd7, Yd11, Ydy0

0 , -30 , -150 , 180,+150, +30 , 0
SELECTION OF SUITABLE
VECTOR CORRECTION FACTOR
Dy11 (+30 )
Yy0 Yd1
87
0 -30
CT RATIO MISMATCH CORRECTION
33kV : 11kV
200/1 I L = 175A 10 MVA I L = 525A 400/1
0.875A 1.31 Amps

1A 1A
1.14 0.76
87
ZERO SEQUENCE COMPENSATION
+VE SEQUENCE
CURRENTS
BALANCE
REQUIRE ZERO
SEQUENCE
CURRENT
TRAPS FOR A B C
STABILITY
High Impedance Principle
Based on Current operated relay with an external stabilising

resistor
• Requires matched current transformers of low reactance design,

typically class X or equivalent
• Equal CT ratios
• Non-linear resistor may be required to limit voltage across relay
circuit during internal faults
• Suitable for zones up to 200 - 300 metres (typically)
Issue A Slide 24
RCT 2RL M 2RL RCT
ZM A ZM
RCT
2RL
M
2RL
TC
RCTsaturé
Issue A Slide 25
RCT 2RL M 2RL RCT
ZM A ZM
Issue A Slide 26
RCT 2RL M 2RL RCT
ZM A ZM
M
TC saturé
Issue A Slide 27
RCT 2RL M 2RL RCT
ZM A ZM
Issue A Slide 28
RCT 2RL M 2RL RCT
ZM A ZM
M
TC saturé
Issue A Slide 29
RCT 2RL M 2RL RCT
ZM A ZM
Issue A Slide 30
RCT 2RL M 2RL RCT
ZM A ZM
TC saturé
Issue A Slide 31
RCT 2RL M 2RL RCT
ZM A ZM=0
False tripping
RCT
2RL
M
CT Saturation
2RL
RCT
TC saturé
Issue A Slide 32
M
RCT 2RL 2RL RCT
RS
ZM A ZM=0
RCT
2RL
M
2RL
RCT
TC saturé
Issue A Slide 33
RCT 2RL M 2RL RCT
RS
ZM A ZM=0
Stabilising resistor
RCT
2RL
M
2RL
RCT
TC saturé
Issue A Slide 34
RCT 2RL M 2RL RCT
RS
ZM A ZM
RCT Vset
2RL
M
2RL
RCT
Issue A Slide 35
RCT 2RL M 2RL RCT
RS
ZM A ZM=0
RCT
2RL ZM = 0
Vset
M (CT "short
2RL
RCT circuited" )
Issue A Slide 36
RCT 2RL M 2RL RCT
RS
ZM A ZM
RCT RCT
2RL 2RL
M
Vset
Issue A Slide 37
RCT 2RL M 2RL RCT
RS
ZM A ZM
RCT RCT
2RL 2RL
M
Vset
Issue A Slide 38
RC 2R 2R RC
M
T L L T
RS
ZM A ZM
Metrosil may be
required for voltage
limitation RC RC
M
T 2R 2R T
L M L
Vset
Issue A Slide 39
Restricted Earthfault Protection
¾ Uses high impedance principle
¾ Increased sensitivity for earth faults
¾ REF elements for each transformer winding
¾ CTs may be shared with differential element
64
64
64
Issue A Slide 40
REF Case I : Normal Condition
Stability level : usually maximum through fault level of transformer
P1 P2
S1 S2
P1 P2
S1 S2
P1 P2
S1 S2
P1 S1
P2 S2
Under normal conditions no current flows thro’ Relay

So, No Operation
Issue A Slide 41
REF Case II : External Earth Fault
External earth fault - Current circulates between the phase & neutral CTs;
no current thro’ the relay
So, No Operation
Issue A Slide 42
REF Case III : Internal Earth Fault
For an internal earth fault the unbalanced current flows thro’ the relay
So, Relay Operates

Issue A
Slide 43
Restricted Earth Fault Protection

Setting
1MVA
(5%) 1600/1 Setting will require
11000V 415V RCT = 4.9Ω
calculation of :
80MVA 1) Setting stability
voltage (VS)
2) Value of stabilising
resistor required
1600/1 RS
RCT = 4.8Ω MCAG14 3) Peak voltage
IS = 0.1 Amp
developed by CT’s
2 Core 7/0.67mm (7.41Ω/km) for internal fault
100m Long
Issue A Slide 44
Example : Earth fault calculation :-

Using 80MVA base
Source impedance = 1 p.u.
Transformer impedance = 0.05 x 80 = 4 p.u.
1 P.U. 1
1 4
1 Total impedance = 14 p.u.
I1
∴ I1 = 1 = 0.0714 p.u.
1 14
4
I2
Base current = 80 x 106
√3 x 415
4 = 111296 Amps
I0 ∴ IF = 3 x 0.0714 x 111296
= 23840 Amps (primary)
= 14.9 Amps (secondary)
Issue A Slide 45
(1) Setting voltage
VS = IF (RCT + 2RL)
Assuming “earth” CT saturates,
RCT = 4.8 ohms
2RL = 2 x 100 x 7.41 x 10-3 = 1.482 ohms
∴ Setting voltage = 14.9 (4.8 + 1.482)
= 93.6 Volts
(2) Stabilising Resistor (RS)
RS = VS - 1
IS IS2 Where IS = relay current setting
∴ RS = 93.6 - 1 = 836 ohms
0.1 0.22
Issue A Slide 46
3) Peak voltage = 2√2 √VK (VF - VK)
VF = 14.9 x VS = 14.9 x 936 = 13946 Volts
IS
For ‘Earth’ CT, VK = 1.4 x 236 = 330 Volts (from graph)
∴ VPEAK = 2√2 √330 (13946 - 330)
= 6kV
Thus, metrosil voltage limiter will be required.
Issue A Slide 47
Magnetising Inrush
• Transient condition - occurs when a
transformer is energised
• Normal operating flux of a transformer is close to saturation

level
• Residual flux can increase the mag-current
• In the case of three phase transformer, the point-on-wave at

switch-on differs for each phase and hence, also the inrush
currents
Issue A Slide 48
Magnetising Inrush
Transformer Magnetising Characteristic
Twice
Normal
Flux
Normal
Flux
Normal
No Load Current
No Load Current
at Twice Normal
Flux
Issue A Slide 49
Magnetising Inrush
Inrush Current
V
+ Φm Φ
Im
STEADY STATE
- Φm
Im
2 Φm
Φ SWITCH ON AT VOLTAGE
V ZERO - NO RESIDUAL FLUX
Issue A Slide 50
Magnetising Inrush
Issue A Slide 51
Magnetising Inrush
Effect of magnetising current
• Appears on one side of transformer only

- Seen as fault by differential relay
- Transient magnetising inrush could cause
relay to operate
• Makes CT transient saturation
- Can make mal-operation of Zero sequence
relay at primary
Issue A Slide 52
Magnetising Inrush
IR
P1 P2
IS S1 S2
P1 P2
IT S1 S2
P1 P2
S1 S2
IR + IS + IT = 3Io = 0
Issue A Slide 53
Magnetising Inrush
Effect of magnetising current
Example of disurbance records

with detail
Issue A Slide 54
Magnetising Inrush Restrain
2nd (and 5th) harmonic restraint

• Makes relay immune to magnetising
inrush
• Slow operation may result for genuine
transformer faults if CT saturation
occurs
Issue A Slide 55
Magnetising Inrush Restrain
Bias Differential Trip

differential T1 = 5ms T2 = 22ms
comparator
threshold
Differential input
Comparator output
T1
Trip
T2 Reset
Issue A Slide 56
Overfluxing - Basic Theory
Overfluxing = V/F
Causes
Low frequency
High voltage
Geomagnetic disturbances
Issue A Slide 57
Overfluxing - Basic Theory
2Φm
V = kfΦ
Φm
Ie
Effects
Transient Overfluxing - Tripping of differential

element
Prolonged Overfluxing - Damage to transformers
Issue A Slide 58
Overfluxing - Condition
Differential element should be blocked
for transient overfluxing-+
25% OVERVOLTAGE CONDITION
Overfluxing waveform
contains very high 5th
Harmonic content
43% 5TH HARMONIC CONTENT

Issue A Slide 59
Overfluxing - Protection
V α KΦ
f
• Trip and alarm outputs for clearing prolonged overfluxing
• Alarm : Definite time characteristic to initiate corrective

action
• Trip : IT or DT characteristic to clear overfluxing condition
Issue A Slide 60
BUCCHOLZ PROTECTION
Oil conservator
Bucholz Relay
Issue A Slide 60
BUCCHOLZ PROTECTION
Buchholz Relay Installation

3 x internal pipe To oil conservator
diameter (minimum)
5 x internal pipe
diameter (minimum)
76 mm typical
Transformer
Issue A Slide 60
BUCCHOLZ PROTECTION
Buchholz Relay
Petcock
Alarm bucket
Mercury switch
To oil
conservato
r
From
transformer Trip bucket
Deflector plate
Issue A Slide 60
BUCCHOLZ PROTECTION
Buccholz Protection Application
Accumulation of gaz
Oil Leakage
Severe winding faults
Issue A Slide 60
BUCCHOLZ PROTECTION
Accumulation of Gaz
Interturn faults
Winding faults to earth with low

power (fault close to neutral for
example)
Issue A Slide 60
BUCCHOLZ PROTECTION
Inter-Turn Fault
CT
E
Shorted Load
turn
Nominal turns ratio : 11,000 / 240
Fault turns ratio : 11,000 / 1

Current ratio :1 / 11,000
Primary Secondary
Issue A Slide 60
BUCCHOLZ PROTECTION
Inter-Turn Fault
CT
E
Shorted
turn
Nominal turns ratio : 11,000 / 240
Fault turns ratio : 11,000 / 1

Current ratio :1 / 11,000
Primary Secondary
Issue A Slide 60
BUCCHOLZ PROTECTION
Interturn Fault Current / Number
of Turns Short Circuited
Primary current
(multiples of
rated current)
100
Fault current
(multiples of
80
rated current)
60
40
20
Turn short-
circuited
5 10 15 20 25
(percentage of
winding)
Issue A Slide 60
BUCCHOLZ PROTECTION
Interturn Fault Current / Number
of Turns Short Circuited
Primary current
(multiples of
rated current)
100
Fault current
(multiples of
80
rated current)
60 Fault current very high
40 Detected by Bucholz relay
20
Primary phase current very low
5 10 15 20 25
Not detected by current
operated relays
Issue A Slide 60
BUCCHOLZ PROTECTION
Accumulation of Gaz
Interturn faults
Winding faults to earth with low

power (fault close to neutral for
example)
Issue A Slide 60
BUCCHOLZ PROTECTION
Earth Fault Current / Number of

Turnsof Short Circuited
multiples
max fault current
Primary current
100
80
Fault current
60
40
20
Turn short-
circuited
5 10 15 20 25
(percentage of
Issue A winding) Slide 60
BUCCHOLZ PROTECTION
Accumulation of Gaz
Operating principle
Issue A Slide 60
BUCCHOLZ PROTECTION
Buchholz Relay
Accumulation
of gaz
Issue A Slide 60
BUCCHOLZ PROTECTION
Buchholz Relay
Accumulation
of gaz
Issue A Slide 60
BUCCHOLZ PROTECTION
Buchholz Relay
Accumulation
of gaz
Issue A Slide 60
BUCCHOLZ PROTECTION
Color of gaz indicates

Accumulation the type of fault
of gaz
White or Yellow :
Insulation burnt
Grey :
Dissociated oil
Issue A Slide 60
BUCCHOLZ PROTECTION
Buchholz Relay
Gaz can be extracted
Accumulation for detailled analysis
of gaz
Issue A Slide 60
BUCCHOLZ PROTECTION
Effects of Oil Maintenance
• After oil maintenance, false

tripping may occur because Oil
aeration
Bucholz relay tripping inhibited during
suitable period
Need of electrical protection
Issue A Slide 60
BUCCHOLZ PROTECTION
Bucholtz Protection Application
Accumulation of gaz
Oil Leakage
Issue A Slide 60
BUCCHOLZ PROTECTION
Buchholz Relay
Oil Leakage
Issue A Slide 60
BUCCHOLZ PROTECTION
Buchholz Relay
Oil Leakage
Issue A Slide 60
BUCCHOLZ PROTECTION
Buchholz Relay
Oil Leakage
Issue A Slide 60
BUCCHOLZ PROTECTION
Buchholz Relay
Oil Leakage
Issue A Slide 60
BUCCHOLZ PROTECTION
Buccholz Protection Application
Accumulation of gaz
Oil Leakage
Issue A Slide 60
BUCCHOLZ PROTECTION
Buchholz Relay
Severe winding fault
Issue A Slide 60
BUCCHOLZ PROTECTION
Buchholz Relay
Issue A Slide 60
BUCCHOLZ PROTECTION
Buchholz Relay
Issue A Slide 60
CONCLUSION
Scheme exemple Up to 1MVA

3.3kV
51 50
200/5 51 50 N N P121
1MVA
1500/5
3.3/0.44kV
51
P120 N
64 1500/5
MCAG14
CONCLUSION
Scheme exemple 1 - 5MVA

11kV
51 50 P121
64 MCAG14
5MVA
1000/5
11/3.3kV
51
P120 N
64 1000/5
MCAG14
3.3kV
CONCLUSION
Scheme exemple Above 5MVA

33KV
51 50 P141
200/5
P120
10MVA
33/11KV 51
N 87
600/5
P631
64 MCAG14
600/5
5/5A
CONCLUSION
Three Winding Transformer

63MVA 25MVA
300/5 132KV 11KV 1600/5
50MVA
33KV
1000/5
4.59 5.51 10.33

2.88 5 2.88
5
All interposing C.T. ratio’s refer

to common MVA base (63MVA)
Pilot Wire Differential
Protection of Feeders
1 > Title of presentation - Date - References 1

X Why Needed
X Circulating Current and Balanced Voltage Principles
X Electromechanical Pilot Wire Relays and Schemes
X Solid State Pilot Wire Relays and Schemes
X Polar Diagrams
X Summation Transformers and Fault Settings
X Line Charging Currents
X Pilot Wire : Characteristics
Isolation
Supervision
X Overcurrent Check
X Intertripping / Destabilising

Differential Feeder Protection
Why Needed ? - Overcomes application difficulties of

simple overcurrent relays when applied to
complex networks, i.e. co-ordination problems
and excessive fault clearance times.
Basic Principle
Involves measurement of current at each end of feeder and
Transmission of information between each end of feeder
Protection should operate for faults inside the protected zone (i.e.
the feeder) but must remain stable for faults outside the protected
zone.
Thus can be instantaneous in operation.

System Where Directional O/C Cannot Be Used
I1
10 1
(v) (v)
2 (i)
(i) → (v) represents
increasing time
9 setting
3
(i)
(iv)
8
(iv) 4 (ii)
I2
5
7 6 (iii)
(ii) (iii)
I1 I1
10 10
I2
I1 I1+I2
I1+I2
I2 2
4
8
8
I2
I1 I2
6 I1+I2 4
4 must operate before 8 I1+I2

4 > Title of presentation - Date - References 4 must operate after 8 4
Use of Pilot Wire Differential Protection
10
(iii)
1
9
(i)
8
(ii) 3
4
5
(iii)
7 (ii) 6 (i)
c, d, e, f are pilot wire differential relays

l is non directional O/C relays
g, h, i, j are directional O/C relays
Operating times :- {g and l} > {i and j} > {k and h} > {c, d, e and f}

Merz-Price Differential or Unit Protection
Protected Circuit
or Plant
Boundaries of protection coverage accurately defined

Protection responds only to faults in protected zone

End A End B
Relay
Circulating Current System
End A End B
Relay
Balanced Voltage System
Basic mertz-price principle applies well where CT secondary circuit can be kept short, eg.
protection of transformers, busbars, machines.
For feeder protection where boundaries of protection are a distance apart, a communication channel is
7
required. > Title of presentation - Date - References 7
Unit Protection Involving Distance
Between Circuit Breakers (1)
A B
Relaying
R
Point
Trip B
Trip A
Simple Local Differential Protection

Between Circuit Breakers (2)
A B
Communication
Channel
Relaying Relaying
Point Point
R R
Trip A Trip B

Between Circuits

Early Merz-Price Balanced Voltage Systems for
Feeders
R R
2 Problems :
(1) Maloperation due to unequal open circuit secondary voltages of the two
transformers for thro’ fault currents.
(2) High output voltages of CT’s cause capacitance currents to flow thro’ relay.
Since capacitive currents are proportional to pilot length, relay insensitive for
all but very short lines.
Basic Pilot Wire Schemes with Bias (1)
B B
I
V
OP OP
V
I
Circulating Current

Translay Differential Protection
End A End B
A
C
Summation
Winding
Secondary
Winding
Pilot
Bias Loop
MBCI Feeder Protection Circuit Diagram
A A
B B
C C
T2 RPP RPP T2
T1 T1
Tr Tr
Tt ØC ØC T
t
To PILOT To
WIRES RS
RS
Ts RVO Ro Ro RVO Ts
v v
T1 - Summation Transformer Ts - Auxiliary Winding

T2 - Auxiliary Transformer RVD - Non Linear Resistor
To - Operating Winding Ro - Linear Resistor
Tr - Restraining Winding Rpp - Pilots Padding Resistor
13
Tt - Reference Winding
> Title of presentation - Date - References
Øc - Phase Comparator 13
Summation Current Transformer Output (1)
a
b
c
m output

Summation Transformer
Sensitivity for Different Faults (1)
IA
1
IB
1
IC Output for
operation = K
IN
Let output for operation = K
(1) Consider A-E fault

for relay operation : IA (1 + 1 + 3) > K
IA > 1/5K or 20%K
Summation Transformer
Sensitivity for Different Faults (2)
(2) B-E fault
for relay operation : IB (1 + 3) > K
IB > 25%K
(3) C-E fault

for relay operation : IC x (3) > K
IC > 331/3%K
(4) AB fault
for relay operation : IAB x (1) > K
IAB > 100%K
(5) BC fault
for relay operation : IBC x (1) > K
IBC > 100%K
(6) AC fault
for relay operation : IAC (1 + 1) > K
16 > Title of presentation - Date - References
IAC > 50%K 16
Type of Relay Sensitivity of
Fault Sensitivity E/M Pilot Wire
Relay
A-E 20% K 22% In

B-E 25% K 28% In
C-E 331/3 % K 22% In
AB 100% K 90% In
BC 100% K 90% In
CA 50% K 45% In
3 Phase 57.7% K 52% In
Fault Settings for Plain Feeders
Input transformer summation ratio is 1.25 : 1 : N
where N = 3 for normal use
and N = 6 to give low earth fault settings
Fault Settings
N = 3 N = 6
A-N 0.19 x Ks x In 0.12 x Ks x In
B-N 0.25 x Ks x In 0.14 x Ks x In
C-N 0.33 x Ks x In 0.17 x Ks x In
A-B 0.80 x Ks x In
B-C 1.00 x Ks x In
C-A 0.44 x Ks x In
A-B-C 0.51 x Ks x In
Ks is a setting multiplier, variable from 0.5 to 2.0
In is the relay rated current 1 Amp or 5 Amps
Selection of Ks & N
Values of Ks and N are chosen such that IS (C - N) < 0.3 x min. E/F current.
For solidly earthed systems :-

IS (A - N) > 3.2 x steady state line charging current.
For resistanced earthed systems with one relay per phase :-

IS (A - N) > 1.9 x steady state line charging current.
For systems where the steady state charging current is negligible select Ks
setting to give required primary sensitivity.

Pilot Wire
Resistance and shunt capacitance of pilots introduce magnitude and phase differences
in pilot terminal currents.
Pilot Resistance
Attenuates the signal and affects effective minimum operating levels.
To maintain constant operating levels for wide range of pilot resistance, padding
resistor used.
R Rp/2 R
Rp/2
Padding resistance R set to ½ (1000 - Rp) ohms

Pilot Capacitance
Circulating current systems :
X Pilot capacitance effectively in parallel with relay operating coil.
X Capacitance at centre of pilots has zero volts across them.
Balanced voltage systems :
X Relay operating coil connected in series with pilot.
X Capacitance current therefore tends to cause instability.

Pilot Isolation
Electromagnetic Induction
Field of any adjacent conductor may induce a voltage in the pilot circuit.
Induced voltage can be severe when :

(1) Pilot wire laid in parallel to a power circuit.
(2) Pilot wire is long and in close proximity to power circuit.
(3) Fault Current is severe.
Induced voltage may amount to several thousand volts.

Danger to personnel
Danger to equipment
Difference in Station Earth Potentials
Can be a problem for applications above 33kV - even if feeder is short.

Formula for Induced Voltage
e = 0.232 I L Log10 De/S
where I = primary line E/F current

L = length of pilots in miles
De = Equiv. Depth of earth return in metres = 655 . √e/f
e = soil resistivity in Ω.m
f = frequency
s = separation between power line and pilot circuit in
metres
Effect of screening is not considered in the formula.

If the pilot is enclosed in lead sheath earthed at each end, screening is provided by
the current flowing in the sheath.
Sheath should be of low resistance.
0.3 V / A / Mile Unscreened Pilots

0.1 V / A / Mile Screened Pilots
Pilot circuits and all directly connected equipment should be insulated to
earth and other circuits to an adequate voltage level.
Two levels are recognised as standard : 5kV & 15kV
Relay Case
5kV 15kV
Pilot
Terminal
Relay
Input Relay
Circuit
Pilot
Wire
2kV 5kV

Supervision of Pilot Circuits
Pilot circuits are subject to a number of hazards, such as :
- Manual Interference
- Acts of Nature (storms, subsidence, etc.)
- Mechanical Damage (excavators, impacts)
Therefore supervision of the pilots is felt to be necessary.
Two types exist :
- Signal injection type

- Wheatstone Bridge type

Pilot Wire Supervision
Circulating Balanced
Current Voltage
Schemes Schemes
Pilot Wire Maloperate Stable

Open Circuited
Pilot Wire Stable Maloperate
Short Circuited
Pilot Wire Maloperate Maloperate
Crossed
Maloperation occurs even under normal loading conditions if 3-phase

setting < ILOAD.
Overcurrent check may be used to prevent maloperation.
Overcurrent element set above maximum load current.

Pilot Wire Supervision Relay SJA
PILOT
Cross Pilot
Detector Box
Unbalance
Detector
Circuit
Supervision
Supply

MRTP Features
X Detects open circuit, short circuit or crossed pilots.
X Gives indication of loss of supervision supply.

Connections for Pilot Supervision (5 kV)
A1 A1
PILOTS
A2 A2
A3 A3
LVAC AC

Overcurrent Check Relays (1)
50
A
PILOT
50 WIRE
C RELAY
(87PW)
50
G

Overcurrent Check Relays (2)
50A-1 87PW-1
+ TRIP CIRCUITS
50C-1
50G-1 Isoc > Ifl

0.9
Isef > 1.2 IZ
Isef < 0.8 x Ief

System Requiring Intertripping
Source
Feeder
Protection
Busbar
Protection

Destabilising Relay MVTW01
P6 S2
17
PILOTS
P7 S1
MBCI
17 UN-1
18
18 UN-2
19
19
UN-3
20
I1 UN
V x (1) + 3
I2
V x (2) +
V x (3) + I3
- I4
MVTW01

November 2002
MiCOM P521
Numerical Current Differential

Protection Relay

Current Differential Principle
End A End B
IF
IA IB
Communication Link
IA + IB = 0 Healthy
IA + IB ≠ 0 (= IF) Fault

All Digital/Numerical Design
0IIIIII0I0.....0I0IIIIII
Digital messages
0
End A End B
A/ µP Comms Channel
D
Digital communication interface
(electrical or fibre)
Current Differential -
Advantages
X No voltage transformers needed
X Detect very high resistance faults
X Uniform trip time
X Clearly defined zone of operation
X Simple to set with no coordination problems

MiCOM P521
Protection Comms

Current Differential -
Signalling Options
X Electrical communications
EIA485 (direct or via PZ511 interface)

EIA232 / EIA485 Modems (requires single twisted pair)
X Direct fibre optic
850 nm multi-mode
1300 nm multi-mode
1300 nm single mode
X Multiplexed communications

Direct 4 Wire EIA485 Connection
1.2km max
Tx 64kbps R
MT RS485 MT RS485
x
Rx T
2 Screened x
Twisted Pairs
Surge
Protection
4 Wire EIA485 Up To 10km
10km max
19.2kbps R
Tx
PZ511 PZ511 x
Interface Interface
Rx 2 Screened T
Twisted Pairs x
EIA 485
NOTE:10/ 20kV isolation transformers available if required (4 required per
41 scheme)
> Title of presentation - Date - References 41
Pilot Wire Communications (1)
10km max
Tx 19.2kbp R
Leased s Leased x
Line Line
Modem Twiste Modem
Rx d Pair T
(Pilot x
Cable)
EIA 485 or EIA
232
42 scheme)
Pilot Wire Communications (2)
10km max
Same as
Tx Fibre..!!
64kbps R
MDSL MDSL x
Modem Twiste Modem
Rx d Pair T
(Pilot x
Cable)
EIA 485
43 scheme)
Condition Line Communications
No strict limits
Tx 9.6 kbps R
Dial-up Dial-up x
Modem Modem
Rx T
Conditioned
Telephone x
Line
EIA 485 or EIA
232
Direct Optical Fibre Link
OPGW

Communications Path for
Fibre Optic Application
T R
x x
R CH1 T
x x
End A End B

Optical Budgets for Direct Optical Connection
Between Relays
850nmMulti 1300nmMulti 1300nm Single

Mode Mode Mode
Min. Transmit -19.8dBm -8.2dBm -8.2dBm
Output Level
Receiver -25.4dBm -38.2dBm -38.2dBm
Sensitivity
Optical Budget 5.6dB 30.0dB 30.0dB
Less Safety
Margin (3dB)* 2.6dB 27.0dB 27.0dB
Typical Cable
2.6dB/km 0.8dB/km 0.4dB/km
Loss
Max
1km 30km 60km
Transmission.
Distance
Short Haul Medium Haul
Key: * 3dB allowance for joint loss/ageing
Interfacing to Multiplexers
P591/2/3
interface Multiplexer
unit
850nm G.703, X21

multimode or V.35
optical fibre electrical

Multiplexed Optical Link
Earth wire optical fibre
Multiplexer Multiplexer
34 Mbit/s
64k Telephone
bits/s
Telecontrol
End A End B
Teleprotection
P521 current
differential protection

Multiplexed Microwave Link
Multiplexer Multiplexer
Telephone
64k
bits/s Telecontrol
End A End B
Teleprotection

Propagation Delay Compensation
X Synchronise sampling in both relays

Direct comparison of samples
IRIG-B a possibility, but not always available
(= protection out of service)
X Asynchronous sampling
Continual time difference measurement
Vector transformation in software

Propagation Delay Problem
Relay A Relay B
Current at B
Current received from A
Propagation delay
Propagation Delay Time
Measurement - 1
Relays
A B
Data
Curre mess
vecto nt ag e
tA1 rs
tA tB1
tp1 1
tA2 tB2
tB
tA3
tB3
*
tA4
tB4
tA5 tB5

Propagation Delay Time
Measurement - 2
Measured sampling time Propagation delay time

tB3 = (tA - tp2) tp1 = tp2 = 1/2 (tA - tA1) - td
* * *
Current
vectors
tA1 tA
1 tB1
tA2 tp1
tB2
tB
tB3
tA3 td
tB3
*
* tA4 tp2
nt tB4
tA ur r
C or s e
* tA5
tA td vect tB5
tB 1 e s s a ge
3 Data m
Time Alignment of
Current Vectors
I (tA4)
θ I (tB3 )
∆
*
θ
∆t = (tA4 - tB3 )
∆θ=ω∆
*
t
If I (tB3 ) = Is + j Ic
* = I cosθ + j I sinθ
then I (tA4) = I (tB3 ) . (cos ∆ θ + j sin
∆ θ) *
= I cos (θ + ∆ θ) + j I sin
55 > Title of presentation - Date - References
(θ + ∆ θ) 55
Current Differential
X Dual slope bias characteristic
X Selectable operating time / characteristic

Allows grading with tapped off fuse protected loads
Allows smaller CT’s to be used
X Operating times when set to instantaneous:
Baud rate (kbits/s) Max. Time (ms) Typical Time (ms)

9.6 100 90
19.2 80 70
56 45 30
64 45 30

Current Differential Characteristic
IA IB
Differential k2
ia s
current b
g e
ta
I diff =
rc en
Trip P e
I A + IB
b i a s k1
r c e ntage No trip
P e
I S1 I S2
Bias current
I bias = 1/2 ( IA + I B )

Line Charging Currents
A/km A/km
30 1
1.2 0.3
11kV 400kV 132kV 400kV

Line Volts Line Volts
Underground cables Overhead lines
•Capacitive current is only seen at one end of the line
•To prevent instability set Is1 setting to 2.5x steady state line charging cur
•Capacitive inrush current is rejected by the relay filtering methods

CT Ratio Correction
600/1 500/1
0.83A
Max Load = 500A 1.0A
End A Comms Channel End B
To correct CT ratio mismatch a correction factor can

be applied to End A.
To maintain good sensitivity, correct to 1 pu:-
1A
Correction Factor = = 1.2
0.83A

Protection of Transformer Feeders
Power transformer
Ratio
correction
Vectorial
correction
Virtual interposing CT Virtual interposing CT

Stability for Magnetising Inrush Current
Magnetising inrush current flows into the energised winding

at switch on
This current is not represented at the remote end of the line
A method of restraint is required to avoid trips on closure of
the breaker :
Inrush current is rich in harmonics: 2nd, 5th etc..
Increase bias current by adding a multiple of 2nd harmonic
current = RESTRAINT
Inrush restraint facility can be enabled or disabled via a
dedicated setting
MiCOM-P540-61

Inrush Current - Theory
V
+Φm Φ
Im
Steady state
- Φm
Im
2Φm
Φ Switch on at voltage
V zero - No residual flux
MiCOM-P540-62

Example MV Application:
Teed Feeder Protection
End End
A B
IF
X Differential protection can be IDMT or
DT delayed to discriminate with tapped
feed protection:
Fused spurs
Tee-off transformer in-zone

Direct Intertrip (DIT)
Relay A Relay B
Transformer
Protection
DTT=1
Data Message
- + - +

Permissive Intertrip (PIT)
IB
Relay Relay
A B Busbar
Relay
PIT=1
Data
Message
- + - +
X Example shows interlocked overcurrent protection

Feeder fault seen within busbar zone
Remote end trip after set delay for PIT & current > Is1
X Current check can be disabled thus giving a second DIT channel

Generator Protection
Generator Protection
The extent and types of protection specified will depend

on the following factors :-
Type of prime mover and generator construction

MW and voltage ratings
Mode of operation
Method of connection to the power system
Method of earthing
2 2
Connection to the Power System
1. Direct :
2. Via Transformer :
3 3
Typical Generator Installations
Generator Generator
Transformer Transformer
Station
Trans-
Earthing former
Transformer
Unit / Unit
Station Trans-
Transformer former
1(b) 1(c)
4 4
Generator Protection Requirements
To detect faults on the generator

To protection generator from the effects of abnormal
power system operating conditions
To isolate generator from system faults not cleared
remotely
Action required depends upon the nature of the fault.
Usual to segregate protection functions into :

Urgent
Non-urgent
Alarm
5 5
Generator Faults
Mixture of mechanical and electrical problems.
Faults include :-
Insulation Failure
Stator
Rotor
Excitation system failure
Prime mover / governor failure
Bearing Failure
Excessive vibration
Low steam pressure
etc.
6 6
System Conditions
Short circuits
Overloads
Loss of load
Unbalanced load
Loss of synchronism
7 7
Generator Protections to be Considered
Earth faults on stator and generator connections

Phase faults on stator and generator connections
Interturn faults on stator
Backup protection :- External Earth faults
External Phase faults
Failure of prime mover
Loss of field
Unbalanced loading
Rotor earth faults and interturn faults
Overload
Failure of speed governing system
Sudden loss of load
8 8
Stator Earth Fault Protection
Fault caused by failure of stator winding insulation
Leads to burning of machine core

welding of laminations
Rebuilding of machine core can be a very expensive process
Earth fault protection is therefore a principal feature of any

generator protection package
TYPE OF METHOD METHOD

PROTECTION OF OF
EARTHING CONNECTION
9 9
Method of Earthing (1)
Machine stator windings are surrounded by a mass of earthed metal
Most probable result of stator winding insulation failure is a phase-earth fault
Desirable to earth neutral point of generator to prevent dangerous transient

overvoltages during arcing earth faults
Several methods of earthing are in use
Damage resulting from a stator earth fault will depend upon the earthing
arrangement
10 10
Solidly Earthed Machines :
Fault current is high

Rapid damage occurs
burning of core iron
welding of laminations
Used on LV machines only
11 11
Desirable to limit earth fault current :
limits damage
reduces possibility of developing into phase-phase
fault
Degree to which fault current is limited must take into account :
detection of earth faults as near as possible to the neutral

point
ease of discrimination with system earth fault
protection (directly connected machines)
12 12
Method of Earthing : Limitation of
Earth Fault Current (1)
Less than 5A :
Earth faults on the power system

are not seen by the generator
F earth fault protection.
Discrimination not required ∴ can limit current to very low value.
20A :
Used on oil and gas platforms.

Limits power supply disturbance, but still enables grading of
up to 3 zones.
13 13
Method of Earthing : Limitation of
Earth Fault Current (2)
100A :
As for 20A, but higher current allows better discrimination and sensitivity.
Generator Full Load Current (1200A max) :
Most popular. Used for ease of fault detection and discrimination.

Residual connection of CTs can be used, BUT
Can result in serious core damage.
14 14
Stator Earth Fault Protection and
Protection Against Earth Faults on
Generator Connections
Depending on the Generator arrangement this can be provided by :-
Time delayed overcurrent protection

Time delayed earth fault protection
Sensitive earth fault protection
Neutral displacement voltage relay
Neutral displacement voltage detection by overcurrent
relay
High impedance restricted earth fault protection
High impedance differential protection
Directional earth fault protection
100% stator earth fault protection
15 15
Overcurrent Protection (1)
For small generators this may be the only protection applied.

With solid earthing it will provide some protection against earth
faults.
For a single generator, CTs must be connected to neutral end of
stator winding.
51
16 16
Overcurrent Protection (2)
For parallel generators, CTs can be located on line side.
51
17 17
Directly Connected Generators :
51N
Earthed Generator : Earth fault relay must be time delayed for

co-ordination with other earth fault protection on the power system.
50N 51N
Unearthed Generators : Other generators connected in parallel

will generally be unearthed.
Protection is restricted to faults on the generator, grading with power

system earth fault protection is not required. A high impedance instantaneous
relay can be used (Balanced Earth Fault protection).
18 18
Percentage Winding Protected
11.5kV; 75,000KVA
xV
xV
ΙF =
250/1A IS R
For operation
Ι S(PRIMARY) < ΙF
R 33Ω xV
<
R
x.6600
< < x.200
33
1
Ι S(SECONDARY) < x.200 x < 0.8x
250
∴ For protection of 90% of winding; x = 1-0.9 = 0.1
Relay setting = 0.8 x 0.1 = 0.08A = 8% of 1A
19 19
Stator Earth Fault Protection (1)
Generators connected via step-up transformer (resistance earthed) :
51N 50N
Instantaneous protection (50N) :
System earth faults ARE not seen by generator earth fault protection ∴
instantaneous relay may be used.
Set to 10% of resistor rating (avoids operation due to transient surges

passed through generator transformer interwinding capacitance).
Advantage : Fast
20 20
Stator Earth Fault Protection (2)
Time delayed protection (51N) :
Time delay prevents operation on transient surges.
A more sensitive current setting may be used.
Set to 5% of resistor rating.
Advantage : Sensitive
On large machines considered worthwhile to use both

instantaneous and time delayed.
21 21
Stator E/F Protection for Generator with
High Resistance Earthing via Distribution
Transformer (1)
Generator Transformer / Resistor

Rating ~ 30 Secs.
Distribution Overvoltage Relay

Transformer With 3rd Harmonic
Turns R 59
Rejection
Ration = N
* Set > 3RD harmonic current

* Or use relay with 3RD harmonic
51N
rejection
R’ = Effective Primary Resistance = N2.R
22 22
RSTA
B High Impedance Principle
64
Instantaneous Protection
Protects approx. 90 - 95% of generator winding.

All CT’s should be similar - Good quality
- Class ‘X’
23 23
Restricted Earthfault Protection for Generators on 4 Wire L.V.
Systems (1)
Earthing at Generator Neutral
5 x CT’s required
RSTAB
64
24 24
Restricted Earthfault Protection for Generators on 4 Wire L.V.
Systems (2)
Earthing at Busbars
RSTAB
64
4 x CT’s required
25 25
Differential Protection (1)
Provides high speed protection for all fault types

May be : High impedance type
: Biased (low impedance) type
Good quality CT’s required
CT’s required in neutral end of winding
High Impedance Scheme
Stabilising
Resistors
Relay
26 26
BIAS BIAS
OPERATE
Biased Differential Scheme

27 27
INTERPOSING
C.T.
Overall Differential Scheme

28 28
100% Stator Earth Fault Protection :
Standard relays only cover 95% of winding.
Probability of fault occuring in end 5% is low.
On large machines 100% stator earth fault protection may be

required.
Two methods :
* Low Frequency Injection

* Third Harmonic Voltage Measurement
29 29
100% Stator Earth Fault
Protection
For Large Machines Only
Two methods :-
Low frequency injection – 12.5Hz to 20Hz Third harmonic voltage - various
Low Frequency Injection
Earthing
Trans- 59
former
Complete protection during start-up if source is
independent of generator, e.g. derived from
Injection station battery.
Transformer
Independent of system V, f and load current.
High cost due to injection equipment.
51 Alternative
Injection
Points
30 30
Third Harmonic Neutral Voltage Scheme
Relies on >1%
generated 3rd
harmonic volts
59 27
59P
27 - 3rd harmonic undervoltage relay.
59P - Terminal Voltage Check
59
Allows trip if circuit breaker is open but
terminal voltage present.
59P 27
TRIP 59 - Conventional neutral overvoltage protection.
27 OVERLAP
59 FUNDAMENTAL FREQ. ELEMENT
0 50 100
Earth Fault Position
31 31
100% Stator Earth Fault Protection
a) UTE
G
UTE
N T 0
N T
50% 100%
UNE m
UNE
b) UTE
G
UTE
N T 0 T
N
50% 100%
m
c)
G 0 50% 100%
N T N
UNE
m
UNE
P2175ena
Distribution of 3rd harmonic voltage along the stator

winding
(a) normal operation
(b) stator earth fault at star point
(c) stator earth fault at the terminals
32 32
Stator Phase-Phase Fault Protection (1)
Phase-phase faults caused by :
Insulation failure
Flashover in terminal box
Majority of phase-phase faults begin as earth faults.
High fault current causes rapid damage ∴ fast protection

required.
33 33
Single Generator
Use time delayed overcurrent.

CTs must be in neutral side to cover winding faults.
51 51 51
Small solidly earthed machines - overcurrent also provides degree of

earth fault protection.
Overcurrent is often only protection applied to small machines.

34 34
Larger Machines, Parallel Operation
Require Differential Protection
Type types :
High impedance - most common

Biased (low impedance) - used for generator - generator
transformer sets
Class X CTs required.
35 35
High Impedance Scheme
Stabilising
Resistors
Relay
36 36
Stator Phase-Phase Fault
Protection
Previous methods require access to winding neutral

end
Small machines :
Star connection made inside machine
Winding neutral ends are not brought out
If high speed protection required, restricted earth

fault scheme should be used
37 37
Stator Interturn Fault Protection
(1)
Longitudinal differential system does not detect interturn faults
Interturn fault protection not commonly provided because :

Fault rare
Even if interturn fault occurs, will develop into earth fault
Possible that serious damage can occur before fault is detected
38 38
Stator Interturn Fault Protection (2)
Zero Sequence Voltage Method :
VA
VB
VC
VA VB VC VR
FAUL
T
3rd Harmonic Rejection Required
R
VR = VA + VB + VC
39 39
Stator Interturn Fault Protection (3)
Transverse Differential Protection
(Double Wound Machines) :
Bias
Coils
Operate
Coils
40 40
Prime Mover Failure (1)
Isolated Generators :
Machine slows down and stops. Other protection initiates shut down.
Parallel Sets :
System supplies power - generator operates as a motor.

Seriousness depends on type of drive.
Steam Turbine Sets :
Steam acts as a coolant.

Loss of steam causes overheating.
Turbulence in trapped steam causes distortion of turbine blades.
Motoring power 0.5% to 6% rated.
Condensing turbines, rate of heating slow. Loss of steam instantly recognised.
41 41
Diesel Driven Sets :
Prime mover failure due to mechanical fault.

Serious mechanical damage if allowed to persist.
Motoring power from 35% rated for stiff machine, to 5% rated for run in machine.
Gas Turbines :
Motoring power 100% rated for single shaft machine, 10% to 15% rated for
double shaft.
Hydro Sets :
Mechanical precautions taken if water level drops.

Low head types - erosion and cavitation of runner can occur.
Additional protection may be required.
42 42
Reverse Power Protection :
Reverse power measuring relays used where protection

required.
Single phase relay is sufficient as prime mover failure results

in balanced conditions.
Sensitive settings required - metering class CTs required for

accuracy.
43 43
Reverse Power Protection (1)
Importing lagging VAR’s

-MVARLAG
Leading P.F.
Operate Restrain
-MW +MW
87.1°
Operate Restrain
Lagging P.F.
+MVARLAG
Exporting lagging VAR’s
44 44
Loss of Excitation (1)
EFFECTS
Single Generator :
Loses output volts and therefore load.
Parallel Generators :
Operate as induction motor (> synch speed)
Flux provided by reactive stator current drawn from
system-leading pf
Slip frequency current induced in rotor - abnormal
heating
Situation does not require immediate tripping,
however,
large machines have short thermal time constants - should be
unloaded in a few seconds.
45 45
Simple Protection Scheme
Field Exciter
Winding
Shunt Ie Requires access to
field connections.
DC relay Not suitable if
(setting < Ie min) generator operates
Aux Supply normally with low
excitation (large
T1
machines).
Alternative scheme
monitors impedance
T2
at generator
0.2 - 1 sec
Overcomes Alarm or terminals.
Slip Frequency Trip
Effects
2 - 10 secs
46 46
Alternative Scheme
XG XT XS
EG ES
On field failure ratio EG / ES decreases and rotor angle increases.
Machine starts to pole slip with decaying internal EMF.
47 47
Impedance seen by relay follows locus shown below :
Load Impedance
R
Impedance Offset – Prevents
Locus operation
on pole slips
Diameter
Typically : Relay Characteristic
Offset 50-75%X’d
Diameter 50-100% XS Time Delayed
48 48
Impedance Diagram for Various Operating Modes of
Machine
jx
IMPORT WATTS EXPORT WATTS

EXPORT VARLAG EXPORT VARAG
-R R
IMPORT WATTS EXPORT WATTS

EXPORT VARLEAD EXPORT VARLEAD
-jx
EXPORTING VARLAG = IMPORTING VARLEAD

EXPORTING VARLEAD = IMPORTING VARLAG
49 49
Unbalanced Loading (1)
Effects
Gives rise to negative phase sequence (NPS) currents -

results in contra-rotating magnetic field.
Stator flux cuts rotor at twice synchronous speed.
Induces double frequency current in field system and

rotor body.
Resulting eddy currents cause severe over heating.
50 50
Protection
Machines are assigned NPS current withstand values :
* Continuous NPS rating, I2R
* Short time NPS rating, I22t
If possible level of system unbalance approaches machin
continuous withstand, protection is required.
Use negative sequence overcurrent relay.
Relay should have inverse time characteristic to match
generator I22t withstand.
Relay pick-up setting should be just below I2R rating.
Can use an alarm setting of 70% to 100% to pick-up.
51 51
Machine NPS Withstand Values
TYPE OF ROTOR I2R I22t = K

MACHINE COOLING (PU CMR)
Typical Conventional 0.40 60

Salient Pole Air
Cylindrical Conventional 0.20 20
Rotor Hydrogen
0.5 PSI
Rotor Hydrogen
15 PSI
Rotor Hydrogen
30 PSI
Cylindrical Direct 0.10 3
Rotor Hydrogen
40 - 60 PSI
52 52
Rotor Earth Fault Protection (1)
Field circuit is an isolated DC system.

Insulation failure at a single point :
- No fault current, therefore no danger
- Increase change of second fault occurring
Insulation failure at a second point :
- Shorts out part of field winding
- Heating (burning of conductor)
- Flux distortion causing violent vibration of rotor
Desirable to detect presence of first earth fault and
give an alarm.
53 53
Potentiometer Method
Exciter
Required sensitivity approximately 5% exciter voltage.

No auxiliary supply required.
“Blind spot” - require manually operated push button to vary tapping
point.
54 54
AC Injection Method
AC Auxiliary
Supply
R
Brushless Machines
No access to rotor circuit
Require special slip rings for measurement
If slip rings not present, must use telemetering techniques
(expensive)
55 55
Overload Protection (1)
high load current
heating of stator and rotor
insulation failure
Governor Setting
Should prevent serious overload automatically.

Generator may lost speed if required load not be met by other sources.
High reactive power flow can give high stator current - not affected by
governor settings.
56 56
Overload Protection (2)
Direct Temperature Measuring Devices
Resistance temperature detectors (RTDs), thermocouples etc.,

embedded in windings.
Provide alarm and/or trip via auxiliary relays.
Set just above maximum load current.

Intended for short circuit protection.
Thermal Replica Relays
Current operated. May have ambient temperature compensation.
57 57
Generator Back-Up Protection (1)
Typical use :
Very or extremely inverse for LV machines
Normal inverse for HV machines
Must consider generator voltage decrement characteristic for close-in faults.

With reliable AVR system, “conventional” overcurrent relays may be used.
Otherwise, voltage controlled / restrained relays are required.
10 x
FL
with AVR
Full
Load
no AVR
Cycles
58 58
Generator Back-Up Protection (2)
Voltage Restrained
Operating characteristic is continuously varied depending on

measured volts.
Alternatively, use impedance relay.
Voltage Controlled
Relay switches between fault characteristic and load characteristic

depending on measured volts.
F
59 59
Voltage Controlled Overcurrent Protection
Overload
Characteristic
Is
Current Pick - up
t
Fault
Characteristic
Vs
I Voltage
60 60
Voltage Restrained Overcurrent Protection
More suited for indirect

connected generators
Equivalent to impedance
Current Pick-up
devices I>
KI>
VS2 VS1
Voltage
61 61
10
O/L CHARAC
1.0
FAULT CHARAC
LARGEST
OUTGOING 6.6kV
t
se FEEDER
5MVA
c 115% XS
0.1 GENERATO
R 500/5
DECREMEN 200/5
T
CURVE
0.01
100 240 600 1000 3000 10,000 AMPS
62 62
Impedance Relay
jx
RELAY
CHARACTERISTI
C
MZTU
Set to operate at 70% rated load impedance when voltage drops to zero,
current required to operate relay is 10% rated current. Built-in timer for
co-ordination purposes.
63 63
Under & Over Frequency Conditions (1)
Over Frequency
Results from generator over speed caused by sudden loss

of load.
In isolated generators may be due to failure of speed
governing system.
Over speed protection may be provided by mechanical
means.
Desirable to have over frequency relay with more sensitive
settings.
64 64
Under & Over Frequency Conditions (2)
Under Frequency
Results from loss of synchronous speed due to excessive

overload.
In isolated generators may be due to failure of speed
governing system.
Under frequency condition gives rise to:
Overfluxing of stator core at nominal volts
Plant drives operating at lower speeds - can affect
generator output
Mechanical resonant condition in turbines
Desirable to supply an under frequency relay.
Protection may be arranged to initiate load shedding as a
first step.
65 65
Under & Over Voltage Conditions (1)
Protection
Under & over voltage protection usually provided as part of

excitation system.
For most applications an additional high set over voltage
relay is sufficient.
Time delayed under and over voltage protection may be
provided.
66 66
Under & Over Voltage Conditions (2)
Over Voltage
Results from generator over speed caused by sudden loss of load.
May be due to failure of the voltage regulator.
An over voltage condition :

Causes overfluxing at nominal frequency
Endangers integrity of insulation
Under Voltage
No danger to generator. May cause stalling of motors.
Prolonged under voltage indicates abnormal conditions.
67 67
Other Protection Considerations
68 68
Pole Slipping Protection
Simplified diagram of a generator
Rotor Stator
E E
G S
ZG9356
69 69
Pole Slipping Detection
E E = 2.8 (max) X
G S
R
E E = 1.2
G S
E E =1
G S
E E = 0.8
G S
E E = 0.19 (min)
G S
MIS9357
70 70
Pole Slipping Protection
Also referred to as Out of Step protection

Techniques depends
on machine/system requirements
Utility practices
May be required to detect the first pole slip
Could be time delayed to detect pole slips resulting in
instability
71 71
72 72
73 73
74 74
75 75
Pole Slipping Protection - 78
Conventional lenticular (lens) characteristic

2 Zones defined by reactance line
Zone 1 - pole slip in the generator
Zone 2 - pole slip in the power system
Separate counters per zone (1-20)
Setting to detect pole slipping when :
Generating
Motoring
Both (Pumped storage generator)
76 76
Pole Slipping Protection - 78
Pole slip when generating

Impedance position on RHS of lens characteristic
Impedance crosses lens on RHS
Impedance spends >T1 (15ms) in RHS of lens
Impedance spends >T2 (15ms) in LHS of lens
Impedance leaves lens on LHS
Zone 1 and 2 counter is incremented if in Z1
Zone 2 counter is incremented if in Z2
Trip when zone counter value exceeded
Pole slipping when motoring is the opposite
77 77
Overfluxing
Often applied to :-
Generator transformers
Grid transformers
Flux Ø ∝ V / f
Caused by either :-
Increase in voltage
Reduction in frequency
Combination of both
Usually only a problem :-
during run-up or shut down
can be caused by loss of load / load shedding
78 78
Transformer Magnetising
Characteristic
Twice
Normal
Flux
Normal
Flux
Normal
No
Load No Load
Current Current at
Twice Normal
Flux
79 79
Magnetising Current with
Transformer Overfluxed
ZG0780C
80 80
Overfluxing
Effects of overfluxing :-
Increase in magnetising current
Increase in winding temperature
Increase in noise and vibration
Overheating of laminations and metal parts
(caused by stray flux)
Protective relay responds to V/f ratio
Co-ordinate with plant withstand characteristics
Typical generator application

Stage 1 - lower A.V.R.
Stage 2 - Trip field
81 81
Over-Fluxing Relay
Ex
G
VT
AVR RL
82 82
Low Forward Power Interlocking
Urgent Trip
Trip Directly to Circuit Breaker and Initiate shut down
Risk of overspeed
Examples :-
Generator Differential
stator ground fault
negative phase sequence.
83 83
Low Forward Power Interlocking
Non-Urgent Trip
Trip governor
Use low forward power interlocking to determine when main Circuit
Breaker is tripped
Reduced risk of overspeed, and consequential damage to the machine
Examples :-
Over voltage
Over load
Loss of synchronism
Field failure
84 84
Unintentional Energisation at
Standstill Scheme
Typical Approach
50
27 & Trip
tPU
&
tDO
VTS
Overcurrent element detects breaker

flashover or starting current (as
motor)
Three phase undervoltage detection
MiCOM-P340-85
VTS function checks no VT anomalies
85 85
VT Fuse Failure Protection
Typical Voltage Balance scheme (60)

Used for blocking purposes and for alarms
Line voltage comparison done
independently
Fast Operating time
May provide three outputs
– Comparison VT fuse failure
– Protection VT fuse failure
– Protection block
ZG7965D
86 86
Synchronising Relays
Often applied to :-
Synchronising of Generators
Transmission line auto-reclose schemes
Synchronising of Generators
Check voltage magnitudes
Check slip frequency
Check phase angle difference
Synchroscope
Speed of rotation depends on slip frequency
If frequencies matched, phase angle displacement indicated
Does not indicate voltage magnitude
87 87
Voltage Checking & Comparators
Voltage comparators often used in Transmission line auto-

reclose schemes :-
- Live Line / Dead Bus
- Dead Line / Live Bus
- Dead Line / Dead Bus
Voltage monitors :-
- Undervoltage monitor (e.g. Transmission Line)
- Differential voltage monitor (e.g. Generator)
88 88
Auto-Synchronising Relays
Applied to Synchronising of Generators to control the

machine
Controls :-
Filed current to adjust voltage magnitude
Governor to adjust slip frequency
Governor to correct constant phase displacement
89 89
Typical Schemes
90 90
Tripping Modes
Class A HV breaker , Field breaker, Turbine

For faults in the generator zone
Class B Turbine Trip

HV Breaker & Field Breaker interlocked
with low forward power relay
Class C HV breaker
91 91
Protection Package for Diesel Generator Connected Directly and Operating
in Parallel with a Supply Authority Infeed
87
G
64
R
32 51
V 32 Reverse Power MWTU01
64R Rotor Earth Fault MRSU01
64 64S Stator Earth Fault MCSU01
R
51V Voltage Dependent Overcurrent
MCVG31
87G Generator Differential MFAC34
92 92
Overall Protection of Directly Connected
Generator Installation
Stator Earth Fault 64S
Rotor Earth Fault 64R

Differential Protection 87
51V
Voltage Controlled O/C
46 Negative Phase Sequence
32 Reverse Power
40 Field Failure
81 Under / Over Frequency
27/59 Under / Over Voltage
93 93
Overall Protection of Generator Installation (1)
Generator
Feeder Protn.
Overcurrent
Voltage Restraint 51 V
Restricted
E/F
Buchholz
Winding Temp.
Reverse 32
Power
Field Failure 40
Generator Differential 87
Rotor E/F Prime Mover Protection
64R
Negative Phase Sequence 46
Overall
Gen/Trans Diffl
Protn. Stator E/F 64S
94 94
Overall Protection of Generator Installation (2)
Generator Feeder
Protection
O/C Circuit Breaker Fail
Busbar Protection
Restricted
E/F
Buchholz Winding
Temperature
O/C + E/F
Buchholz O/C V.T.s
Transformer
Overfluxing
Standby Permissive
E/F (Low Power)
Interlock
Restricted Pole Slipping
E/F Field Failure
Generator Differential
Unit Transformer Low Steam Pressure, Loss of Vacuum

Differential Protn.
Rotor E/F Loss of Lubricating Oil
Loss of Boiler Water
Governor Failure
Overall Generator
Vibration, Rotor Distortion
Transformer
Differential Protn. Negative Phase Sequence
Stator E/F
Protection
95 95
Embedded Generation
96 96
Embedded Generation
USED TO PROVIDE:
Emergency Power Upon Loss Of Main Supply
Operate In Parallel To Reduce Site Demand
Excess Generation May Be Exported Or Sold
97 97
Co-generation/Embedded
Machines
AR?
PES
system
Islanded load
fed unearthed
MiCOM-P340-98
98 98
Islanded Operation Must Be Avoided To Ensure:
Unearthed Operation Of Main Supply Network
Automatic Reclosure Of CB Will Not Result In Connecting

Unsynchronised Supplies
Staff Cannot Attempt Unsynchronised Manual Closure Of An Open

CB
Faults On Electricity Supply Companies Network Being Undetected

Due To Low Fault Supplying Capability Of Embedded Generator
Voltage & Frequency Supplied To Customers Remains Within

Statutory Limits
99 99
PROTECTION
Under/Over Voltage & Under/Over Frequency
Keep Voltage & Frequency Within Statutory Limits
Directional Power / Overcurrent
Used When Generator Does Not Export Power During

Normal Operation
100 100
PROTECTION
Loss Of Mains
Used Where Generating Capacity Is Closely Matched

To Load Or Where Normal Operation Requires The
Export Of Power
Two Types Are Used:
Rate Of Change Of Frequency

- Sensitive
- Possible Nuisence Tripping
Voltage Vector Shift

- Requires Higher Change In load
- More Stable
101 101
Protection
Under/Over Voltage & Under/Over Frequency
Keep Voltage & Frequency Within Statutory Limits
Directional Power / Overcurrent
Used When Generator Does Not Export Power During

Normal Operation
102 102
Protection
Loss Of Mains
Used Where Generating Capacity Is Closely Matched

To Load Or Where Normal Operation Requires The
Export Of Power
Two Types Are Used:
Rate Of Change Of Frequency

- Sensitive
- Possible Nuisance Tripping
Voltage Vector Shift

- Requires Higher Change In load
- More Stable
103 103
MiCOM P341 Applications
G59 Protection Equipment
Voltage Vector Shift Protection
An expression for a sinusoidal mains voltage waveform is generally
given by the following:
V = Vp sin (wt) or V = Vp sin θ (t)
where θ(t) = wt = 2πft
If the frequency is changing at constant rate Rf from a frequency fo

then the variation in the angle θ(t) is given by:
θ(t) = 2π∫f dt, (F = Fo + Rf t)
which gives θ(t) = 2π{fo t + t Rf t/2}
and V = V sin {2π(fo + t Rf/2)t}
Hence the angle change ∆θ(t) after time t is given by:
∆θ(t) = πRf t2
104 104
Single phase line diagram showing generator parameters
R jX
IL
E VT
- MiCOM P341 Generator Protection -

105 105
Vector Diagram Representing Steady State Condition
IL X
VT I LR
IL

106 106
Transient voltage vector change θ due to change in
load current ∆IL
E
ILX
VT ILR
θ
IL VT
∆ILX”
∆IL

107 107
df/dt
The rate of change of speed, or frequency, following a power
disturbance can be approximated by:
df/dt = ∆P.f
2GH
where P = Change in power output between

synchronised and islanded operation
f = Rated frequency
G = Machine rate MVA
H = Inertia constant
108 108
P341 df/dt calculation
F n - f n - 3 cycle
df/dt =
3 cycle
Two consecutive calculations must give a result above

the setting threshold before a trip decision can be
initiated

109 109
Voltage and Frequency Relay
fi-3 fi-2 fi-1 fi fi+1
f(i-2) - f(i-3)
(df/dt)i-2
= t(i-2) - t(i-3)
f(i-1) - f(i-2)
(df/dt)i-1 =
t(i-1) - t(i-2)
f(i) - f(i-1)
(df/dt)i =
t(i) - t(i-1)
The instantaneous ROCOF is measured
every cycle based upon frequencies being
insensitive to vector shift, phase jumps f(i+1) - f(i)
(df/dt)i+1 =
and harmonics t(i+1) - t(i)
110 110
1 1
2 3
2 3
fi-3 fi-2 fi-1 fi
df/dt)i-3 df/dt)i-2 df/dt)i-1 df/dt)i
Average Values
df/dt)i-3 + df/dt)i-2 + df/dt)i-1
df/dt CYCLE df/dt =
BN = 3 3
df/dt)i-2 + df/dt)i-1 + df/dt)i
df/dt VALIDAT df/dt =
NB = 2 3
Threshold : df/dt If both measured values are >

than the threshold, the
[81R]df/dt1 = protectionelement will function.
0,5 Hzs
111 111
1 21 31
2 31
2 32 3
fi-3 fi-2 fi-1 fi fi+1 fi+2
df/dt)i-1 df/dt)i df/dt)i+1 df/dt)i+2

df/dt)i-3 df/dt)i-2
df/dt)i-3 + df/dt)i-2 + df/dt)i-1

df/dt = 3
df/dt CYCLE
Average Values
NB = 3
df/dt)i-2 + df/dt)i-1 + df/dt)i
df/dt =
3
df/dt VALIDAT
NB = 4
df/dt)i-1 + df/dt)i+ df/dt)i+1
df/dt = 3
Threshold : df/dt
[81R]df/dt1 = df/dt)i + df/dt)i+1+ df/dt)i+2

0,5 Hzs df/dt = 3
112 112
Frequency supervised rate of change of frequency
F<>
EQU.A=
AND Load SHED.
df/dt
aver.
f
50 Hz
49 Hz
Slow decay.
48.6 Hz
Rapid decay.
t
113 113
The rate of change of frequency is supervised by a value

of frequency. The percentage of load to be shed to stop
the frequency decay varies with the df/dt.
This could be used to make the load shedding scheme

faster to severe system conditions and accelerate the
recovery process by shedding more load than would have
been done for slow decay at same frequency.
Frequency supervised rate of change of frequency f+df/dt
114 114
df/dt+t: Time Delayed ROCOF
t
Start
Pick up cycles
Trip
f
Time delay
df/dt Setting
115 115
Auto-Reclosing On Transmission Systems
Fault Shunts (1)
Z1 F1
E ZF
N1
ZF = Fault shunt
= Combined Impedance of -ve and zero sequence
network impedances for particular fault.
2 > Auto-Reclosing and System Stability – January 2004 2

Fault Shunts (2)
Ø/E ZF = Z2 + Z0
Ø/Ø ZF = Z2
Ø/Ø/E ZF = Z2 . Z0
Z2 + Z0
3Ø ZF = 0 (short circuit)
Healthy ZF = ∝ (open circuit)

Use Of Power Angle Curves

Power Angle Curves
E1 E2 sin δ
Power Flow =
Z
Power
Load Angle (δ)

Comparative Power Angle Curves
Power 3Ø Healthy
2Ø Healthy
1Ø Tripped
Ø/E Fault
Ø/Ø/E Fault
3Ø Fault
3Ø Tripped
Load Angle (δ)

Steady State
X Y
Power
Normal Healthy
Operation
A
P0
Phase Angle
Difference
δ0
During Fault
X Y
Power
Normal
A
P0
Ø/Ø/E Fault
P0 - P1
C
P1 B
δ0 Phase Difference
δ1
Increased Power Level
X Y
Power
Normal
F
P2 ' Faulted Feeder
A E Disconnected
P0
D
P2
Ø/Ø/E Fault
C
B Phase Difference
δ0 δ2
δ1
Damping
Power Normal
F Faulted Feeder
Disconnected
P0 E
Ø/Ø/E Fault
Phase Difference
Power transfer and phase difference oscillates around ‘E’.
Damping causes system to settle at E in stable condition:-

P0 transfer.

Equal Area Criteria
Power
Normal
Faulted Feeder
E Disconnected
G
P0 '
A
D
C Ø/Ø/E Fault
B
δ2 Phase Angle
Difference
G = Equal areas when G lies on P0'

P0' = Max. power transmitted for transient stability.

Transient Fault – Successful A/R
Power Normal
G
P0'' A H
F
E Faulted Feeder
D Disconnected
BC Ø/Ø/E Fault
Phase Angle
Difference
Successful 3Ø A/R at ‘E’.
H = Equal area when H lies on P0''
P0'' = Max. power transmitted for transient stability with 3Ø
A/R.
3ph or 1ph A/R

Single Feeder – 3ph A/R
X Y
Power
Normal
P3Ø(A/R)
Ø/E Fault
Line Open 3Ø
Phase
Angle
Difference
δ
P3Ø(A/R) = Power transfer limit for stability following
successful high speed 3Ø auto-reclose.
High Speed 1Ø A/R Single Interconnector
Power Normal
P1Ø(A/R)
1Ø Open
Ø/E Fault
δ Phase Angle
Difference
P1Ø(A/R) = Power transfer limit for stability following

successful high speed 1Ø auto-reclose.
1Ø Auto-Reclose Advantages (over 3Ø A/R)
1. Higher power transfer limit.
2. Reduced power swing amplitude.
3. Reduced switching overvoltages due to reclosing.
4. Reduced shock to generators.

Sudden changes in mechanical output are less

Choice of Scheme

Choice of Scheme (1)
High Speed Auto-Reclose
1. Single transmission links.
2. 3Ø A/R.
3. 1Ø A/R for E/Fs

Lockout for multiphase faults.
4. 1Ø A/R for E/Fs

3Ø A/R for multiphase faults.

Choice of Scheme (2)
Delayed 3Ø Auto-Reclose
1. Densely interconnected systems.

Ð
Minimal power transfer level
reduction during dead time
2. Power swings due to fault and tripping

allowed to decay
Ð
Less shock to system than with high
speed A/R

1Ø Auto-Reclose Factors Requiring
Consideration
1. Separate control of circuit breaker poles.
2. Protection must provide phase selection.
3. Mutual coupling can prolong arcing and require

de-ionising time.
4. Unbalance during dead time

(i) Interference with communications
(ii) Parallel feeder protection may maloperate
5. More complex and expensive than 3Ø A/R

High Speed Auto-Reclose (H.S.A.R.) (1)
Protection
High speed < 2 cycles
Fast clearance at each line end.

Phase comparison
Distance schemes with signalling
Distance scheme with zone 1 extension
Direct intertrip
Phase selection required for 1Ø A/R

High Speed Auto-Reclose (H.S.A.R.) (2)
Dead Time (short as possible)
Circuit breaker minimum ‘open - close’

time
∼ 200 - 300 msecs.
Same dead time at each line end.
De-ionising time
1Ø A/R longer → special steps

Delayed Auto-Reclosing (D.A.R.) (1)
Protection
High speed not critical for system stability
↓
desirable to limit fault damage
↓
improves probability of successful A/R
Dead Time
Allow for power swings and rotor oscillations to
die down.
Different settings for opposite feeder ends.
Typically 5 to 60 secs.
Delayed Auto-Reclosing (D.A.R.) (2)
Reclaim Time
Allow c.b. capacity to recover to full interrupting
value.
Number of Shots
1 (invariably)

Check Synchronizing

Synchronism Check
On interconnected systems - little chance of complete loss of

synchronism after fault and disconnection of a single feeder.
Phase angle difference may change to cause unacceptable shock to
system when line ends are re-connected.
VB
VL
VL = 0
VB = live
∴ Dead Line Charge

Check Synchronising
Used when system is non radial.

Check synch relay usually checks 3 things:
1) Phase angle difference

2) Voltage
3) Frequency difference

Current Transformers
Current Transformer Function
X Reduce power system current to lower value for

measurement.
X Insulate secondary circuits from the primary.
X Permit the use of standard current ratings for secondary

equipment.
REMEMBER :
The relay performance DEPENDS on the C.T which
drives it !
3 > Current Transformers – January 2004 3

Instrument Transformer Standards
IEC IEC 185:1987 CTs

IEC 44-6:1992 CTs
IEC 186:1987 VTs
EUROPEAN BS 7625 VTs

BS 7626 CTs
BS 7628 CT+VT
BRITISH BS 3938:1973 CTs

BS 3941:1975 VTs
AMERICAN ANSI C51.13.1978 CTs and VTs
CANADIAN CSA CAN3-C13-M83 CTs and VTs
AUSTRALIAN AS 1675-1986 CTs

Polarity
Is
P1 P2
Ip
S1 S2
Inst. Current directions :-
P1 Î P2
S1 Î S2 Externally

Flick Test
P1
Is
Ip
S1 FWD kick on application,
+ REV kick on removal of
test lead.
V
- Battery (6V) + to P1
S2 AVO +ve lead to S1
P2

Basic Theory

Basic Theory (1)
IS
IP
1 Primary Turn
N Secondary Turns
For an ideal transformer :-
PRIMARY AMPERE TURNS = SECONDARY AMPERE TURNS
⇒ IP = N x IS

Basic Theory (2)
IS
IP
ES R
For IS to flow through R there must be some potential -

ES = the E.M.F.
ES = IS x R
ES is produced by an alternating flux in the core.
ES ∝ dØ
dt
Basic Theory (3)
NP
IP
NS
IS EK
ZCT
ZB
VO/P = ISZB = EK - ISZCT

Basic Formulae
Circuit Voltage Required :
ES = IS (ZB + ZCT + ZL) Volts

where :-
IS = Secondary Current of C.T. (Amperes)
ZB = Connected External Burden (Ohms)
ZCT = C.T Winding Impedance (Ohms)
ZL = Lead Loop Resistance (Ohms)
Require EK > ES

Low Reactance Design
With evenly distributed winding the leakage

reactance is very low and usually ignored.
Thus ZCT ~ RCT

Knee-Point Voltage Definition
Exciting Voltage (VS) +10% Vk

Vk
+50% Iek
Iek
Exciting Current (Ie)
C.T. Equivalent Circuit
ZCT
Ip
P1 Is
Ip/N Ie
S1
N Ze Es Vt Zb
Ip = Primary rating of C.T. Ie = Secondary excitation current

N = C.T. ratio Is = Secondary current
Zb = Burden of relays in ohms Es = Secondary excitation voltage
(r+jx) Vt = Secondary terminal voltage
ZCT = C.T. secondary winding across the C.T. terminals
impedance in ohms (r+jx)
Ze = Secondary excitation
impedance in ohms (r+jx)

Phasor Diagram
Φ
Ip/N
Ie
Is Ie
Im
Es
Ep Ic
Ep = Primary voltage Im = Magnetising current
Es = Secondary voltage Ie = Excitation current
Φ = Flux Ip = Primary current
Ic = Iron losses (hysteresis & Is = Secondary current
eddy currents)
Saturation

Steady State Saturation (1)
100A 100A E=
1A 1A 100V
100/1 100
100/1 E 1 ohm E ohm
E=
1V
100A 100A E=?

1A 1A
100/1 10 100/1 1000
E ohm E= E ohm
10V

Transient Saturation
v = VM sin (wt + σ)
R1 L1
Z1
i1
v = VM sin (wt + σ)
VM V
i1 = + sin (wt + σ - ∅ ) = M sin (σ - ∅ ) . e -R1t / L1
Z1 Z1 where : - Z1 = R12 + w 2L12
wL1
∅ = tan-1
= + Ιˆ1 sin (wt + σ - ∅ ) - Ιˆ1 sin (σ - ∅ ) . e -R1t / L1
R1
V
Ιˆ1 = M
= STEADY STATE + TRANSIENT Z1

Transient Saturation : Resistive Burden
Required Flux
ØSAT
FLUX
Actual Flux
Mag Current
0
Primary Current
Secondary Current
CURRENT
0
10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 M

CT Types

Current Transformer Function
Two basic groups of C.T.
X Measurement C.T.s
Limits well defined
X Protection C.T.s
Operation over wide range of currents
Note : They have DIFFERENT characteristics

Measuring C.T.s
Measuring C.T.s
B
X Require good accuracy up to
approx 120% rated current.
Protection C.T.
X Require low saturation level to
protect instruments, thus use
nickel iron alloy core with low
exciting current and knee
point at low flux density.
Protection C.T.s
X Accuracy not as important as
above.
Measuring C.T.
X Require accuracy up to many
times rated current, thus use
grain orientated silicon steel
with high saturation flux
density. H
Current Transformer Ratings

Current Transformer Ratings (1)
Rated Burden
X Value of burden upon which accuracy claims are based

X Usually expressed in VA
X Preferred values :-
2.5, 5, 7.5, 10, 15, 30 VA
Continuous Rated Current

X Usually rated primary current
Short Time Rated Current

X Usually specified for 0.5, 1, 2 or 3 secs
X No harmful effects
X Usually specified with the secondary shorted
Rated Secondary Current

X Commonly 1, 2 or 5 Amps

Current Transformer Ratings (2)
Rated Dynamic Current
Ratio of :-
IPEAK : IRATED
(IPEAK = Maximum current C.T. can withstand without
suffering any damage).
Accuracy Limit Factor - A.L.F.

(or Saturation Factor)
Ratio of :-
IPRIMARY : IRATED
up to which the C.T. rated accuracy is maintained.
e.g. 200 / 1A C.T. with an A.L.F. = 5 will maintain its

accuracy for IPRIMARY < 5 x 200 = 1000 Amps

Choice of Ratio
Clearly, the primary rating

IP ≥ normal current in the circuit
if thermal (continuous) rating is not to be exceeded.
Secondary rating is usually 1 or 5 Amps (0.5 and 2 Amp
are also used).
If secondary wiring route length is greater than 30
metres - 1 Amp secondaries are preferable.
A practical maximum ratio is 3000 / 1.
If larger primary ratings are required (e.g. for large
generators), can use 20 Amp secondary together with
interposing C.T.
e.g. 5000 / 20 - 20 / 1

Current Transformer Designation
Class “P”
Specified in terms of :-
i) Rated burden
ii) Class (5P or 10P)
iii) Accuracy limit factor (A.L.F.)
Example :-
15 VA 10P 20
To convert VA and A.L.F. into useful volts
Vuseful ≈ VA x ALF
IN

BS 3938
Classes :- 5P, 10P. ‘X’

Designation (Classes 5P, 10P)
(Rated VA) (Class) (ALF)
Multiple of rated current (IN) up to which declared

accuracy will be maintained with rated burden
connected.
5P or 10P.
Value of burden in VA on which accuracy claims
are based.
(Preferred values :- 2.5, 5, 7.5, 10, 15, 30 VA)
ZB = rated burden in ohms
= Rated VA
IN2
Interposing CT

Interposing CT
LINE NP NS ZB
CT
ZCT
Burden presented to line CT

= ZCT + ZB x NP2
NS2
NEG. 5A 1A 0.5Ω
R
500/5 0.1Ω 0.4Ω 1VA @ 1A
≡ 1.0Ω
‘Seen’ by main ct :- 0.1 + (1)2 (2 x 0.5 + 0.4 + 1) = 0.196Ω
(5)
Burden on main ct :- I2R = 25 x 0.196 = 4.9VA
Burden on a main ct of required ratio :-
0.5Ω
R
500/1 1.0Ω
Total connected burden = 2 x 0.5 + 1 = 2Ω
Connected VA = I2R = 2
∴ The I/P ct consumption was about 3VA.

Class “X”
Specified in terms of :-
i) Rated Primary Current
ii) Turns Ratio (max. error = 0.25%)
iii) Knee Point Voltage
iv) Mag Current (at specified voltage)
v) Secondary Resistance (at 75°C)

Choice of Current Transformer
X Instantaneous Overcurrent Relays

Class P Specification
A.L.F. = 5 usually sufficient
For high settings (5 - 15 times C.T rating)
A.L.F. = relay setting
X IDMT Overcurrent Relays

Generally Class 10P
Class 5P where grading is critical
Note : A.L.F. X V.A < 150
X Differential Protection
Class X Specification
Protection relies on balanced C.T output

Selection Example

Burden on Current Transformers
1. Overcurrent : RCT + RL + Rr 2. Earth : RCT + 2RL + 2Rr
RCT RCT
RCT IF RCT
RCT RCT
IF
RL RL RL RL RL IF RL RL RL
IF
Rr Rr Rr Rr Rr Rr Rr Rr

Overcurrent Relay VK Check
Assume values : If max = 7226 A RCT = 0.26 Ω

C.T = 1000 / 5 A Rr = 0.02 Ω
7.5 VA 10P 20 RL = 0.15 Ω
Check to see if VK is large enough :

Required voltage = VS = IF (RCT + Rr + RL)
= 7226 x 5 (0.26 + 0.02 + 0.15) = 36.13 x 0.43 = 15.54 Volts
1000
Current transformer VK approximates to :-

VK Ω VA x ALF + RCT x IN x ALF
In
= 7.5 x 20 + 0.26 x 5 x 20 = 56 Volts
5
VK > VS therefore C.T VK is adequate

Earth Fault Relay VK Check
Assume values : As per overcurrent.
Note For earth fault applications require to be able to pass

10 x relay setting.
Check to see if VK is large enough : VK = 56 Volts
Total load connected = 2RL + RCT + 2Rr

= 2 x 0.15 + 0.26 + 2 x 0.02
∴ Maximum secondary current

= 56 = 93.33A
0.6
Typical earth fault setting = 30% IN

= 1.5A
Therefore C.T can provide > 60 x setting
C.T VK is adequate
Voltage Transformers

Voltage Transformers
X Provides isolation from high voltages
X Must operate in the linear region to prevent

accuracy problems - Do not over specify VT
X Must be capable of driving the burden, specified by

relay manufacturer
X Protection class VT will suffice

Typical Working Points on a B-H Curve
Flux Density
‘B’ Saturation
1.6 Metering C.T.’s & Power Transformers
Tesla 1.0 V.T.’s
0.5 Protection C.T. (at full load)

‘H’
1000 2000 3000

Magnetising Force
AT/m
Types of Voltage Transformers
Two main basic types are available:
X Electromagnetic VT`s
Similar to a power transformer
May not be economical above 132kV
X Capacitor VT`s (CVT)

Used at high voltages
Main difference is that CVT has a
capacitor divider on the front end.

Electromagnetic Voltage Transformer
NP / NS
= Kn RP LP RS LS
IP Ie IS
LM Re ZB
VP VS (burden)
EP = ES IM IC

Basic Circuit of a Capacitor V.T.
C1
VP T
ZB
C2 VS
VC2 Vi

VT Earthing
X Primary Earthing
Earth at neutral point
Required for phase-ground measurement at relay
X Secondary Earthing
Required for safety
Earth at neutral point
When no neutral available - earth yellow phase
(VERY COMMON)
No relevance for protection operation

VT Construction
X 5 Limb
Used when zero sequence measurement is
required (primary must also be earthed)
X Three Single Phase
Used when zero sequence measurement is
required (primary must also be earthed)
X 3 Limb
Used where no zero sequence measurement is
required
X V Connected (Open Delta)
No yellow phase
Cost effective
Two phase-phase voltages
No ground fault measurement

VT Connections
Broken Delta V Connected

A B C N
a b c
da dn
a b c
a b c n

VT Construction - Residual
X Used to detect earthfault

X Useful where current operated protection cannot be
used
X Connect all secondary windings in series
X Sometimes referred to as `Broken Delta`

X Residual Voltage is 3 times zero sequence voltage
X VT must be 5 Limb or 3 single phase units
X Primary winding must be earthed

Voltage Factors Vf
X Vf is the upper limit of operating voltage.
X Important for correct relay operation.
X Earthfaults cause displacement of system neutral,

particularly in the case of unearthed or impedance
earthed systems.

Protection of VT’s
X H.R.C. Fuses on primary side
X Fuses may not have sufficient interrupting capability
X Use MCB

Motor Protection
Introduction
z Many different applications

z Different motor characteristics
Difficult to standardise protection
Protection applied ranges from
FUSES to RELAYS
Introduction
COST & EXTENT = POTENTIAL

OF PROTECTION HAZARDS
SIZE OF MOTOR,
TYPE & IMPORTANCE
OF THE LOAD
Motor Protection
SYSTEM MOTOR CIRCUIT LOAD

Voltage Dips Insulation failure Overload
Voltage Open circuits Locked rotor
Unbalance Short circuits Coupling faults
Loss of supply Overheating Bearing faults
Faults
Motor Protection Application
Voltage Rating Switching Protection
Device
< 600V < 11kW Contactor (i) Fuses

(ii) Fuses + direct acting
thermal O/L + U/V
releases
< 600V 11 - 300kW Contactor Fuses

+ Electronic O/L
3.3kV 100kW - 1.5MW Contactor + Time delayed E/F
Options :- Stalling
6.6kV 1MW - 3MW Contactor Undercurrent
6.6kV > 1MW Circuit

Breaker As above
+ Instantaneous O/C
11kV > 1MW Circuit + Differential
Breaker
Introduction
Protection must be able to :-

Operate for abnormal conditions
Protection must not :-

Affect normal motor operation
Considerations :-
- Starting current
- Starting time
- Full load current
- Stall withstand time (hot & cold)
- Thermal withstand
Mechanical Overload
Mechanical Overload
OVERLOAD
HEATING
INSULATION
DETERIORATION
OVERLOAD PROTECTION
FUSES THERMAL REPLICA

Motor Heating
MOTOR TEMPERATURE
T = Tmax (1 - e-t/τ)
TMAX
Time
Rate of rise depend on motor
thermal time constant τ
or as temp rise ∝ (current)2

T = KI2max (1 - e-t/τ)
Motor Heating
I2
I22 T2
I12 T1
IR2 TMAX
Time
t2 t1
Time
t1
t2 Thermal Withstand
Current
IR I1 I2
Motor Cooling
COOLING EQUATION :
I2m' = I2m e-t/τr
Current2
Im
Im'
0 t Time
After time ‘t’ equivalent motor current is reduced from Im
to Im’.
Motor Heating
Temp
Trip
Tmax
T
t1 t2 Time
Cooling time
constant τr
t1 = Motor restart not possible
t2 = Motor restart possible
Emergency Restart
z In certain applications, such as mine

exhaust and ship pumps, a machine
restart is required knowing that it will
result in reduced life or even
permanent damage.
– All start up restrictions are inhibited

– Thermal state limited to 90%
Start / Stall Protection
Stalling Protection
Required for :-
Stalling on start-up (locked rotor)
Stalling during running
With normal 3Ø supply :-
ISTALL = ILOCKED ROTOR ~ ISTART
∴ Cannot distinguish between ‘STALL’ and ‘START’ by

current alone.
Most cases :- tSTART < tSTALL WITHSTAND

Sometimes :- tSTART > tSTALL WITHSTAND
Locked Rotor Protection
Start Time < Stall Withstand Time
Where Starting Time is less than Stall Withstand Time :

z Use thermal protection characteristic
z Use dedicated locked rotor protection
Locked Rotor Protection :- tSTART < tSTALL
Thermal relay also provides protection against 3Ø stall.

t
Thermal Cold Curve
tSL Cold Stall

Withstand
tST
Start
Thermal Hot Curve
IFL IST I
ISL
Dedicated Locked Rotor Protection
Definite Time
Thermal Cold O/C (IS) (tS)

T
tSL
tS
Cold Stall Trip
tSTART Withstand
tSL > tS > tSTART
IST
IS
ISL
Hot Stall Protection
Tstart < Tstall

Use of motor start contact to distinguish between starting and hot stall
Time
Hot Stall Withstand

start
time
tSL (HOT)
Full load Io/c Current

Current
Locked Rotor Protection
Start Time > Cold Stall Withstand
z Motors with high inertia loads may often take longer to

start than the stall withstand time
z However, the rotor is not being damaged because, as
the rotor turns the “skin effect” reduces, allowing the
current to occupy more of the rotor winding
z This reduces the heat generated and dissipates the
existing heat over a greater area
z Detect start using tachometer input
Stall Protection
Tstart > Tstall

Use of tachoswitch and definite time overcurrent relay.
Time
Tacho opens at
∼ 10% speed
TD < Tstall
> Tacho opening
Start
Time Stall - Tstall
TD
Full load Io/c Current

Current
Unbalanced Supply Protection
Operation on Supply Unbalance
Negative sequence impedance is much less than positive

sequence impedance.
Small unbalance = relatively large negative sequence

current.
Heating effect of negative sequence is greater than

equivalent positive sequence current because they are
HIGHER FREQUENCY.
Operation on Supply Unbalance
At normal running speed
POSITIVE SEQ IMP ≈ STARTING CURRENT

NEGATIVE SEQ IMP NORMAL RUNNING
CURRENT
Negative sequence impedance is much less than positive

sequence impedance.
Small unbalance = relatively large negative sequence

current.
Heating effect of negative sequence is greater than

equivalent positive sequence current because they are
HIGHER FREQUENCY.
Equivalent Motor Current
Heating from negative sequence current greater than

positive sequence
→ take this into account in thermal calculation
Ieq = (I12 + nI22)½
where : n = typically 6
→ small amount of I2 gives large increase in Ieq and

hence calculated motor thermal state.
Loss of 1 Phase While Starting
STAR Normal starting current DELTA

A
VAN
ΙA = A
z z
z
With 1 phase open C
z
B VAB 3VAN B
C
Ι' A = =
2z 2z
= 0.866 x Ι A 3VAB
Normal =
1 1 z
Ι1 = (Ι' A + aΙ'B ) = (1- a)Ι' A
3 3 1 Phase open
1 3
Ι1 = Ι A = VAB x
2 2z
1 1 = 0.866 x normal
Ι 2 = (Ι' A + a Ι'B ) = (1- a2 )Ι' A
2
3 3
1 1 winding carries twice
Ι2 = Ι A
2 the current in the other 2.
Single Phase Stalling Protection
z Loss of phase on starting motor remains stationary

z Start Current = 0.866 normal start I
z Neg seq component = 0.5 normal start I
– Clear condition using negative sequence element
Typical setting ~ 1/3 I2

i.e. 1/6 normal start current
Single Phasing While Running
Difficult to analyse in simple terms

z Slip calculation complex
z Additional I2 fed from parallel equipment
Results in :-
z I2 causes high rotor losses.
Heating considerably increased.
z Motor output reduced.
May stall depending on load.
z Motor current increases.
Reverse Phase Sequence Starting
Protection required for lift motors, conveyors
Instantaneous I2 unit
Time delayed thermal trip
Separate phase sequence detector for low

load current machines
Undervoltage Protection
Undervoltage Considerations
z Reduced torque
z Increased stator current
z Reduced speed
z Failure to run-up
Form of undervoltage condition :-

z Slight but prolonged (regulation)
z Large transient dip (fault clearance)
Undervoltage protection :-
z Disconnects motor from failed supply
z Disconnects motor after dip long enough to
prevent successful re-acceleration
Undervoltage Considerations
z U/V tripping should be delayed for essential motors so

that they may be given a chance to re-accelerate
following a short voltage dip (< 0.5s)
z Delayed drop-out of fused contactor could be arranged

by using a capacitor in parallel with the AC holding coil
Insulation Failure
Insulation Failure
Results of prolonged or cyclic overheating
z Instantaneous Earth Fault Protection

z Instantaneous Overcurrent Protection
z Differential Protection on some large machines
Rstab
50 (A) Residually connected CT’s
50 (B) Core Balance (Toroidal)CT
M Note: * In (A) CT’s can also drive thermal protection

* In (B) protection can be more sensitive
and is stable
50
Short Circuit
z Due to the machine construction internal phase-phase

faults are almost impossible
z Most phase-phase faults occur at the machine terminals
or occasionally in the cabling
z Ideally the S/C protection should be set just above the
max Istart (I>>=1.25Istart), however, there is an initial
start current of up to 2.5Istart which rapidly reduces over
3 cycles
– Increase I>> or delay tI>> in small increments
according to start conditions
– Use special I>> characteristic
Instantaneous Earth Fault or Neg. Seq. Tripping is not
Permitted with Contactors
TRIP
TIME
MPR
FUSE
M
Ts MPR
ELEMENT
Is Icont CURRENT
Ts > Tfuse at Icont.

High-Impedance Winding Differential Protection
87 87 87
A B C
Note: Protection must be stable with starting current.

Self-Balance Winding Differential Protection
87
A
87
B
87
C
Bearings
Bearing Failure
Electrical Interference
Induced voltage
Results in circulating currents
May fuse the bearings
Remember to take precautions - earthing
Mechanical Failure
Increased Friction
Loss or Low Lubricant
Heating
Use of RTDs
RTD sensors at known stator hotspots
Absolute temperature measurements to bias the relay

thermal characteristic
Monitoring of motor / load bearing temperatures
Ambient air temperature measurement

Synchronous Motors
Synchronous Machines
z OUT OF STEP PROTECTION

Inadequate field or excessive load can cause the
machine to fall out of step. This subjects the
machine to overcurrent and pulsating torque
leading to stalling
>Field Current Method
Detect AC Current Induced In Field
Circuit.
>Power Factor Method
Detect Heavy Current At Low Power
Factor.
Synchronous Machines
z LOSS OF SUPPLY
On Loss Of Supply Motor Should Be
Disconnected If Supply Could Be Restored
Automatically.
Avoids Supply Being Restored Out Of Phase.
>Overvoltage & Underfrequency

>Underpower & Reverse Power
Busbar Protection
Protection & Contrôle / Application

1 05/02/03
08/02 Rev. A JM, September 2004 1
Without Busbar Protection
F1 F2
Argues
z There are fewer faults on busbars than on other parts of the
power system.
z No risk of dislocation of system due to accidental operation of
busbar protection.
2 05/02/03
08/02 2
Without Busbar Protection
F1 F2
Drawbacks
z Slow fault clearance.
Busbar faults at F1 and F2 are cleared by remote time
delayed protection on circuits feeding the faults:
Time Delayed Overcurrent or
Time Delayed Distance Protection
3 05/02/03
08/02 3
With Busbar Protection
BUSBAR
ZONE
F1
z Fast clearance by breakers at the busbars
4 05/02/03
08/02 4
BUSBAR
ZONE
F1 F2
z Where busbars are sectionalised,

Protection can limit the amount of system
disruption for a busbar fault
5 05/02/03
08/02 5
1/2
SS SS SS
1 87BB 2 3
87BB
21 21
6 05/02/03
08/02 6
2/2
87BB
87BB
21 21
7 05/02/03
08/02 7
With No Busbar Protection
1/2
21 21 21
21 21
8 05/02/03
08/02 8
With No Busbar Protection
2/2
21 21 21
21 21
9 05/02/03
08/02 9
With Burbar protection
87BB
87BB
21 21
With No Burbar protection
21 21 21
21 21
1005/02/03
08/02 10
Busbar Faults Are Usually Permanent
Causes of Busbar Faults :

z Falling debris
z Insulation failures
z Circuit breaker failures
z Current transformer failures
z Isolators switchs operated on load or outside their ratings
z Safety earths left connected
Therefore :
Circuit breakers should be tripped and locked out by busbar
protection
1105/02/03
08/02 11
Busbar Protection must be :
z RELIABLE
– Failure to trip could cause widespread damage to the substation
z STABLE
– False tripping can cause widespread interruption of supplies to
customers / possible power system instability
z DISCRIMINATING
– Should trip the minimum number of breakers to clear the fault
z FAST
– To limit damage and possible power system instability
1205/02/03
08/02 12
Methods of Providing Busbar Protection
z Frame to Earth (Leakage) Protection
>I
Insulation
z Blocking Scheme Protection

>I >I >I >I >I
z Differential Protection : High Impedance

Low Impedance
1305/02/03
08/02 13
Frame Leakage Protection

1405/02/03
Frame Leakage Busbar Protection
>I
Insulation
1505/02/03
08/02 15
>I
1605/02/03
08/02 16
>I
1705/02/03
08/02 17
>I >I
1805/02/03
08/02 18
z Can detect only earth faults
z Switchgear must be insulated from earth (by standing on

concrete plinth)
z Only one single earth conductor allowed on switchgear
z All cable glands must be insulated
z Switchgear sections must be insulated
1905/02/03
08/02 19
Neutral Check
False Operation
because induced
loop
>I
>I
No operation
prevents from
2005/02/03
08/02 false trip 20
Neutral Check
>I
>I
2105/02/03
08/02 21
Neutral Check
>I
>I
2205/02/03
08/02 22
Blocking Scheme Protection

2305/02/03
Blocking Scheme Busbar Protection
>I >I >I >I >I
2405/02/03
08/02 24
>I >I >I >I >I
2505/02/03
08/02 25
>I >I >I >I >I
2605/02/03
08/02 26
High Impedance Protection

2705/02/03
Single Bus Substation
2805/02/03
08/02 28
P1 S1 P1 S1 P1 S1
P2 S2 P2 S2 P2 S2
2905/02/03
08/02 29
3005/02/03
08/02 30
3105/02/03
08/02 31
3205/02/03
08/02 32
Double Bus Substation
3305/02/03
08/02 33
Isolator Auxiliary Switches
Current switching
Bus A
Bus B
P1 S1
P2 S2
P1 S1 P1 S1 P1 S1 P2 S2
P2 S2 P2 S2 P2 S2 P1 S1
a Current
b
3405/02/03
08/02 34
Current switching
Bus A
Bus B
Current
a
b
3505/02/03
08/02 35
Current switching
Bus A
Bus B
a Current
b
3605/02/03
08/02 36
Current switching
Bus A
Bus B
Current
a
b
3705/02/03
08/02 37
Current switching
Bus A
Bus B
a Current
b
3805/02/03
08/02 38
Current switching
Bus A
Bus B
a Current
b
3905/02/03
08/02 39
Tripping switching
Bus A
Bus B
Tripping a
b
a
Current b
4005/02/03
08/02 40
Interposing CT are not acceptable
z Main CT must be identical
z Current switching via auxilliary relay is not acceptable.
Requirement of number of position contact (Disconnector

switch) is high
4105/02/03
08/02 41
Current switching
Bus A
Bus B
a
Current b
4205/02/03
08/02 42
Current switching
Bus A Bus A
Bus B Bus B
a a
Current b Current b
4305/02/03
08/02 43
On Load Transfer
Bus A
Bus B
a
Current b
4405/02/03
08/02 44
On Load Transfer
Bus A
Bus B
a
Current b
4505/02/03
08/02 45
On Load Transfer
Bus A
Bus B
a
Current b
4605/02/03
08/02 46
On Load Transfer
Bus A
Bus B
a
Current b
4705/02/03
08/02 47
On Load Transfer
Bus A
Bus B
Current a
b
4805/02/03
08/02 48
On Load Transfer
Bus A
Bus B
a
Current b
4905/02/03
08/02 49
On Load Transfer
Bus A
Bus B
a
Current b
5005/02/03
08/02 50
Check Zone
Bus A
Bus B
Trip Bus B
Trip Bus A
Zone A
Zone B
5105/02/03
08/02 51
Check Zone
Bus A
Bus B
Trip Bus B
Trip Bus A
Current
switching
failure
Zone A
Zone B
False
Tripping
5205/02/03
08/02 52
Check Zone
Bus A
Bus B
Trip Bus B
Trip Bus A
Zone A
Zone B
Check
Zone
5305/02/03
08/02 53
Check Zone
Bus A
Bus B
Trip Bus B
Trip Bus A
Zone A
Zone B
5405/02/03
08/02 54
Check Zone
Bus A
Bus B
Trip Bus B
Trip Bus A
Check
Zone
5505/02/03
08/02 55
One Breaker and a Half
Substation
5605/02/03
08/02 56
S1 P1
S2 P2
Bus A Bus
B
P1 P2 P2 P1
S1 S2 S2 S1
5705/02/03
08/02 57
Bus A Bus
B
5805/02/03
08/02 58
Bus A Bus
B
5905/02/03
08/02 59
Bus A Bus
B
6005/02/03
08/02 60
Bus A Bus
B
6105/02/03
08/02 61
Bus A Bus
B
6205/02/03
08/02 62
Bus A Bus
B
P1 P2 P2 P1
S1 S2 S2 S1
P1 P2 P2 P1
S1 S2 S2 S1
6305/02/03
08/02 63

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TRAINING ON POWER

APPS Training - 2008

> Basic Protection Philosophy - January 2004

All Power Systems may experience faults at some

PROTECTION IS EFFECTIVELY AN INSURANCE POLICY

> Basic Protection Philosophy - January 2004

FAULTS ON POWER SYSTEMS RISK :

Severe damage to the faulted equipment :

Damage to adjacent plant :

> Basic Protection Philosophy - January 2004

FAULTS ON POWER SYSTEMS RISK :

Danger to staff or the public :

Disruption to adjacent plant :

> Basic Protection Philosophy - January 2004

X Types of fault and abnormal conditions to be protected against

> Basic Protection Philosophy - January 2004

> Basic Protection Philosophy - January 2004

> Basic Protection Philosophy - January 2004

> Basic Protection Philosophy - January 2004

> Basic Protection Philosophy - January 2004

> Basic Protection Philosophy - January 2004

> Basic Protection Philosophy - January 2004

> Basic Protection Philosophy - January 2004

> Basic Protection Philosophy - January 2004

X Direct Acting AC Trip

X Overcurrent and Earthfault

> Basic Protection Philosophy - January 2004

> Basic Protection Philosophy - January 2004

> Basic Protection Philosophy - January 2004

X Tripping and Auxiliary Relays

> Basic Protection Philosophy - January 2004

> Basic Protection Philosophy - January 2004

X Capacitor discharge trip

> Basic Protection Philosophy - January 2004

X Requires secure DC auxiliary

X Relay closest to fault

> Basic Protection Philosophy - January 2004

> Basic Protection Philosophy - January 2004

> Basic Protection Philosophy - January 2004

> Basic Protection Philosophy - January 2004

X Impedance Measured ZR = VR/IR = ZF

> Basic Protection Philosophy - January 2004

> Basic Protection Philosophy - January 2004

Restrain Voltage to Relay = V

> Basic Protection Philosophy - January 2004

> Basic Protection Philosophy - January 2004

X Improved continuity of supply

 Supply restoration is automatic (does not require

X Use of instantaneous protection for faster fault clearance

> Basic Protection Philosophy - January 2004

X Less frequent visits to substations

 More unmanned substations

> Basic Protection Philosophy - January 2004

> Basic Protection Philosophy - January 2004

Non-Unit, or Unrestricted Protection :

No specific point downstream up to which

X Will operate for faults on the protected

> Basic Protection Philosophy - January 2004

Unit, or Restricted Protection :

Has an accurately defined zone of protection

X An item of power system plant is protected as

> Basic Protection Philosophy - January 2004

Co-ordinate protection so that relay nearest to

Supply restoration is automatic (does not require

More unmanned substations

Requires accurate measurements

Input signal must not exceed electronic circuitry operating voltage

Inputs sampled sequentially

12 bit ADC equivalent to 4096 numbers

Sampled waveform appears to be a lower frequency

Eliminate aliasing - (low pass filter)