Journal of Cleaner Production 18 (2010) 161–173

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Journal of Cleaner Production

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/jclepro

A case study on raw material blending for the recycling of ferrous wastes in
a blast furnace
Magnus Fröhling*, Otto Rentz
Institute for Industrial Production (IIP), Universität Karlsruhe (TH), Hertzstraße 16, D-76187 Karlsruhe, Germany

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: The utilisation of ferrous wastes in a blast furnace is a well established recycling process to cope with the
Received 29 March 2009 enormous amounts of ferrous residues in the iron and steel industry. The further input flows of this
Received in revised form process, that is especially coke and fluxes, as well as its output flows, that is pig iron and by-products, are
1 August 2009
highly dependent on the blending of the ferrous wastes while they differ highly in the revenues gained
Accepted 2 August 2009
for the treatment and their chemical composition. So far, no planning approach exists for the blending of
Available online 11 August 2009
the residues on the operational planning level that models the dependency of the costs and revenues on
the raw material blend and the thermodynamic reactions in the recycling processes adequately.
Keywords:
Operational planning Therefore we present an approach for this operational production planning problem focusing on an
Blending integration of such a sufficiently detailed modelling of the underlying metallurgical processes into the
Process modelling planning model. The basis of our approach is a thermodynamic simulation of the processes. From this
Recycling simulation we derive linear input-output functions for the relevant material and energy flows by using
Blast furnace multiple linear regression. These input–output functions form the core of our blending model developed
Ferrous residues for the planning task. The model is implemented as an integrated decision support system. Exemplary
application results are given. These results validate the approach and show that ecological the economic
optimisation leads also to results which are advantageous in terms of resource efficiency and emission
reduction. Though developed for a specific recycling process, the methodology can be transferred to
other metallurgical (recycling) processes, as well as other parts of the process industries, and is therefore
of high relevance.
 2009 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction
Production processes in the iron and steel industry involve
enormous consumption of primary and secondary resources, as
well as the formation of large amounts of by-products. The recovery
of metals from these by-products, for example dusts and sludges,
becomes more and more important as legal requirements demand
for a thorough utilisation, existing landfill capacities as well as
primary resources become scarce and – the in the long term – rising
prices for metals make such an utilisation economically attractive.
Additionally, the anthropogeneous climate change increases the
pressure on the iron and steel industry to reduce climate relevant
emissions (cf. [1]). Besides internal recycling options, for example
by a re-feeding of dusts onto the sinter strand, external recycling
options exist, aiming at the utilisation of these residues to recover
the metals. Examples are the DK process, in which ferrous residues
* Corresponding author. Tel.: þ49 721 608 4400; fax: þ49 721 608 4682.
E-mail addresses: magnus.froehling@wiwi.uni-karlsruhe.de (M. Fröhling),
otto.rentz@wiwi.uni-karlsruhe.de (O. Rentz).
with smaller quantities of zinc can be utilised to recover iron and
zinc, and the Waelz process, in which residues with higher quan-
tities of zinc can be utilised to recover zinc. These processes share in
common that they receive treatment fees for the utilisation of the
residues. In general, these fees increase with the quantities of
problematic elements and substances such as zinc, chlorine, lead
and phosphorus in the residues. On the one hand the further input
and the output flows of such processes, especially the products but
also the reducing agents, are – in their quantity and chemical
composition – highly dependent on the composition of the blend of
these raw materials. On the other hand these flows determine,
together with the utilisation fees, the decision relevant cost and
revenue parameters for the operational planning of these
processes. Thus increases of problematic elements and substances
can affect these costs and revenues negatively. To find optimal
blends, that is raw material mixes, for such a process requires
a modelling of the underlying production processes that is able to
describe the dependencies of the further input-output flows on the
amount and composition of the blend.
The aim of this contribution is to develop an approach for the
decision support for this blending problem that comprises

0959-6526/$ – see front matter  2009 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.jclepro.2009.08.002
162 M. Fröhling, O. Rentz / Journal of Cleaner Production 18 (2010) 161–173
a problem-adequate, that is a sufficiently detailed, process model-
ling. To point out the necessity of such a modelling, to demonstrate
its application potential and to validate it, the development is
carried out for a real process – the DK process and applied exem-
plarily. Nevertheless, similar problems arise in other metallurgical
recycling and production processes as well as in other parts of the
process industries. Therefore the approach also has a strong rele-
vance for these.
The outline of the contribution is as follows. In the following
section the considered production process is described to show the
scope of the case study and to provide the necessary knowledge
about the process. Subsequently the blending problem and the
requirements for an adequate process modelling in a blending
planning approach are explained. The following brief literature
review on blending problems and process modelling in the process
industries, especially the iron and steel industry, shows that – so
far – no sufficient approach exists for this problem. Afterwards our
approach is described. It is shown how we model such processes by
means of flowsheet simulation and multiple linear regression
analyses. Following this section we present our blending model for
the planning problem and show how the process models are
integrated into this model to fulfil the requirements for the plan-
ning approach. The approach is validated in an exemplary appli-
cation: The optimisation results are compared with results from the
thermodynamic process models. Sensitivity analyses are carried
out to determine the influence of key parameters on the optimi-
sation results. Finally, conclusions are drawn.
2. The recycling of ferrous wastes in blast furnaces
The investigated recycling process is operated by DK Recycling
und Roheisen GmbH in Duisburg, Germany. The recycling takes
place in an adapted and specially operated blast furnace process. It
utilises filter dusts and sludges from gas cleanings, blast furnace
flue dusts and sludges, melting losses from the iron pyrite roasting,
rolling mill cakes and sludges, other oxidic residues and iron ores
(cf. [2]). In the following we give a brief process description. The
described aggregates and mass flows are depicted in Fig. 1. A
detailed description of the production process can also be found in
[3].
The raw materials are stored in feed bins and conveyed to
a mixing and granulating drum according to specific blends, that is,
recipes [4]. This raw material mix (BM) is put into sinter pallets that
move horizontally along the sinter strand (cf., e.g., [5]). The top
layer of the burden mix is ignited and air is sucked through it. While
moving slowly horizontally, the so-called burning front moves
down. In this burning front the ferrous oxides become soft at their
grain boundaries and the supplements are melted to a certain
extent. Re-crystallisation agglomerates the fine materials. The
sintering process ends when the burning front reaches the bottom
of the material bed. Afterwards, the cooled sinter (SIN) is crushed to
a predetermined particle size. In the gas cleaning of the sinter
strand two residues accrue: a dust, RESP, from the electrostatic
precipitator (ESP) and a residue, RSWS, from the semi-wet scrubber
(SWS). The semi-wet scrubber also needs lignite coke (CGR) and
lime water (LI) as adsorbents to remove SO2 and dioxins, as well as
furans from the pre-cleaned sinter flue gas (PSFG) (cf. [2,6]).
Together with coke (CK) and fluxes (FL), it is charged discontinu-
ously into the blast furnace. There the sinter is reduced and the pig
iron (PI) discontinuously tapped. To achieve a specific pig iron
quality an alloying with supplements in an induction furnace is
possible before the iron is finally cast into blooms in a casting
machine. These blooms are sold mainly to the foundry industry. At
the blast furnace stage slag (SL) and from the gas cleaning of the
blast furnace a zinc concentrate (ZS), a blast furnace flue dust (BFD)
and via a small power plant electricity (EL) accrue as by-products.
Due to the special burden the described process differs from
usual blast furnace processes. In particular zinc, alkali and lead
require special attention. The zinc burden is, for example, with
often more than 2% 300 times higher than in other blast furnaces
and the alkali burden up to 3 times higher. The zinc, a valuable by-
product, is removed from the blast furnace mainly through the top
with the blast furnace gas. By washing and thickening the blast
furnace gas in a hurdle and a thickener, the zinc is obtained as
a sludge and sold to zinc electrolysis plants.
The quantities and qualities of the further input flows of the
process, such as especially reducing agents, ores, residues and
fluxes, on the one hand and output flows of the process pig iron,
zinc oxide, blast furnace slag and residues from the ESP and the
SWS, on the other hand, depend on the chemical composition of
the raw material mix and thus on the blend of the residues. In
general, these mass and energy flows determine the costs and
revenues relevant for the company on the operational planning
level for input materials, products and by-products. For example,
a higher content of zinc in the raw material blends leads to higher
treatment charges but increases the coke consumption, the major
cost driver, significantly.
Therefore the company has to solve a techno-economic
blending problem, which is described in the following section.
3. The blending problem for the considered case study
On the operational planning level the company’s engineers have
to find a technical and economic optimal blending of the raw
material input mix (that is ferrous residues, ores and fluxes) for
each single campaign of a given pig iron type. For this planning
problem it is necessary to map the process and the input and output
flows on a comparable detailed technological basis so that the
changes in the sum of the utilisation fees and the changes in cost for
reducing agent consumption and pig iron revenues depending on
the raw material blends are balanced according to the changes in
the underlying mass and energy flows.
Such an adequate modelling of the processes on a material and
energy flow basis, that is a modelling of the interrelationship
between input and output as stated in the previous paragraph,
especially comprises the consideration of all relevant aggregates,
the relevant elements and substances within the mass flows, as
well as the conversion processes itself.
Based on the material flows all relevant costs and revenues have
to be taken into account. The planning horizon should have flexible
lengths (e.g. several days or weeks) to be able to plan campaigns of
different lengths. This ensures that both smaller campaigns (e.g. for
phosphorus pig iron) and bigger campaigns for standard types of
pig iron can be planned. It is necessary to define upper and lower
bounds for the shares of single raw materials to ensure the
consideration of utilisation obligations and technical restrictions
regarding, for example, low strength or small grain sizes. Concen-
tration limit values and further technical specifications, for
example the basicity of the sinter, also have to be taken into
account. Last, the number of different raw materials used in a blend
is limited due to the number of weighing machines.
After this brief description of the planning problem, the
following section focuses on the discussion of previous relevant
work.
4. Previous relevant work (literature review)
Although so far no planning approach exists to fulfil the
requirements for the planning problem discussed in the previous
 M. Fröhling, O. Rentz / Journal of Cleaner Production 18 (2010) 161–173
Fig. 1. Overview of the recycling process.
section, relevant work originates especially from three topics. These
topics are blending problems, process modelling for the process
industries in general and the iron and steel industry in particular.
We briefly discuss some approaches which are from the method-
ological point of view or from their area of application interesting
for our case study. We focus thereby on the applicability for our
case.
4.1. Blending models
Blending problems have been considered in numerous scientific
publications. Already in the 1960s they have been addressed as
a frequently accruing problem of linear programming (cf. [7]). Thus
various applications and approaches for this common type of
problems exist. In the following a problem-specific overview of
exemplary approaches is stated before a survey of methods for the
modelling of the underlying production processes is provided.
Most blending models are formulated problem-specific.
Educational examples are given (e.g. [7–9]) mostly dealing with
simple linear blending of ingredients to produce a product with
given specifications. Furthermore, numerous approaches of appli-
cations exist, for example in sausage blending (e.g. [10,11]), flour
production (e.g. [12]), fuel blending (e.g. [13–15]) and blending of
radioactive wastes (e.g. [16]). Several works address technical
blending issues, for example those of [17–19]. The named authors
use – following the various approaches – a large variety of methods
for their planning problems. In addition to the named linear
programming approaches e.g. non-linear programming methods,
stochastic approaches, multi-criteria optimisations and neural
networks are used (cf. [20]).
163
Blending problems in the iron and steel industry have also
frequently been the subject of research. As early as 1958 Fabian
formulated a blending model for integrated steelworks (cf. [21]).
Linear programmes for pig iron production were developed, for
example by Lawrence and Flowerdew (cf. [22]) and Duncan (cf.
[23]). In the meantime the conceptual approaches were further
developed and also used for electric furnaces and converters (cf.,
e.g., [24,25]). Though these works consider some of the technical
particularities, in some cases down to a few selected elements and
substances, the modelling of the processes is not sufficient for the
case at hand. In the case study the process input is varied to a large
extent and the input and output flows are highly dependent on
these variations. Therefore a detailed modelling on the basis of
elements and substances of the material flows is needed. These
chemical compositions also have to be considered in the modelling
of the single conversion steps. The special raw material basis in
comparison to the blast furnaces for primary steel production must
also be considered, as well as the costs and especially the revenues
through the treatment charge, pig iron, zinc oxide and electricity
sales, thus making a direct transfer of the problem-specific appli-
cations impossible.
4.2. Approaches for a process modelling
In comparison to the sketched planning approaches the
following approaches for process modelling from engineering
sciences are more technically oriented:
A balancing of mass and enthalpy flows of a production process
(cf. [26,27]) is a basis of a technically sound process modelling but
does not explicitly model the functional coherences between input
164 M. Fröhling, O. Rentz / Journal of Cleaner Production 18 (2010) 161–173
and output flows. Therefore this can be referred to as a black box
model of a process. When using a modelling with fixed partition
coefficients the distribution of input flows to output flows is
determined by the use of vectors. Fixed partition coefficients can be
determined on the basis of a mass and enthalpy balancing of the
regarded processing steps. Such a model is capable of a modelling
of the chemical specifications of input and output flows but is only
suited for stationary operating points and constant chemical
compositions.
A commonly used methodology for the determination of
a functional coherence between input and output flows is multiple
regression analysis. On the basis of empirically determined opera-
tional data, the shape of a describing function is assumed. An
estimate for the coefficients of this function is made following the
method of the minimisation of the sum of the quadratic errors (cf.,
e.g., [28,29]). Using this method the functional coherences between
input and output flows in dependence of chemical compositions
and / or technical parameters can be modelled. This method
requires a normal distribution and independence of the exogenous
variables and an identification and elimination of outliers from the
data set. A major point of criticism with this methodology is that
the determined coherences do not necessarily comply with
chemical and physical laws and that the correlations can lead to
incorrect conclusions, for example false cause-effect-coherences. It
is also difficult and often not possible to vary – during the normal
operation of such a process – the relevant parameters indepen-
dently and to be able to determine the influences of the parameter
changes to the necessary degree.
Simulation with so-called flowsheet simulation systems is
a further approach for static or dynamic modelling of process
industry production systems for example for the development,
planning and configuration. The key element of any flowsheet
simulation system is a comprehensive material database. Module
libraries for common procedural unit operations provide valuable
components for a comparably easy model building while solution
algorithms enable the computation of the flowsheets. A graphical
user interface steers the interaction with the user. Different
application programming interfaces provide further control
possibilities. Common systems are Pyrosim, ChemCad, and Aspen
Plus, the latter is used in the depicted case. For the modelling
a process is split into functional parts, for example single unit
operations or temperature zones in larger aggregates and linking
mass and energy flows in a flowsheet model. On the one hand,
using these models the mass and enthalpy balances of the process
are computed following chemical and physical laws. Thus chem-
ical compositions, temperatures and pressures can be determined
without an explicit formulation of the input-output function. On
the other hand, flowsheet simulation systems have the disad-
vantage that the computation of one model often takes too long
for a direct use in optimisation models. More detailed descrip-
tions of flowsheet simulation systems and their applications can
be found in [30–35].
4.3. Technical modelling of production processes in the iron and
steel industry
In addition to the described general process modelling
approaches numerous works deal with the modelling of production
processes in the iron and steel industry in particular. The earliest
model for blast furnaces dates back to 1916 and comes from
Mathesius (cf. [36]). Further models were developed, for example
by Wartmann (cf. [37]) and others can be found, for example in [38–
40]. The scope of methodological approaches used in these models
reaches from thermal balances, reaction kinetics up to finite
element methods. The usage of these models is often either
restricted by the computational complexity of the models or by the
limitation to few elements and substances to reduce this
complexity. For sinter strands the made explanations also hold.
There are several publications dealing with sinter strand models,
for example [41–43], where mainly statistical methods and differ-
ence equations are applied. For the same reasons as for the blast
furnace models, the named approaches are not suited for the case
at hand.
Approaches using flowsheet simulation appear to be more
promising. They have already been applied on strategic planning
issues in the iron and steel industry such as assessing integrated
pollution prevention measures in integrated steelworks (cf.
[44,45]) and Electric Arc Furnaces (EAFs) (cf. [46]). In these cases
the input and output flows of scenarios are computed using
flowsheet simulation models. Based on the resulting mass and
enthalpy balances the economic consequences of new concepts or
the changes in the input materials could be quantified. A direct use
of these models for the depicted case is not possible as modifi-
cations for the different raw material basis and the different sinter
strand and blast furnace have to be carried out. Furthermore, the
modelling of the processes has to be more detailed to achieve the
accuracy needed for an operational planning task and to provide
sufficient results for the differing input material compositions.
These approaches have the disadvantage of long simulation runs
making a direct usage in tailored optimisation algorithms – as,
for example, practiced in [32] for the ammonia synthesis –
impossible.
4.4. Conclusions for the development of a blending approach for the
case study
To solve the operational blending problem for the case study of
the DK process a blending model has to be developed which
comprises all relevant cost and revenue parameters in dependence
on a detailed modelling of the relevant aggregates and mass and
energy flows in their quantities and chemical compositions. Mass
and enthalpy balances and partition coefficients do not sufficiently
model the processes and especially the dependencies of the mass
and energy flows on the chemical composition of the raw material
mix. It is not (economically) possible to vary the process in the
necessary boundaries to derive influences on parameter changes
solely with regression analyses. Nevertheless, linear functions
describing the further input and output flows, for example in
dependence of the chemical composition could be integrated into
the blending model. The flowsheet simulation approach is capable
of carrying out such parameter changes. However, a direct inte-
gration into the blending model is not promising because the
solution times for one model run can be minutes. We propose
therefore a new three-step methodology combining the advantages
of the modelling methods of linear regression and flowsheet
simulation for the problem at hand. The first step, the elaboration of
such a problem-adequate process modelling for the blending
problem, is described in the following section. The second step, the
integration of the process modelling into a problem specific
blending model is discussed in the subsequent section. Afterwards,
we will briefly discuss the third step, the implementation of the
approach in a decision support system before we present exem-
plary results.
5. Problem-adequate process modelling for the blending
model
The basis for the determination of the process models used in
the blending model is the flowsheet simulation. This enables one to
vary the relevant parameters independently to the necessary
 M. Fröhling, O. Rentz / Journal of Cleaner Production 18 (2010) 161–173 165

Fig. 2. Schematic process model of the blast furnace plant.

extent. Thus, a data basis for multiple linear regression analyses can
be calculated in simulation runs. Using this regression analyses it is
then possible to derive input-output functions of the processes that
can be used in the blending model. These steps are described in the
following subsections.
5.1. Flowsheet simulation
The relevant aggregates and processes are modelled in the
flowsheet simulation system. Therefore the considered aggregates
from the process depicted in Fig. 1 are split into two parts, the sinter
strand with the associated gas cleaning facilities (ESP and SWS) and
the blast furnace with related gas cleaning facility (GCBF) and
power plant (PP). The major aggregates sinter strand and blast
furnace are further split into temperature zones to model the
reactions in different reaction zones. In addition to the stoichio-
the output flows from the operational data. Using this comparison
and the statistical measure of the coefficient of correlation the
model is validated and – if necessary – adjusted until a sufficient
state of accuracy is achieved. Fig. 3 shows such a comparison for the
specific coke consumption of the blast furnace. The coefficient of
correlation in this case is 0.78. The simulation covers the major
trend in the data but does not reach every peak. This is due to the
fact that for the simulation the daily mean values are used and that
not every effect of the different feed times, retention times and tap
times in the blast furnace could be considered. The further relevant
flows for the sinter strand and the blast furnace are simulated with
similar or better coefficients of correlation.
1,20
Specific coke consumption measured

metric Reactor RSTOIC and the RGIBBS-reactor minimising the free Specific coke consumption simulation
1,00
Deviation
enthalpy, we use continuous stirred tank reactor models RCSTR to
consider reactions that do not reach the equilibrium. Fig. 2 shows 0,80
the schematic flowsheet model of the blast furnace plant. It illus-
trates that for the modelling of the blast furnace three temperature
[t coke / t pig iron]

0,60
zones are used: a heating zone (400  C), a thermal reserve zone
(900  C) and the zone of direct reduction (1.400  C). This follows
0,40
the descriptions in common literature on blast furnaces. An
according model for the sinter strand has also been developed. For
0,20
details of this modelling we refer to [3].
Data basis for the simulation are mass and enthalpy balances for
0,00
the processes. These are elaborated using company data for each
single aggregate and all mass and energy flows. Where applicable
-0,20
this is done on the basis of daily mean average values.
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180 200
The models are validated by the comparison between simulated
days
and measured data. The varying input flows from the multi-period
mass and enthalpy balances serve as input data for the flowsheet Fig. 3. Comparison of the specific coke consumption from measured operational data
simulation. The results of the simulation runs are compared with and flowsheet simulation runs.
166 M. Fröhling, O. Rentz / Journal of Cleaner Production 18 (2010) 161–173

The validated simulation models for the sinter strand and the blast M Set of considered mass and energy flows m,
furnace are used to identify input–output functions of the process.  
BM; SIN; SFG; PSFG; CGR; LI; SCG; RSWS;
M ¼ ;
RESP; CK; BL; PI; SL; PFG; ZS; EL; BFD; BCG
5.2. Sensitivity and multiple linear regression analysis
BM is a mix of the raw materials BM1,., BMn
To determine linear input–output functions of the process for B3M Set of considered by-products b,
the process modelling in the blending model we use the simulation B ¼ fSCG; RSWS; RESP; SL; ZS; EL; BFDg
models in sensitivity analyses in which the relevant parameters are E Set of considered elements and substances e
varied independently on two levels following a complete factor R3M Set of considered raw materials r,
experimental design (cf. [47]). Thus, it is aimed to reach the inde- R ¼ fBM; CGR; LI; FL; CK; BLg
pendence of the factors which is necessary for the regression Ia Main input flow of aggregate a˛A ; I a 3M
analysis. As major considered parameters are concentration values, Oa Main output flow of aggregate a˛A ; Oa ˛M
a total independence cannot be reached: All concentration values P Set of Products p˛P
have to sum up to one and therefore an increase or decrease in one
value has an effect on others.
For the sinter strand and the blast furnace plant model twelve Parameters
and eleven factors respectively are varied, leading to 2048 and 1024 A Number of aggregates a˛A [–]
simulation runs respectively for these. The computed data sets are B Number of by-products b˛B [–]
the basis for multiple linear regressions to determine linear input- cme Concentration limit value (minimum) for element/
output functions (cf. [48]). As the influence of several parameters substance e in mass flow m [–]
on the described variable can be neglected the number of the cme Concentration limit value (maximum) for element/
exogenous variables is reduced through the application of a meth- substance e in mass flow m [–]
odology for a model reduction from Hartung et al. (cf. [49]). As an E Number of elements and substances e˛E [–]
example for the structure of these equations, the following equa- kar Factor for costs (positive value) or revenues (negative
tions (1) and (2) show the specific share of sinter and the specific value) for raw material r on aggregate a [V/t]
coke consumption: kab Factor for costs (positive value) or revenues (negative
value) for by-product b on aggregate a [V/t]
    XE
tSIN mSA BN Big number [–]
xSA
SIN ¼ SIN
SA
SA
¼ fSIN C BM ¼ aSA
SIN þ bSA BM
SIN;e ,ce (1) M Number of mass and energy flows m˛M [–]
tBM mBM e¼1
P Number of products p˛p [–]
pp Price for product p˛p [V/t]
    E
X
tCK mBF R Number of raw materials r˛R [–]
xBF
CK ¼ CK BF
¼ fCK C SIN ¼ aBF
CK þ bBF SIN PI PI
CK;e ,ce þ bSi ,cSi
tSIN mBF RMF Raw material feed: Amount of raw material input mix on
SIN e¼1
the sinter strand [t]
(2) PRBF Production rate of the blast furnace [–]
SN Small number [–]
xam Specific share of mass flow m on aggregate a [–]; SA: xSA
r Minimal share of raw material r in the input mix [–]
Sinter Strand; BF: Blast Furnace xSA
r Maximal share of raw material r in the input mix [–]
mam Mass flow m on aggregate a [t]; SIN: Sinter; BM: raw zSIN
Bas Basicity of the sinter [–]
material blend; CK: Coke dmax Maximum number of raw materials in the input mix [–]
Cm Vector of concentrations cm e of elements e˛E in mass or
energy flow m˛M [–]
cm
e Concentration of element or substance e in mass flow m [–] Variables
aam Absolute coefficient for calculation of mass flow m on Cm Vector of concentrations cm e of elements e˛E in mass or
aggregate a [–] energy flow m˛M[–]
bam Coefficient for calculation of mass flow m on aggregate a [–]. XaR Vector of shares xar of raw materials r˛R in the input mix
of aggregates a˛A[tr/tNM]
Following this methodology a set of describing input-output
XaB Vector of shares xab of accruing by-products b˛B on
equations for the sinter strand and for the blast furnace are
aggregate a˛A[tb/tNM]
computed. These equations describe the results of the simulation
xp Specific share of product output [tp/tNM]
runs with coefficients of correlation between 0.9 and 1. With this
dr Binary variable stating whether raw material r˛R is part
set of equations the decision relevant mass flows, their chemical
of the raw material input or not
compositions and energy flows can be determined in an economic
decision model for the considered planning task. The modelling Using this notation the blending model can be formulated:
and the integration of the input–output functions are described in Maximise objective function
the following section.
!
6. Modelling of the blending problem A X
X R A X
X B
RM
CM ¼ RMF, pp ,xp  kar ,xar  kab ,xab (3)
a¼1 r¼1 a¼1 b¼1
The decision model is formulated as a mixed-integer linear
programming model (MILP). We use the following notation (for the Subject to
used abbreviations for aggregates and mass and energy flows cf. Fig.1).
R
X
Sets xSA
r ¼ 1 (4)
A Set of considered aggregates a, A ¼ fSA; ESP; SWS; BF; GCBF; PPg r¼1
 M. Fröhling, O. Rentz / Journal of Cleaner Production 18 (2010) 161–173 167

R
X and multiple linear regression analyses are used in equations (9)–
cBM
e ¼ cre ,xSA
r ce˛E; cr˛R (5) (11) for the computation of the chemical compositions of the
r¼1 intermediate and output flows and the specific raw material
 a consumption and (by-)product production. With restriction (12)
the specified basicity zSIN
a
CeO ¼ fconc;e
a
CI ce˛E; ca˛R (6) Bas of the resulting sinter is ensured.
Minimal and maximal shares of specific raw materials in the input
mix are considered in equations (13) and (14). In (15) the
cme  cm
e ce˛E; cm˛M (7) restriction of the number of different raw materials used in the
input mix to dmax is formulated. By this the limited number of
cm m
e ce ce˛E; cm˛M (8) weighing machines is regarded. The restrictions (16) and (17)
linearise the function
 a
xar ¼ fra C I ca˛AyfSAg; cr˛R (9)
 
1 if xSA
r >0
 a dr ¼ (20)
0 else
xab ¼ fba C I ca˛A; cb˛B (10)
needed in equation (15). When the restriction of the number of raw
 
materials and consequently the equations (15)–(17) are omitted the
xp ¼ PRBF,fpHO C SIN (11)
model is linear. Non-negativity and binarity of the decision vari-
ables are ensured in the constraints (18) and (19).
SIN
CCao
SIN
ZBas ¼ SIN
(12)
CSiO
2
7. Implementation of the model

xSA
r  xSA
r cr˛R (13) To provide decision support for the reference company the
presented model is implemented as a user-friendly integrated
xSA SA
r  xr cr˛R (14) decision support system called SCOPE (Simulation Combined with
Optimisation in the Process Industries). The schematic structure of
R
X this system is given in Fig. 4. SCOPE combines all necessary func-
dmax  dr (15) tions for the optimisation runs under one MS Access surface.
r¼1 A graphical user interface (SCOPE GUI) controls the system. The
system itself comprises a database with the master data needed, for
xSA example raw material types, chemical compositions, prices and
r  BN,dr  0 cr˛R (16)
so on. A synchronisation with other company databases and an
Enterprise Resource Planning (ERP) System is enabled through an
xSA
r þ BN,ð1  dr Þ  SN cr˛R (17) implemented interface.
The control of the optimisation runs is carried out by applica-
tions, in our case of the raw material blending by the application
xp ; xar ; xab ; cm
e 0 ca˛E; cb˛R; ce˛M; cr˛R; cm˛R ð18Þ
SCOPE CD. These optimisation applications read the needed master
data and provide it in the format of so-called include files for the
dr ˛f0; 1g cr˛R (19) optimisation. The model presented in the previous section is
implemented in the General Algebraic Modelling System (GAMS).
The commercial CPLEX solver is used for the solution of the model.
The objective function (3) maximises the contribution margin The optimizing SCOPE application calls a GAMS run with the
CMRM. In the calculation of the contribution margin the costs and provided input data, reads and displays the optimisation results
revenues for the utilisation of the raw materials r˛R, the antici- and writes them into the master data. Further interfaces are
pated revenues for the pig iron sales and the costs or revenues for implemented, for example, to call runs of the process simulation
the accruing by-products b˛B are considered. Equation (4) environment or to analyze these in MS Excel.
ensures that the raw material input mix on the sinter strand is
complete, that is the mix adds to one. The constraints (5) compute
the concentrations of all elements and substances e˛E in the raw 8. Exemplary application
material input mix in dependence of their concentrations cre in the
mass flow component and the raw materials used in the input To exemplify and validate our approach we present an example
mix with their specific shares xSA r . In equation (6) the chemical application. First we apply the model to the production of two
composition of the output flows is computed. With the common types of pig iron: a standard pig iron (type 1) and a pig
constraints (7) and (8) it is ensured that the concentrations cm
e of iron with higher chromium contents (eco pig iron, type 2). As in
the elements e in the mass flows m meet the specifications given practice the company has to cope with changing prices for raw
by the lower and upper bounds cme and cme . These are used materials and products we carry out sensitivity analyses analysing
especially for the sinter and for some specifications of the raw the model behaviour in dependence on parameter changes. In all
material input mix as they are needed to ensure that the intervals applications the costs for coke as reducing agent play the dominant
in which the input–output functions are valid are not left. role concerning the cost side. As coke is also responsible for the
Therefore these equations are of special relevance for elements emissions of the climate relevant CO2, we compare our economic
and substances that go into the gaseous phase like carbon, water, optimisation results with an optimisation in which we minimise
chlorine and slag builders like CaO and SiO2 needed in the blast the CO2 emissions of the process. First of all, we start with a further
furnace. The functions elaborated using the process simulation description of the data basis for our applications.
168 M. Fröhling, O. Rentz / Journal of Cleaner Production 18 (2010) 161–173

Fig. 4. Schematic Structure of the implemented Decision Support System Scope.

8.1. Data basis necessary reducing agent coke and the revenues for the waste
utilisation form the main drivers for the specific contribution
Starting points for this application are realistic parameter values margin for both types of pig iron. At a first glance, the revenues for
and the above-mentioned types of pig iron. We consider 54 typical the utilisation of the wastes appear comparably low though a use of
raw materials from the raw material database of the company. We ores would result in costs at least in the same order of magnitude.
assume that the company is totally free to choose the raw materials The comparison of the specific contribution margins shows that
within the available amounts, that is, can freely decide to take or the standard pig iron of type 1 is most favourable (100 MU) and that
leave a material. Furthermore, the use of an ore to at least 10% by for the type 2 a significantly lower contribution margin is achieved
weight is demanded to form the basis of the raw material blend. We (91.82 MU). The difference lies in the smaller sales price for the iron
use the approximate amount of a one-day production as planning of type 2 which is not compensated by the higher revenues of the
basis and neglect the time lag induced by the retention time of the wastes with higher contents of chrome. The results are shown in
materials in the sinter strand and the blast furnace. Further tech- detail in Fig. 5.
nical parameters are given in Table 1. From the underlying calculated raw material blend (cf. Table 2),
For the economic parameters realistic values of the year 2005 the resulting chemical composition of the raw material blend and
have been chosen. The results are given normalised in monetary the sinter (cf. Table 3 and Table 4) it can be seen that the model
units (MU). picks only 13 of the possible 54 raw materials to mix both blends.
These picked raw materials are used in both mixtures. Therefore
8.2. Determination of raw material blends for a basis scenario the chosen raw materials appear to be more preferable in their
combination than the others. The two blends differ mainly only in
The calculation of the optimal raw material blends for the two two positions of the chemical composition of the raw material
investigated types of pig iron shows clearly that the costs for the blend and the intermediate product sinter while keeping the same
basic blend structure. The main components concerning the pig
Table 1 iron production, that is, Iron (Fe) and Alkaline (Na2O and K2O), are
Technical parameters for the optimisation runs.
mixed to produce as much pig iron as possible under the defined
Parameters Value conditions. Therefore the raw material blends do not differ signif-
Parameter raw material blend (net) icantly for the named components. The differences lie in the
- Min. carbon content (cBMC ) 5.00 [% by weight] specific of pig iron of type 2, the chrome content and furthermore
- Max. carbon content (cBMC ) 6.00 [% by weight]
the zinc content. The higher boundary value for chrome leads to an
- Max. water content (cBMH2 O ) 13.00 [% by weight]
- Max. chlorine content (cBM ) 0.22 [% by weight] increase of the share of residues with higher chrome contents in the
Cl
Parameter Sinter raw material blend (approx. 6% higher share of raw material no. 13
- Basicity (zSin SIN SIN
Bas ¼ xCaO =xSiO2 ) 0.92 [–] for type 2). The resulting chemical composition of the blend leads
- Min. slag builder content (cSIN SIN
CaO þ cSiO2 ) 13.00 [% by weight] to the maximum value for chrome in the sinter composition. Con-
- Max. slag builder content (cSIN SIN
CaO þ cSiO2 ) 17.00 [% by weight]
cerning the zinc two different strategies can be seen. Increasing
 M. Fröhling, O. Rentz / Journal of Cleaner Production 18 (2010) 161–173 169

200
Revenues pig iron

By-products sinter
144,37
150 strand
128,97 By-products blast
furnace
100,00 Raw materials sinter
100 91,82
strand
Raw materials semi-

[MU/tBM]*
wet scrubber
50 37,06 Raw materials blast
25,29 furnace
7,28 8,61 Contribution margin
0
-1,26 -0,42 -1,17 - 0,37

Standard Eco
-50 (Type 1) (Type 2)

-75,25 -81,28
-100
*) Normalised: Contribution margin typ 1 := 100 M U
Types of pig iron

Fig. 5. Specific contribution margins for the types of pig iron in the application.

Table 2 in the further mass and energy flows, especially for the reducing
Optimisation results: raw material blend. agent and fine dust. Pig iron of type 2 has the highest zinc content
Raw material Share in raw material blend [% by weight] in the sinter and therefore the highest coke consumption and
formation of the fine dust consisting mainly of zinc.
No. Name Standard pig iron (type 1) Eco pig iron (type 2)
1 Fine ore (Type A) 10.00 10.00
2 Filter cake (Type A) 20.00 20.00
3 Filter cake (Type B) 10.79 5.00
8.3. Comparison of the optimisation with simulation results
4 Blast furnace flue dust 4.59 5.06
5 Converter sludge 8.27 7.69 The presented approach bases on the modelling of the under-
6 Converter dust (Type B) 9.54 9.29 lying production processes with a thermodynamic process simu-
7 Prebedding 9.51 6.54
lation. These models are used to derive linear input-output
8 Sand (Type A) 0.03 3.60
9 Sand (Type B) 20.00 20.00 functions by linear regression modelling the process within our
10 Abrasive slurry 1.06 1.06 planning model. The named steps comprise significant simplifica-
11 Rolling Sinter 4.12 3.28 tions so that the question remains whether the modelling is valid
12 Fine ore (Type B) 0.84 1.50 for the used purposes. While a validation for the simulation models
13 Filter cake (Type A) 1.24 7.00
has been given in the section on process modelling, this section
focuses on the validation of the optimisation results. We use the
optimisation results of this exemplary application as input
zinc contents are responsible for increases of the reducing agent parameters for simulation runs. As the total process is split into the
consumption. Such increases have to be compensated by higher two simulation models for the sinter strand and the blast furnace
revenues for the utilisation of zinc bearing wastes. While for pig this comparison is carried out separately for these two parts. Tables
iron type 1 a solution is computed that has a – for this recycling 7 and 8 show the according comparison for the sinter strand and
process – comparable low zinc content, the mix for type 2 shows the blast furnace. It can be seen that the deviation between opti-
a significantly higher zinc content. In this case the additional misation and simulation for the major cost and revenue drivers
revenues for the utilisation of the special wastes compensate the sinter production, pig iron production, and coke consumption is 1–
additional reducing agent consumption. 3%. Taking into account the named simplifications and other sour-
The explained blending strategies can be found also in the ces of uncertainties, for example concerning the composition of the
resulting mass and energy flows for the sinter strand (cf. Table 5) raw materials, measurements and so on, this is an excellent value.
and the blast furnace (cf. Table 6). In both cases the production of Concerning the further mass flows the deviations lie below 9% and
sinter and pig iron reach maximum levels. Differences can be found thus in an acceptable and adequate range. Therefore it can be stated

Table 3
Chemical composition of the raw material mix.

Chemical composition of the raw material mix [% by weight]

H2O Fe Mn P Zn Pb CaO MgO SiO2 Al2O3 Cr S Na2O K2O Cl C Fat

Standard (type 1) 13.00 54.11 0.54 0.06 1.15 0.13 6.56 0.73 7.13 1.29 0.06 0.23 0.36 0.27 0.22 5.00 0.02
Eco (type 2) 13.00 54.10 0.54 0.06 2.19 0.15 6.56 0.82 7.13 1.20 0.23 0.18 0.36 0.26 0.22 5.00 0.17

Table 4
Chemical composition of the sinter.

Chemical composition of the sinter [% by weight]

Fe Mn P Zn Pb CaO MgO SiO2 Al2O3 Cr Na2O K2O

Standard (type 1) 58.00 0.59 0.06 1.31 0.08 7.19 0.81 7.81 1.38 0.06 0.35 0.18
Eco (type 2) 58.00 0.59 0.06 2.35 0.09 7.19 0.90 7.81 1.29 0.23 0.35 0.18
170 M. Fröhling, O. Rentz / Journal of Cleaner Production 18 (2010) 161–173

Table 5 Table 8
Resulting mass flows sinter strand. Comparison of simulation and optimisation results for the blast furnace.

Standard (type 1) Eco (type 2) Standard pig iron Eco pig iron
Sinter (SIN) [kg/tBM] 810 810 (type 1) (type 2)
Lime milk (LI) [kg/tBM] 3.53 2.82 Opt. [t] Sim. [t] Dev. [%] Opt. [t] Sim. [t] Dev. [%]
Lignite coke (CGR) [kg/tBM] 1.20 1.20
Pig iron (PI) 658.01 651.22 1.03 658.01 638.77 2.92
ESP residue (RESP) [kg/tBM] 4.23 4.41
Coke (CK) 381.10 390.01 2.34 411.61 399.51 2.94
SWS residue (RSWS) [kg/tBM] 8.60 7.13
Slag (SL) 204.65 195.43 4.51 207.74 191.38 7.87
Blast furnace flue dust (BFD) 23.18 24.02 3.64 25.30 25.96 2.60
Zinc concentrate (ZS) 20.82 21.60 3.75 27.26 27.84 2.13

Table 6
Resulting mass and energy flows blast furnace.

Standard (type 1) Eco (type 2) revenues for utilised wastes. This is not compensated by reduced
Pig iron (PI) [kg/tSinter] 602 602 costs for the coke in the blast furnace. Although it has a significant
Coke (CK) [kg/tSinter] 349 376 negative impact on the economic results, the possible improve-
Slag (SL) [kg/tSinter] 187 187
Blast furnace flue dust (BFD) [kg/tSinter] 21.20 23.14
ment concerning the reduction of CO2 emissions is limited. This is
Zinc concentrate (ZS) [kg/tSinter] 19.04 24.93 due to the dominating influence of the reducing agent coke on the
Electricity (EL) [kWh/tSinter] 109.60 123.26 cost side. This leads to an economic optimum with CO2 emissions
that are comparable to those obtained from a minimisation of the
CO2 emissions. The changes result from the selection of other
that the model is able to describe the processes for the given residues with lower zinc and iron contents leading to lower coke
planning problem adequately. consumptions in the blast furnace.

8.4. Comparison with results of the ecological objective of a CO2 8.5. Sensitivity analyses
emission reduction
Besides the results for single optimisation, in practice especially
The analyses of the results concerning the cost structure show the behaviour of the model in dependence of changing parameters
that in all cases the costs for the raw materials in the blast furnace, is interesting. Exemplarily the major parameters, that is the prices
that is mainly coke as a reducing agent, are the dominating cost for the pig iron and for the reducing agent coke, are varied in
drivers. The use of coke is also the major source for the CO2 emis- intervals of [0,.,333]% for the pig iron price and [0,.,370]% for the
sions of the process, as the coke used on the sinter strand and the coke price. The results are given in Figs. 6 and 7 for the contribution
coke used in the blast furnace leave the process mostly as CO2. margin and the production of pig iron. Fig. 6 shows that the vari-
Therefore the question arises which additional benefit in terms of ations of the parameters lead to nearly proportional changes in the
emission reduction could be provided by an operational planning specific contribution margin as the results have nearly the shape of
aiming directly at a CO2 emission minimisation. Such an analysis is a plane. In comparison, Fig. 7 shows that there are two major
carried out in the following for a standard pig iron. strategies to achieve this contribution margin and that a relatively
For the calculation of the CO2 emissions we assume that the clear distinction between these can be observed. With higher pig
carbon content of the raw materials and additional coke on iron prices and lower coke prices the model computes solutions
the sinter strand is totally converted to CO2. For the coke used in the maximising the pig iron output. This strategy changes with lower
blast furnace we assume that it is with the exception of an average coke and pig iron prices: Then the model aims on a process oper-
amount of carbon left in the pig iron (3.75%) also converted to CO2. ation mainly focusing on the utilisation of the ferrous wastes and
In this case we minimise the CO2 emissions under the thus on achieving high treatment charges rather than the produc-
condition that the same amount of residues is processed as in tion of pig iron.
the previously shown applications. This is necessary as the least In a second exemplary sensitivity analysis the influence of the
(absolute) CO2 emissions could be achieved without an opera- zinc content in the sinter on the contribution margin is investi-
tion of the process. This would lead to a missing recycling facility gated. In the results displayed so far the model could choose the
and to missing products for the following steps in the value zinc content freely within the boundaries of 0 and 3%. Now the
chain. minimum and maximum contents of zinc in the sinter are specified
The results in this case (cf. Table 9) show that a reduction of the
CO2 emissions of approximately 3% in comparison to the economic
optimisation is possible. Due to the changes in the raw material
Table 9
feed approximately 1.8% less pig iron is produced while the specific Comparison of the economic and ecological optimisation results.
CO2 emissions per ton of pig iron are solely reduced by 1.5%.
Contribution margin CO2 emission Deviation
Nevertheless, this has significant influence on the costs and reve-
maximisation minimisation
nues. The contribution margin is decreased by 12.6% due to lower
Raw materials 1350 [t] 1350 [t] 0.00 [%]
CO2 1615.85 [t] 1563.03 [t] 3.27 [%]
CO2 specific. 2.5 [t/t_pig iron] 2.46 [t/t_pig iron] 1.52 [%]
Table 7
Contribution margin 100.00 [%] 87.35 [%] 12.65 [%]
Comparison of simulation and optimisation results for the sinter strand.
Specific contribution 100.00 [%] 87.35 [%] 12.65 [%]
Standard pig iron (type 1) Eco pig iron (type 2) margin
Revenues pig iron 100.00 [%] 98.22 [%] 1.78 [%]
Opt. [t] Sim.[t] Dev. [%] Opt. [t] Sim. [t] Dev. [%] Revenues waste 100.00 [%] 50.29 [%] 49.71 [%]
Lime milk (LI) 4.76 5.12 7.56 3.81 3.47 8.90 utilisation
ESP residue (RESP) 5.71 6.12 7.23 5.95 6.14 3.17 Costs raw materials 100.00 [%] 96.19 [%] 3.81 [%]
Sinter (SIN) 1093.5 1113.73 1.85 1093.5 1116.16 2.07 blast furnace
 M. Fröhling, O. Rentz / Journal of Cleaner Production 18 (2010) 161–173 171

Fig. 6. Specific contribution margin under variation of the pig iron and the coke prices.

in a range of 0.05% and varied between 0 and 3%. The specification
of the interval of 0.05% is necessary to avoid possible infeasibilities
through adverse parameter constellations. Fig. 8 shows the
resulting contribution margins. The presentation of the results
refers to the maximum value of the specified interval. These show
an optimum at about 1.3% and a range between 1 and 1.5% in which
the zinc content can be varied without major losses in the contri-
bution margin. The model calculations show that in the optimum
the consumption of reducing agent is between 5–15% lower in
comparison to an optimized case for higher zinc contents of 2–3% as
they were formerly common for the process. Such a shift to lower
zinc contents strengthens the profitability of the process by an
increase of the contribution margin of approximately 1% and at the
same time leads to a significant reduction of the CO2 emissions by
approximately 100–160 kg per tonne of sinter. In this case it has
also to be taken into account that optimised solutions are
compared, that is in practice even bigger enhancements may be
achieved. Further, it can be seen that an operation with lower and
higher shares leads to decreasing contribution margins. On the one
hand this means that the higher zinc contents are favourable to
some extent. On the other hand an operation with higher zinc
contents would need additional fees for the raw materials to
compensate the losses due to the higher reducing agent
consumption.

Fig. 7. Pig iron production under variation of the pig iron and the coke prices.
172
100,5
100
specific contribution margin [MU/tBM]
99,5
99
98,5
98
97,5
97
Fig. 8. Specific contribution margin in dependence of the variation of the zinc content in the sinter.
9. Conclusions
On the operational planning level a blending problem for the
recycling of ferrous wastes in blast furnaces exists. This problem
consists of the task to determine the optimal mix of the ferrous
wastes, ores and other input materials to produce a sinter which
can be used in the further processing step, the blast furnace.
Through this blend with its chemical composition the chemical
composition of the sinter and the further mass and energy flows for
reducing agents like coke, for fluxes, for by-product disposal and for
products, that is pig iron and zinc concentrate, are determined.
These flows are decision relevant as they form the major part of the
costs and revenues which are relevant on the operational planning
level. Therefore, developing an approach for decision support for
this planning problem requires a modelling of the main processing
steps, that is sinter strand and blast furnace with the linked gas
cleaning facilities down to the level of the chemical elements and
substances, to be able to describe the interdependencies
sufficiently.
This contribution presents an approach for the blending of the
raw materials for the described case that comprises such a detailed
modelling in a problem-adequate way. We have elaborated ther-
modynamic simulation models for the modelling of the main
aggregates and mass and energy flows of the considered process
that are capable of describing possible changes in the raw material
mix. Within the developed blending model the processes are
described by linear input–output functions derived from the ther-
modynamic simulation. To determine the influences of parameter
variations simulation runs following a complete factor experi-
mental design have been carried out. The linear input-output
functions are then derived using multiple linear regression analyses
and reduction tests to model the processes in the MILP planning
model. The model is implemented as a MS Access/GAMS-based
decision support system.
An exemplary application shows differences in the results for
different products, that is types of pig iron, demonstrating that
a detailed planning of the mix is necessary. A comparison between
the optimisation and the simulation results based on simulation
runs with the same blend show a good modelling of the key cost
and revenue relevant mass and energy flows despite of the
simplifications made in the process. Due to the cost relevance of the
reducing agent coke the maximisation of the contribution margin
already leads to good results concerning emission reductions. For
M. Fröhling, O. Rentz / Journal of Cleaner Production 18 (2010) 161–173
Zinc content in sinter [% by weight]
example, the model calculations show that a reduction of the zinc
content in the raw material blend of 1–2% leads to increases in the
contribution margin of approx. 1%, reductions in the reducing agent
consumption of 5–10% and a reduction of the specific CO2 emis-
sions by 100–160 kg per tonne of sinter used in the blast furnace.
These results can hardly be improved by an optimisation under an
emission reduction objective. Using the model in sensitivity anal-
yses helps to identify superordinate strategies for the mixing and
the purchasing of the raw materials, especially the focus of the
production (utilisation/pig iron production), zinc contents and
negotiation for the utilisation fees.
Though developed for a specific recycling process, the approach
has a further relevance. The methodology can be transferred to
other metallurgical recycling processes, metallurgical production
processes (cf. [3]) and other parts of the process industry. Such
a transfer requires thorough work comprising the following
working steps: To elaborate an adequate process modelling,
detailed material and energy balances of the considered process
have to be determined first. Afterwards simulation models of the
process have to be developed. In a simulation study parameter
variations have to be carried out and a regression analysis is needed
to model the process within the optimisation model. The second
step comprises the development of the problem specific optimi-
sation model. In a third step this model has to be implemented in
a user-friendly decision support system in order to be applicable in
the day-to-day planning of the company. Furthermore, it has to be
investigated whether the simplifications made in this modelling
interfere with the required accuracy. Nevertheless, the presented
approach and its applications show that it is possible and worth-
while to include a more detailed process modelling into planning
models and is therefore a step towards a more process orientated
production planning in the process industries.
References
[1] Rynikiewicz C. The climate change challenge and transitions for radical
changes in the European steel industry. Journal of Cleaner Production
2008;16(7):781–9.
[2] Hillmann C. Primäre Maßnahmen zur Minderung der Emission polychlorierter
Dibenzodioxine und Dibenzofurane an einer Sinteranlage für eisenhaltige
Reststoffe. Clausthal-Zellerfeld: Papierflieger; 2003.
[3] Rentz O, Fröhling M, Nebel F, Schultmann F, Engels B. Integrierter Umwelt-
schutz in der Metallerzeugung: Simulationsgestützte operative Produktions-
planung zur Optimierung metallurgischer Abfallverwertungsprozesse.
Karlsruhe: Universitätsverlag Karlsruhe; 2006.
 M. Fröhling, O. Rentz / Journal of Cleaner Production 18 (2010) 161–173
[4] Deike R, Hillmann C. Production of foundry pig iron from iron containing dusts
and sludge. Scandinavian Journal of Metallurgy 1999;(28):86–91.
[5] Menad N, Tayibi H, Carcedo FG, Hernandez A. Minimization methods for
emissions generated from sinter strands: a review. Journal of Cleaner
Production 2006;14(8):740–7.
[6] Sassen K-J, Deike R. Der DK-Prozess – Das Recycling eisenhaltiger Rohstoffe.
Gießerei Praxis 2000;(8):321–7.
[7] Dantzig GB. Linear programming and extensions. Princeton: Princeton
University Press; 1963.
[8] Domschke W, Drexl A. Einführung in das Operations Research. Berlin, Hei-
delberg: Springer; 2002.
[9] Kallrath J, Wilson JM. Business optimisation using mathematical program-
ming. Basingstoke: Macmillan; 1997.
[10] Steuer RE. Sausage blending using multiple objective linear programming.
Management Science 1984;30(11):1376–84.
[11] Jank K, Wäscher G. Mischungsoptimierung in der Wurstwarenherstellung –
eine Fallstudie. OR Spektrum 1999;21(4):503–23.
[12] Hayta M, Çakmakli Ü. Optimization of wheat blending to produce bread-
making flour. Journal of Food Process Engineering 2001;24:179–92.
[13] Glismann K. Integrierte Planung und Steuerung von Blending-Prozessen.
Düsseldorf: VDI Verlag; 2001.
[14] Singh A, Forbes JF, Vermeer PJ, Woo SS. Model-based real-time optimization of
automotive gasoline blending operations. Journal of Process Control
2004;10(1):43–58.
[15] Mata TM, Smith RL, Young DM, Costa CAV. Environmental analysis of gasoline
blending components through their life cycle. Journal of Cleaner Production
2005;13(5):517–23.
[16] Narayan V, Diwekar UM, Hoza M. Synthesizing optimal waste blends. Indus-
trial Engineering and Chemical Research 1996;1996(35).
[17] Bajorski P, Streeter D. Optimization of amount and blending of cementitious
materials in high-performance concrete. In: National Research Council, editor.
Maintenance and management of bridges and pavements. Washington D.C.:
National Academy Press; 2000. p. 30–5.
[18] Wöhlbier, R.H., Stacking blending reclaiming of bulk materials; 1977.
[19] Rentz, Otto, Einfluß der Möllervorbereitung auf den Staubauswurf bei Ferro-
legierungs-Niederschachtöfen; 1972.
[20] Fröhling M. Zur taktisch-operativen Planung stoffstrombasierter Pro-
duktionssysteme – Dargestellt an Beispielen aus der stoffumwandelnden
Industrie. Wiesbaden: DUV; 2006.
[21] Fabian TA. Linear programming model of integrated iron and steel production.
Management Science 1958;4(4):415–49.
[22] Lawrence JR, Flowerdew ADJ. Economic models for production planning.
Operational Research Quarterly: OR 1963;14(1):11–29.
[23] Duncan JW. Optimization of blast furnace operation through linear
programming. Blast Furnace and Steel Plant 1963;51(April):281–5.
[24] Westerberg C-H, Bjorklund B, Hultmann E. An application of mixed integer
programming in a swedish steel mill. Interfaces 1977;7(2):39–43.
[25] Bernatzki KP, Bussieck MR, Lindner T, Lübbecke ME. Optimal scrap combina-
tion for steel production. OR Spektrum 1998;20(4):251–8.
[26] Penkuhn T. Umweltintegriertes Stoffstrommanagement in der Prozessindus-
trie: dargestellt am Beispiel der operativen Produktionsplanung der Ammo-
niaksynthese. Frankfurt a. M. u.a.: Peter Lang; 1997.
[27] Schulze J, Hassan A. Methoden der Material- und Energiebilanzierung bei der
Projektierung von Chemieanlagen. Weinheim; Deerfield Beach, Basel: Verlag
Chemie; 1981.
173
[28] Hartung J, Elpelt B. Multivariate Statistik: Lehr- und Handbuch der ange-
wandten Statistik. München: Oldenbourg; 1999.
[29] Myers RH, Montgomery DC, Vining GG. Generalized Linear Models: With
Applications in Engineering and the Sciences. New York: John Wiley & Sons;
2002.
[30] Futterer E, Munsch M. Flow-Sheeting-Programme für die Prozeßsimulation.
Chemie Ingenieur Technik 1990;62(1):9–16.
[31] Lohe B, Futterer E. Stationäre Flowsheet-Simulation. In: Schuler Hans, editor.
Prozeßsimulation. Weinheim: VCH; 1995. p. 81–105.
[32] Penkuhn T, Spengler T, Püchert H, Rentz O. Environmental integrated
production planning for the ammonia synthesis. European Journal of Opera-
tional Research 1997;97(2):327–36.
[33] Spengler T, Hähre S, Sieverdingbeck A, Rentz O. Stoffflussbasierte Umwelt-
kostenrechnung zur Bewertung industrieller Kreislaufwirtschaftskonzepte -
Dargestellt am Beispiel der Eisen- und Stahlindustrie. Zeitschrift für
Betriebswirtschaft (ZfB) 1998;68(2):147–74.
[34] Schultmann F. Stoffstrombasiertes Produktionsmanagement – Betriebswirt-
schaftliche Planung und Steuerung industrieller Kreislaufwirtschaftssysteme.
Berlin: Erich Schmidt; 2003.
[35] Schultmann F, Engels B, Rentz O. Flowsheeting-based simulation of recycling
concepts in the metal industry. Journal of Cleaner Production 2004;12(7):
737–52.
[36] Mathesius W. Die physikalischen und chemischen Grundlagen des Eisenhüt-
tenwesens. Leipzig: Otto Spamer; 1916.
[37] Wartmann R. Rechnerische Erfassung der Vorgänge im Hochofen. Stahl und
Eisen 1963;83(23):1414–25.
[38] Saxén H. Blast furnace on-line simulation model. Metallurgical Transactions B
1990;21B:913–22.
[39] Bi X, Torssell K, Wijk O. Prediction of the blast furnace process by a mathe-
matical model. ISIJ – International 1992;32(4):481–8.
[40] Yamaoka H, Kamei Y. Theoretical study on an oxygen blast furnace using
mathematical simulation model. ISIJ – International 1992;32(6):701–8.
[41] Iida O, Nakashima K, Sasaki Y, Iwamura T, Kurihara J. A closed loop control of
sintering process by statistical method. In: International Symposium –
Statistical Process Control in the Steel Industrie. Vancouver; 1985: p.
169–177.
[42] TianZheng H, RuZhuo C. The optimization of production variables in iron-ore
sintering. Steel and Metal Magazine 1990;28(4&5):297–302.
[43] Straka G. Sinterprozessmodell zur Steuerung der Sintermaschi-
nengeschwindigkeit. Stahl und Eisen 1992;112(8):69–72.
[44] Rentz O, Schultmann F, Spengler T, Sieverdingbeck A, Engels B. Prozessinte-
grierte Umweltschutzmaßnahmen in der Eisen- und Stahlindustrie - Stoff-
und Energiestrommanagement in integrierten Hüttenwerken mit Hilfe flow-
sheetingbasierter Prozesssimulation. Karlsruhe: Abschlussbericht des For-
schungsvorhabens ‘‘Prozeßintegrierte Umweltschutzmaßnahmen in der
Eisen- und Stahlindustrie – Teil 2, Förderkennzeichen 01RV9701, 1999.
[45] Sieverdingbeck A. Zur Planung einer emissionsarmen Produktion in der Eisen-
und Stahlindustrie. Düsseldorf: VDI Verlag; 2001.
[46] Engels B. Integrierte Logistik- und Verwertungsplanung beim Produktrecycling
– dargestellt am Beispiel von Gerätebatterien. Düsseldorf: VDI Verlag; 2003.
[47] Kleppmann W. Taschenbuch Versuchsplanung - Produkte und Prozesse opti-
mieren. München und Wien: Hanser; 2003.
[48] Chatterjee S, Price B. Regression analysis by example. New York: Wiley; 1991.
[49] Hartung J, Elpelt B, Klösener K- H. Statistik. München und Wien:
R. Oldenbourg; 1998.