P-N JUNCTION

P-N junction is formed when a P-type semiconductor and N-type Semiconductor

are joined together. As soon as the junction is produced as shown above in Fig (b)
( t >0), free electrons diffuse across from the N-type side and holes from the P-type
side. Recombination of these electrons and holes produces on either side of the
boundary a narrow layer relatively free of charge carriers (electrons and holes) and
therefore of high resistance. This layer is referred to as the depletion layer. This
makes the N-type material positive with respect to the P-type material and the
diffusion continues until the electric field developed across the depletion layer is
sufficient to prevent further movement of charge.
This neutral region which has no charge carriers and hence a poor conductor of
electricity is the depletion or barrier layer. Any further movement of charges across
the boundary in the depletion layer will be repelled by charges in the layer as
shown in fig (c)

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 DIODE

A diode is a two terminal, passive non-linear electronic device that allows current
to flow in one direction only but blocks it in the reverse direction. Diode can be
used with either steady or alternating supply. The symbol for a diode is an arrow
head as shown below

The Diode terminals are named anode and cathode, and in normal use current pass
only when the anode is at a higher positive voltage than the cathode.

Note: Below the circuit symbol of a diode are picture s of diodes used in
electronic circuit.

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 P-N JUNCTION DIODE (OR SEMICONDUCTOR DIODE)

Current-Voltage Curve of P-N Junction Diode

The Forward Biased P-N (or p-n) Junction Diode

If a battery with an e.m.f greater than the barrier p.d is connected with its positive
terminal to the p-type semiconductor and its negative terminal to the n-type
semiconductor as shown above, holes are repelled from the positive terminal and
are caused to drift towards the p-n junction and electrons are repelled from the

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negative terminal also drift towards the p-n junction. This drift of holes and
electrons towards the p-n junction reduces both width and height of the potential
barrier and the p-n junction is said to be forward biased. As a result of this majority
charge carriers cause a large current to flow through the p-n junction diode. The
diode conducts current because holes from the p-type material and electrons from
the n-type material are able to crossover the p-n junction. This current increases
very rapidly with increase in the forward bias voltage as shown in the figure above.

The Reverse Biased P-N ( or p-n) Junction Diode

When the terminals of the battery are reversed, only a very small current flows.
The reversed polarity by which the n-type is connected to the negative terminal of
the battery and the p-type is connected to the negative terminal of the battery
causes a very small current to flow as both electrons and holes are pulled away
from the p-n junction. The depletion layer is wide and the height of the barrier
potential is also high. In this case the p-n junction is said to be reversed biased.
This time, only minority charges carriers, electrons in the p-type material and holes
in the n-type material are urged across the p-n junction by the battery. If the
reverse biased voltage is increased beyond a certain value, rapid increase in the
reverse current occurs and the junction is said to have broken down. This critical
voltage is the breakdown voltage of the p-n junction or peak inverse voltage (PIV).

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Two effects are responsible for the breakdown

The Zener effect in which the electric field across the p-n junction is strong
enough to break some of the covalent bonds.
The Avalanche effect in which charge carriers are accelerated to such an
extent that they are able to break covalent bonds by collision.

Note
i. The reverse breakdown current may damage a diode unless it is
limited to a safe value by a series of resistor.
ii. Manufacturers of semiconductor devices recommend maximum
junction temperatures which should not be exceeded. For most
devices these limits are
a. Germanium 90oC
b. Silicon 150oC (plastic case) and 200oC (metal case)
iii. The P-N junction diode has several advantages namely:
It needs only a low voltage battery to work
It does not need time to warm up
It is not bulky
It is cheap to manufacture in large numbers

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 APPLICATION OF DIODES AS RECTIFIER

A rectifier is an electrical device that converts alternating current to direct current.

This is one of the simplest and most important applications of diodes. Diodes are
sometimes called rectifiers. Rectification is the process to convert an alternating
current (a.c) to direct current (d.c) by using a diode (or diodes). Rectification can
either be half wave rectification or full wave rectification

HALF WAVE RECTIFICATION

Half wave rectification is a process whereby only half of the cycle of an alternating
current (a.c) is made to flow in one direction only. One of the most important uses
of diodes comes from their ability to conduct in only one direction.

On the positive half of the a.c cycle of voltage , suppose the p.d has its positive
side connected to B, the current then flows through the low resistance path BCDA.
This is solely because the diode is forward biased and so it conducts.

On the negative half of the same a.c cycle of voltage , the positive side of the p.d
is now joined to A, so current cannot flow through the high resistance path ADCB.
This is due to the fact that the diode is now reversed biased and so current is
blocked in the second half cycle. This process is called half wave rectification. The
variation in the a.c input and d.c output voltages with time may be seen by

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connecting the input and output terminals, in turn, to a cathode ray oscilloscope
(CRO) as shown below

FULL WAVE RECTIFICATION

Full wave rectification is a process where both halves of every cycle of an

alternating current is made to flow in the same direction. The circuit below fully
rectifies a.c by using a bridge of four diodes.

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On the positive half of the a.c cycle of the voltage(V), suppose the p.d has its
positive side connected to T, the current then flows through the low resistance path
TSQP. This is due to the fact that diodes D1 and D3 are forward biased and so they
conduct while D2 and D4 are reverse biased and do not conduct.

On the negative half of the a.c cycle of voltage V, the positive side of the p.d is
now joined to P, so current now flows through the low resistance path PSQT. This
is because the diodes D2 and D4 are forward biased and so they conduct while D1
and D3 are reverse biased and do not conduct. This process is called full wave
rectification. The variation in the a.c input and d.c output voltages with time may
be seen by connecting the input and output terminals ,in turn , to a cathode ray
oscilloscope(CRO) as shown below
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Therefore, the current flows in the same direction through the load R during both
halves of the cycle.