iii

Chinese and Tibetan Esoteric

Buddhism

Edited by

Yael Bentor
Meir Shahar

LEIDEN | BOSTON

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 Contents
Contents v

Contents

Acknowledgements ix
List of Figures x

Introduction 1
Yael Bentor and Meir Shahar

Part 1
Chinese Perspectives on the Origins of Esoteric Buddhism

1 Tantric Subjects: Liturgy and Vision in Chinese Esoteric Ritual

Manuals 17
Charles D. Orzech

2 Spells and Magical Practices as Reflected in the Early Chinese

Buddhist Sources (c. 300–600 CE) and Their Implications for the Rise
and Development of Esoteric Buddhism 41
Henrik H. Sørensen

3 The Terms “Esoteric Teaching” (“Esoteric Buddhism”) and “Tantra” in

Chinese Buddhist Sources 72
Lü Jianfu

Part 2
Chan, Chinese Religion, and Esoteric Buddhism

4 Buddhist Veda and the Rise of Chan 85

Robert H. Sharf  

5 A Comparative Approach to Śubhakarasiṃha’s (637–735) “Essentials

of Meditation”: Meditation and Precepts in Eighth-Century
China 121
Lin Pei-ying

6 The Tantric Origins of the Horse King: Hayagrīva and the Chinese
Horse Cult 147
Meir Shahar

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vi Contents

Part 3
Scriptures and Practices in Their Tibetan Context

7 Crazy Wisdom in Moderation: Padampa Sangyé’s Use of

Counterintuitive Methods in Dealing with Negative Mental
States 193
Dan Martin

8 Perception, Body and Selfhood: The Transformation of Embodiment

in the Thod rgal Practice of the “Heart Essence” Tradition 215
Eran Laish

9 Tibetan Interpretations of the Opening Verses of Vajraghaṇṭa on the

Body Maṇḍala 230
Yael Bentor

Part 4
Tibetan Buddhism in China

10 Ming Chinese Translations of Tibetan Tantric Buddhist Texts and the

Buddhist Saṃgha of the Western Regions in Beijing 263
Shen Weirong

11 Sino-Tibetan Buddhism: Continuities and Discontinuities: The Case

of Nenghai’s Legacy in the Contemporary Era 300
Ester Bianchi

Part 5
Esoteric Buddhism in Dunhuang

12 On the Significance of the Ārya-tattvasaṃgraha-sādhanopāyikā and

Its Commentary 321
Jacob P. Dalton

13 Avalokiteśvara and the Dunhuang Dhāraṇī Spells of Salvation in

Childbirth 338
Li Ling and Ma De

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Contents vii

Part 6
Esoteric Buddhism in the Tangut Xixia and Yugur Spheres

14 Notes on the Translation and Transmission of the Saṃpuṭa and

Cakrasaṃvara Tantras in the Xixia Period (1038–1227) 355
Hou Haoran

15 Mongol Rulers, Yugur Subjects, and Tibetan Buddhism 377

Yang Fuxue and Zhang Haijuan

Part 7
Esoteric Buddhism in the Dali Kingdom (Yunnan)

16 The Chinese Origins of Dali Esoteric Buddhism 389

Hou Chong

17 Between China and Tibet: Mahākāla Worship and Esoteric Buddhism

in the Dali Kingdom 402
Megan Bryson

Index 429

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Crazy Wisdom in Moderation 193

Chapter 7

Crazy Wisdom in Moderation: Padampa Sangyé’s

Use of Counterintuitive Methods in Dealing with
Negative Mental States
Dan Martin

Some people have problems with Buddhism being identified too closely with
psychology, while others have problems with it being anything else. While I
count myself among the former, my point of view is that, whatever Buddhism
is as a whole, it undoubtedly includes a great deal of what we would today call
psychology. In this essay we will concentrate on a particular Indian Vajrayāna
Buddhist teacher in Tibet, Padampa Sangyé, his Peacemaking school, and his
approaches to dealing with mental states deemed counterproductive to the
aims of human life according to Buddhist ideals.1 We then zero in on a par-
ticular (and perhaps particularly mysterious) counterintuitive therapeutic
method he calls by the rare term gya-log, supplying examples of its literary
and—insofar as it appears possible given the difficulty in defining it—practi-
cal deployment. This remarkable evidence might give pause to reflect on such
phenomena as psychological projection and transference, as well as what might
well be called reverse psychology. Or perhaps a homeopathic approach, since
it often makes use of the very thing or things it proposes to counter. By the

1 The name of the Zhijé (Zhi-byed in Wylie transliteration) or Peacemaking school derives from
shortening the longer phrase drawn from a Prajñāpāramitā sūtra: dam-chos sdug-bsngal zhi-
byed, meaning the holy Dharma that puts suffering at peace. Padampa Sangyé (in Wylie tran-
scription, Pha-dam-pa Sangs-rgyas, d. 1105 or 1117 CE) never knew he founded a school by this
or any other name; the label was applied retrospectively, just as he had no idea that he would
eventually come to be called Padampa Sangyé. Of course eliminating suffering has always
been a primary aim of Buddhism in general, where the main sources of suffering are found in
the negative mental states called kleśas. It is for overcoming the kleśas that Padampa’s psy-
chological techniques are intended, and exactly what is meant by putting suffering at peace.
A note on formal aspects: In this essay I for most part use phonetics for representing Tibetan
names in order to make its discussions seem more accessible to a wider readership. When
transliterations are used, as they are in bibliographical references, we use dashes in proper
names (following the method of the Library of Congress) but omit them in book titles. I capi-
talize such words as Dharma, Path and Enlightenment out of respect for tradition, and to
ensure that the special Buddhist usages of these terms will be recognized.

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194 Martin

term counterintuitive we mean simply this: a treatment that on the face of it

would seem to have nothing to do with, or even one that would seem bound
to aggravate, the problem may, under the right circumstances and/or with the
right dosage, have therapeutic effects that would not normally be expected.
An example of a counterintuitive method that ought to be simple for anyone
to understand: We could say that the best method to avoid slicing your thumb
when slicing a banana is to draw the blade toward your thumb. Psychological
counterintuitive methods might be defined as techniques for the principled
interference in problematic mental patterns that make use of those same
problematic patterns. In a semi-clear sense, they would indeed “collude with
the very pathology they should be treating.”2
Academic introductions to Buddhism tend to foreground certain doctrinal
formulations—such as, typically, the Four Noble Truths and the Eight-fold
Noble Path—at the expense other arguably essential aspects. Yet it is true, just
as the Four Noble Truths tells us, that for every Buddhist the aim remains that
of liberation from suffering.3 This remains so regardless of some differences in
method and regardless of other things that may occupy them in the meantime.
And Mahāyāna descriptions of the Path to this goal always include methods of
dealing with two major problematic areas, or to make use of more psychologi-
cal language, two areas of delusions or two realms of mental disturbance. Two
‘veilings’ come in the way of our Enlightenment: the kleśas and the knowables
(jñeya). Using inadequate non-Buddhist categories, we could be tempted to
think of the kleśas as progress-blocking emotions, while the knowables are
more in the realm of the cognitive—perhaps we could call them progress-
blocking thought patterns. Of course we use the word progress here in a strictly
Buddhist sense to mean progress on the Path to Enlightenment. One trouble in
the cultural translation is that the definitional boundaries between emotional
and cognitive are located differently. The kleśas are described in Abhidharmic
works (and not only in them) as a large subset of what are called mental events

2 Carveth, 2003, 453.

3 This essay intends to work entirely within the sphere of Mahāyāna Buddhism, the sphere to
which Padampa as well as Tibetan Buddhism in general belongs, and assumes as Tibetans do
that tantra, more correctly Vajrayāna, belongs within the framework of Mahāyāna Buddhism.
There are some more or less problematic issues raised by these general statements, as for
instance the existence of tantric strains that emerged within Theravāda traditions; see Crosby,
2000. And yes, Tibetans have a long tradition of differing about matters relevant to the ways
the different Vehicles [yāna] may or may not connect with each other; see Sobisch, 2002. And
yes, Vajrayāna is historically indebted to other Indian religious currents, in particular Shaivaite
tantra; see the works of Alexis Sanderson (Oxford) in general or, for something brief and ac-
cessible, Sanderson, 1994.

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Crazy Wisdom in Moderation 195

or mental states. Some mental events are conducive to the Path, some counter-
productive to the same (these being the kleśas), and some neutral ones that
could go either way.4
Contrary to common but ill-informed conceptions, Buddhism is not against
emotions across the board. Emotion itself is a culture-bound category absent
from classical forms of Buddhism. In fact, in all its forms Buddhism extols and
encourages specific positive emotions, love and compassion in particular, sup-
plying methods for expanding, even universalizing them. By the same token
many other emotions are regarded as counterproductive and these sorts need
to be diminished, transformed or done away with by various methods. It is
precisely this area of dealing with kleśas that is targetted in this essay. Two
points at the outset: [1] this is one of those centrally important things about
Buddhism that ought to remain in the foreground of our attention regardless
of our different methodologies, and [2] that it is in some semi-clear sense psy-
chological, involving as it does analyzing mental disturbance, finding peace
from mental dissatisfactions and their attendant suffering, and overcoming
delusion. Delusion of course here means what Buddhists want it to mean. For
Buddhists mental patients are not the only or even the main ones who require
treatment. We are all suffering from mental disturbances and delusions on a
daily basis, and Buddha as the Great Physician is there to help people with all
84,000 afflictive mental states that might in theory rise up to trouble them.
Yet as many have pointed out in the ongoing dialogs between various strains
of modern psychology and Buddhism, there is at least one essential difference
in aims that can then have implications for method. Most recent psychologies
have aimed and still do aim for a socially adjusted and integrated self.
Buddhism, as is well known, finds the self itself not only a delusion in itself, but
a kind of factory where all other delusions are forged. Rather than embracing
(or at least reaching an understanding with) everyday delusions as most psy-
chologists would have us do, Buddhists seek to extract themselves from and
transcend social demands, to clear away the cobwebs of past conditionings
(including social conditionings) that prevent directly seeing the way things
actually are. Still, and this requires emphasis, Buddhists meanwhile form

4 Kleśas may be predominantly of an emotional nature, but by no means all of them since they
include mental states that we would not ordinarily label as emotions such as muddledheaded-
ness, indecision, deceitfulness, wildness, lack of purpose, not being conscientious, and so on.
They even include such things as inflexibility or being overly stuck on a doctrinal or philo-
sophical position. For a very good introduction to Abhidharma theories of mental states, see
Dreyfus, 2007. They are listed and discussed in Martin, 2009.

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196 Martin

s­ ocieties much as other human beings do, whether in towns, rural areas, monas-
teries or retreat places.5
Padampa was a traveling renunciate for most of his life, with lengthy
stretches of meditation practice in remote hermitages in regions as far apart as
south India and north-central China. He never intended to found a school and
very likely never knew there was or would ever be a school of his called by any
name apart from just “Dharma,” meaning Buddhism in the broadest sense of
the word, or if pressed to be more specific, the Buddhist approach known as
“Great Sealing” or Mahāmudrā.6 Still, in retrospect, he is often credited with
the founding of two schools, the Cutting and the Peacemaking schools. For
now we restrict ourselves to the Peacemaking or Zhijé school—in recent centu-
ries often so much confounded with the Cutting school that it disappears from
view—and we need to even further narrow in on one of the three transmis-
sions of Peacemaking, the one known as the “Later Transmission.” The Later
Transmission itself had four lines of transmission in the early days that went
through the four chief disciples of Padampa. Specifically, we will only consider
the Kunga lineage of the Later Transmission.
After at least two earlier long sojourns in Tibet, the elderly, venerable medi-
tator settled there once again in a cave in the western area of Tingri (Ding-ri).
Certainly a South Indian, and most likely an Andhran by birth, he was schooled
already as a teenager at Vikramaśīla Monastery, located in northern India on a
hill overlooking the Ganges. One of his teachers there was Kṣemadeva, very
surely the same Kṣemadeva who wrote a commentary on Śāntideva’s The Life
of the Bodhisattva that has been preserved in its Tibetan translation. He very
certainly studied the Perfection of Wisdom scriptures quite profoundly. And
it is said that he studied directly with Virūpa, connecting him closely with
the founder of Path Including Result teachings commonly associated with
the Sakya School of Tibetan Buddhism.7 He traveled all around the Indian

5 A great deal has been written in recent decades about the strains between contemporary
psychology and Buddhism, but just to give two recent examples that make particular
sense to me, I could recommend Shonin, 2014; and Jinpa, 2009.
6 I plan to deal with the problem of what foundership might mean in the case of Padampa
in a chapter of a future book. Some of the conclusions reached in this future chapter are
assumed in the present essay, and particularly in this paragraph.
7 I think it is not an accident that of all the Mahāsiddhas it is Virūpa who most closely
resembles him in iconography. See Martin, 2006 for a long discussion. For the work by
Kṣemadeva mentioned here, see Bodhisattvacaryāvatāra-saṃskāra (Byang chub sems
dpa’i spyod pa la ‘jug pa’i legs par sbyar ba), Dergé Tanjur, vol. sha, folios 1–90 (Tōhoku
catalogue no. 3874), translated by Śrīkumāra and Dge-ba’i-blo-gros. Although the identity
of the Indian master is unclear, the Tibetan translator is the wellknown translator Rma

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Crazy Wisdom in Moderation 197

s­ ubcontinent and all the way to China. Padampa had just spent several years in
meditation at the sacred five-peaked mountain of Wutai Shan when he arrived
in Tingri.8
The main body of literature now available to us that is of the highest value
in knowing about the teaching activities that took place in Tingri is the one
I call the Zhijé Collection.9 I’m satisfied I can date the physical manuscript to
circa 1246 CE. And in very large part it is just a recopying of a gold-lettered
manuscript constructed in 1207. There is only one text, a history of the tradi-
tion, in the circa 1246 manuscript that could not have been in the 1207. Although
in recent centuries kept as a holy object in Tingri, then moved to Nepal where
it is now kept, the circa 1246 manuscript was scribed in the Dranang Valley just
west of Mindroling Monastery in Central Tibet.
I continue to try and learn more about the manuscript itself and its history,
and have even attempted to go into the histories of no longer available manu-
scripts that were made in the course of the 12th century. That ought to be
enough manuscript discussion for now, except to say that the catalog of the
Drepung Monastery collections tells us that there do exist, still unavailable to
the world, numerous Zhijé manuscripts that ought to be of equal or even
greater historical value for future studies.10 At this point, The Zhijé Collection
is practically the only thing we have to work with if we want to do serious

Dge-ba’i-blo-gros, active in the middle of the 11th century. Since there may be confusion,
it is important to notice that one may find Kalyāṇadeva or Śubhadeva as alternative San-
skritizations to Kṣemadeva, all three formed on the basis of the Tibetan form Dge-ba’i-lha.
8 It has been recently demonstrated with some certainty that the main part of the story
Tibetans tell about Padampa’s stay in Wutai Shan (in Tibetan, Ri-bo Rtse-lnga, or Mount
Five Peaks) is a story borrowed from an Indian master who stayed there centuries before
him. See Chou, 2011, 136–7.
9 I give the Zhijé Collection this descriptive title in part because re-establishing the original
title is difficult. Rather than go into tedious arguments, I will just give here my English
translation of what I believe to be the original title of the entire collection that is inscribed
on the nearly illegible first folio: “Among the Peacemaking Teachings that Lay at the Heart
of the Holy Dharma, this is the Exceptionally Profound Belonging to the Later Oral
Transmission.” The words in italics may be taken as an epithet for, as well as a brief title of,
the collection as a whole.
10 Drepung Catalogue, 2004. It was only in November of 2014 that I was able to procure, with
the kind help of Karma Phuntsho (Cambridge), a digitized copy of an until-then unpub-
lished and practically unheard-of collection of texts associated with Padampa’s Middle
Transmission (Bar Brgyud). The original manuscript remains in the possession of a mon-
astery in Bhutan. The same project brought to light still other Bhutanese manuscripts that
contain selections of the same texts as the Zhije Collection, and these will be a great boon
to their future study.

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198 Martin

historical exploration of the early Zhijé school, although this situation is

already changing.11
By now it is high time we get out on the highway, change gears and bypass
all those interesting slow-moving vehicles begging to get in our way. Still, let us
take another moment to try and answer the question, What makes Padampa
special or not special? Like a handful of other early Indian Mahāmudrā teach-
ers who spent some time in Tibet, Padampa learned Tibetan language and
could communicate in it. This was a matter of much pride for his Tingrian fol-
lowers. They knew the man they had sitting there before them was a “real live
Indian Mahāsiddha,” one with much experience of the world, who could speak
to them in their own language “without the fuzzy approximations of transla-
tors” intervening. But one problem here: The Tibetan-speaking Padampa
always spoke analogically, in extended and often repeated metaphors that had
to be contemplated before the intended meaning could be divined from them.
It is said that Kunga is the only person who understood Padampa’s symbolic
language, so that his presence was always required, not as a translator per se,
but as an interpreter. The situation is not all that different today for the reader
of Zhijé texts, who will inevitably remain in the dark, often for weeks, months
or years, before ‘catching’ what direction Padampa was intending to point with
his statements. We may get a small taste of this later on, but meanwhile it is
important to know that many of his gnomic statements aren’t entirely original
to him, but allude to scriptural sources such as the Perfection of Wisdom
(Prajñāpāramitā) and Lañkāvatāra Sūtras in particular.12
Another important point: Padampa never spoke in a straightforward way
about worldly matters or concerns, but he never spoke nonsense, either (most
definitely not nonsense of the sort made famous by Edward Lear). And he
spoke to his followers not only through words, but through silent actions. He
had only to glance at a door or lift up his traveling food bag, and his followers
would find messages weighted with the most profound Buddhist insights.
Some of the Zhijé Collection texts, based on notes taken by Kunga, record only
his symbolic actions. His words require much effort to understand both then
and now. But if you search, you find clues and begin to recognize patterns of
association. Slowly and by degrees, previously unsuspected meanings emerge.
This process never really ends.

11 I have given an oral presentation on the general organizational conceptions behind the
Zhijé Collection and the levels of its historical development at a conference in Hamburg;
Martin, 2013.
12 During the past decade I have especially concentrated on his animal metaphors and on
metaphors for the eremitic life of meditation, in the form of several talks and short essays.

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Crazy Wisdom in Moderation 199

Perhaps the best way of introducing Padampa the person and the teacher
are these words of Kunga from the Great Sealing Symbol Cycle, giving an
impression of the impact he had on Tibetans he encountered:

His mind had the great virtue of possessing the five extraordinary psychic
abilities.13 Because of the greatnesses of his insights into interdependent
connectedness [a way of speaking about his skillful means] he made
experiences of the absence of troubling thoughts dawn through forceful
methods (btsan-thabs) and was able, by his very presence, to transform
appearances … . While he stayed in Tingri there were many who had
appearances transformed by his blessings. However, those to whom he
gave teachings and precepts were few. His exceptional method was to
teach through symbolic expressions. Those unfortunate ones who did
not enjoy the results of prior cultivation [in previous lives] could not
understand these expressions. Some people found fault in this, while oth-
ers laughed.14

That term btsan-thabs, or forceful methods, is an interesting one, difficult to

translate at quite the right pitch. The apparent hyperbole of it needs to be
toned down in the translation. The syllable btsan itself is very difficult, with
resonances in Tibetan that simply cannot be carried through into English.15
Just consider that one of the most common uses of the term btsan-thabs is in
reference to haṭha-yoga, something we today are unlikely to regard as being all
that ‘forceful,’ in fact just the opposite. It isn’t well known, and would in fact be
surprising to many to learn, that the word haṭha itself, means forceful, intense,
perhaps with a sense of obstinancy or persistence. Certain types of breath con-
trol or prāṇāyāma, too, are qualified by this word btsan-thabs, and that would
mean something a little stronger and therefore more forceful than your ordi-
nary gentle breath, but a breath nonetheless. Clearly violence is far too strong
for it, when its use in the Zhijé Collection is something more along the order of
pushing the envelope. To make another important and related point, I have
noticed no examples of him inflicting bodily harm on another human being,

13 These are divine sight, divine hearing, knowing others’ minds, memory of past lives and
knowing the future.
14 The source is Zhijé Collection, vol. 2, 138. I have extracted this passage from a translation of
the complete text long in-progress. Various parts of this passage find their parallels else-
where in the collection.
15 Gibson, 1991, is primarily devoted to this issue. On the question of the historical reasons
for the use of the term ‘forceful’ in connection with yoga, see Birch, 2011.

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200 Martin

but many instances of him tossing a book in the river, or snatching a treasured
agate stone, or doing other things with his followers’ belongings.16 As interest-
ing as it may be to study this word for forceful methods, it is another somehow
different yet related term that will occupy us in what remains of this essay.
It is a word spelled in various ways and used in different contexts. In the
volumes of the Zhijé Collection: gya-log (pronunciations: gyalog and jalog) and
bya-log (pronunciations: jalog and chalog). In Nyingma and medical contexts:
ja-log (jalog and chalog) and gya-log. We find, once only, an occurrence of rda-
log, evidently just a scribal misunderstanding of ja-log.
Let us first look at some ways of construing this word or words. According to
Jean-luc Achard, working within Nyingma contexts:

Sémantiquement, ja log est souvent associé aux Trois Corps mais nombre
d’autres occurrences montrent que son champ sémantique est plus large.
Plusieurs significations m’ont été proposées par divers maîtres tibétains,
se rapprochant des notions d’indifferenciation (dbyer med), d’absence
d’union et de désunion (‘du bral med pa) mais l’acception d’ “intégration”
ou d’ “intériorisation” (qui se rapproche de log, signifiant retourner) sem-
ble être celle qui fonctionne le mieux dans tous les contextes.17

Gavin Kilty’s translation of the Mirror of Beryl, a famous medical history has
this vocabulary entry:

Reversal treatment (ja log / bya log). Opposite treatment given when the
original treatment fails. For example, giving cold-power medicine to treat
a cold disorder when hot-power medicine fails.18

16 To be clear, there are recorded instances of him dramatically tying a slingshot around a
disciple’s mouth, or placing unsavory items in a disciple’s mouth, but none I know of
involving physical injury or pain. More examples are in Martin, 2006.
17 Achard, 1999, 181, n. 102. The initial inspiration that eventually resulted in the present
essay came from some email communications with Jean-Luc Achard long ago about the
meanings of this word.
18 Kilty, 2010, 573, as a vocabulary entry. The term ja-log is in fact found a number of times in
the titles of medical texts of varying length, including some listed among the earlier med-
ical texts of imperial period Tibet. In medical dictionaries it is used to refer to swellings
(skrangs) that appear in the wrong place, far from the injury or ailment. As much as I am
curious about it, my ideas about the medical usages of the term have not advanced very
far, although they have benefited in any case from email communications with Olaf Czaja
(Leipzig).

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Crazy Wisdom in Moderation 201

This would seem to refer to counterintuitive medical treatment, along the lines
of homeopathy, in which you apply the very thing that would seem to be the
problem. Yet this method is only used if the intuitively correct method fails.
Some sources have based their definitions on its usage in a passage from a
famous history called Scholars’ Feast of 1545–1564 CE, including this entry from
a Tibetan-Tibetan dictionary:

A slander told to one person in order to create problems between that

person and still another person. Calumny.19

Erik Haarh, for his part, translated the same Scholars’ Feast passage, rendering
gya-log with twisted duplicities.20 We find a rather similar definition of gya-log
smras in the most extensive among the Tibetan-Tibetan dictionaries to appear
in recent years: cunning words that have concealed within them bad ulterior
motives. On same page of that same dictionary is a definition of the word gya-
ba. It is marked as being an old and obsolete word, and defined as a degeneration,
deterioration or wastage. Following this, we could say that gya-log might mean
reversing the damage, which would seem to mean a kind of restoration. I find
this way of understanding quite intriguing, at least worthy of pondering.21

19 Btsan-lha, 1997, 89: go don log par smra ba’i phra ma’i ming ste / “mkhas pa’i dga’ ston” las /
“snyan phra bcug pas rgyal pos rtsal ‘gran zer ba la lo ngam gyis ngas ma thub na nga la
chad pa ‘ong snyam nas gya log smras” / zhes pa lta bu’o. I must thank Dr. Jampa Samten
for clarifying the meaning. He says that it means something like reported gossip that
becomes slanderous in the retelling. At least three persons must be involved: A says yes, B
hears yes but reports hearing no to C. The fact that it involves a purposely negative type of
intervention seems significant. In the context of the story about Emperor Dri-gum, Lo-
ngam just makes up something to say in order to get himself off the hook, so the Emperor
won’t punish him. The original context may be located in Dpa’-bo, 2004, vol. 1, 161.
20 Haarh, 1969, 144: “To this Lo-ṅam thought: ‘If I am no match, punishment will come for
me,’ and he told twisted duplicities.” Here “twisted duplicities” translates gya-log. The
translation of the entire passage does not seem to be a good one, certainly not very intel-
ligible, but to discuss it in the necessary detail would lead far away from the present sub-
ject matter.
21 Thub-bstan-phun-tshogs, 2012, vol. 1, 520: gya log smras / bsam ngan khog bcangs byas pa’i
g.yo sgyu’i tshig. On the same page is another entry: gya ba / [rnying] nyams pa / bar du
gya ba sor chud / ‘gro ba gya zhing mgon med pa. Here it is a misleading statement, made
with ill intention. The two examples of usage offered here would seem to mean, ‘restoring
what has meanwhile fallen into ruins,’ and ‘a being wandering, without any master’ (but
gya with this meaning of ‘wandering’ or ‘going astray’ is usually spelled rgya), and the
Btsan-lha dictionary supplies this quote in its fuller form... In fact, it is the very passage
translated in Tsongkhapa, 2005, vol. 2, 368: “bodhisattvas [are able to help] all those beings

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202 Martin

There is one single occurrence of rda-log that I believe is nothing more than
a miscopying of ja-log (the graphic similarity, in Tibetan script, is easily seen).
It occurs in a list of unusual Old Tantra terms that the editor of the Old Tantra
Collection regarded as likely to be difficult for people to understand. In any case
it glosses rda-log with the term gnas-’gyur-pa. What the catalog author intended
by this is itself not so clear, but gnas-’gyur[-ba] generally means transposing,
i.e., shifting something onto a different and usually higher level, making the
necessary adjustments along the way.22 By contrast, in a translation of a more
recent Nyingma work, we find a footnote that reads: “The term ja log is to be
understood as meaning ‘reversed from’ or ‘passed beyond’.” This is, after all,
quite different from most of the meanings we have seen so far.23
One lesson we might derive from beholding all these bewilderingly different
interpretations, is just that it is something difficult to define, a significant point
in itself. Still, there is a general semantic space that all (or nearly all) of these
meanings occupy. It means something like bringing back into the fold some-
thing that has gone wrong, that has strayed from its true path. Something that
has gotten wasted away gets restored. Often we find the homeopathic principle
that the very thing regarded as laying at the basis of the ailment may be brought
into play in its curing. Some Nyingma contexts seem to suggest a kind of inte-
gration or transposition takes place, although I suppose they, too, may imply
bringing into use something that would otherwise stray from the purpose. We
have also seen a spoken version of this (placing the verb ‘to speak’ after the
word gya-log) that comes out meaning some kind of cunning and even pur-
posefully misleading use of words.
Perhaps, just perhaps, the meaning, or at least the meaning intended by
Padampa, will gain sharper focus if we look at the one miniscule and not
entirely intelligible text devoted to the subject in the Zhijé Collection. It is in the
major section that contains the dialogical texts in which Padampa’s main dis-
ciple Kunga noted down his statements (Kunga’s notes then underwent
rearrangement according to subject-matter by his disciple Patsab), numbered

who have been wandering helplessly since beginningless time through cyclic existence
without protection...” For comparison, Tsong-kha-pa, 2000, vol. 1, 330 reads: “[bodhisatt-
vas] do this so that all beings... who are now bereft and without a protector...” Notice that
one translates the gya as “wandering,” the other as “bereft.” Many other dictionaries have
entries for gya-ba, beginning with Csoma de Körös who defined it as “deformed, disfig-
ured.”
22 For the source, see Dge-rtse Paṇ-chen, 1973, vol. 36, 455. For more usages of this term gnas-
’gyur[-ba], see Sobisch, 2002, 15, et passim, where it is generally translated as ‘transforma-
tion.’
23 Mi-pam-gya-tso, 2006, 65, note d.

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Crazy Wisdom in Moderation 203

as eleventh in the series of fifteen (or sixteen). I have attempted a complete

translation, even if it would have been wiser to wait for the future when another
text witness will appear to help us establish better readings. Kunga would have
put it down in writing during the first two decades of the 12th century, certainly
prior to his death in 1124. In a number of cases it would suit the intended mean-
ing better if the statements were made to begin with the words There is a
circumstance under which... or There are cases in which... The text as a whole
bears the title “About the Vital Points of gya-log.”24

These are precepts on the vital points of gya-log:

The basis of disease gets turned into one of the [seven] elements of the
healthy body.
[There is something that] thoroughly dries out when placed in water.25
Make petitions from below and blessings enter from above.
When you have first served your own benefits, those of others follow.
If you put non-agitation into practice the non-agitated dawns in your
mind.
When awareness is extended to the external world, [subject-object]
duality dissolves internally.
If you have not engaged in the very thing that is to be eliminated, later
on the result will be unfailing (?).
If you clear away the kleśas within, outward suffering will dry up.
If you understand phenomena as illusory, the absence of
preoccupations will be born in your mental continuum.
When you tighten your awareness on external world, the humours (the
nexuses of disease) are eliminated within.
When your own accumulations are spread externally, accumulations of
others are gathered within.
If you have [this] precept within yourself, the holy Dharma is something
others will teach you.

24 Gya log gnad kyi skor. The only known version of the text is found in Zhijé Collection, vol.
3, 72–73. The word for vital points is just the first of several medical metaphors used in this
text. Tibetan gnad is in Sanskrit marman, meaning points in the body that if pierced
would likely have fatal results. Following the traditions’ own account of the transmission
of the text, the subject title could have only been added by Patsab (or even a later person
in the lineage), not by Kunga himself.
25 This translation would read differently but for the knowledge that it conceals a rather
common phrase skam thag-chod-pa, which means ‘decidedly dry’ or “dessicated.” Other-
wise we may be tempted to read it as saying, “A dried out rope may be cut when it is in the
water,” which seems plausible, if incorrect.

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204 Martin

If you hide your utterances within, you will be free of faults outwardly.
If you trace the interdependencies within your own body, the meditative
experiences fall upon you like rain.
If you understand non-truth externally, inner fixations dissolve.
If you piece together the puzzle of awareness, ordinary appearances will
be transformed.
If you reverse external addiction, awareness dawns within.
If you perform activities that replicate forceful methods, meditative
experiences flash like lightning bolts.
If you cut off outwardly oriented prapañcas, subject-object dichotomies
are disentangled within.
When you withdraw from external entertainments, virtuous efforts
blossom within.
If you dissolve desire in your mind, bliss arises in your mental
continuum.
If you direct your investigative impulses to what is external, internal
understandings dawn.
When awareness has nothing on which to rest, the six heaps (the six
senses) are disentangled on their own ground.
When you overcome internal kleśas, you are freed from external
enemies.
If you dress in body armor in your mind, perseverance is born in your
body.
When awareness is clarified within, the interdependent connections
appear in the external world.
If you uncover sangsara’s hidden flaws, internal addictions are reversed.
If you rely on a mental continuum free of preoccupations, external
appearances appear as illusory.
If the super-addictions are eliminated within, the absence of need for
necessities dawns without.
If you have dissolved the outflows in the stabilized meditative state,
your post-meditative and meditative experiences will be good.
If you keep commitments externally, the internal accomplishments are
close by.
If you cut conceptual thinking to pieces, the accomplishment will arise
by degrees.
If you have internal meditative experiences, the signs of elimination will
arise externally.
If you piece together the puzzle of awareness external phenomena will
dissolve.

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Crazy Wisdom in Moderation 205

If the eight worldly dharmas are leveled within, all that has to do with
sangsara and nirvana will dissolve externally.
If you stop troubling thoughts internally, outwardly you find nothing to
talk about.
If you dissolve attachments internally, the non-truth (i.e. illusory nature)
dawns externally.
If you understand the absence of own-nature (svabhāva) internally, then
the need for acceptance-rejection does not arise.
These are the precepts of thoroughly drying out when placed in water,
the advice about the vital points of gya-log.

Before going on to look at some commentary by a later member of the Kunga

tradition, we ought to make the basic observation that in practically every line
of the text, there is a surprise observation that when something is done men-
tally or internally, this unexpected result takes place outwardly, or when this is
done outwardly, this unexpected result takes place inwardly. The characteriza-
tion of gya-log as something counterintuitive is surely vindicated, as is the idea
that external actions can result in internal transformation, probably a signifi-
cant point for explaining Padampa’s dramatic treatment methods that are
often said to have had equally dramatic results in terms of changing people’s
minds or the way the world appears to them.26
Following is a paraphrase of Tenné’s commentary that dates to somewhere
around the end of 12th century. It begins by citing Padampa’s words, “[There is
something that] thoroughly dries out when placed in water.” Tenné explains
that a skilled physician knows how to perform this feat [of drying something
out in water], meaning that the orally transmitted precepts are able to take
what are the very causes of sangsara, the five poisons, and sublimate them for
use on the Path to Enlightenment (lam-du slong-ba), adding that this is a sub-
ject concealed in the margins (gud-du sbas-pa) in the sūtras, tantras and
treatises. Tenné continues saying this is something that the rtog-ge, the sgra-
tshad-pas [the philologists and logician-grammarians] have particular trouble
comprehending. It presumes a commitment to meditation practice.27

26 Far from being unique to Padampa, it has occurred to many that long-term stress-induced
psychological complexes such as phobias may not respond to gentle methods, and may
even require stressful treatments. See for example Jacobs, “Stress,” where it is strongly sug-
gested that deeply therapeutic change cannot take place without the use of stress.
27 Zhijé Collection, vol. 5, 397. The passage is too long, difficult and involved to translate com-
pletely.

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206 Martin

At this point, among other matters, we ought to give more practical exam-
ples of Padampa’s ‘crazy wisdom’ in action than those mentioned already.
There are plentiful resources for this in the Zhijé Collection. We also ought to go
into other Indo-Tibetan Buddhist sources for ‘counterintuitive’ techniques of
spiritual direction. These are still more plentiful. In general it is true, as Tenné
said, that this is “concealed in the margins” in canonical texts. But it is also true
that there are indeed some brief texts and passages that have it as their chief
focus. One of the most famous of these is found in the Hevajra Tantra.28
If we look for texts with their own separate titles, rather than passages con-
tained in larger texts, we find there is a brief Kadampa text of the Mind Training
genre called Teachings on Sublimating the Kleśas for Use on the Path to
Enlightenment. This title is anonymous. Even its title closely echoes language
found in the Zhijé Collection. There is an excellent translation of it by Dr.
Thupten Jinpa, the usual English language oral translator for His Holiness the
Fourteenth Dalai Lama for some years now.29
There are many brief passages, but I would like to supply a translation of
what I believe is one of the more extensive ones. It is contained in an Indian
text by the tantric Āryadeva called Cittaviśuddhi, or “Mental Purification.”
Although we cannot go into the text and its contexts, here is a sampling of
some verses from the Cittaviśuddhi by Āryadeva that may be enough to con-
firm that it does indeed advocate counterintuitive methods.

Water in the ear can be removed by water,

a thorn can be removed with a thorn.
Just so the wise know how to remove
desire with desire.
Just as the laundryman uses dirt
to purify a dirty garment,
a wise person also uses
dirt to clean dirt itself.
As the dust motes on a mirror
when wiped help make it clean,
so, to rely on the wise,
faults are overcome by faults.

28 See Snellgrove, 1959, vol. 1, 93, with Sanskrit and Tibetan texts in vol. 2, 50–51. It mentions
counterintuitive treatments for medical conditions, including poisoning, flatulence,
water in the ear, and burns.
29 Jinpa, 2006, 197–198.

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Crazy Wisdom in Moderation 207

If a metal ball is put in water

it sinks to the bottom,
but if it is shaped into the right vessel,
it not only doesn’t sink, it holds up others.
In the same way a mind that is the right vessel,
through the workings of wisdom and means,
gets disentangled while acting on impulse
and disentangles others as well.
When a confused consciousness uses it
desire is the chains themselves.
When wise persons use it
desire brings them all the way to freedom.
All the world knows
that milk cures poisonings,
but if a snake drinks it
its poison is multiplied.
The swan knows how to sip out the milk
from a mixture of water and milk.
The wise person, while acting in the
poisoned sensory realms, is freed.
If done according to procedures,
even poison can be made into the acqua vitae,
while children who don’t know how to eat
butter or molasses can be poisoned by them.
Yet to those who cleanse their own minds
with the appropriate measures
its unthinkable, unimaginable
pure nature shines bright.
Even the smallest flame
making use of the butter, wick, etc.,
clear, pure and steady
dispels the most obdurate darkness.
The Banyan seed though small
under the right conditions
will grow into a giant tree
with roots, branches and flowers.

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208 Martin

When mustard is mixed with mineral powders

a different color is produced.
In a similar way the wise know the Dharma Realm
through the workings of wisdom and means.
Butter and honey in equal proportions
can be a harmful combination,
but when taken in the right way,
it can be the best nutritional program.
Putting mercury in copper
makes it perfectly golden.
Just so the application of true Total Knowledge
makes mental complexes into something worthwhile.30

There is much in these verses that begs for discussion, however for now I will
limit myself to the general observation that while both Padampa and Āryadeva
are very surely speaking about counterintuitive methods and both employ
medical analogies, there do appear to be a few differences. The former empha-
sizes the inner/outer distinction, with changes introduced on one side having
unexpected but significant consequences on the other. Āryadeva emphasizes
the homeopathic, but in addition to the medical brings in yet other aspects of
traditional physic including botany, chemistry and metallurgy.31

30 These verses were earlier “published” in a blog: <http://tibeto-logic.blogspot.co.il/2013/11/

tantras-ineluctable-logic.html>. The translation was at first based on Patel, 1949, 24–27,
but went on to take other texts into account. I believe the translation is adequate, but for
those who would like to compare other versions, I recommend looking at Varghese, 2008,
236–240. Although this part of it has not as yet been published, one might also find a way
to get access to Wedemeyer, 1999, 364–367. There is a possibility that these verses were
written by Padampa’s own uncle who was named Āryadeva, but there have been at least
three known historical figures by that name, so it is difficult to be certain.
31 I purposefully make use the word physic as a traditional western term covering all the
physical sciences, although it may sometimes intend medicine alone. In terms of psy-
chologies, the modern/traditional divide is often drawn based on the accompanying
medical concepts. If four- or five-element physics are involved in a medical humoral
physiology, and if spirit entities like angels or spirits are used to explain the health of
psychological processes, it is to be regarded as traditional and not modern. Padampa
complicates this picture, because even while he is typical of Eurasia of his times in accept-
ing a humoral physiology enmeshed in an element-based physic, he and many other Bud-
dhist teachers often stress that spirits both good and bad are mental phenomena (or
projections of one’s own mind). We should add that Padampa was not a practicing doctor

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Crazy Wisdom in Moderation 209

I would like to end with a brief and strategic comparison that can perhaps
be developed in greater detail some other time. Despite other differences, tan-
tric Buddhism and psychoanalysis have in common a concern to reduce
psychological distress along with the habitual patterns of behavior and think-
ing associated with that distress. Naturally, I had to state that rather carefully to
negotiate potential objections from different sides. Both traditions believe suc-
cess in this endeavor largely hinges on the relationship with the analyst or
spiritual teacher as the case may be. In the original psychoanalytical tradition
in Vienna at the turn of the 20th century, Freud and others agreed that some-
thing implicated in the analyst-client relationship called transference was the
most powerful item in their toolkit. To quote Carl Jung:

The main problem of medical psychotherapy is the transference. In this

matter Freud and I were in complete agreement.32

Freud famously wrote very little on the subject of transference.33 He does tell
us how early relational conflict, generally with a parent, gets reenacted in the
client-analyst relationship. Transference, a form of projection (or mirroring), is
something that comes up naturally, but once it does occur, the analyst must
find the right way to make use of it. In the popular view—a view much encour-
aged by Freud’s own brief writings on the subject—transference most likely
involves fantasizing some kind of love-relationship with the analyst. But at the
same time, by locating the point at which the client displays resistance, the
hidden psychic problem can be divined and brought into consciousness, and
knowing it the analyst can proceed with treatment accordingly. Interestingly,
in Freud’s brief treatment he alludes to the “discretion” that other analysts
were insisting ought to be observed when the subject is broached. Discretion is
just another word for a kind of secrecy in which your concern is that only the
right people need to know about it. Little was written in early days in Vienna

of any kind and rarely even speaks about medicine per se. There are some magico-medi-
cal recipe texts attributed to his name only in the fifteenth century, and these are the
likely sources of medical instructions that were credited to him in some of the Tibetan
medical compendia.
32 Perry, 2008, 147, quoting Jung, 1963, 203. I cite Perry’s work here because I regard it as a very
significant discussion of the subject, triangulating as it does the Freudian, the Jungian
and the inner alchemical. Especially significant for coverage of the 20th-century dialectic
between Buddhist and Freudian ideas, and for its argument that Buddhist meditation on
the part of the analyst can help her or him make good use of the countertransference,
I recommend Cooper, 1999.
33 See Freud, 1958; and Freud, 1959.

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210 Martin

about transference, and even less about counter-transference, although of

course much was written later on in the tradition. As is well known, Freud
denied (as well as explicitly rejected) the client’s “idealization” of the analyst,
while Jung accepted some form of it—in Indian and Tibetan Buddhism the
idealization of the Guru, Lama or spiritual guide can be carried to amazing
heights. We should add that Freud hardly ever advised introspection of any
kind, and introversion34 was for him just a necessary pre-condition for psycho-
logical illness, signifying neither more nor less than a turning away from reality.
Indeed it is difficult to think of any position more antithetical to Buddhist
world-renunciation than Freud’s. There are significant differences in approach,
methods, aims and so on, and no doubt if we were to concentrate on finding
these differences the list would grow quite long.
Still, I should make clear, I believe that in terms of these mysterious treat-
ment techniques, respectively gya-log and transference, the Padampans and
Freudians probably have little in common, and it is not my intent at the
moment to make a serious attempt to compare or contrast the two in a sub-
stantial way. What I do want to say is that if we want to understand early
psychoanalysis we have to consider what they regarded as their most effective
techniques. And the same goes for Padampa, his early Zhijé followers, and
Vajrayāna in general when it comes to their counterintuitive methods. I should
like to suggest the possibility that Padampa employed a high level of method-
ological sophistication in dealing with the human mental predicaments of his
followers that could have rivaled or surpassed early psychoanalytical methods.
Why wouldn’t we at least be interested in finding out if this is so? And if we

34 He rarely used the term introversion, and never in a positive way. In its most simple mean-
ing, the word means ‘ turning within,’ and might be regarded as like introspection, or ‘look-
ing within,’ only enduring for the longer term. For Freud’s and his contemporaries’
evaluations of introversion, particularly regarding its dark side, see Silberer, 1971, 243.
A computer-assisted search through the complete works of Freud in English in 24 vol-
umes came up with six occurrences of the word introspection and 22 of introversion. By
the way, Herbert Silberer (1882–1923 CE) was likely one of the conduits for traditional (or
inner alchemical) influences on Freud, influences from which Freud later distanced him-
self as part of his effort to gain scientific respectability for “his” profession. Jung famously
followed up on the alchemical aspects that Freud in large part (except for a few telling
terms like sublimation and condensation) abandoned and suppressed. Silberer himself
was famously rejected from Freud’s inner circle and several years later committed suicide
by hanging. The English version of his book was since retitled in such a way that it would
appeal to occultists, but could never again be regarded as a serious study of psychology.
On the western cultural history of sublimation, recognizing the alchemical sources
adapted by Freud, see Graebner, 2010, noting its statement, “Freud brought the term sub-
limation into psychoanalytic discourse in [...] 1897.”

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Crazy Wisdom in Moderation 211

sense some resistance to that idea, could it be the case that ethnocentric and/
or modernist assumptions of spatial and temporal superiority are still at work
in our work?
So here is what I feel ready to put forward, not so much as conclusions, as
challenges for future development: Firstly, that counterintuitive methods
ought to be regarded as more than just significant, but really, a defining theme
in Vajrayāna spiritual guidance and soteriology. Secondly, that Padampa’s mod-
erately forceful and counterintuitive methods, indicated by the term gya-log,
were central to his Buddhist mentorship in a way that transference was central
to early Viennese psychoanalysts. Within their respective traditions, both
methods have been discussed with circumspection and discretion, perhaps
even secrecy; in the early days at least, we get only brief references and a cou-
ple of very short texts. This much alone suggests there may be other similarities
worthy of exploration and reflection. I think there very probably are.
Quite often when gya-log is mentioned in the Zhijé Collection it goes together
with a metaphorical expression about something that dries out when it is put
in the water. Therefore this seems to have been regarded as a primary meta-
phor for understanding what the term gya-log means. I have some ideas, but
I think I will save them for another time.

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