A
A Priori Arguments
▶ Ontological Arguments
A Priori/A Posteriori
Neil Spurway
University of Glasgow, Glasgow, Scotland, UK
Terms used to distinguish concepts existing in
the mind independently of, and hence before
(a priori), any experience from those only formed
on the basis of, and so after (a posteriori), the
experiences to which they relate. Immanuel Kant,
in particular, held that it is only in terms of a
priori ideas that we can make sense of experi-
ence; by contrast empiricists, such as John Locke,
contended that all concept-formation was
contingent upon, and so a posteriori to,
experience.
Abhidhamma Pitaka
˙ independent of culture, race, and gender.
▶ Abhidhamma, Southern
A. Runehov, L. Oviedo (eds.), Encyclopedia of Sciences and Religions,
DOI 10.1007/978-1-4020-8265-8, # Springer Science+Business Media Dordrecht 2013
Abhidhamma, Southern
Ven. Agganyani
German Vinaya Sangha Association (DBO) and
Centre for Buddhist Studies (CBS), Myanmar,
Bruckmuehl, Germany
Related Terms
Abhidhamma Pitaka; Abhidharma; Philosophy in
˙
Buddhism; Psychology in Buddhism
Description
Abhidhamma (Pāḷi) (http://www.abhidhamma.
com; http://www.abhidhamma.org) is the third
division or basket (pitaka) of the Tipitaka or Pāḷi
˙ ˙
canon, the foundation of Theravāda Buddhism.
While similar, slightly different kinds of
Abhidharma (Sanskrit) belong to the various
Mahāyāna traditions or to the Hinayāna schools,
the latter having perished already. “Abhidhamma”
literally means the higher or special teaching
(of the Buddha). It is a huge collection of system-
atically arranged, tabulated, and scientifically
classified teachings of the Buddha, representing
the quintessence of his teachings, timeless and
Abhidhamma is the Buddhist philosophy,
A 2
describing the reality and truth completely.
Abhidhamma is also the Buddhist psychology,
dealing mainly with mental phenomena and
explaining in detail how the mind works and how
it can be liberated.
In the discourses (sutta), the Buddha takes into
consideration the intellectual level of his
audience, their development of the perfections
(pāramı̄), their attainments, and the specific
situation. He therefore teaches the dhamma in
conventional terms and relative concepts
(paññatti), referring to persons and objects as I,
he, she, man, woman, cow, tree, etc. In the
Abhidhamma, however, the Buddha does not
make such concessions, but is treating the
dhamma entirely in terms of the ultimate reality
(paramattha). All phenomena are analyzed into
their ultimate constituents (dhamma) which are
precisely defined, classified, and systematically
arranged. Then, the laws of interaction between
the dhammas are taught, their synthesis – a net of
conditionality.
The Abhidhamma Pitaka (Nyanatiloka)
˙
consists of seven books:
1. Dhammasaṅganı̄ – Enumeration of the
˙
dhammas, “Buddhist Psychological Ethics”
Description of the fundamental, ultimate
mental, and physical phenomena constituting
human experience.
2. Vibhaṅga – “The Book of Analysis”
Exposition of the analysis in the
Dhammasanganı̄ in form of a catechism with
˙
many references in Suttanta.
3. Dhātukathā – “Discourse on Elements”
Description of the 18 elements in sets of
questions and answers. Similar substance like
Dhammasanganı̄ and Vibhanga.
˙ ˙
4. Puggalapaññatti – “A Designation of Human
Types”
Description of the qualities of individuals
and personality types. By differentiation,
suitable teachings and meditation subjects
can be given individually.
5. Kathāvatthu – “Points of Controversy”
Collection of questions and orthodox answers
in order to show superiority and distinguish
Theravāda from other schools (compiled by
Moggaliputta Tissa in the third century B.C.).
Abhidhamma, Southern
6. Yamaka – “The Book on Pairs”
Twisted and vice versa Abhidhamma
questions and answers for deep understanding.
7. Patthāna – The Book of Conditions or
˙˙
“Conditional Relations”
Explanation of the 24 forces working
between cause or condition and effect.
Describing the laws of interaction of the
dhammas analyzed in Dhammasanganı̄, this
˙
is the great synthesis.
Self-Identification
Science
Abhidhamma, which presents itself as very
abstract, profound, logical, and scientific, should
not be looked upon as all theory and pure scho-
lasticism. Abhidhamma stems from empirical
knowledge of the Buddha which he acquired by
his full enlightenment. It describes the full range
of knowledge, insight, and human experience
with all and everything. Studying Abhidhamma
can be compared with studying a map, but the
map has to be used; one has to travel in order to
reach the destination or, rather, to achieve one’s
goal. Abhidhamma alone is just abstract science.
It has to be applied in daily life and meditation.
Religion
Abhidhamma is to some extent religion in which
one is supposed to believe or have confidence in,
as long as one has not yet experienced it oneself.
But the more one can prove by own experience
with clear, sharpened mind, especially in
Vipassanā meditation, the more confidence
(saddhā) will arise in one’s mind. The Buddha
himself did not talk of his teachings as religion,
and encouraged and urged to accept and believe
only what practically turns out as wholesome and
beneficial for liberation. People turned the
dhamma into a religion called “Buddhism.”
Buddhism, and especially Abhidhamma, has
nothing to do with a creator god or a god respon-
sible for our life and fate. To the contrary,
Abhidhamma clearly explains about life, death,
rebirth, kamma and its result, and all causality-
conditionality. Therefore, it can be seen as
Abhidhamma, Southern
a doctrine transcending death and giving its
followers meaning in life, sense, guidelines, and
understanding.
Albert Einstein is ascribed to have said:
“The religion of the future will be a cosmic
religion. It should transcend a personal God and
avoid dogmas and theology. Covering both the
natural and the spiritual, it should be based on
a religious sense arising from the experience of
all things, natural and spiritual as a meaningful
unity. If there is any religion that would cope with
modern scientific needs, it would be Buddhism”
(Quotation ascribed to Einstein according to:
http://www.spaceandmotion.com/Albert-Einstein-
Quotes.htm, referring to Albert Einstein (1954)).
Most probably Einstein did not come into contact
with Abhidhamma, which would have been a won-
derful supplementation and enrichment.
Characteristics
While other religions have to be accepted
because of a god, heavenly messenger, or
prophet, Buddhism and Abhidhamma are to be
accepted and practiced only if, when tested, lead
to wholesome states, more happiness, calmness,
serenity, mental peace, and liberty (Essence of
the popular Kālāma Sutta, Collection of Gradual
Discourses, A III. 66). One follows according to
one’s own level of insight and understanding.
While traditions and religious teachings, includ-
ing most of the Buddha’s discourses (sutta), give
practical guidelines and explanations to concrete
persons in various, distinct circumstances, cultures,
and eras which might no longer be suitable for our
present age and problem, Abhidhamma – with its
ultimate realities (dhamma) – offers a complete,
abstract picture so that we can find our own answers
for an ethical and wholesome life, for mental devel-
opment, and for understanding the world and seeing
things as they really are. All other religions and
common philosophies rely on a soul or self (atta)
in one way or another and follow personality belief
either with eternity or annihilation views, while the
Buddha taught nonself, soullessness (anatta) and
Abhidhamma can be regarded as a huge compen-
dium on anatta.
3 A
Relevance to Science and Religion
Abhidhamma, explaining things and phenomena A
according to the experience of the fully enlight-
ened Buddha, does not need a proof by science
and also does not fear science or any new
results from research. There can never be
a contradiction. Abhidhamma encourages scien-
tific research, and some modern Abhidhamma
scholars and practitioners are interested in related
sciences, like physics (especially quantum
physics), neurology, psychology, modern ways
of psychotherapy, and research in the field of
meditation, psychosomatic diseases, and working
of the brain, mind, and memory.
Sources of Authority
There is the story or legend in the Theravāda
tradition that states Abhidhamma was first taught
by the Buddha for 3 months in the 7th year after
his enlightenment in Tāvatimsā heaven to deities
˙
including the Buddha’s departed mother, who
had been reborn there. Ven. Sāriputta, one of his
main disciples and second in knowledge after the
Buddha, had received a brief summary each day
from the Buddha himself. Then, Ven. Sāriputta
formulated and arranged what we call
Abhidhamma today and taught it to a selected
group of his monk-pupils, who were ready to
grasp it. Sāriputta might be the real author indeed,
since he is known through the suttas as a very
analytical, sharp-minded person. His excellent
knowledge and way of explanation were praised
by the Buddha himself.
Modern Buddhologists, linguists, and
historians claim that the Abhidhamma is a later
work. Traditional Buddhists deny this and main-
tain that at least the essence of the Abhidhamma
goes back to the Buddha himself, while later
rearrangements and rewording found in the
books are of minor importance. All six Buddhist
councils, the first was held just 3 months after the
Buddha’s death, up to the latest international
council from 1954 to 1956, have reexamined,
accepted, and confirmed the Abhidhamma Pitaka
˙
as authentic and correct. An exception is the
A 4
fifth Abhidhamma book, Kathāvatthu, which
definitely is more recent and was included during
the third council under King Asoka in 246 B.C.
(Nyanatiloka).
Further, Abhidhamma is consistent with and
does not contradict the Suttanta, but systematizes
and explains the manifold contents of the suttas
in greater detail.
Last but not least, Abhidhamma gets its
natural authority by being confirmed and proved
true by generations of meditators according to
their own experience.
Ethical Principles
Ethics and morality are the basics and foundation
of Abhidhamma. Without an ethical lifestyle as
foundation, no insight, attainment, or realization
is possible. In the Abhidhamma, all phenomena
(dhamma) are classified according to their
ethical qualities, which additionally have to be
kammically wholesome in the sense of leading in
the right direction toward goodness and libera-
tion. The traditional system of classification of
consciousness and mental states therefore
differentiates between wholesome, unwhole-
some, and kammically variable or neutral states.
Abhidhamma always stresses their difference,
their origination, and their impact. Without
blaming unethical persons or behaviors, without
dos and don’ts, the Abhidhamma just teaches the
abstract facts of these wholesome and unwhole-
some physical, verbal, or mental actions. It is up
to everyone which path to follow, ethical or
unethical, but one should know the effects – not
only for others but also for oneself. One who
really understands and penetrates Abhidhamma
will definitely train oneself and lead an
ethical life.
Key Values
Key values according to Buddhism are ethics
(sı̄la), concentration (samādhi), and wisdom
(paññā), which together form the Noble
Abhidhamma, Southern
Abhidhamma, Southern, Fig. 1 Constituents of the
Noble Eightfold Path
Eightfold Path (ariya atthaṅgika magga), leading
˙˙
to the cessation of suffering (Fig. 1).
Abhidhamma teaches all three values system-
atically and in the ultimate sense. Being
a Buddhist psychology, Abhidhamma analyzes
the connected mental states, the circumstances
and conditions which lead to their arising, or, in
the case of ethics, the right mental attitude and
motivation in order to behave ethically.
Some factors of the Noble Eightfold Path, like
concentration and effort, can be either whole-
some or unwholesome. The Abhidhamma offers
criteria how to differentiate and decide, which
one should be developed, and which one should
be abandoned.
The purpose of struggling and developing
these values is the final goal of liberation, the
attainment of Nibbāna. The way is shown as
a step-by-step process through increasing insight
and knowledge and by penetrating the realities or,
rather, experiences, and through realizing them as
impermanent (anicca), as suffering or unsatisfac-
tory (dukkha), and as nonself or uncontrollable
(anatta). The Abhidhamma aims specifically at
the understanding of anatta.
Abhidhamma, Southern
Conceptualization
Nature/World
Abhidhamma has a realistic view. The world is
made up of animate and inanimate things.
According to the Abhidhamma, inanimate things
such as mountains, rocks, trees, tables, or books
are made up of matter only, of various material
qualities or physical phenomena (rūpa). Animate
or living beings consist of mind and matter
(nāmarūpa). These various mental and physical
phenomena comprising beings and the world are
taught in detail in their origination and relation
in Abhidhamma. The conditional relations of
phenomena, following natural laws, are seen in
the interrelationship and dependence among
beings and in the whole nature. Therefore, to
care for the nature, the environment, and others
will in turn lead to caring for oneself. Nature is
not seen as perfect, but because of its character-
istic of impermanence (anicca), unsatisfactori-
ness (dukkha), and nonself (anatta), nature
belongs to the conditional world (Samsāra) and
˙
is tied to the endless cycle of arising and
dissolving, of birth and death.
Human Being
A human being is mainly differentiated from other
beings by its rebirth consciousness (patisandhi
˙
citta), which is a direct product of its previous
wholesome kamma. The Abhidhamma describes
31 planes of existence in the world; only one is
human, and only two, human and animal, planes
can be perceived by us. Productive kamma decides
where and as what kind of being one is reborn. It is
said, as a human being, one has the best chances
for mental development and liberation because
there is much freedom in decision. In this plane,
various types of kamma can ripen and produce
results; usually a mixture of happiness and suffer-
ing is experienced that can motivate one to strug-
gle and train the mind.
Life and Death
Life or a living being is characterized in the
Abhidhamma by two phenomena called life
faculty (jı̄vitindriya) (Bodhi; Tin Mon). There is
5 A
physical life or physical vitality in the material
groups, which has the function to protect the
coexisting matters from rotting and decay. It is A
a direct and immediate product of kamma and
makes the difference between the body of
a living person and a human corpse. The other
life phenomenon is mental or psychic life or
psychic vitality, which is a mental factor
(cetasika) associated with all types of conscious-
ness (citta) and various kinds of mental states.
Its function is to protect the coexisting mental
phenomena within the same mental unit for
a certain tiny lifespan. The great majority of
beings consist of mind and body, having both
mental and material life. Some beings of the
higher planes of existence consist of mind only,
without bodies, having only mental life. Then,
there is a rare unconscious being (asaññasatta)
in higher planes of existence who has no mind
but is made up of matter only, having at least
material life.
How is it that there are all these different
beings and types of life? They are all results of
various and quite different kamma performed in
previous lives. The higher planes and life without
body, that is, only mind, or without mind, that is,
only body, are reached through intense medita-
tion, through attaining and mastering the various
meditative absorptions (jhāna) and through
special aspirations.
For the birth – or rather conception – of
a human being, three things have to coincide:
Mother and father, that is, ovum and sperm, need
to be present and, as main factor, a kammic
impulse from a just departed being. The death of
a being once again has to do with kamma. Death,
that is, the cutting off of the individual lifestream
of a being, may happen because of four reasons
according to Abhidhamma:
1. End of lifespan (differs for species and in
epochs)
2. End of kammic energy of the life-producing
kamma
3. Case 1 and 2 together
4. A destructive kamma which intervenes and
cuts off the energy of the life-producing
kamma
A 6
Abhidhamma, Southern,
Fig. 2 Reality according
to Abhidhamma
Death caused by case 1–3 is called timely
death, while case 4 is called untimely death,
which might happen even at young age by
a fatal accident or a life-threatening disease.
The Abhidhamma gives minute explanations
about the working of kamma and the mental death
and rebirth processes. Kamma performed or
remembered just before dying has a great chance
to produce the next life. In that way,
Abhidhamma even proves the benefit of modern
hospice work by providing guidelines to relatives
or nurses who accompany a dying person.
Reality
Abhidhamma is a science of reality or rather
“realities.” First, there is the differentiation into
conventional and ultimate reality or truth. In daily
life, we deal only with concepts (paññatti) which
are essential in the field of ethics, loving kindness
(mettā), compassion, etc.
To see with Abhidhamma or “Vipassanā eyes”
means to see the ultimate realities (paramattha
dhammas) (Boriharnwanaket) behind the facade
of concepts and to penetrate through to their
characteristics in order to let go, detach, and
liberate the mind.
Second, reality is twofold: conditioned and
unconditioned. Whatever phenomena, things,
beings, and states – they are all conditioned.
Abhidhamma, Southern
The only unconditioned reality is Nibbāna
(Sanskrit: Nirvāna).
Abhidhamma deals with ultimate reality,
conditioned and unconditioned. (http://www.
abhidhamma.com) Ultimate realities are what
really can be experienced by the six senses
directly. The Abhidhamma distinguishes four
ultimate realities:
1. Consciousness (citta)
2. Mental factors (cetasika)
3. Matter (rūpa)
4. Nibbāna
These four kinds of reality are again classified
manifold. Abhidhamma enumerates 170 (or 202,
if consciousness is classified into 121) different
realities (Fig. 2).
These ultimate realities are ultimate in the
sense that their characteristics do not change,
whenever they are present, not that they are per-
manent themselves. For example, anger is not
permanently with us, but whenever anger arises,
it presents itself with the same typical
distinguishing features. Each ultimate reality
has its specific, individual characteristic, mani-
festation, and function. Therefore, each reality is
defined exactly and, in practical experience, can
be distinguished clearly by a sharp, well-trained
mind. Universal characteristics of all ultimate,
conditioned realities are:
Abhidhamma, Southern
• Impermanence (anicca)
• Unsatisfactoriness or inherent suffering
(dukkha)
• Nonself (anatta)
In contrast, Nibbāna, the only unconditioned
reality, has the characteristics of permanence and
satisfactoriness or happiness (sukha). Yet, as the
conditioned phenomena, Nibbāna too has the
characteristic of nonself (anatta).
Knowledge
Different kinds of knowledge are differentiated in
Abhidhamma (Bodhi; Tin Mon): knowledge by
own thinking (cinta mayā ñāna), book knowl-
˙
edge or knowledge by listening (anubodha-ñāna
˙ ˙
or suta mayā ñāna), and direct knowledge by
˙
own, intuitive, and penetrative insight (pativeda
˙
ñāna or bhāvanā mayā ñāna), the latter being the
˙ ˙
most important and transforming knowledge,
which includes insight knowledge (Vipassanā
ñānas). Meditators have to go through these
˙
insight steps in order to attain Nibbāna. Only
the Buddha himself is awarded omniscience
(sabbaññūtā-ñāna).
˙
Knowledge (ñāna) or wisdom (paññā) is one of
˙
the “beautiful” mental factors (sobhana cetasikas),
which can associate only with wholesome and beau-
tiful types of consciousness. It definitely should be
developed and included in all actions. If knowledge
is associated with beautiful mental factors, then the
kammic quality of a wholesome action becomes
stronger and better. Furthermore, in Abhidhamma
we learn that only people with a kammically
acquired rebirth consciousness associated with
knowledge can attain meditative absorptions
(jhāna) and may attain Nibbāna, that is, path and
fruition consciousness (magga and phala citta).
Truth
Truth is often mentioned in the same sense as
reality. However, conventional truth and ultimate
truth are differentiated. The dhamma is attributed
truthfulness (svakhata) and timelessness
(akalika), that is, it is a teaching according to
the truth, giving ever true replies to questions
about suffering, its origin, and its cessation, and
describing solution of existential problems of
past times as well as today.
7 A
Speaking about truth in Buddhism implies
speaking about the Four Noble Truths, the quintes-
sence of the Buddha’s teachings. They are A
explained in greater detail in the doctrine of depen-
dent origination (Paticcasamuppāda) which is
˙
clearly explained in the Abhidhamma too
(Nyanatiloka; Bodhi; Tin Mon; Buddhaghosa b, c)
(Fig. 3).
The first noble truth of suffering is found in the
second and fourth section of the circle comprising
the phenomena conventionally called birth,
decay, death, sorrow, lamentation, pain, suffer-
ing, and despair. In terms of ultimate truth, they
are phenomena like resultant consciousness
(viññāna), mind and matter (nāmarūpa), sense
bases (saḷāyatana), contact (phassa), and feeling
(vedanā), which are the kammic results (vipāka)
that we have to face.
The second noble truth of the origin of suffer-
ing is found in the first and third section of the
circle: Ignorance (avijjā) and kamma formations
(saṅkhāra) are mentioned as past causes for suf-
fering, craving (tanhā), clinging (upadāna), and
˙
active, kammic process of becoming (kamma-
bhava). Indeed all these factors worked in past,
work in present, and will work in future as
a natural law – as long as we have not yet found
and used the exit. In this way, Paticcasamuppāda
˙
explains Samsāra, the endless cycle of cause and
˙
effect of suffering. Summarizing it can be said
that Kamma produces its results (vipāka) with the
help of mental defilements (kilesa), like igno-
rance and craving. The way to stop suffering,
that is, painful, undesirable results, is not to stop
actions (kamma), but to eradicate the defilements
(kilesa) (Fig. 4).
This cessation of suffering or the end of the
cycle of Samsāra is Nibbāna – the third noble
˙
truth. And the path to achieve this practically is
the Noble Eightfold Path, which constitutes the
fourth noble truth. These are fundamental truths
in conformity with natural laws.
Perception
Perception (saññā) according to Abhidhamma
(Bodhi; Tin Mon; Boriharnwanaket;
Buddhaghosa b, c) is a universal mental factor
(cetasika), that is, it associates with all types of
A 8 Abhidhamma, Southern

Abhidhamma, Southern, Dependent Origination (Paticcasamuppada)

.
Fig. 3 Dependent
Origination kamma

result (vipaka) decay

+ death ignorance
mental defilement
(kilesa)

(re–) birth Effects Causes kamma-

in the of the formations
Future Past
–passive
4 1
becoming
–active
3 2 (rebirth)–
consciousness
Causes Effects
of the in the
Present Present mind + body
clinging
sense bases

contact
craving
feeling

Abhidhamma commentaries (Bodhi; Tin Mon;

Dhamma 2007) explain that at least four mental
(1) we want kamma (2) we act processes (vı̄this) are necessary to be able to
kilesa
mental
defilements
intentional
actions
know and name the object which, for example,
(greed, hatred,
delusion, etc.)
(physical, verbal,
mental)
was seen in the first process only. Each process is
made up by 17 or 12 mind moments, respectively,
following each other in fixed and reasonable
vipaka series.
kammic results
(cycling in Samsara Usually people say and think “I perceive” or
and suffering)
“myself perceives this and that.” Yet, according
to Abhidhamma only bare processes are running,
(3) we get conditioned by certain circumstances. There is no
Abhidhamma, Southern, Fig. 4 Cycling in Samsara
perceiver, no observer, no creator, no soul, or
no self behind it. Just impersonal processes
devoid of I or self.
consciousness. It is the awareness of an object’s
distinctive marks. If, through repeated perception Time
of an object, these marks are recognized, saññā Time is a concept that – according to
functions as memory. Sometimes saññā can Abhidhamma – is relative and is derived from
mislead if it compares a new, similar object changeability, impermanence, and movement in
with the memorized marks of a previous object. phenomena. “Chronological time (kāla), denoted
Perception is sometimes used for the whole by reference to this or that event, is merely
mental unit including consciousness. But still, a conventional expression....Since it has no exis-
an object cannot be fully perceived or known tence in itself, one has to understand it as a mere
clearly by just one mind moment, one single concept (Atthasālinı̄, }58–59, commentary by
unit of sense perception, which is conditioned Buddhaghosa to Dhammasaṅganı̄, the first of
˙
by the sense organ and its corresponding object. the seven Abhidhamma books).” Albert Einstein
Abhidhamma, Southern
puts it tersely: ”Time is what one reads from the
clock (Quotation ascribed to Einstein).” The
measurement of time is possible only because of
the movement of the hands relative to the clock’s
face or by marking events or certain states in
changes: birth and death, sunrise and sunset, and
appearance of a phenomenon and its disappear-
ance. The shortest time span that can be defined
according to Abhidhamma is the duration of one
of the three submoments of consciousness: (1) the
arising submoment, (2) the existence or standing
submoment, and (3) the falling or vanishing
submoment. All three together form one mind
moment, that is, the lifespan of consciousness.
Seventeen times longer than that is the lifespan
of matter.
In Abhidhamma and its commentaries, past,
future, and present times are defined precisely for
the material and mental phenomena or the five
aggregates (khandhā) respectively according to
four points: period of time (addhā), continuity of
a process (santati), occasion (samaya), and
moment (khana) (Buddhaghosa b, c) (Path of
˙
Purity (Visuddhimagga), XIV, }494 or }472/473
in most translations).
Concerning Nibbāna, the unconditioned
reality, the concept of time becomes meaningless
and cannot be applied.
Consciousness
Consciousness (citta) is one of the four ultimate
realities in Abhidhamma (http://www.
abhidhamma.com; http://www.abhidhamma.org;
Bodhi; Tin Mon; Boriharnwanaket; Dhamma
2007; Buddhaghosa a, b, c). It is that which is
aware of an object or cognizes the object.
Consciousness always has an object; it might
be a present sense object or a mental object, a
thought or a memory.
Throughout life there is consciousness, one
consciousness after the other without gap, but
only one consciousness a time. Even when
someone is “unconscious” like in coma or when
fainted, a subtle, passive type of consciousness
(bhavaṅga) is present. Therefore, it is spoken of
a “stream of consciousness” which flows contin-
uously according to its conditions from birth to
death and continues in the next life (citta
9 A
santāna); this continuous stream will cease only
in the attainment of the final Nibbāna. This indi-
vidual stream of consciousness follows a fixed, A
defined sequence as natural law (citta niyāma).
Consciousness does not arise alone, but
always together with at least seven mental factors
(cetasika), which together constitute the mind
(nāma). Consciousness is compared to clean,
clear water which cannot be seen. Only by
added colors or dirt, water becomes visible.
In the same way, consciousness can be perceived
by its “colors” only – the mental factors
(cetasika) – which arise simultaneously with the
same object but with different characteristic and
function.
According to the six senses as bases, there are
six types of consciousness:
1. Eye consciousness
2. Ear consciousness
3. Nose consciousness
4. Tongue consciousness
5. Body consciousness
6. Mind consciousness
These are conditioned essentially by the sense
organ and its respective object, when they come
into contact with each other.
In Abhidhamma, 89 types of consciousness
are known; however, another classification
shows 121 types (Fig. 5) (http://www.
abhidhamma.com).
Consciousness is classified into four groups
according to plane or sphere, where it predomi-
nately occurs (Rewata Dhamma 2007):
1. Sense sphere consciousness
2. Fine material consciousness
3. Immaterial consciousness
4. Supramundane consciousness
Consciousness is also divided into four classes
according to its nature:
1. Unwholesome consciousness
2. Wholesome consciousness
3. Resultant consciousness
4. Functional consciousness
Furthermore, within these classes, conscious-
ness often is classified according to roots, feeling,
association, and promptitude.
Consciousness arises and dissolves in a person
at a tremendous rate of more than 1,000 billion
A 10
Abhidhamma, Southern, Fig. 5 Classification of consciousness
times per eyewink. In other words, the lifetime of
one consciousness is less than 1,000 billionth of
a second. (Rewata Dhamma 2007) The duration
of consciousness is measured by three short
instants or submoments, characterizing distinct
features:
1. Arising instant
2. Presence or existing instant
3. Dissolving instant
Seventy-five types of consciousness have the
ability to produce matter (rūpa) at their arising
instant.
If repeated many times, our body will move,
will communicate, will change, or may even suf-
fer from psychosomatic diseases.
Rationality/Reason
Rationality is highly valued in Abhidhamma, which
in itself is very logical, reasonable, and rational.
Once the definitions of the phenomena are fully
understood – which is not easy, as there is no suit-
able and exact translation for some Pāli terms into
English or another Western language which would
cover the correct and full meaning – the structure
and system are extremely logical and can be
Abhidhamma, Southern
understood by mere intellect and reason. Yet, that
is not the purpose of Abhidhamma. Abhidhamma is
developed by experience and guides people through
experiences and insights and finally to liberation.
Abhidhamma should not become an end in itself,
but inspire to practice and apply.
Mystery
In Abhidhamma all is explained in detail and
openly. Even the final goal, Nibbāna, is well
declared. No secret remains, and no phenomenon
could not be defined and explained.
For meditators without Abhidhamma back-
ground, experience in meditative absorptions
(jhāna) beyond common sense experiences
could easily be misunderstood as the goal or
seem like a mystery that they cannot explain
rationally and which they might misinterpret as
divine appearance or unity with God.
Relevant Themes
Nibbāna (Sanskrit: Nirvāna) is the final goal of
all Buddhists, but often they have the opinion that
Abhidhamma, Southern
Nibbāna is not possible to describe and explain.
Surely, one cannot get or imagine the taste of
something of which one does not have any
experience. However, Abhidhamma offers
a description which can be grasped and under-
stood intellectually, although one has not yet
tasted it (Bodhi; Tin Mon; Boriharnwanaket).
Nibbāna literally means end of craving (vāna).
As craving is the main cause for suffering
(dukkha), which is already taught in the Four
Noble Truths of the Buddha, the end of craving
is the cessation of suffering, and that is Nibbāna
(Boriharnwanaket).
Nibbāna, deathlessness, the unconditioned, is
an ultimate reality beyond impermanence and
beyond suffering and even any latent suffering
or unsatisfactoriness. Nibbāna is peace, is
stillness, is neither coming nor going. There are
two types of Nibbāna, and they should be
distinguished precisely. Nibbāna means
extinguishing, fading away. The type of Nibbāna
the Buddha had realized in his enlightenment is
Kilesa Nibbāna, the irreversible extinguishing of
the mental defilements (kilesa). However, mind
and matter still remain and follow their own
processes. This type is called “Nibbāna with
rest” (sa-upādisesa Nibbāna). In the other
type of Nibbāna, there is no rest, no remainings
(an-upādisesa Nibbāna), and this is Khandha
Nibbāna, characterized by the extinguishing of
the five aggregates (khandha), that is, mind and
matter.
The common saying “Nibbāna is the highest
bliss” can be explained in various ways. While
the mind takes Nibbāna as object, there are
sublime happiness and peace. Also, having
attained Nibbāna, the person experiences a great
feeling of release and is filled with happiness
because one knows that one has attained it and
that there will be no more suffering and rebirth.
However, the enlightened person still has body
and mind which oppress one and which are natu-
rally bound to decay. Only the cessation of body
and mind – even the good, happy states, and
emotions – is bringing total stillness and peace;
that is the highest bliss indeed.
This final state is eloquently summarized in
the Buddha’s famous phrase:
11 A
Impermanent, alas, are all conditioned phenomena,
They have the nature of arising and decay,
Having been born, they vanish.
Their calming is true happiness (“Aniccā vata A
saṅkhārā, uppāda vaya dhammino, uppajjitvā
nirujjhanti, tesam vūpasamo sukho.” Dı̄ghanikāya:
Collection of Long Discourses, D16 and D17).
Cross-References
▶ Anatta
▶ Consciousness (Buddhist)
▶ Dependent Arising
▶ Dukkha
▶ Impermanence (Buddhist)
▶ Karma (Buddhist)
▶ Psychology in Buddhism
▶ Reality in Buddhism
▶ Relations in Buddhism
▶ Truths, four Noble
References
Bodhi, B. (ed.). A comprehensive manual of
Abhidhamma – The Abhidhammattha Sangaha of
Ācariya Anuruddha (trans: Nārada, M., Rewata
Dhamma, U., Sı̄lānanda, U.). BPS: Kandy, Sri Lanka,
2007. http://www.bps.lk. Wisdom Publications:
Somerville, MA, USA, 2007. http://www.wisdom-
books.com. ISBN 955-24-0103-8.
Boriharnwanaket, S. A survey of paramattha dhammas
(trans: van Gorkom, N.). Thailand: Dhamma Study
and Support Foundation. Bangkok, 2005. ISBN 974-
93085-6-5, or Zolag: http://www.zolag.co.uk/. Free
download: http://www.abhidhamma.org/survey6.pdf
Buddhaghosa. The expositor (Atthasālinı̄), commentary to
Dhammasaṅganı̄, the first of the seven Abhidhamma-
books (trans: Pe˙ Maung Tin). Pali Text Society. ISBN
978-086013-070-3. Melksham, Wilts, U.K., 1976.
http://www.palitext.com
Buddhaghosa. Visuddhimagga. The path of purity (trans: Pe
Maung Tin). Pali Text Society. ISBN 978-086013-008- 8.
Melksham, Wilts, U.K., 1975. http://www.palitext.com
Buddhaghosa. Visuddhimagga. The path of purification
(trans: Ñānamoli, B.). Buddhist Publication Society.
ISBN 955 ˙24 0023 6. Kandy, Sri Lanka, 2011. http://
www.bps.lk
Nyanatiloka. Guide through the Abhidhamma Pitaka.
BPS: Kandy, Sri Lanka, 2008. http://www.bps.lk.
ISBN: 978-955-24-0321-7. Wisdom Publications:
Somerville, MA, USA, 2009. http://www.wisdom-
books.com. ISBN: 955-24-03219. Free Download:
A 12
http://www.abhidhamma.com/guide_Abhidhamma_
pitaka.pdf
Rewata Dhamma, R. (2007). Process of consciousness
and matter. Burmingham Buddhist Vihara. http://
www.bbvt.org.uk/. Triple Gem Publications, Chino
Hills, CA, USA. Free download: http://www.
abhidhamma.com/Process_of_consciousness_and_
matter.pdf
Tin Mon, M. Buddha-Abhidhamma – The ultimate
science. Buddha Dharma Education Association.
Yangon, Myanmar, 1995. Free download: http://
www.buddhanet.net/pdf_file/abhidhaultsci.pdf
Abhidharma
▶ Abhidhamma, Southern
Abhidharma, Northern
Kuala Lumpur Dhammajoti
Glorious Sun Professor of Buddhist Studies,
Centre of Buddhist Studies, The University of
Hong Kong, Pokfulam, Hong Kong
Related Terms
Buddhism, Sarvāstivāda
Description
The Abhidharma is a system aiming at
a systematic analysis and proper understanding
of the Buddha’s teachings. Its origin is to be
traced to the sūtra-s. The northern tradition of
Abhidharma is mainly represented by the
Sarvāstivāda – or its orthodox camp known as
the Vaibhāsika, based mainly in Kaśmı̄ra – and
˙
the Sautrāntika. In fact, it is these two schools that
later Indian philosophical texts typically mention
as the “Abhidharma” or “Hı̄nayāna” schools
of thought. Around seventh or eighth century
C.E., the Sāmmitı̄ya – a branch of the
˙ ˙
Vātsı̄putrı̄ya – came into prominence as
Abhidharma
a leading Hı̄nayāna school, more or less eclipsing
the Sarvāstivāda. However, both the Sautrāntikas
(and their forerunner, the Dārstāntikas) and
˙˙
the Vātsı̄putriyas originally descended from
the broad Sarvāstivāda lineage, so that an under-
standing of the Sarvāstivāda doctrines as repre-
sentative of the northern Abhidharma tradition is
indispensable.
Like the Theravādins, the Sarvāstivādins too
maintain that the abhidharma was taught by the
Buddha himself. But unlike the Theravādins who
claim that the whole set of their canonical
Abhidhamma texts was authored by the Buddha,
the Sarvāstivādins ascribe their seven canonical
texts to individual authors: (1) Dharma-skandha
by Śāriputra, (2) Saṅgı̄ti-paryāya by
Mahākausthila, (3) Prajñāpti-s ´āstra by Mahā-
˙˙
maudgalyāyana, (4) Vijñānakāya by Devaśarman,
(5) Prakarana-s´āstra by Vasumitra,
˙
(6) Jñānaprasthāna by Kātyāyanı̄putra, and
(7) Dhātukāya by Pūrna. Of these, the first
˙
three belong to the earlier period, and the rest
may be grouped under the later period. The
Jñānaprasthāna was upheld as the supreme author-
ity by the Vaibhāsikas who called it the “body,”
˙
in contrast to the other six which were called
the “feet.”
The Meaning of “Abhidharma”
On the term “abhidharma,” in the developed
Abhidharma system represented by the period
of the Abhidharma treatises, firstly, “abhi-” in
the sense of “facing directly” (abhimukha)
signifies direct realization (abhisamaya) into the
true nature of dharma-s. This is the meaning of
the definition that “abhidharma is outflow-free
(anāsrava) or pure prajñā” (2, 2), where both
abhidharma and prajñā are defined as “investi-
gation/discernment of dharma-s” (dharma-
pravicaya). Secondly, “dharma” here does not
mean “Doctrine,” but refers either to the ultimate
reals, each having a unique intrinsic nature
(svabhāva) and being uniquely experienced as
an intrinsic characteristic (svalaksana), or to Nir-
˙ ˙
vāna as the Dharma par excellence (2, 2). In
the Abhidharma-mahāvibhāsā (compiled around
˙
Abhidharma, Northern
150 C.E.), the Sarvāstivāda master Buddhapālita
explains the signification of “abhi-” thus:
“abhi-” is a prefix signifying “abhimukha.” This
dharma is called abhidharma because it induces all
skillful dharma-s—the factors conducing to
Enlightenment (bodhi-paksa-dharma)—to mani-
fest directly. (3, 4b22–25) ˙
Abhidharma as pure prajñā defines
abhidharma in the highest or absolute sense.
We can also speak of abhidharma in the conven-
tional sense as comprising all that serves as
the means for the acquisition of this pure prajñā
(2, 2). In the northern Abhidharma, prajñā does
not refer exclusively to pure wisdom; it represents
the faculty of understanding which can be pure or
impure, proper or improper, correct or erroneous,
etc. Abhidharma in the conventional sense
then includes the various forms of impure or
with-outflow (sāsrava) understanding – possessed
by an ordinary worldling (prthagjana) – derived
˙ “effects”) is therefore of fundamental
from listening (s´ruta-mayı̄), from reflection
(cintā-mayı̄), from cultivation (bhāvanā-mayı̄),
and from birth (upapatti-prātilambhikā) – as well
as the Abhidharma texts that serve as the means for
the development of the pure prajñā.
The definitional identification of
“abhidharma” with “prajñā” spells out the cen-
tral importance of the latter as both the means and
the ultimate aim of abhidharma investigation.
This is more explicitly shown in the definition
of prajnā in the Abhidharmadı̄pa-prabhāvrtti
˙
(1, 70) and Skandhila’s Abhidharmāvatāra:
Understanding (prajñā) is the discernment of
dharma-s. It is the examination (upalaksana), as
˙
the case may be, of the following eight ˙kinds of
dharma-s: inclusion (samgraha), conjunction
˙
(samprayoga), endowment (samanvāgama), causes
˙
(hetu), conditions (samgraha), effects (phala),
intrinsic characteristic ˙ (svalaksana), common
˙ ˙83)
characteristic (sāmānyalaksana). (5,
˙ ˙
The eight items enumerated constitute the
fundamental topics as well as methodological
devices of the Ābhidharmikas.
1–2. “Intrinsic characteristic” and “common
characteristic.” These two constitute the
core concern of dharma-pravicaya, so
much so that Abhidharma in a gist may
in fact be defined as the methodological
13 A
study of intrinsic and common character-
istics of the real existents (dharma)
within and outside the sentient being. A
3. “Conjunction” studies the dynamic rela-
tionship between the simultaneously
existing mental factors.
4. “Inclusion” is an important device for
determining the nature of dharma-s in
terms of their intrinsic natures:
For instance, the visual faculty is subsumed under
the matter-aggregate, by the visual abode (caksur-
āyatana) and the visual element (caksur-dhātu), ˙
˙ origin.
and the truths of unsatisfactoriness and
This is because they constitute its intrinsic nature.
It is not [subsumed under] the other aggregates,
etc., for it is distinct in nature from them. (2, 12)
5–7. Every dharma is both a cause/condition
for other dharma-s and is also caused/
conditioned by other dharma-s; the study
of causality (“causes,” “conditions,” and
importance.
8. “Endowment” – a modality of acquisition
(prāpti) – is a special topic, also of fun-
damental importance to the Sarvāstivāda
system (see below).
From the perspective of the above definition
of prajñā/abhidharma, an “Ābhidharmika,”
i.e., a specialist in the Abhidharma, may be
succinctly defined as one who specializes in
the study of these eight topics.
The Five Fundamental Categories
Comprising 75 Dharma-s
The totality of the ultimate reals arrived at by
the Ābhidharmika-s are subsumed under the
traditional “five-aggregates” (pañca-skandha)
scheme, plus the group of three unconditioned
dharma-s:
(1) Matter (rūpa); (2) sensation (vedanā); (3) idea-
tion (samjñā); (4) conditionings (samskāra),
divisible ˙ as the conjoined conditionings ˙
(samprayukta-samskāra, i.e., the thought-
concomitants other than sensation and ideation)
and the disjoined conditionings (viprayukta-
samskāra); and (5) consciousness (vijñāna).
The˙ three types of unconditioned (asamskrta)
˙ ˙
A 14
dharma-s are (6) cessation through deliberation
(pratisamkhyā-nirodha), (7) cessation independent
˙
of deliberation (apratisamkhyā-nirodha), and
(8) space (ākās´a). ˙ phrases, syllables
A more commonly adopted scheme of classi-
fication is that of the five fundamental categories,
innovated by Vasumitra in his Prakarana-pāda.
˙
A total of some 75 dharma-s are subsumed under
this scheme:
1. Matter (rūpa): visual faculty, auditory faculty,
olfactory faculty, gustatory faculty, tangible
faculty, visual object, auditory object, olfac-
tory object, gustatory object, tangible object,
noninformative matter (avijñapti-rūpa)
2. Thought (citta)
3. Thought-concomitants (caitasika-dharma)
(a) Ten universal dharma-s (mahā-bhūmika):
sensation, volition, ideation, predilection,
contact, understanding, mindfulness, men-
tal application, resolve/determination,
equipoise
(b) Ten skillful universal dharma-s (kus´ala-
mahābhūmika-dharma): faith, diligence,
calm, equanimity, modesty (hrı̄),
shame (apatrāpya), nongreed, nonhatred,
harmlessness, vigor
(c) Six universal dharma-s of defilement
(kles´a-mahābhūmika-dharma): delusion,
nondiligence, slackness, lack of faith,
torpor, restlessness
(d) Two unskillful universal dharma-s
(akus´ala-mahābhūmika dharma):
nonmodesty (āhrı̄kya), shamelessness
(anapatrāpya)
(e) Ten defilements of restricted scope
(parı̄ttakles´a-bhūmika dharma): anger,
enmity, dissimulation, jealousy, depraved
opinionatedness (pradās´a), concealment,
avarice, deceptiveness, pride, harmfulness
(f) Eight indeterminate dharma-s (aniyata
dharma): remorse, sleep, reasoning, inves-
tigation, greed, hostility, conceit, doubt
4. Conditionings disjoined from thought
(cittaviprayukta samskāra dharma): acquisi-
˙
tion (prāpti), nonacquisition (aprāpti),
group homogeneity, ideationlessness,
ideationless attainment, cessation attainment,
vital faculty, production-characteristic,
Abhidharma, Northern
duration-characteristic, deterioration-charac-
teristic, impermanence-characteristic, words,
5. Three unconditioned dharma-s (asamskrta-
˙ ˙
dharma): cessation through deliberation,
cessation independent of deliberation, space
Remarks on the Five-Category
Classification
1. Matter comprises the four Great Elements
(mahā-bhūta) and the derived matter
(upādāya-rūpa, bhautika).
Under this category, there is an item known as
the noninformation matter, which is a special
doctrine of the Sarvāstivāda school. This is
a special type of rūpa, being invisible, nonresis-
tant, and nonspatialized. Nevertheless, it is said to
be of the nature of matter since its supporting
basis (ās´raya) – the four Great Elements – are
resistant matter. This is the medium of preserva-
tion of the karmic efficacy projected from
a momentary bodily or vocal karma. It is
“noninformative” because it is a karmic action
that does not inform us of the mental state of its
doer. At the time when an information (vijñapti)
karma – namely, a bodily or vocal karma – is
accomplished, the corresponding avijñapti
is projected as an invisible force in which the
karmic efficacy is preserved. Once projected, it
continues to exist as a series until either the
corresponding karmic effect is retributed or
when a certain condition is met with – such as
the person’s death. In the course of development,
it came to be particularly emphasized as the kar-
mic efficacy projected when one solemnly takes
an ordination vow (samvāra; “restraint”); e.g., of
˙
abstaining from killing (2, 8, 205, 208, etc.). But
even when its serial continuity has been termi-
nated by reason of the person’s death or his giv-
ing up the ordination vow, etc., the karmic
efficacy is not lost. In the Sarvāstivāda tenet of
the tritemporal existence of dharma-s, the said
avijñapti continues to exist in its past mode of
being (bhāva). The difference between a serially
continuing avijñapti that always arises in the
present and one that has become past is that,
Abhidharma, Northern
unlike the former, the latter’s karmic status has
come to be fixed and subsequently no more capa-
ble of being continuously interacted upon – and
thus modified – by the person’s actions. Never-
theless, as a past dharma, it is still efficacious in
contributing to the actual giving of the
corresponding effect at a future time.
The Sautrāntikas deny that the avijñapti is
a real entity. They hold that, as the Buddha has
taught, all karma is volition (cetanā), and
a karmic force of the nature of matter is unimag-
inable and unacceptable. For them, the preserva-
tion of karmic efficacy is to be explained in terms
of a progressively transformed serial continuity
projected from the initial volition (see below).
2. The Sarvāstivādins hold that (1) thought and the
thought-concomitants (such as sensation, idea-
tion, etc.) are distinct real entities and (2) no
thought or thought-concomitant can arise
singly – they necessarily arise in conjunction
(samprayoga). For instance, any thought nec-
˙
essarily arises with the set of ten universal
thought-concomitants. When a skillful
thought-concomitant arises, it necessarily does
so together with the thought involved, the set of
ten universal dharma-s and the set of ten skillful
universal thought-concomitants (faith, etc.).
A conjunction presupposes a fivefold same-
ness or equality (samatā): The thought and
thought-concomitants (1) arise at the same time,
(2) share the same basis (ās´raya), (3) take the
same cognitive object (ālambana), (4) have the
same mode of activity/understanding (ākāra),
and (5) each has a singularity of substance
(dravya – e.g., a single thought conjoined with
a single species of sensation, a single species of
ideation, etc.).
The Dārstāntikas in the Abhidharma-
˙˙˙
mahāvibhāsā maintain that mental factors arise
˙ ˙
sequentially, rather than simultaneously. Among
them, Buddhadeva teaches that the so-called
thought-concomitants are none other than thought
itself. Dharmatrāta and others concede that
there are three distinct thought-concomitants –
sensation, ideation, and volition – all other
“thought-concomitants” are merely different
modalities of volition. The 4th C.E. Dārstāntika-
˙˙
Sautrāntika master, Śrı̄lāta, vehemently opposes
15 A
the Sarvāstivāda conception of the simultaneous
existence of distinct thought-concomitants.
3. The category of “conditionings disjoined A
from thought” is not found in the Theravāda
and other schools. It represents an
Abhidharma development that recognizes the
existence of a third category of reals, beyond
the matter–mind duality. Although these
disjoined forces are neither physical nor
mental, they can nonetheless exercise
efficacies in both domains.
Their nature and function are best illustrated
with the example of “acquisition” (prāpti),
a force which links a dharma – whether physical
or mental, conditioned or unconditioned – to
a sentient being. Thus, when, say, a sensual crav-
ing arises in the sentient being, he comes to
“possess” this dharma called sensual craving,
which has always been existing in the universe,
thanks to this force, “acquisition,” which as it
were ties (like a rope) the craving to him.
The acquisition of this craving, once projected,
serially flows on in the person even when the
craving does not arise manifestly – e.g., when
the person’s mental stream is of a skillful or
neutral nature. For this reason, he is continuously
possessed of this craving. When, as a result of
spiritual praxis, the person comes to be freed
from (to “abandon,” pra-√hā) this craving, it is
not that the dharma called craving as an ontolog-
ical entity comes to be destroyed but, rather, that
the serial continuity of its acquisition is cut off
from him.
When one comes to attain Nirvāna, it cannot
˙
be that the unconditioned dharma arises as an
effect of a path which is conditioned
(see below). What is produced by the path is the
acquisition (itself a conditioned dharma) of
the Nirvāna, which links the latter to the
practitioner.
In this way, we see that through the operation
of acquisition, the ever-existent dharma-s come
to be linked to the domain of the sentient. It is also
as much a sine qua non for the explanation of the
process of pollution (samkles´a) as for purification
˙
(vyavadāna) and even the attainment of Nirvāna.
˙
4. For the Sarvāstivādins, not only are the condi-
tioned dharma-s pluralistic, the unconditioned
A 16
dharma-s as well, are pluralistic. They are the
only dharma-s that can be truly said to be
“permanent” (nitya), because they alone
transcend time and space. Even the “intrinsic
natures” of dharma-s, which retain their
integrity throughout time, are impermanent.
There are three types of conditioned dharma-s:
(a) Cessation through deliberation. This is
a cessation brought about through an effort
of understanding (prajnā; pratisamkhyā is
˙
explained as prajñā-vis´esa) the true nature
˙
of defilement. This cessation is a real entity,
not a mere absence of the defilement. It con-
tributes to the absolute prevention of
the defilement’s future arising. There are
therefore as many instances of cessation
through deliberation as there are instances
of with-outflow entities to be disconnected
from.
(b) Cessation independent of deliberation. This
cessation is acquired without specifically
applying any effort of understanding, but
simply on account of deficiency in the
required conditions for a dharma’s arising.
For example, when the present eye and the
mental faculty are focusing on a particular
object giving arise to its visual conscious-
ness, it is not possible for any of the five
sensory consciousness to arise with regard
to any of the other objects (visibles, sounds,
etc.) existing in that same moment. There
arise accordingly the cessations independent
of deliberation of these latter instances of
sensory consciousness by virtue of the
deficiency in the conditions for their arising.
As another example, when one has fully aban-
doned a certain amount of defilements and
attains the spiritual fruition of stream-entry
(srota-āpatti), causal conditions for rebirth in
the unfortunate states of existence (durgati)
come to be deficient: One acquires the
apratisamkhyā-nirodha of these unfortunate
˙
rebirths.
This cessation, too, is a real entity. It is
a positive force, and not a mere absence of
conditions. It is efficacious in absolutely
preventing the possible rearising of the
Abhidharma, Northern
dharma that has come to be of the nature of
nonarising (anutpatti-dharmaka).
(c) The Sarvāstivādins make a clear distinction
between conditioned space, which is visible
in the openings in windows, doors, cleavages,
etc., and the unconditioned space. The condi-
tioned spaces, called the “space element”
(akās´a-dhātu), though nonobstructive in
nature, are nonetheless obstructed by mate-
rial things. The unconditioned space, in con-
trast, is beyond space and time and is
characterized by being neither obstructive
to, nor obstructed by, any material thing. Its
reality is to be comprehended from the fact
that there exists the conditioned space which
accommodates conditioned things and
provides the venues for their activities.
This does not mean that space can exercise
any activity, but that it serves as a necessary
contributing factor – a “dominant condition”
(adhipati-pratyaya) – through a sequence of
conditionality, making possible the fact of
cognition of things in space–time. (3, 389a).
It is to be noted that not all canonical
Abhidharma texts of the Sarvāstivāda mention
space as an unconditioned dharma. In the
Abhidharma-mahāvibhāsā, we see that some
˙
masters, like Dharmatrāta, do not accept
space as a real entity. Samghabhadra (ca. late
˙
fourth century C.E.) argues that we can infer
its reality from its observable, distinctive func-
tion and characteristic (laksana); and that
˙ ˙
which possesses a unique function and a unique
characteristic is a unique real: Its function is
manifested through the fact that it accommodates
resistant things; its characteristic – i.e., its observ-
able aspect – is manifested through light
(9, 429a–430a. Cf. 6, 496).
The conditioned dharma-s, which arise into
space–time and their operation therein, are
described by two terms: (1) samskrta
˙ ˙
(“compounded”), indicating their aspect of
being causally produced by an assemblage of
conditions, and (2) samskāra (“conditioning”),
˙
indicating their aspect of being conditioning
forces that contribute to the arising and
operation of other conditioned dharma-s.
Abhidharma, Northern
The unconditioned dharma-s are in complete
contrast: Being transcendent to space and time,
they are neither causally produced nor do they
operate as causes. However, they can serve as
“condition qua object” (ālambana-pratyaya)
inasmuch as they can be apprehended as cogni-
tive objects. The Sarvāstivāda Ābhidharmikas
would also concede that in some special sense
and in conformity to worldly parlance, it is per-
missible to speak of the unconditioned dharma-s
as “efficient causes” (kārana-hetu) inasmuch as
˙ ˙
they do not hinder the arising of other dharma-s.
Although not causally produced, the cessation
through discernment may also be expediently
spoken as a “disconnection-fruit” (visamyoga-
˙
phala) inasmuch as it is acquired (pra-√āp)
through the efficacy of the noble path – even
though it is not directly produced by it (2, 91).
The Sautrāntikas deny the realities of all the
three types of unconditioned dharma-s. But they
do not assert that unconditioned things do not
exist in any sense – just that they do not exist as
metaphysical entities. In particular, Nirvāna is
˙
emphasized as a true spiritual attainment.
This, they explain in terms of the doctrine of the
transformation of the basis (ās´raya-parivrtti) –
˙
the spiritual path culminates in bringing about
a totally transformed psychophysical basis
(ās´raya) which is completely purified, utterly
purged of any latency of defilements:
Nirvāna is said to have been attained as a result of
˙
the obtaining—by virtue of the counteragent—of
a basis which is absolutely opposed to the generation
of defilements and rebirth. (2, 93)
Investigation in Terms of Doctrinal
Perspectives
Abhidharma also investigates into the nature of
dharma-s from different doctrinal perspectives. In
Vasubandhu’s Abhidharmakos´abhāsya (ca. late
˙
fourth century C.E.), there are some 22 such per-
spectives in the first chapter: (1) visible
(sa-nidars´ana), invisible (anidars´ana); (2) resistant
(sa-pratigha), nonresistant (apratigha); (3) skillful
(kus´ala), unskillful (akus´ala), nondefined
17 A
(avyākrta); (4) connected with/pertaining to
˙
(pratisamyukta) sensuality sphere, to fine-
˙
materiality sphere, to nonmateriality sphere; A
(5) with-outflow, outflow-free; (6) with-reasoning
(savitarka), with-investigation (savicāra); (7) with
cognitive object (sa-ālambana), without cognitive
object (anālambana); (8) appropriated (upātta),
nonappropriated (anutpātta); (9) Great Elements
(bhūta), derived from Great Elements (bhautika);
(10) accumulated (samcita), nonaccumulated
˙
(asamcita); (11) that which cuts (chinatti), that
which is cut (chidyate); (12) that which burns
(dāhaka), that which is burnt (dahyate); (13) that
which weighs (tulayati), that which can be weighed
(tulya); (14) the five species: retribution-born
(vipākaja), accumulative (aupacayika),
emanational (naihsyandika), yoked with a real
˙˙
entity (dravya-yukta), momentary (ksanika);
˙ ˙
(15) acquisition (prāpti/pratilambha), endowment
(samanvāgama); (16) external, internal; (17) partic-
ipative/active (sabhāga), nonparticipative/facsim-
ile (tat-sabhāga); (18) abandonable through
seeing/vision (dars´ana-heya), abandonable
through cultivation (bhāvanā-heya), not to be
abandoned (aheya); (19) view (drsti), not view;
˙ ˙˙
(20) consciousness (vijñāna), object of conscious-
ness (the cognized; vijñeya – i.e., what elements are
cognized by which consciousness); (21) perma-
nent, impermanent; (22) faculties (indriya),
nonfaculties.
Thus, through such a process of perspectival
analysis, the nature of an ultimate real factor
in the universe can be articulately determined.
For example, a given mental factor is
invisible, nonresistant, skillful/unskillful/neutral,
nonaccumulative, emanational, momentary,
a consciousness or object of consciousness, etc.
Sarvāstivāda Versus Vibhajyavāda
A controversy of fundamental doctrinal impor-
tance occurred quite early (probably around
third century B.C.) in the northern Abhidharma
tradition and came to exert tremendous impact
throughout the subsequent development in
Buddhist thought. This relates to the question
A 18
of the ontological status of dharma-s in the
three temporal periods.
One camp of thought, described as the
“all-exist,” sarvāstivāda/sarvāstitva, maintains
that dharma-s exist in their intrinsic nature
through the three periods of time. But temporal
distinction is nonetheless possible on account of
a dharma’s “activity” (kāritra), defined as its
efficacy to “project its own fruit” – i.e., to serve
as the condition for its own rearising in the
succeeding moment of its serial continuity. Such
an activity, which is neither identical with nor
different from the dharma itself, is necessarily
and uniquely possessed by a present dharma:
When the dharma has not exercised this activity,
it is said to be “future”; when it is exercising this
activity, it is “present”; when it has exercised
this activity, it is “past.” Such is the standpoint
of the Sarvāstivāda school and its offshoots
(such as the Vātsı̄putrı̄ya and Sāmmitı̄ya).
An important point to bear in mind is that the
doctrine of sarvāstivāda asserts that “dharma-s
exist at all times” (sarvadā asti), but never that
they are permanent (nitya) (see above).
The other camp of thought, called the
“distinctionist” (vibhajyavāda), represented by
the Sautrāntikas and others, holds that only the
present dharma-s are existent. The past and
the future are mere concepts (prajñapti) derived
on the basis of the present: The “past” is simply
“what has been”; the “future” is “what will be.”
Some of them, like the Kāśyapı̄yas, also
concede that the karma-s that have not given
fruit (adatta-phala) can be said to be existent
(Cf. 6, 117 ff).
Theory of Karma and Causality
The above-mentioned contrasting standpoints
have profound implication for the doctrinal
interpretations of the Abhidharma schools.
For instance, on the question of the preservation
of karmic efficacy, the Sarvāstivādins explain
that a past karma is still existent – it its past
“mode of being” (bhāva) – and is still causally
efficacious, albeit devoid of “activity.” It is
Abhidharma, Northern
therefore capable of yielding a fruit at some
point in the future. In fact, a nonexistent cannot
be causally efficacious.
The Sautrāntikas, on the other hand, must
explain everything in terms of the single pre-
sent moment. In this connection, they devel-
oped the theory of the seed (bı̄ja): The
momentary volition (cetanā) qua karma pro-
jects into the mental serial continuity of the
person a specific efficacy which is continuously
transmitted from moment to moment. At
a distinctive point of this serial continuity
which has been undergoing a process of trans-
formation (samtati-parināma-vis´esa) in terms
˙ ˙ ˙
of the progressive maturation of the karmic
efficacy, when the required assemblage of
conditions is obtained, the corresponding fruit
is generated. This efficacy in the serial continu-
ity is called the “seed,” which is neither identi-
cal with nor different from the serial continuity.
Another important difference among the
Abhidharma schools relate to their theory of
causality. All Abhidharma schools accept that
dharma-s are momentary (ksanika). The
˙ ˙
Sāmmitı̄ya (like the Theravāda) is an exception,
˙
holding that material things last relatively lon-
ger than the momentary mental factors.
However, these various schools differ with
regard to their understanding of the causal pro-
cess. The Sarvāstivādins and others uphold the
theory of simultaneous causality (sahabhū-
hetu): Cause and effect can exist simulta-
neously. In contrast, the Sautrāntikas and others
maintain that the causal process is strictly
sequential: A cause necessarily precedes an
effect. As a result, the two schools developed
contrasting theories of perception. For the
Sarvāstivāda, a sensory object is directly per-
ceived, since the sensory faculty, the external
object, and the resulting sensory consciousness
all arise in the same moment. For the
Sautrāntikas, all perceptions are indirect
(apratyaksa) and representational. In the first
˙
moment, the sensory faculty and object exist;
the sensory consciousness then arises in the
next moment: As the object arises only to
cease, it leaves behind an imprint or exact
Action Control 19 A
resemblance (ākāra) of itself, which becomes
the cognitive object (ālambana) that generates Academic Theology
the corresponding knowledge of it in the next A
moment. Thus, external reality is never known ▶ Practical Theology
directly; its knowledge is necessarily derived
from our mental content. This theory came to
be known as the “theory of the inferability of
the external object” (bāhyārtha-anumeyavāda) Action Control
(Cf. 4, 136 ff).
Giacomo Rizzolatti and Maria Alessandra Umiltà
Dipartimento di Neuroscienze, Sezione di
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Abhidharma-mahāvibhāsā. T29, no. 1545.

˙
de La Vallée Poussin, L. (1923–1931). L’Abhidharmakos´a
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Related Terms
Dhammajoti, K. L. (2008). Entrance into the supreme
doctrine (2nd ed.). Hong Kong. Canonical neurons
Dhammajoti, K. L. (2009a) Abhidharma doctrines and
controversies on perception (3rd ed.). Hong Kong.
Dhammajoti, K. L. (2009b). Sarvāstivāda Abhidharma
(4th ed.). Hong Kong. Introduction
Dhammajoti, K. L. (2011). Śrı̄lāta’s Anudhātu doctrine.
In Bukkyō Kenkyū, Vol. XXXIX (pp. 19–75). The capacity to generate movements is
Hamamatsu.
a characterizing aspect of animals’ behavior.
Jaini, P. S. (Ed.). (1959). Abhidharmadı̄pa with Vibhāsā-
prabhāvrtti. Patna. ˙ Some movements are rigidly determined by
˙ T29, no.1562.
Nyāyānusāra. external or internal stimuli. They are called
Pradhan, P. (Ed.). (1975). Abhidharmakos´abhāsyam of reflexes. Others are manifestations of a centrally
Vasubandhu. Patna. ˙
generated intention to act. They are called
Wogihara, U. (Ed.). (1932–1936). Sphutārthā
Abhidharmakos´a-vyākhyā of Yaśomitra. Tokyo.˙ voluntary movements. The way in which
intention to act is generated is irrelevant for the
notion of voluntary movement. It may result from
bodily needs such as hunger or thirst, or from
higher-order deliberations based on one’s own
Aboriginal Studies beliefs and desires. What counts for voluntary
movements is that the individual has a goal and
▶ Native American Studies that this goal determines movements leading to
its achievement.
Being endowed with the capacity to generate
movements, animals move in their environment
Absorption looking for objects or situations that may satisfy
their immediate or future needs. When they find
▶ Hypnosis an appropriate stimulus they may interact with it.
Unlike for reflexes, however, in voluntary
behavior stimuli do not determine the response,
they only set the occasion for it. According to
Abuse their needs, animals may respond to the same
stimulus in different ways. They may approach
▶ Violence it, avoid it, or ignore it.