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Expressing Age

We use the verb "to be" to express age in English. There are two possibilities: He is eight. OR He is eight years old.
Tom is twenty-two.
My brother is thirty-six years old.

Short Answers

When answering yes/no questions, use the auxiliary verb to reply.


Did he come last week? - Yes, he did.
Have you lived here long? - No, I haven't.

Already and Yet

Use "already" in positive sentences to express something done recently. Use "yet" in the question and negative forms.
Have you finished that report yet?
He's already talked with Bob.

Asking about Experience

Use the present perfect to inquire about life experiences.


Have you ever seen a play by Shakespeare?
Has she ever visited France?

Using a Verb as a Noun

We use the gerund form of the verb (verb+ing) when we use the verb as a noun.
Playing golf is my favorite pastime.
She said that driving was very difficult for her.

Past Continuous for Interrupted Actions

Use the past continuous to express an interrupted action in the past.


She was talking on the phone when he arrived.
What was she doing when you asked her the question?

Let, Make and Help

With the verbs "let, make and help" we use the following structure: S + let, make or help + object + verb without to
For other verbs that take this structure we use: S + verb + object + verb with to
She let him stay out late.
What did your father make you do?

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Future Time Clauses

In a future time clause use the present simple - the construction is the same as for the first conditional.
We'll begin the meeting as soon as she arrives.
She'll finish after she receives the notes.

Decisions of the Moment

We use the future with "will" for spontaneous reactions. In other words, decisions that we make at that moment.
I'm hungry. - I'll make you a sandwich.
It's raining. - I'll get an umbrella.

The Use of Well

"Well" is the adverb form of the adjective "good"


He plays golf very well.
She speaks German well.

Few and A Few

We use "few" in a negative sense. Use "a few" in a positive sense.


I have few friends in Los Angeles.
I have a few friends in New York.

Verbs after Prepositions

Always use the gerund when the verb is the object of a preposition.
Do you object to working late?
I am looking forward to meeting you.

If he were ...

Use "were" in the second conditional if clause for all subjects.


If he were the boss, we'd all have more to do.
I would change my position if I were you.

Verb of Purpose

When using a verb of purpose - I do something to do another thing. - use "to + verb".
She bought the computer to get more work done at home.
Hans visited the branch to speak with the manager.

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Past Passive

The passive voice simple past is formed: Passive Subject + to be (conjugated) + participle
One thousand units were produced last month.
The application form was completed and submitted to the administration.

Shall

Use "shall" with "we" when asking for suggestions for a group.
Where shall we go tonight?
When shall we meet?

Say and Tell

We use "say" without an indirect object. "Tell" on the other hand takes an indirect object - i.e. He told me.
I told her to hurry up.
I said I was coming soon.

Among or Between

Use the preposition "among" to mean "in the middle of many" and "between" to mean "in the middle of two".
Our house in among many.
That's our house between the school and the playground.

Have to

Use "have to" for everyday obligation and responsibilities.


Jack has to get up at seven every morning.
Students have to complete all assigned homework on time.

His

The possessive pronoun form of he is "his" - both when followed by a noun and by itself - It is his book. The book is his.
I think that's his car.
That house over there is his.

The Verb "to Mind"

The verb "mind" is followed by the gerund - ing - form of the verb.
He doesn't mind working late.
Would you mind giving me a hand?

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First Conditional

In the first conditional, use the simple present in the if clause and the future with will in the result clause.
If you finish that book, we'll get you a new one.
She'll move to Oregon if she gets a new job.

Present Perfect with "For"

Use the present perfect with the time expression "for" to express a period of time up to the present moment.
She's played tennis for ten years.
I've known him for many years.

Had to

"Had to" is the past of both "have to" and "must".


John had to get up early to catch the train last week.
He said he had to leave.

Would Like vs. Do You Like

We use the form "Would you like to ..." when inviting someone to do something specific.
Use the form "Do you like to ..." when asking a general question.
Would you like to come over this weekend?
Do you like playing golf?

Question Tags

Question tags are formed by the auxiliary verb in the opposite sense of the main statement (here negative because the principle
phrase is positive) followed by the subject.
You're leaving town soon, aren't you?
She hasn't seen him in a long time, has she?

Unless

Use "unless" to mean "if not" in the first conditional.


Unless you come, we won't be able to make a decision.
She will give up unless she has some success soon.

As ... As

Use "as ... as" to express comparative equality. Do not use the comparative form of the adjective (i.e. hotter, more difficult, etc.)

This test is as difficult as the test last week.


London is as expensive as Tokyo.

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Indirect Questions

Indirect questions require the question phrase be put into regular statement order. Direct questions are inverted. Indirect
questions begin with phrases such as "Do you know if..., Would you mind if..., Do you think that..."

Would you mind if I sat down?


Do you think that he is going to attend the conference?

Reported Speech

In reported speech go one step back into the past and change the time signifier as well as the pronoun.

"I'm going to the supermarket.: BECOMES He said he was going to the supermarket.
"She's seeing him tomorrow." BECOMES She said she was seeing him the next day.

Should or Shouldn't

Use "should" or "shouldn't" as a modal verb to give advice.


He should get a check up soon. He doesn't look too well.
His mother told him he shouldn't worry about the test.

Preposition + Verb

Always use the gerund when the verb is the object of a preposition.
What shall we do? - How about visiting Tom!
I looked into purchasing a new computer.

Interested In

The correct usage of showing interest is a passive infinitive "to be interested in".
They are interested in geography.
Was he interested in coming to the presentation?

Good and Bad

The comparative form for "good" is "better". The superlative form is "the best". The comparative form for "bad" is "worse".
The superlative form is "the worst".
She is the worst tennis player on the team.
He's better at math than Jack, but worse at geography.

The Basics of "At"

Use "at" with times of the day and places in a city.


I'll meet you at three o'clock.
Let's meet at the bank.

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Ask

The verb "ask" plus an object is constructed "S + ask + person being asked + infinitive with to".
She asked him to repeat the question.
My friend asked me to come early to the meeting.

Since

Use the present perfect (continuous) with the time expression "since" when using a specific date or time.
He's lived in that house since 1998.
They've been playing golf since ten this morning.

On

Use "on" with days of the week. However, in British English use "at the weekend".
I'll see you on Tuesday.
Let's meet on Sunday.

Look Like

Use "look like" to ask for a physical description.


What does your brother look like?
He looks like Brad Pitt.

Interested or Interesting?

Remember to use the "-ed" form of the adjective to describe how people are affected. In this case, "bored by" is the only
correct combination of adjective and preposition.
That documentary was very interesting.
Tim was interested in the project.

Put Off

The phrasal verb "to put off" means "to postpone". "Put off" is a separable phrasal verb.
He put the meeting off until tomorrow.
Can I put that off until next week?

Past Perfect - Had Done

Use the past perfect - had + participle - to express an action finished before another action in the past.
He had finished his homework by the time she arrived.
I had spoken with Peter before I talked to Bob about the deal.

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How do you do?

Use the question "How do you do?" when meeting a person for the first time. Use "How are you?" after that.

How do you do? - It's a pleasure to meet you.


How are you today Tom? - I'm fine.

Have to or Must?

Use "must" for strong obligations at the moment of speaking. Use "have to" for daily responsibilities.
I have to catch a train for work every morning.
I must get going. It's late!

Had to

Past obligation is always "had to". There is no "must" in the past.


I had to leave the meeting early to catch my train.
They had to invest over 5 million dollars in updates.

What are you doing tomorrow?

The present continuous is often used to express future intentions, especially principle verbs such as "go".
He's going to a concert on Friday.
She's coming to visit next week.

Neither

When agreeing with a negative statement, use "neither + auxiliary in the opposite form to the original statement + subject"
I don't like country music. - Neither do I.
She didn't have much to eat. - Neither did Andy.

The Verb "Like"

The verb "like" usually takes the gerund (verb+ing) in the simple form meaning "enjoy doing". The verb "like" usually takes the
infinitive (to do) meaning "choose to do".

He likes skiing in the winter.


Jack likes to take an earlier train to work.

The Verb "Remember"

With the verb "to remember" use the infinitive to express the action of remembering. Use the gerund (-ing) to express having
the memory of something.
I remember playing golf as a teenager.
Did you remember to turn off the lights?

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No = Not Any

Use "no" plus a noun to mean the same as "not any".


He has no interest in coming next week.
She had no time to go to a show when she was in New York.

Want + Infinitive

The verb "to want" takes the infinitive when followed by a verb.
What do you want to do this afternoon?
She doesn't want to visit her parents next weekend.

Subject Questions

In a subject question do not use the usual inverted question form. For example: Which model did you buy? - here "which model"
is the object. In the example, "which model" is the subject of the question.
Which model goes the fastest?
Which house provides shelter for the homeless?

To Come Into

The phrasal verb "to come into" means "to inherit".


She came into a fortune when her uncle passed away.
Have you ever come into a large amount of money?

Who

Use "who" as the relative pronoun to connect phrases about people.


He's the man who discovered the larva worm.
Jane is the woman who helped me finish the application.

Whose

"whose" is the possessive relative pronoun referring to "the woman" and "the man" in this case.
She's the woman whose home was purchased by Karen.
Is he the man whose son won the trophy?

Explaining Present Results

Use the present perfect continuous to state a recent continuous action in the past causing a present result.
He's been working in the garden. That's why his hands are so dirty.
I've been watching TV all afternoon. That's why I need to take a walk.

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Passive Sentences

The passive voice is formed: Passive Subject + to be (conjugated) + participle.


Two hundred cars were manufactured at the plant last week.
The 9th Symphony was written when Beethoven was deaf.

Look After

"look after" is a phrasal verb which means "to take care of".
Can you look after my cat next week?
I looked after my brother's children for the day while he was away.

Than

For comparisons between two objects use the comparative form followed by "than".
English is easier to learn than Russian.
Children are more nimble than adults.

Could - Was Able To

"Could" is the past of can which expresses ability and permission. "Was able to" expresses the same idea, but is often used for
a specific situation.
She couldn't attend that class last semester.
He wasn't able to buy tickets for the concert on Saturday.

Future Predictions

We use the future with "will" to make future predictions.


I doubt she will win the election next year.
Who do you think will win the game?

In Front Of - Behind / Before - After

"In front of" indicates physical space. The oppposite is "behind". "Before" indicates time. The opposite is "after".
He stood in front of the class.
Let's have lunch before the meeting.

Present Perfect Passive Voice

"Have been made / done / built " is the present perfect passive form used for actions completed up to the present moment
in time.
All the assignments have been completed on time.
This product has been manufactured in Iowa since 1943.

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Out of / Into

Use the preposition combination "out of" when exiting a building. Use the preposition "into" when entering a building.
She drove the car into the garage.
He walked out of the shop and saw Peter.

Like / As

Use "as" to indicate function, use "like" to indicate similarity.


She looks like my sister.
He works as an accountant at the local bank.

Question Tags

Use the opposite of the auxiliary for a question tag.


She enjoys wine, doesn't she?
They haven't been to Paris before, have they?

Did?

The question form of the simple past is "did + Subject + verb (without to)".
When did she finish the lesson?
Where did they go on vacation?

Future Intentions

Use "be going to" to ask about future intentions.


When are you going to finish that report?
What is she going to study at university?

Wish + Past Perfect

The use of the verb "wish" in the past is followed by the past perfect similar to the third conditional.
She wishes she had studied harder for the test.
I wish I had known about the problem.

Reported Speech with "Will"

"Will" becomes "would" in reported speech.


He said he would be able to attend the conference.
Paris said she would not speak to the reporters.

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Present Modal Verbs of Deduction

Use "might / could + verb" for a present modal verb of probability. The other forms include must + verb - almost certain,
can't + verb - almost certain in a negative way.
She can't be at school. I just talked to her on the phone!
Peter might work at that company. I think he just changed jobs.

Past Modal Verbs of Deduction

Use "might have + participle" for a past modal verb of probability. The other forms include "could have + participle - possibility,
must have + participle - almost certain, can't have + participle - almost certain in a negative way.
She must have been ill. She rarely misses a meeting.
They might have bought a new car. I'm not sure.

Had better, Ought to, Should

"Had better", "ought to" and "should" are all ways of giving advice.
I think he had better hurry up and finish the questions.
They ought to spend more time with their children.

During / While

Use "during" with a noun, "while" with a verb clause.


During the meeting, Tom mentioned the problems with shipping.
Jeff talked to Peter while I was working on the report.

Third Conditional

Use the past perfect in the if clause of conditional three (imaginary past) sentences that concern the past.
They would have come to the party, if they had been invited.
If Al Gore had been elected, we wouldn't have faced so many problems.

Repeating Every Sunday, Saturday, etc.

When speaking about an action that is repeated EVERY Saturday, Monday, etc. use the day of the week + 's'
They go to church on Sundays.
Do you often arrive late to work on Wednesdays?

On / At the Weekend

British English: at the weekend OR at weekends (in general) / US English: on the weekend OR on weekends (in general)
US English - I like palying tennis on weekends.
British English - She enjoys going into London at weekends.

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Indirect Questions

It is not necessary to invert in indirect questions.


Do you know when the train leaves?
I wonder if he enjoys opera?

Future Perfect

The future perfect is used to talk about what will have been done up to a specific point in the future.
She'll have finished by the time we arrive.
This time next week we'll have completed all the tests necessary to move ahead with the project.

Future Possibility

When speaking about the future we are not always sure of what will happen. In these cases, we can use the modal verbs
'may' or 'might' to speak about what will possibly happen or be true in the future.
He may get accepted into that college.
They might be able to attend the conference next month.

Ironic Question Tags

Question tags can also be used to be sarcastic or to joke with someone.


I'm not stupid, am I?
She's not joking, is she?

What's Happening Around This Moment?

Use the present continuous to speak about what is happening at the present moment in time.
We're developing some new software this month.
She's studying for an exam this week.

Specific Time in the Past

When a SPECIFIC point in time is stated for a past event, use the past simple.
They left the house at 7.30 yesterday morning.
He changed his job on the 2nd of December.

Ago

used when speaking about X days, weeks, months, years before. NOTE: 'ago' follows the number of days, weeks, etc.
They left on vacation two weeks ago.
I sent that letter three days ago.

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Present Perfect for Experience

Whenever you speak about something that has happened up to now without giving a precise point in time, use the
present perfect.
He's read all his books on the topic.
Mary's flown more than 200,000 miles.

Present Perfect to Express Duration

When an action begins in the past and continues into the present moment we use the present perfect. This use of the
present perfect expresses duration over time FROM the past moment TO the present moment.
He's lived in the city since 1998.
They've worked at that company since last April.

Have Got = Have

Use 'have got' to mean the same as 'have' for possession.


He's got a new car. = He has a new car.
They've got a number of friends. = They have a number of friends.

In / On Time

'In time' indicates that someone will do something before a given time in the future. 'On time' indicates that someone will do
something at a given time in the future.
I hope he arrives in time for the event.
Tom is always on time for work.

Stop doing / to do

Stop + Gerund => to finish an activity. Stop + Infinitive => to pause in order to do something.
She stopped smoking last summer.
Tom stopped to ask the policeman directions to the hotel.

Forget to do / doing

Forget + Gerund => to not recall an action. Forget + Infinitive => to not do an action you should do.
He forgot to lock the front door.
Mary forgets speaking to him at the party.

Stative / Action Verbs

Stative verbs are verbs which express a state. Action verbs are verbs which express something a person does.
He wants to start school. (stative verb)
They are playing tennis at the moment. (action verb)

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Stative Verbs and The Continuous Form

Stative verbs cannot be used in the continuous forms.


I believe in magic. (NOT - I am believing in magic.)
She seems upset. (NOT - She is seeming upset.)

Sequencing

When telling a story in the simple past use connecting words to introduce sequencing in writing or speaking.
First of all, we went to visit our friends in Maine. After that, we left for Washington.
We had a great time and eventually decided to stay in a hotel.

Days of the Week

Notice that all days of the week are capitalized. When speaking about an action that is repeated EVERY Saturday, Monday, etc.
use the day of the week + 's'
I usually play tennis on Saturdays.
We often eat out on Fridays.

Future Continuous

The future continuous is used to talk about an activity that will be in progress at a specific point in time in the future.
We'll be enjoying our vacation in two weeks time.
They'll be taking a test this time tomorrow.

Future Perfect

The future perfect is used to talk about what will have been done up to a specific point in the future.
They'll have finished the report by tomorrow evening.
She'll have graduated by 2010.

Look Forward To

'Look forward to' takes the 'ing' form of the verb.


She's looking forward to visiting her friends in Alabama.
I look forward to meeting you soon.

Future Speculation

When speaking about the future we are not always sure of what will happen. In these cases, we can use the modal verbs 'may'
or 'might' to speak about what will possibly happen or be true in the future.
I think he may change his mind eventually.
She might invest in that new company.

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Separable Phrasal Verbs

Separable phrasal verbs MUST be separated when a pronoun is used.


I'll pick him up at six o'clock.
I think you should give it up.

Inseparable Phrasal Verbs

Inseparable phrasal verbs always remain together. It makes no difference if a noun or pronoun is used.
Don't worry I'll look after them.
She's looking forward to taking some time off work.

Phrasal Verbs Separable or Inseparable?

If you are not sure whether a phrasal verb is separable or inseparable, ALWAYS use a noun or nouns phrase and DO NOT
separate. In this manner, you will always be correct!
She'll pick up French quickly.
He'll look after the children.

Phrasal Verbs + Ing

Phrasal verbs end in a preposition. The 'ing' form of the verb always follows prepositions. For this reason, any verb combined
with a phrasal verb takes the 'ing' form of the verb.
He put off visiting his friends until the following week.
She looked into buying a new home.

Three Word Phrasal Verbs

Three word phrasal verbs are all inseparable.


They look forward to his visit.
She caught up on her homework.

Adjective + Infinitive

When an adjective is followed by a verb, the verb takes the infinitive form.
It is difficult to know everything about any language.
It's easy to make a mistake.

Adverb + 'ing' form

When an adverb is followed by a verb, the verb takes the 'ing' form.
Hopefully relaxing this weekend will help him get better.
They caused problems by carelessly gossiping about others.

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'Ever' and 'Never' with the Present Perfect

When talking or asking about experience we often use 'ever' or 'never' together with the present perfect.
Have you ever been to London?
She's never studied French.

Have Been

Use 'have been' to express that a person has been to a place and returned.
He's just been to the bank.
She's already been to the dentist.

Have Gone

Use 'have gone' to express that a person has gone to a place and NOT YET returned.
She's gone to a meeting in Jersey.
They've gone on holiday.

Present Perfect Continuous

The present perfect continuous is used, like the present perfect simple, to express an action which begins in the past and
continues into the present moment.
She's been watching TV for an hour.
They've been working all day.

Present Perfect (Continuous)

We tend to use the present perfect continuous to describe the duration of a current activity happening at the moment. On the
other hand, the present perfect is used to describe states or more general activity.
He's lived here for over twenty years.
They've been playing golf since 10 this morning.

Passive voice with By

Use the preposition 'by' when it is important for the understanding of the sentence to include the agent of the action.
Those cars are made by BMW.
A number of people have been promoted by Frank recently.

Passive for Business

In some cases it is preferable to use the passive voice, especially when speaking about products in business.
Our products are manufactured in Brazil.
The latest model will be marketed in Europe.

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Result clause first in conditionals

You can also use the result clause first in conditional forms. In this case, do not use a comma.
We'll have a great time if he comes.
She'd have bought that oven if she had known it was on sale.

Mixed Conditionals

At times, it is necessary to mix conditionals, especially in the case of a past condition with a present result.
If he had paid attention, he'd be more successful today.
She'd visit soon, if she had known we were having problems.

If only

'If only' takes the same verb forms as 'wish'. This form is used as a means of stressing the importance of the wish or
hypothetical situations. The form is often also used with an exclamation point.
If only we had had the time!
If only I knew how to succeed!

It's time

Use 'it's time' with the past simple to take about an action which finally is taking place, but should have taken place before the
moment of speaking.
It's time you started studying!
It's time we went home.

Would rather

Use 'would rather' + past simple to express our desires for another person or thing in the present or future:
I'd rather you didn't do that.
He'd rather she studied more.

Suppose

Use 'suppose' to begin a sentence posing a hypothetical situation.


Suppose she came to dinner!
Suppose he wanted to marry you.

Future Time Clauses

A time clause begins with ‘when’, ‘as soon as’, ‘before’ and ‘after’. The construction form is the same as the first conditional for
the future.
We'll begin as soon as he arrives.
She will join the club when she's ready.

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Reflexive Pronouns

There are a number of verbs that take a reflexive pronoun. The verb is immediately followed by the reflexive pronoun.
We need to give ourselves more time.
He bought himself a house.

Imperative Form - Be Polite

Be careful when you use the imperative as it is often considered impolite in English. If someone asks you for instructions, use
the imperative. If, on the other hand, you would like to request that someone do something use a polite question form.
The museum? Take the first right, cross the road and turn left.
Could you tell me the time, please? NOT Tell me the time.

Reported Speech and the Past

If the reporting verb (i.e. said) is in the past, the reported clause will be in a past form. This form is usually one step back into
the past from the original.
He said he was going to come that day.
She told him she had bought a new car.

The Use of Say

Use 'say' in a more general sense. Remember that 'say' does not take an indirect object. 'That' is optional and can be included
or left out.
She said she would return soon.
He says he likes Coca Cola.

The Use of Tell

Use 'tell' when you are expressing that someone told something specific TO someone else. An object pronoun or name must
follow 'Tell'. 'That' is optional and can be included or left out.
She told him that she was coming to the party.
They told us to hurry up and finish the job.

Reported Questions

In reported questions the word order is like a positive statement. This structure is similar to indirect question structure.
He wondered what time the bus left.
She asked where he lived.

Adverbs of Frequency - Question Form

In questions and negatives use only 'always, usually, normally, often or sometimes'
How do you usually travel for business?
When do you normally take naps?

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Around this Moment

Use the present continuous to speak about what is happening AROUND the moment at work.
She's working overtime this week.
They're working on the Johnson account this afternoon.

Specific point in time in the past

When a SPECIFIC point in time is stated for a past event, use the past continuous.
She was working at 9 last night.
They were studying for their test at half past ten this morning.

Scheduled Public Events

Use either the future with will or simple present for scheduled public events.
The concert begins at six o'clock.
The train will leave at seven thirty.

Planned decisions

Planned decisions are decisions made BEFORE the moment of speaking. Use the future with 'going to'
They're going to attend next week's conference in Bern.
I'm going to invest in some property on the coast.

Future options

The future continuous stresses the action at a precise moment. However, these other forms of the future convey the same
idea with little or no change in meaning.
She'll be meeting him at five. / She's going to meet him at five.
They'll be making a presentation at ten. / They're presenting at ten.

There are said to be ...

With some verbs including 'say', 'feel', 'think', etc. 'There are / is' is used to introduce a passive.
There are thought to be six thousand species of this class alive in New Guinea.
There is felt to be a certain joy in making music with others.

Would do

'Would do' something refers to habitual past actions as well. Avoid using 'would' in questions and negative sentences, as its
meaning can easily be misunderstood in a conditional sense.
He would get up early and take a two mile jog when he lived in France.
They'd complain about everything before the new school headmaster arrived.

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To be used to

When someone has become well acquainted with a situation we can use the form 'to be used to'.
He's used to working twelve hour days.
Mary's used to getting up early on Sundays.

Become / get accustomed to

These two forms are similar in meaning to 'become / get used to'. They are slightly more formal.
He's becoming accustomed to living in Brazil.
They'll get accustomed to the job soon enough.

Past Perfect for Explaining

The past perfect is used to talk about an action that is finished before another action in the past. This form is especially useful
for giving reasons for a decision that was made in the past.
I'd already had lunch that's why I didn't come along to the restaurant.
She didn't want to join us because she had been sick the week before.

Past Perfect vs. Past Perfect Continuous

The past perfect is used to express an activity that had been finished before another activity in the past. In contrast, the past
perfect continuous is used to express an activity that has been happening up to a moment in the past.
We had been waiting for almost three hours when he finally arrived.
She had already made the decision before he asked the question.

Make and Do

We usually 'make' something physical that we can touch. We usually 'do' a task of some sort. There are a number of exceptions
to these rules.
Let me make you a cup of tea.
Should he do his homework now?

Expressing Numbers

When expressing large numbers (more than one hundred) read in groups of hundreds. The order is as follows: billion, million,
thousand, hundred. Include 'and' between the hundred and the tens when required in each group. Notice that hundred,
thousand, etc. is NOT followed by an 's'.
My state has three million four hundred thousand six hundred thirty two inhabitants.
She spent four thousand two hundred seven dollars.

Reading Fractions

Read the top number as a cardinal number, followed by the ordinal number + 's'
4/5 -> Four fifths
7/9 -> Seven ninths
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Verb + Pronoun

A number of verbs take a (pro)noun followed by an infinitive when involving another person. Here is a list of some of the
most common:
Jim advised me to find a new job.
They encouraged them to take the day off.

Mustn't vs. Don't have to

Remember that 'mustn't expresses prohibition. 'Don't have to' expresses something that is not required. However, if the person
may choose to do so if he or she pleases.
Children mustn't play with fire.
I don't have to work next Saturday.

Can't have done

Use 'can't' plus the perfect form of the verb to express an opinion that you are 100% (or almost 100%) sure was not true at the
past point in time.
She can't have visted Tom because she was in Chicago.
They can't have been serious about that project!

Might have done

Use 'might' or 'could' plus the perfect form of the verb to express an opinion that you think had a good possibility of being true
at the past point in time.
She might have done her homework. I'm not sure.
They could have taken a different flight and that's why they aren't here.

Compund nouns

Compound nouns and adjectives are words that are made up of two parts. These parts are sometimes connected by a hyphen,
connected, or separated. Unfortunately, there are no specific rules for when a compound noun or adjective takes a specific form.
Toasters are common household appliances.
Make sure to go through check-in at least one hour before your flight.

Causative 'Make'

The causative verb 'make' expresses the idea that the person causing the event requires the persons doing the event to take the
desired action.
They make their children do an extra hour of homework every evening.
She made her son quit his job to focus on his studies.

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Causative 'Have'

The causative verb 'have' expresses the idea that the person causing the event chooses to do so. This causative verb is often
used when speaking about various services. There are two forms of the causative verb 'have'
I had my car washed last weekend.
They had the documents reviewed by a number of lawyers.

Relative clauses

A relative clause is a dependent clause that modifies a noun. It gives additional information, identifies or describes a noun.
Relative clauses are also called adjective clauses.
The man who was hired last month has done a great job.
I'm looking for the shop where I bought these shoes.

Defining relative clauses

In defining relative clauses, the information given is essential to the understanding of the sentence.
The men who were brought in last month helped improve the bottom line.
I'm looking for a book that was on this table yesterday.

Non-defining relative clauses

In non-defining relative clauses, the information is not essential to understanding the sentence, but gives additional information.
Mr Smith, who enjoys playing golf, has been invited to join our club.
Seattle, which was founded in the 19th century, is the economic heart of Washington state.

Because

An adverb clause using 'because' can precede or follow the independent clause it relates to. Notice that a sentence begun with
a 'because' clause is followed by a comma. In the case that a 'because' clause finishes the sentence, no comma is used.
He was late for work because he overslept.
Because they often go golfing, they work half time.

Since as an adverb

'Since' has the same meaning as 'because'. An adverb clause using 'since' can precede or follow the independent clause it
relates to. Notice that a sentence begun with a 'since' clause is followed by a comma. In the case that a 'since' clause finishes the
sentence, no comma is used.
Since she's so good at maths, we decided to enroll her in an advanced class.
They chose to save money this month since there seems to be a recession.

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So ... I

This form is used when we want to show that we feel the same way as another person, or have performed the same action. Use
this form when agreeing with positive sentences. Remember that the auxiliary verb changes based on the subject and the tense
of the original statement. The form is usually used in the first person singular, however, other forms are also possible.
I've enjoyed seeing you this week. - So have I.
She's been working hard today. - So has he.

Neither ... I

This form is used when we want to show that we feel the same way as another person, or have performed the same action. Use
this form when agreeing with negative sentences. Remember that the auxiliary verb changes based on the subject and the tense
of the original statement. The form is usually used in the first person singular, however, other forms are also possible.
They won't be attending the conference. - Neither will we.
He hasn't been to class for a week. - Neither have they.

Both ... and

Subjects connected by 'both ... and' take plural verb conjugations.


Both my brother and I attended universities on the East Coast.
Both Jane and her sisters play golf.

Either ... or

'Either ... or' is used in sentences giving a positive sense. Either one or the other subject does a given action. Subjects connected
by 'either ... or' take either a plural or singular verb conjugation depending on the subject (a singular or a plural) closer to the
conjugated verb.
Either she or the boys have made a mess in this room.
Either the students or the teacher takes a day off every month.

Neither ... nor

'Neither ... nor' is used in sentences giving a negative sense. Neither one nor the other subject does an action. Notice that the
negative sense is conveyed by the 'n' in 'neither' and 'nor'. 'Not' is not placed before the verb. Subjects connected by 'neither ...
nor' take either a plural or singular verb conjugation depending on the subject (a singular or a plural) closer to the conjugated
verb.
Neither Jack nor Peter wants to go to the party next week.
Neither Jane nor her friends support the mayor.

As = because

An adverb clause using 'as' can precede or follow the independent clause it relates to. Notice that a sentence begun with a
'because' clause is followed by a comma. In the case that a 'as' clause finishes the sentence, no comma is used.
As he requested this information, I've sent a packet explaining the program.
She's going to take a taxi as she's late for work.

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As long as

An adverb clause using 'as long as' can precede or follow the independent clause it relates to. Notice that a sentence begun with
a 'because' clause is followed by a comma. In the case that a 'as long as' clause finishes the sentence, no comma is used.
As long as she's ready, let's begin the lesson.
He took some money out of the account as long as they needed the extra cash.

Because of

'Because of' is followed by a noun object. 'Because of' can introduce or end a sentence. If 'because of' begins a sentence it is
followed by a comma. In the case that 'because of' ends the sentence, no comma is used.
Because of the demand for the product, the company increased production.
We're going to fly Tom to the course because of his outstanding skills.

Due to

'Due to' is followed by a noun object. 'Due to' can introduce or end a sentence. If 'due to' begins a sentence it is followed by a
comma. In the case that 'due to' ends the sentence, no comma is used.
Due to changes made, we're going to alter our plans.
They reacted quickly to the situation due to his excellent understand of the problem.

Therefore

'Therefore' conveys the meaning of 'as a result' and introduces a transition from one sentence to the next.
We've had a very bad quarter. Therefore, we have to lay off some staff.
She studied hard every day for a week. Therefore, she passed the exam easily.

Consequently

'Consequently' conveys the meaning of 'as a result' and introduces a transition from one sentence to the next.
There were a number of changes to make. Consequently, the company put back the introduction of its new product line.
Your grades have been getting worse. Consequently, there'll be no more TV for the next month.

Although, though, even though

'Although', 'though' and 'even though' convey the same unexpected result and can be used interchangeably.
Even though he's interested in attending the course, he won't be able to participate.
Though it's difficult to understand, you'll have to accept the consequences.

Despite

'Despite' is followed by a noun (phrase) and is followed by a comma when introducing the sentence. If 'despite' is used in the
middle of a sentence, no comma is required.
She'll be making a presentation, despite her lack of extra time to prepare.
Despite wanting to play tennis, Johnny stayed home and did his homework.

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However, nevertheless, nonetheless

'However', 'nevertheless', and 'nonetheless' convey the same unexpected result. However, 'nevertheless' and 'nonetheless' are
more formal and are usually used only in writing.
We're having difficulties with the project. Nevertheless, we'll finish on time.
We've been working hard all week. However, we'll have to continue next week as well.

Got - gotten / American vs. British

The past participle of the verb get is gotten in American English. Example He's gotten much better at playing tennis. British
English - He's got much better at playing tennis.
British English: He's got a few contracts from Italy.
American English: He's gotten a few contracts from Italy.

Spelling differences

Words ending in -or (American) -our (British) color, colour, humor, humour, flavor, flavour etc.
American: This painting uses many colors. British: This painting uses many colours.
American: He has a good sense of humor. British: He has a good sense of humour.

First impressions

When you walk in the room the very first impression you make on the interviewer can have a great influence on the rest of the
interview. It is important that you introduce yourself, shake hands, and are friendly.
Hello, thank you for asking me to come in today.
Hello, my name is Ken Beare. This is a beautiful office building.

Mrs, Ms and Miss

Use Ms for women unless asked to use Mrs or Miss.


Dear Ms Smith
We spoke to Ms Anderson last week.

Advise and allow

Use the 'ing' form after these verbs without an object, use the infinitive with an object.
We allow smoking in the lobby.
We advise vistors to have lunch in the cafeteria.

Made of

Use 'made of' when referring to materials used in producing or manufacturing something.
This body is made of a mixture of plastic and steel.
The flooboards are made of oak.

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Contractions

Contractions are usually used in informal speech and writing. For formal writing, write the full form.
To a friend: She's coming soon. In a letter: She is coming soon.
E-mail to a colleague: We're working hard. E-mail to boss: We are working on the Smith project.

Electric and Electrical

Electric is used with machines using electricity. Electrical is used before more general words.
The electric blender is on the shelf.
The electrical appliances in most homes are becoming cheaper every year.

Classifying Nouns

It is common to use noun + noun as a 'classifying' expression naming a particular type.


Seaside insects often cause irritation.
Mountain paths transverse everything from forest to rocky peaks.

Hardly, Scarcely

'Hardly' and 'scarcely' are often used with past perfect to show something that happened in quick succession in the past.
Hardly had I come in the door, when John arrived.
She had scarcely finished her meal when she received the call.

The least / The fewest

'The least' is the superlative form of 'little' used with uncountable nouns, and 'the fewest' is the superlative form of 'few' used
with countable nouns.
Tom does the least work of anybody in this room.
Jane has made the fewest mistakes on the exams.

Learn (how) to do

The verb 'learn' is followed by (how) + the infinitive. Both forms have the same meaning.
I learned (how) to play golf last summer.
She's learning (how) to make lasagna from my wife.

Of course = everybody knows

Use 'of course' to mean 'everybody knows or understands'.


Of course, we're planning on improving services once we succeed.
It seems like the weather is getting hotter, but, of course, it's just because summer is arriving.

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Quite (British) Really (US)

It is common to use 'quite' in British English and 'really' in American English to mean 'very'.
British: It's quite hot today. American: It's really hot today.
American: That's really expensive! British: That's quite expensive dear!

Fit / Suit

These words are similar, but not the same in meaning. 'Fit' refers to size, whereas 'suit' refers to color, style, etc.
That doesn't fit you, but the color certainly suits you!

Once - Conjunction

'Once' can be used as a conjunction to mean 'as soon as', it is often used to indicate a condition that must first be met before
something else can happen.
Once you've passed the exams, you'll be given a diploma.
She's going to find a new job once her boss writes a recommendation.

No and None of

Use 'no' immediately before a noun without any determiners. Use 'none of' before a determiner + noun.
None of my sisters belong to the tennis club.
There are no children on the playground.

Nearest and Next

'Nearest' is used for place and 'next' is used for time.


Where is the nearest bathroom?
When does the next train leave?

Instead of and Instead

'Instead of' is used as a preposition. 'Instead' (without 'of') is used as an adverb.


He'll be going instead of Tom.
She didn't go to Chicago. Instead, she went to New York.

Sorry for - Sorry to do

'Sorry for / about + ing' refers to past events. 'Sorry to do' refers to present situations.
I'm sorry to disappoint you, but I can't come to the party.
I'm sorry for disturbing you yesterday!

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Arrive

Use either 'arrive in' with cities, or 'arrive at' with places. Never use 'arrive to'.
He arrived in Tokyo after a 12 hour flight.
Tom arrived at work just in time for the presentation.

In case of

'In case of' can be used in similar situations to 'if'.


In case of damage, call the manufacturer. = If there is damage, call the manufacturer.
In case of fire, call 911 immediately!

BC / AD

BC refers to dates before the birth od Christ, AD for dates after the birth of Christ. (BC = before Christ, AD = Anno Domini)
The Romans occupied the territory in 342 BC.
The first settlement appeared in 215 AD.

It to identify a person

Use 'it' can refer to a person to identify to another.


It's Tom, can't you tell?
No, this isn't John, it's Ken.

It takes ...

Use 'It takes ...' to introduce the amount of time necessary to do something.

It takes two hours to complete this exercise.


It takes him four hours to drive home.

It ... who / that

'It' can be used to introduce a 'who' or 'that' clause to emphasize. This is referred to as a 'cleft sentence'.
It was Tom who completed the project on time.
It was the dog that saved the man from the fire.

It + to be + adjective + infinitive

This form is used as a 'preparatory subject' and is quite common in English.

It is important to remember who you friends are!


It was difficult to understand the speaker at the conference.

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Got - gotten?

American English also uses the particple 'gotten' of the verb 'to get', whereas British English only allows for 'got'.
American English: She's gotten into a lot of trouble this month.
British English: She's got into a lot of trouble this month.

Get + object + past participle

This form is used to express the idea that someone finishes a task.
The man got his report written and went home.
We were able to get the investment made, even though it was difficult.

Shall / Will

'Shall' is rarely if ever used in American English. 'Shall' is still commonly used in British English, even though usage is becoming
less common.
American English: Where will we go? British English: Where shall we go?
British English: I will / shall see you soon. American English: I will see you soon.

Due

'Due' is used to mean 'expected to arrive' in newspapers and magazines in headlines.


President Due to Arrive Next Week
Director Due in New York.

Present results

A simple sentence in present perfect can indicate a present result.


I've broken my leg. = My leg is now broken.
She's been to the bank. = She has some money now.

Progressive = Continuous

Many grammar books use either progressive or continuous when referring to 'present continuous / progressive - past
continuous / progressive, etc.'
The past continuous form is used for specific times in the past.
The past progressive form is used for specific times in the past.

Passive and continuous

The passive voice is rarely if ever used with present or past perfect continuous forms
We've been working on that bridge for two weeks. NOT That bridge has been being worked on for two weeks.
They had been studying that paper for two hours before he arrived. NOT That paper had been being studied...

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Near (to)

Use the preposition 'near' with or without 'to' for the same meaning.
He lives near (to) the bank.
My friends play soccer near (to) my office building.

Make an offer / Make a mistake

These two expressions are fixed in English. do not use 'do' with these expressions.
Let me make you an offer you can't refuse.
She made a number of mistakes on the exam.

Do good / Do one's best

The expressions 'do good' and 'do one's best' are fixed in English. Do NOT use 'make'.
I think Tom does quite a lot of good in his community.
You should always try to do your best.

Get + direct object

When 'get' is followed by a direct object, it usually means receive, or fetch.


Let me get something to eat before we begin.
She got her notebook and began to study hard.

Man / Mankind

Both 'man' and 'mankind' is used to refer to the human race.


Man has created many wonders, and caused many problems.
Mankind continually strives to improve, despite its tendency towards violence.

They - in general

Instead of using 'he' or 'she' in a general sense, English often employs the general form of 'they'.
When a person gets a new job, they like celebrating by inviting their friends out for a drink.
If anyone enjoys golf, they can visit me and we'll have a round.

Everyday vs. Every day

'Everyday' is an adjective meaning 'usual'. 'Every day' is an adverbial expression mean the literal every day.
She enjoys swimming every day.
Everyday jobs are as important as specialized professions.

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Be used to doing vs. Used to do

'Be used to doing' expresses habitual action whereas 'used to do' express a habit in the past.
He's used to working late during the week.
She used to work late when she was employed in Chicago.

The = enough

'The' can be used alone to mean 'enough' placed before a noun.


Does he have the patience to do the job?
She doesn't have the money to buy that house.

Except + prepositions

Use 'except' before prepositions and conjunctions. Do not use 'except for'.
We've been in the all the towns except in Shropshire.
They are happy all the time except when they have to take tests.

Mind + questions and negatives

The most common use of the verb 'to mind' is in questions and negatives.
I don't mind her smoking in the living room.
Would you mind if I open the window?

Else

Use 'else' to mean 'other' or 'more'.


Is there anyone else who would like some help?
There's nowhere else I would like to go.

Play

'Play' as a noun is usually a theater piece. As a verb we 'play' games. Sometimes, 'play' is used to refer to children's games in
general.
Don't worry about them. Their play is rough.
We like to play board games on Saturdays.

For verb+ing

'For verb+ing' is used to give a reason for something.


She was promoted for getting new accounts.
I'm indebted to you for helping me on the project.

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Both the NOT the both

Use 'the' after 'both' never before 'both'.


Both the clients came to visit us today. NOT The both clients ...
I bought both the books for my class. NOT I bought the both books ...

Borrow vs. Lend

Use 'borrow' when taking money from someone, use 'lend' when giving money to someone.
She borrowed $4000 from her parents.
The bank lent me $2000 to cover the costs.

A/An = per

When relating two numbers or measurements, 'a/an' can be used to mean 'per'. 'Per' tends to be used in more formal writing.
The course costs $300 a week. OR The course costs $300 per week.
His consulting rates are $125 an hour. OR His consulting rates are $125 per hour.

The moment = Immediately

Use 'the moment (that) to mean immediately.


I'll call you the moment I know the news.
She told me she would inform me the moment she heard.

Lose / Loose

'Lose' is an irregular verb (lose - lost - lost). 'Loose' is adjective meaning the opposite of 'tight'.
This shirt is too loose.
Did you lose something?

Gradable and non-gradable

Certain adjectives and adverbs are gradable (young, boring, expensive) others are ungradeable - meaning there is no more or
less (dead, impossible,etc.).
Gradeable: Tom is much more interesting than Peter.
Unfortunately, his friend is dead.

Hundred (and)

Use 'and' in expressing hundreds in British English. Do not use 'and' in American English.
British English: four hundred and five - American English: four hundred five
British English: two thousand seven hundred and thirty-three - American English: two thousand seven hundred thirty-three

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Dead - Died

'Dead' is an adjective. 'Died' is the past tense of the verb 'die'.


When did Mrs Johnson die?
The cat by the side of the road is dead.

A bit - Not a bit

A bit = a little / not a bit = not at all


I'm not a bit angry at Tom.
She's a bit tired today.

Seem

The verb 'seem' is used to discuss both facts and feelings, or impressions.
The sun seems to disappear into the earth on the horizon.
She seems like a friendly person.

But = Except

'But' can be used to mean 'except'.


He's done everything but pack his bags.
But for the food, the vacation was a disaster.

Good evening versus Good Night

Use 'good evening' as a greeting after six p.m. Use 'good night' at the end of the evening when you leave someone for the day.
Good evening Tom, would you like to have some dinner with me?
Good night. I'll see you at work tomorrow.

Alike and like

Use 'alike' to mean 'like each other'. Use 'like' to mean 'like someone else'.
We are very much alike.
Tom looks like Peter.

Gonna = Going to

The slang form 'gonna' often heard in American English means 'going to' and therefore indicates future or planned action.
I'm gonna see Tom tomorrow. (informal slang)
What are you gonna do? (informal slang)

Akademik Kariyer ve Lisansüstü E÷itim HakkÕnda Herúey


https://www.facebook.com/groups/AkademikKariyer/
ENGLISH TIPS www.ydscevirileri.com From Kenneth Beare (http://esl.about.com)

I know

The phrase 'I know' refers to facts. Notice we do not use 'it'.
She's a very talented girl. - I know.
They're building a new office building downtown. - I know.

Sorry to do this ...

Use 'sorry + infinitive' to apologize for a current situation.


Sorry to upset you, but you need to understand the situation.
Sorry to bump into you like that!

Akademik Kariyer ve Lisansüstü E÷itim HakkÕnda Herúey


https://www.facebook.com/groups/AkademikKariyer/

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