sustainability

Article
Gas Production from Gas Condensate Reservoirs
Using Sustainable Environmentally
Friendly Chemicals
Amjed M. Hassan 1 , Mohamed A. Mahmoud 1, *, Abdulaziz A. Al-Majed 1 ,
Dhafer Al-Shehri 1 , Ayman R. Al-Nakhli 2 and Mohammed A. Bataweel 2
1 College of Petroleum Engineering and Geosciences, King Fahd University of Petroleum & Minerals,
Dhahran 31261, Saudi Arabia; amjed.moh06@gmail.com (A.M.H.); aamajed@kfupm.edu.sa (A.A.A.-M.);
alshehrida@kfupm.edu.sa (D.A.-S.)
2 Saudi Aramco, Dhahran 31311, Saudi Arabia; ayman.nakhli@aramco.com (A.R.A.-N.);
MOHAMMED.BATAWEEL@ARAMCO.COM (M.A.B.)
* Correspondence: mmahmoud@kfupm.edu.sa




Received: 4 May 2019; Accepted: 15 May 2019; Published: 18 May 2019


Abstract: Unconventional reservoirs have shown tremendous potential for energy supply for
long-term applications. However, great challenges are associated with hydrocarbon production
from these reservoirs. Recently, injection of thermochemical fluids has been introduced as a
new environmentally friendly and cost-effective chemical for improving hydrocarbon production.
This research aims to improve gas production from gas condensate reservoirs using environmentally
friendly chemicals. Further, the impact of thermochemical treatment on changing the pore size
distribution is studied. Several experiments were conducted, including chemical injection, routine
core analysis, and nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) measurements. The impact of thermochemical
treatment in sustaining gas production from a tight gas reservoir was quantified. This study
demonstrates that thermochemical treatment can create different types of fractures (single or
multistaged fractures) based on the injection method. Thermochemical treatment can increase
absolute permeability up to 500%, reduce capillary pressure by 57%, remove the accumulated liquids,
and improve gas relative permeability by a factor of 1.2. The findings of this study can help to design a
better thermochemical treatment for improving gas recovery. This study showed that thermochemical
treatment is an effective method for sustaining gas production from tight gas reservoirs.

Keywords: gas production; gas condensate reservoirs; tight formations; thermochemical fluids

1. Introduction
Unconventional reservoirs have shown great potential for energy supply in long-term
applications [1,2]. Shale and tight formations are common examples of unconventional resources,
and they are considered as vast hydrocarbon resources based on their availability and the huge
storage capacity [3]. However, great challenges are associated with hydrocarbon production from these
reservoirs. Further, the primary recovery factors are less than 20%, which implies the compelling need for
advanced technologies. The low permeability of these reservoirs renders normal production methods
unsuccessful [4–6]. Moreover, significant drawdown pressure is required to achieve economical
production from these reservoirs. Therefore, horizontal drilling and multistage hydraulic fracturing
technologies are extensively applied to improve the flow condition and increase the total gas production.
Drilling a horizontal well can increase the contact area between the wellbore and the reservoir.
Then, the reservoir productivity will be improved, and considerable hydrocarbon can be produced [7].
Analytical and numerical models have been developed to estimate the performance of horizontal

Sustainability 2019, 11, 2838; doi:10.3390/su11102838 www.mdpi.com/journal/sustainability

Sustainability 2019, 11, 2838 2 of 15

wells [8]. However, the main issue with drilling a horizontal well is that the drilling cost is much
higher compared to that of vertical wells. Therefore, a hydraulic fracturing technique was developed
to improve the productivity of unconventional reservoirs [9,10]. Longer conductive paths are created
due to the fracturing treatment, which reduces the pressure drop and increases the hydrocarbon
recovery. Franco et al. [11] reported a successful fracturing operation in a tight reservoir in Saudi
Arabia. They mentioned that three stages of hydraulic fracturing can result in significant improvement
in the reservoir productivity compared to the multilateral wells. The main concern with hydraulic
fracturing is the environmental issues and the operational cost [12].
Pulse fracturing is a new effective method that can increase the stimulated reservoir volume
(SRV) [13,14]. The operation is conducted by injecting fracturing fluids at different frequencies into the
wellbore to create pressure pulses. The induced pulses will spread in the targeted formations and create
a fracture network. The main advantage of pulse fracturing over conventional hydraulic fracturing is
that lower injection pressure can be used in pulse fracturing. Furthermore, the generated fractures will
propagate deeper in the case of pulse fracturing compared to normal hydraulic fracturing [13,15,16].
A new method of pulse fracturing was developed by Al-Nakhli et al. [17], where the fractures are
generated using thermochemical fluids. The chemical reaction is triggered only at the downhole
conditions using the reservoir temperature or chemical activator. The thermochemical reaction can
generate a significant amount of heat and pressure in situ, and the induced pressure and temperature
could reach 5000 psi (34.5 MPa) and 700 ◦ F (644.3 K), respectively [18].
Several approaches have been used to evaluate the changes in pore networks due to stimulation
treatment [19]. One of these methods is nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) measurement, which
can be used to investigate variations in pore size distribution based on the profiles of T2 relaxation
time. Figure 1 shows a typical NMR profile for sandstone and carbonate rocks. The T2 relaxation
time is affected by three factors: Surface area, bulk volume, and fluid diffusion. The pore size is
proportional to the surface area (s) to volume ratio (v) of the pores. Then, the T2 relaxation time can be
used to study the changes of pore size distribution due to certain treatment. Smaller T2 relaxation
time indicates fine pore space, while longer relation time means larger pore size [20]. The induced
fractures are emulated based on the shift of the NMR T2 profile [21]. A shift of the relaxation time
into the right side (higher relaxation times) indicates an improvement in rock conductivity, while if
the T2 profile is shifted into the left side (lower relaxation times), that can indicate that damage has
been induced into the considered rock. Usually, hydraulic fracturing treatment results in enlarging the
pore sizes, and therefore, the NMR profile will be moved toward higher relaxation times [22]. In tight
gas reservoirs, the sustainability of gas production can be quantified by studying the pore network.
In general, changing the pore system of tight formations from isolated and small pores into a connected
and large pore system can lead to enhancing and sustaining the hydrocarbon production from these
types of reservoirs.
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30
Total Porosity
25
Incremental Porosity (p.u.)
Effective Porosity

20

15 Clay Capillary Free

Bound Bound Fluids
10 Water Water

33 ms (SS),
5 3 ms
100 ms (LS)
0
1 10 100
T₂ Relaxation Time (ms)

1. Typical nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) interpretation model for sandstone (SS) and
Figure 1. and
limestone (LS) rocks (replotted from Morriss et al. [23]).
(replotted from Morriss et al. [23]).

In
In tight
tight formations,
formations, the the induced
induced fractures
fractures can can result
result inin creating
creating synthetic
synthetic sweet
sweet spots
spots in in the
the
treated regions and consequently increase the SRV. In gas reservoirs,
treated regions and consequently increase the SRV. In gas reservoirs, the developed fractures the developed fractures improve
the gas flow
improve the gasfrom thefrom
flow tighttheformation into theinto
tight formation production well [24,25].
the production The conductivity
well [24,25]. The conductivity of theof
chemically-induced fractures can be evaluated by determining
the chemically-induced fractures can be evaluated by determining the changes in the pore system the changes in the pore system due to
the
dueinjected chemicals.
to the injected Routine core
chemicals. analysis
Routine coreand NMR and
analysis measurements can be utilized
NMR measurements cantobequantify
utilizedthe to
improvement in rock conductivity due to the fracture creation.
quantify the improvement in rock conductivity due to the fracture creation. In the literature, In the literature, alterations in the pore
network
alterations due intothethermochemical
pore network due injections into tight formations
to thermochemical injectionsis not
intofully
tightunderstood.
formationsFurther,is not fullythe
mechanisms
understood. behind Further, generating
the mechanismsdifferent types
behind of generating
fractures (single or multifractures)
different types of fracturesis not completely
(single or
studied. Therefore, this work would help in understanding
multifractures) is not completely studied. Therefore, this work would help in understanding the changes in pore size distribution due the
to thermochemical
changes in pore sizeinjection.
distribution due to thermochemical injection.
In
In aa gas
gas condensate
condensatereservoir,
reservoir,aaliquid liquidbank bankcan canbebedeveloped
developed around
around thethe
production
production well due
well to
due
the pressure reduction below the dew point pressure. The accumulated
to the pressure reduction below the dew point pressure. The accumulated liquids are immobile due liquids are immobile due to the
low
to thepermeability
low permeability and high andcapillary pressure
high capillary of the tight
pressure of theformation. Therefore,
tight formation. the condensate
Therefore, the condensateliquid
will accumulate around the production well and result in reducing
liquid will accumulate around the production well and result in reducing the total gas production the total gas production below the
economic limits [26]. Different treatments are applied to remove the
below the economic limits [26]. Different treatments are applied to remove the accumulated liquids accumulated liquids and improve
the
andgas production
improve the gas[27–29].
productionGas and chemical
[27–29]. Gas and injections
chemical areinjections
used to increase
are usedthe pressurethe
to increase andpressure
change
the
and change the phase behavior of liquid condensate; then, it can be easily produced throughwell.
phase behavior of liquid condensate; then, it can be easily produced through the production the
Moreover,
productionhydraulic fracturinghydraulic
well. Moreover, and horizontal wells and
fracturing are used to reduce
horizontal the drawdown
wells are used topressurereduce and the
then delay the formulation of condensate liquid. Thermochemical
drawdown pressure and then delay the formulation of condensate liquid. Thermochemical treatment treatment can be applied to remove
the
cancondensate
be appliedbank. The generated
to remove heat and pressure
the condensate bank. The duegenerated
to the thermochemical reaction due
heat and pressure will change
to the
the condensate behavior.
thermochemical reaction willFurther,
change the the
generated
condensatepressure can induce
behavior. Further,multifractures
the generated and reduce can
pressure the
capillary forces [26,30].
induce multifractures and reduce the capillary forces [26,30].
The
The novelty
noveltyofof using
usingthermochemical
thermochemical fluidsfluids
for improving the gas production
for improving from gas condensate
the gas production from gas
reservoirs
condensateisreservoirs
that the thermochemical treatment cantreatment
is that the thermochemical induce a canpermanent
induce aimprovement in the reservoir
permanent improvement in
deliverability [26,30]. Thermochemical fluids are cheap, nontoxic,
the reservoir deliverability [26,30]. Thermochemical fluids are cheap, nontoxic, and environmentally and environmentally friendly.
Compared to the available
friendly. Compared to thetechniques
available for enhancing
techniques forthe gas recovery,
enhancing thermochemical
the gas treatment can
recovery, thermochemical
reduce
treatment can reduce the operational cost up to 40% [30]. Further, the thermochemical be
the operational cost up to 40% [30]. Further, the thermochemical reaction can triggered
reaction can
only at the reservoir conditions, which maximizes treatment efficiency
be triggered only at the reservoir conditions, which maximizes treatment efficiency and minimizes and minimizes energy loss
into
energythe surrounding
loss into theformations surrounding [26].formations
Theoretically, thermochemical
[26]. Theoretically, reaction can generate
thermochemical pressures
reaction can
up to 5000 psi (34.5 MPa) and temperatures up to 700 ◦ F (644.3 K) [18]. Additionally, injection of
generate pressures up to 5000 psi (34.5 MPa) and temperatures up to 700 ᴼF (644.3 K) [18].
Additionally, injection of thermochemical fluids into tight formations does not induce any damage
into the reservoir rocks, and no reduction in the reservoir permeability or porosity was observed [30].
Sustainability 2019, 11, 2838 4 of 15

thermochemical fluids into tight formations does not induce any damage into the reservoir rocks,
and no reduction in the reservoir permeability or porosity was observed [30]. However, the main
disadvantage of this treatment is that the generated pressure and heat can exceed the safe limit and
may lead to undesired impacts. Therefore, this treatment should be well-designed by calculating
the generated pressure and temperature due to the chemical reaction. Then, the treatment volume
and the chemical concentration can be adjusted to achieve the required and safe amount of heat and
pressure [26,30].
This paper discusses the experimental findings of NMR T2 measurements for a chemical stimulation
method based on the induced pressure pulses using thermochemical fluids. The stimulation treatment
is conducted utilizing the in situ generation of heat and pressure at downhole conditions to generate
single and multifractures in tight formations. Therefore, it can increase the SRV and improve the total
gas production from tight gas reservoirs. Actual tests of pulsed fracturing conducted in a laboratory
scale using several core samples are presented. Multiple fractures and microfractures were created
using the injection of thermochemical fluids into tight core samples. The increase in core porosity
and permeability due to the chemical flooding is discussed. The alteration in pore geometry after
the thermochemical treatment is evaluated. The effect of thermochemical injection on sustaining gas
production from tight gas reservoirs is quantified. First, methodology is presented to describe the
conduced experiments; coreflooding and NMR measurements were carried out. Then, the results
of chemical injection and capillary pressure reduction are presented. Finally, the performance of
thermochemical treatment in sustaining the gas production is discussed.

2. Methodology
In this work, thermochemical fluids were injected into different core samples to create fractures and
improve core conductivity. The chemical reaction was triggered inside the treated core to generate heat
and pressure pulse. The in situ generated temperature and pressure are significantly high and resulted
in creating fractures in the used samples. Solutions of ammonium chloride (NH4 Cl) and sodium nitrite
(NaNO2 ) were used as thermochemical fluids, and the chemical reaction was triggered using an acid.
The chemical reaction during thermochemical injection can be represented by Equation (1) [18,26,27]:

NH4 Cl + NaNO2 → NaCl + 2H2 O + N2 (gas) + ∆H (heat). (1)

Various analyses, including routine core analysis, chemical injection, and NMR measurements,
were conducted using different rock samples. The changes in core characteristics were tracked by
measuring the rock properties before and after the thermochemical treatment. Figure 2 shows the
experimental setup used for the thermochemical treatment. The pressure-drop across the core sample
was recorded to capture the generation of pressure pules due to the thermochemical injection. The
changes in the pore network was determined using the T2 relaxation time. Table 1 lists the properties
of the core samples used in this study. Figure 3 shows images for the core samples before and after the
thermochemical treatment.
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Figure 2. Schematic for the coreflooding setup used for thermochemical treatment (adapted from
Alghamdi [28]).

2. Schematic
Figure 2. Schematic for the coreflooding setup used for thermochemical
thermochemical treatment (adapted from
Table 1. Rock properties of the core samples used in this work.
Alghamdi [28]).
[28]).

Table 1. Rock properties of the core samples used in this work.

Sample Diameter Length Bulk Pore Porosity Absolute
ID (cm)
Diameter (cm)
Length Volume
Bulk (ml) Volume
Pore(ml) (%)
Porosity Permeability
Absolute(mD)
Sample ID Table 1. Rock properties of the core samples used in this work.
(cm) (cm) Volume (ml) Volume (ml) (%) Permeability (mD)
11 3.81
3.81 2.54
2.54 28.95
28.95 4.61
4.61 15.93
15.93 0.900
0.900
22
Sample 3.81
3.81
Diameter 5.179
5.179
Length 58.374
58.374
Bulk 8.067
8.067
Pore 13.82
13.82
Porosity 1.096
Absolute
33
ID 3.81
(cm) 4.5
(cm) 51.278
Volume (ml) 10.00
Volume 19.5 1.21 (mD)
3.81 4.5 51.278 10.00(ml) (%)
19.5 Permeability
1.21

1 3.81 2.54 28.95 4.61 15.93 0.900

2 3.81 5.179 58.374 8.067 13.82 1.096
3 3.81 4.5 51.278 10.00 19.5 1.21

Figure 3. Image for the core samples before and after the thermochemical treatment.
Sustainability 2019, 11, 2838 6 of 15

Injection of thermochemical fluids into tight formation can change the relative permeability to
hydrocarbon. Several models can be used to determine the relative permeability before and after the
chemical treatment [31,32]. In this work, the Corey model (Equations (2) and (3)) [31,32] was used to
estimate the improvement in gas effective permeability due to the injection of thermochemical fluids
into tight rock samples.
" #4 " #2
So So − Sor
kro = 0.98372 (2)
1 − Swi 1 − Swi − Sor

S g − S gc 2 S g − S gc
" # " #
krg = 1.1072 Kro + 2.7794Sor Kro (3)
1 − Swi 1 − Swi
where kro is the relative oil permeability (fraction), So is the oil saturation (fraction), Swi is the irreducible
water saturation (fraction), Sor is the residual oil saturation (fraction), krg is the relative gas permeability
(fraction), Sg is the gas saturation (fraction), and Sgc is the critical gas saturation (fraction).

3. Results and Discussion

Thermochemical fluids were injected into tight rock samples to create different types of fractures
including single and multifractures and to improve the flow conductivity between the isolated
pores. Several methods of injection were studied, including continuous flooding and cyclic injection
of thermochemical fluids. The main goals for all experiments are to maximize the size of the
generated fractures, increase the fracture propagation in the treated samples, and reduce the amount
of thermochemical fluids to be injected. For all samples, the improvement in core permeability and
porosity were estimated using the profiles of pressure-drop across the core samples and the pore
size distribution, respectively. Further, NMR measurements were performed before and after the
stimulation treatment to determine the changes in pore sizes distribution due to the thermochemical
treatment. The alterations in the pore network were analyzed based on the shift of T2 relaxation time
after the chemical injection.

3.1. Batch Chemical Injection

Tight sandstone samples were treated with the thermochemical fluids to induce single fractures.
The chemical solutions were injected as one batch, then, they allowed reacting and generating pressure
pulses. The pore pressure was monitored to capture the pressure pulses. The changes in core properties
was determined using permeability and porosity measurements as well as the NMR analysis. During
the thermochemical treatment, the pore pressure increased quickly to more than 11 MPa (Figure 4).
The pressure increment is attributed mainly to the thermochemical reaction, which was generated
inside the treated core. Consequently, a single fracture was induced in the tight core sample due to the
stimulation treatment. The rock properties were changed considerably after the chemical injection,
the core permeability increasing by 10% and the porosity increasing by 5%. The increase of core
permeability was only 10%, and this was due to the injection of a single batch of thermochemical
fluids; however, cyclic injection of chemical solutions can lead to huge improvement in the absolute
permeability, as will be discussed in Sections 3.2 and 3.3.
Figure 5 shows the T2 profiles for the core sample before and after the thermochemical treatment.
The relaxation time confirms the fracture generation after the chemical stimulation process. The T2
profile was shifted toward the higher relaxation time, indicating that the fracture was created due to
the thermochemical treatment. The fracture was induced as a result of the pressure pulse that was
generated inside the core sample, due to the thermochemical reaction. The sudden increase in pore
pressure from 1 to 11 MPa led to creating a tiny fracture in the treated core sample.
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12

9
Pressure (MPa)

0
0 5000 10000 15000 20000 25000 30000
Time (s)

Figure 4. Profile
Figure 4. Profile of pore pressure
of pore pressure during
during thermochemical
thermochemical treatment.
treatment. Pressure
Pressure pulses
pulses were in situ
were in situ
generated due to the thermochemical reaction.
generated due to the thermochemical reaction.

0.6
Incremental Porosity (p.u.)

0.45

0.3

0.15

0
0.001 0.01 0.1 1 10 100 1000 10000
T₂ Relaxation Time (ms)

Before Treatment After Treatment

Figure 5.5. Profile

Profileofof relaxation
relaxation timetime before
before and the
and after after the thermochemical
thermochemical injectioninjection intosandstone
into the tight the tight
sandstone
sample. The sample. The relaxation
relaxation time was
time was shifted shiftedtime
to higher to higher time
after the after the treatment.
treatment.

3.2. Cyclic
3.2. Cyclic Injection
Injection of
of Thermochemical
Thermochemical Fluids
Fluids
Figure 66 shows
Figure shows the the profiles
profiles of
of pressure-drop
pressure-drop across
across the
the core
core sample
sample during
during thermochemical
thermochemical
treatment. Cyclic injection of thermochemical fluids was applied into tight
treatment. Cyclic injection of thermochemical fluids was applied into tight sandstone samples. sandstone samples.
The
The pore pressure increased significantly due to the thermochemical reaction; a pressure
pore pressure increased significantly due to the thermochemical reaction; a pressure of 13 MPa was of 13 MPa was
observed at
observed the core
at the core inlet. Four cycles
inlet. Four cycles of
of chemical
chemical injections
injections were
were applied
applied toto alter
alter the
the rock
rock properties
properties
and generate
and generate fractures.
fractures. Considerable
Considerable fractures
fractures were
were induced
induced in
in the treated sample
the treated due to
sample due to the
the pressure
pressure
pulses. During the first cycle, the pore pressure increased to 6.1 MPa, while it was raised to more than
12.4 MPa during the second and third cycles of thermochemical injection. In all phases, the pressures
Sustainability 2019, 11, 2838 8 of 15

pulses. During the first cycle, the pore pressure increased to 6.1 MPa, while it was raised to more than
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12.4 MPa during the second and third cycles of thermochemical injection. In all phases, the pressures at
core inlet
at core andand
inlet outlet are almost
outlet same,same,
are almost whichwhich
indicates uniform
indicates pressure
uniform distribution
pressure along the
distribution treated
along the
core sample.
treated core sample.
NMR
NMR was was used
used toto evaluate
evaluate thethe changes
changes in in pore
pore size
size distribution
distribution duedue to to the
the thermochemical
thermochemical
injection. Figure 7 shows the T2 distribution for the core sample before and
injection. Figure 7 shows the T2 distribution for the core sample before and after the thermochemicalafter the thermochemical
treatment.
treatment. The Thecyclic
cyclicinjection
injectionof thermochemical
of thermochemical fluidsfluids
resulted in creating
resulted multiractures.
in creating The induced
multiractures. The
fractures were indicated by the shift of T2 relaxation time toward the higher
induced fractures were indicated by the shift of T2 relaxation time toward the higher pore sizes (right pore sizes (right side).
In thisIn
side). treatment, the generated
this treatment, fractures
the generated led to changing
fractures the porosity
led to changing modelmodel
the porosity from afromunimodel into a
a unimodel
dual porosity system. Those fractures were developed due to the rapid increase
into a dual porosity system. Those fractures were developed due to the rapid increase in the pore in the pore pressure
when
pressurethe when
thermochemical reaction was
the thermochemical activated.
reaction wasInjecting
activated. thermochemical fluids in fourfluids
Injecting thermochemical cyclesinled to
four
increasing the amount and the density of generated fractures. More fractures
cycles led to increasing the amount and the density of generated fractures. More fractures were were observed close to
the injection
observed point,
close while
to the a smaller
injection amount
point, whileofa fractures was noticed
smaller amount at the core
of fractures wasoutlet.
noticedThis fracture
at the core
distribution
outlet. This fracture distribution was expected, since the chemical reaction will occur close to the
was expected, since the chemical reaction will occur close to the injection side; then, the
generated
injection side;pressure
then,waves will transfer
the generated awaywaves
pressure from will
the reaction
transfer point.
away from the reaction point.

16
First cycle Second cycle Third cycle Fourth cycle

12
Pore Pressure (MPa)

0
0 3000 6000 9000 12000 15000 18000
Time (s)

Inlet Pressure Outlet Pressure

Figure 6.6.Cyclic
Cyclicinjection of thermochemical
injection fluidsfluids
of thermochemical into tight
intosandstone samples.samples.
tight sandstone The pressure
The increased
pressure
rapidly from
increased 2.7 tofrom
rapidly 13.1 2.7
MPa; to the
13.1pressure
MPa; thepulse created
pressure fractures
pulse createdinfractures
the treated rock.
in the treated rock.
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Incremental Porosity (p.u.) 1

0.8

0.6

0.4
Multifractures

0.2

0
0.01 0.1 1 10 100 1000 10000
T₂ Relaxation Time (ms)

Incremental Before Incremental After

Figure 7. T2
T2 distribution
distribution for
for the
the core
core sample
sample before
before and after thermochemical
thermochemical injection. Multifractures
Multifractures
were generated
generatedafter
afterthe chemical
the chemicaltreatment, andand
treatment, the porosity modelmodel
the porosity was changed to a dualtoporosity
was changed a dual
system. system.
porosity

3.3. Continuous
3.3. Continuous Thermochemical
Thermochemical Injection
Injection
The
The heterogeneity
heterogeneity of of reservoir
reservoir formation
formation restricts
restricts hydrocarbon production due
hydrocarbon production due toto the
the poor
poor
communication between the pores that contain hydrocarbon. Thermochemical
communication between the pores that contain hydrocarbon. Thermochemical fluids were injected fluids were injected
continuously into
continuously into rock
rock samples
samples to to enhance
enhance the the formation
formation conductivity,
conductivity, by by connecting
connecting and and enlarging
enlarging
the isolated and small pores. Figure 8 shows the pressure drop across the core sample during
the isolated and small pores. Figure 8 shows the pressure drop across the core sample during
thermochemical injection. The core permeability was measured before and after the treatment;core
thermochemical injection. The core permeability was measured before and after the treatment; the the
has average
core permeability
has average of 1.21 of
permeability and1.21
7.28andmD 7.28before mDandbefore
after the
andstimulation treatment, respectively.
after the stimulation treatment,
The thermochemical
respectively. fluids were injected
The thermochemical fluidsinto were the rock samples
injected into theatrock
a constant
samples flow
at arate of 1 cm3/min,
constant flow rate and
of
the treatment period was 60 mins. The pressure-drop decreased significantly
1 cm3/min, and the treatment period was 60 mins. The pressure-drop decreased significantly after after the thermochemical
injection,
the indicating the
thermochemical enhancement
injection, of core
indicating theconductivity.
enhancementThe of reduction in pressure-drop
core conductivity. across the
The reduction in
treated core sample is 87%; the stabilized pressure-drops are 15.9 and
pressure-drop across the treated core sample is 87%; the stabilized pressure-drops are 15.9 and 2.1 2.1 KPa before and after the
treatment,
KPa beforerespectively.
and after the treatment, respectively.
The porosity distribution
The porosity profiles were
distribution profiles were obtained
obtained before
before and
and after
after the
the thermochemical
thermochemical treatmenttreatment
using NMR measurement. Figure 9 shows the profiles of T2 relaxation time before and after
using NMR measurement. Figure 9 shows the profiles of T2 relaxation time before and after the
the
chemical injection. Isolated systems of micro-, miso-, and macropores
chemical injection. Isolated systems of micro-, miso-, and macropores were observed pretreatment, were observed pretreatment,
which
which resulted
resulted in in reducing
reducing the the communication
communication between between the the different
different porepore systems,
systems, while
while after
after the
the
treatment, a single curve of relaxation time was observed, which reveals
treatment, a single curve of relaxation time was observed, which reveals that the pore system was that the pore system was
changed from
changed from aa triple
triple (isolated)
(isolated) pore
pore system
system into into aa connected
connected porosity
porosity system. Further, flooding
system. Further, flooding the the
core samples with thermochemical fluids led to increasing the portion of macropores significantly, as
core samples with thermochemical fluids led to increasing the portion of macropores significantly, as
presented
presented in in Figure
Figure 9. The NMR
9. The NMR profile
profile for for the
the macropores
macropores was was shifted
shifted upup after
after the
the thermochemical
thermochemical
treatment. The
treatment. The change
change of of pore
pore network
network from from aa triple
triple (isolated)
(isolated) model
model into into aa dual
dual (connected)
(connected) porosity
porosity
system can
system can lead
lead toto enhancing
enhancing the the pore
pore connection
connection between
between all all of
of the
the micro-,
micro-, miso-,
miso-, and
and macropores.
macropores.
Consequently, gas production will significantly increase due to the thermochemical injection. After
Consequently, gas production will significantly increase due to the thermochemical injection. After
the thermochemical
the treatment, absolute
thermochemical treatment, absolute permeability
permeability was was increased
increased by by 502%;
502%; the the values
values of of core
core
permeability
permeability pre- and post-treatment were 1.21 and 7.28 mD, respectively. This improvement in
pre- and post-treatment were 1.21 and 7.28 mD, respectively. This improvement in
absolute permeability
absolute permeability confirmsconfirms the the enhancement
enhancement of of core
core conductivity
conductivity due due to to the
the thermochemical
thermochemical
injection. Ultimately,
injection. Ultimately, injecting
injecting thermochemical
thermochemical fluids fluids into
into aa heterogeneous
heterogeneous formation formation can can lead
lead to
to
improving the pore connection, increasing the formation permeability and, therefore, enhancing and
sustaining hydrocarbon production.
Sustainability 2019, 11, 2838 10 of 15

improving the pore connection, increasing the formation permeability and, therefore, enhancing and
sustaining
Sustainabilityhydrocarbon
Sustainability 2019, 11,
2019, 11, xx FOR production.
FOR PEER
PEER REVIEW
REVIEW 10 of
10 of 15
15

300
300
(KPa)
Drop(KPa)

200
200
PressureDrop
Pressure

100
100
Permeability
Permeability Permeability
Permeability
Chemical Injection
Chemical Injection
Measurement
Measurement Measurement
Measurement

00
00 2000
2000 4000
4000 6000
6000 8000
8000 10000
10000
Time (s)
Time (s)

Figure 8.
Figure 8. Profile
Profile of
of pressure-drop
pressure-drop across the
pressure-drop across the treated
treated core
core sample
sample during
during the
the thermochemical
the thermochemical injection.
thermochemical injection.
injection.
The pressure-drop reduced
pressure-drop reduced
The pressure-drop by
reduced by 87%
by 87% due
87%due to
due to the
tothe chemical
thechemical treatment.
chemicaltreatment.
treatment.

0.60
0.60
(p.u.)
Porosity(p.u.)

0.45
0.45
IncrementalPorosity

0.30
0.30
Incremental

0.15
0.15

0.00
0.00
0.01
0.01 0.1
0.1 11 10
10 100
100 1000
1000 10000
10000
T₂ Relaxation
T₂ Relaxation Time
Time (ms)
(ms)

Pre
Pre Post
Post

Figure 9.
Figure
Figure 9. Profiles
9. Profiles of
of T2 relaxation time
T2 relaxation
relaxation time before
time before and
before and after
and after the
after the treatment.
the treatment. The
treatment. The pore
The pore network
pore network was
network was changed
was changed
changed
from
from an
from an isolated
an isolated triple
isolated triple pore
triple pore system
pore system into
system into a connected
into aa connected porosity
connected porosity model
porosity model after
model after the
after the treatment,
the treatment, which
treatment, which will
which will
will
enhance the
enhance
enhance the core
the core conductivity.
core conductivity.
conductivity.
3.4. Capillary Pressure Enhancement
3.4. Capillary
3.4. Capillary Pressure
Pressure Enhancement
Enhancement
The capillary pressure is one of the critical issues in producing hydrocarbon from a tight reservoir,
The capillary
The capillary pressure
pressure is is one
one of
of the
the critical
critical issues
issues inin producing
producing hydrocarbon
hydrocarbon from
from aa tight
tight
because tight reservoirs are characterized by significantly high capillary pressure due to the ultra-low
reservoir, because tight reservoirs are characterized by significantly high capillary pressure
reservoir, because tight reservoirs are characterized by significantly high capillary pressure due to due to
the ultra-low formation permeability. Due to the low permeability and the high capillary
the ultra-low formation permeability. Due to the low permeability and the high capillary pressure, pressure,
fluids (such
fluids (such asas water
water ofof condensate)
condensate) cancan accumulate
accumulate around
around the
the production
production wells
wells and
and result
result in
in
significant reduction in the total hydrocarbon production. Therefore, most of the treatments
significant reduction in the total hydrocarbon production. Therefore, most of the treatments applied applied
in the
in the tight
tight reservoir
reservoir are
are aiming
aiming to to increase
increase thethe formation
formation permeability
permeability and
and improve
improve the
the flow
flow
Sustainability 2019, 11, 2838 11 of 15

formation permeability. Due to the low permeability and the high capillary pressure, fluids (such as
water of condensate) can accumulate around the production wells and result in significant reduction in
Sustainability 2019, 11, x FOR PEER REVIEW 11 of 15
the total hydrocarbon production. Therefore, most of the treatments applied in the tight reservoir are
aiming
condition.to increase
Increasing the the
formation
absolutepermeability
permeability andofimprove the flow can
tight formation condition.
lead toIncreasing
reducing thethe capillary
absolute
permeability of tight formation can lead to reducing the capillary pressure,
pressure, and then, more hydrocarbon can be produced. In this work, injection of thermochemical and then, more hydrocarbon
can
fluidsbe produced.
into tight In thissamples
core work, injection
showedof athermochemical fluids into
considerable increase in tight
the core
core samples showed
permeability; thea
considerable increase in the core permeability; the permeability enhancement
permeability enhancement reached 500% in the case of ultra heterogeneous rock, as discussed in reached 500% in the
case of ultra
Section heterogeneous
3.3. The improvement rock,
of as
corediscussed in Section
permeability 3.3. The
is mainly improvement
attributed of core permeability
to the generation of single oris
mainly attributed to the generation of single or multifractures due to the in situ
multifractures due to the in situ generation of pressure pulses inside the treated rock samples. The generation of pressure
pulses
induced inside the treated
fractures in tightrock samples. due
formation, The to induced fractures ininjection,
thermochemical tight formation,
showed due to thermochemical
significant reduction
injection, showed significant reduction in capillary pressure. Figure
in capillary pressure. Figure 10 shows the capillary pressure curves before and after 10 shows the capillary pressure
the
curves before and after the thermochemical treatment. The capillary
thermochemical treatment. The capillary pressure reduced by 57.2% due to the injection pressure reduced by 57.2% due toof
the injection of thermochemical
thermochemical fluidsrock
fluids into the tight intosample;
the tightthe
rock sample;pressures
capillary the capillary
werepressures
62.7 KPawere 62.7 KPa,
and 26.9 KPa
and
before26.9and
KPa,after
before theand after the thermochemical
thermochemical treatment,treatment, respectively.
respectively. In gas In gas condensate
condensate reservoirs,
reservoirs, the
the
enhancement of the capillary condition can lead to removing the accumulated fluids from from
enhancement of the capillary condition can lead to removing the accumulated fluids the
the near-
near-wellbore
wellbore region, region, and consequently
and consequently improving
improving gas deliverability.
gas deliverability.

75

Before Treatment
60
Capillary Pressure (KPa)

After Treatment

45

30

15

0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
Fluid Saturation (Fraction)

10. Profiles of capillary pressure before

Figure 10. before and
and after
after the
the thermochemical
thermochemical treatment.
treatment. The capillary
pressure decreased
pressure decreasedby by 57.2%
57.2%due
due to
tothermochemical
thermochemicalinjection
injectioninto
intothe
thetight
tightrock
rocksample.
sample.

3.5. Gas Production

3.5. Gas Production Improvement
Improvement
In
In aagas
gascondensate
condensatereservoir, thethe
reservoir, reduction
reductionof reservoir pressure
of reservoir results
pressure in liquid
results drop-out,
in liquid which
drop-out,
can accumulate
which aroundaround
can accumulate the production well and
the production wellcreate a condensate
and create blockage.
a condensate The condensate
blockage. The condensatebank
reduces the effective permeability to gas, and then, the total gas production will
bank reduces the effective permeability to gas, and then, the total gas production will be dramatically be dramatically
decreased
decreased[29].
[29].Injection of thermochemical
Injection of thermochemical fluids into gas
fluids intocondensate reservoirs
gas condensate can resultcan
reservoirs in enhancing
result in
hydrocarbon production utilizing several mechanisms. The injected chemicals
enhancing hydrocarbon production utilizing several mechanisms. The injected chemicals are able to are able to generate a
significant amount of heat and pressure at the reservoir condition; the generated
generate a significant amount of heat and pressure at the reservoir condition; the generated heat and heat and pressure
can reach can
pressure to 644.3 K and
reach 34.5 MPa
to 644.3 K and [18,26]. The induced
34.5 MPa [18,26]. heat
The and pressure
induced heatchange the behavior
and pressure change of the
the
condensate liquid. The viscosity of the condensate liquid can be reduced by 10 times
behavior of the condensate liquid. The viscosity of the condensate liquid can be reduced by 10 times due to the in situ
generation ofsitu
due to the in heatgeneration
at the reservoir
of heatcondition [26,30].condition
at the reservoir Further, the generated
[26,30]. pressure
Further, can create
the generated single
pressure
or
canmultifractures
create single around the treatedaround
or multifractures well. Thetheinduced fractures
treated well. Thelead to reducing
induced fracturesthelead
capillary forces
to reducing
the capillary forces that hold the condensate liquids in the region around the wellbore; thus, the
accumulated condensate can easily flow into the borehole. Removal of the condensate bank will
improve gas production from gas condensate reservoirs by improving the effective permeability to
gas. The Corey model (Equations (2) and (3)) was used to estimate the improvement in gas effective
permeability due to the injection of thermochemical fluids [31,32].
Sustainability 2019, 11, 2838 12 of 15

that hold the condensate liquids in the region around the wellbore; thus, the accumulated condensate
can easily flow into the borehole. Removal of the condensate bank will improve gas production from
gas condensate reservoirs by improving the effective permeability to gas. The Corey model (Equations
(2) and (3)) was used to estimate the improvement in gas effective permeability due to the injection of
Sustainability 2019, 11, x FOR PEER REVIEW 12 of 15
thermochemical fluids [31,32].
Figure 11
Figure 11 shows
shows thethe effect
effect of
of thermochemical
thermochemical treatment
treatment onon enhancing
enhancing gasgasrelative
relativepermeability.
permeability.
Injection of thermochemical fluid improved the relative permeability of gas by a factor of
Injection of thermochemical fluid improved the relative permeability of gas by a factor of 1.2;
1.2; the
the
relative gas permeability increased from 0.759 to 0.927 after the thermochemical
relative gas permeability increased from 0.759 to 0.927 after the thermochemical treatment. The treatment. The
increase in
increase in gas
gas relative
relative permeability
permeability is is attributed
attributed mainly
mainly toto the
the generation
generation ofof multifractures
multifractures andand the
the
reduction of capillary pressure. Ultimately, injection of thermochemical fluids into
reduction of capillary pressure. Ultimately, injection of thermochemical fluids into gas condensate gas condensate
reservoir can
reservoir can induce
induce aa permanent
permanent improvement
improvement in in the
the flow
flow condition,
condition, byby reducing
reducing thethe capillary
capillary
pressure
pressure and removing the condensate banking. Consequently, the thermochemical treatment can
and removing the condensate banking. Consequently, the thermochemical treatment can
sustain gas
sustain gas production
productionfrom fromgas
gascondensate
condensatereservoirs
reservoirsbybyenhancing
enhancingthethe
effective gasgas
effective permeability
permeability for
long-time
for long-time operations.
operations.

1.0 1.0

Condensate Relative Permeability

0.8 0.8
Gas Relative Permeability

0.6 0.6

0.4 0.4

0.2 0.2

0.0 0.0
0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0
Condensate Saturation

Krg, Before Krg, After Kro, Before Kro, After

Figure 11.
11.Effect
Effect of thermochemical
of thermochemical injection
injection on enhancing
on enhancing gaspermeability.
gas relative relative permeability. Gas
Gas permeability
permeability
is improved byis improved
a factor ofby
1.2,a factor
whichof 1.2,
can whichgas
sustain canproduction
sustain gas for
production
long-timeforoperations.
long-time operations.

Comparing the performance of thermochemical treatment with the other methods of improving
gas production
productionfrom froma gas condensate
a gas condensate reservoir, suchsuch
reservoir, as solvent or carbon
as solvent dioxide
or carbon (CO2 ) injection,
dioxide shows
(CO2) injection,
that thermochemical
shows treatmenttreatment
that thermochemical has severalhas advantages
several over the current
advantages overmethods.
the currentThe thermochemical
methods. The
fluids are non-expensive,
thermochemical fluids arenontoxic, and environmentally
non-expensive, nontoxic, and friendly. Injection of thermochemical
environmentally friendly. Injection fluids
of
can lead to significant reduction in the operational cost, because the treatment
thermochemical fluids can lead to significant reduction in the operational cost, because the treatment can be applied and
focused
can only at and
be applied the target zone,
focused onlywhich
at theminimizes the which
target zone, amount of chemicals
minimizes the used
amountduring the operations.
of chemicals used
Further,the
during theoperations.
in situ generation ofthe
Further, heatinandsitupressure
generationat the reservoir
of heat conditionatcan
and pressure theminimize
reservoirthe impact
condition
of the
can stimulation
minimize treatment
the impact on the
of the integrity treatment
stimulation of well completion. Finally,ofthermochemical
on the integrity well completion. treatment
Finally,
leads to permanent
thermochemical improvement
treatment leads toinpermanent
the hydrocarbon production,
improvement in thewhile CO2 or solvent
hydrocarbon injection
production, are
while
considered
CO as temporary
2 or solvent injection are methods for increasing
considered as temporaryhydrocarbon
methods for production
increasing [33].
hydrocarbon production
[33]. This work was carried out at laboratory scale, where core samples and a small volume of
thermochemical
This work was fluids were out
carried used.at However,
laboratorythis study
scale, wherecancore
be further
samples extended by applying
and a small volumethe of
thermochemical treatment at field scale. A good candidate for this treatment
thermochemical fluids were used. However, this study can be further extended by applying the can be a gas well that
thermochemical treatment at field scale. A good candidate for this treatment can be a gas well that
has a low production rate due to the condensate damage. Thermochemical fluids can be injected into
the gas production well to increase temperature and pressure around the wellbore and consequently
affect the condensate behavior. The treatment duration and the injected volume can be selected based
on the radius of condensate liquid. The duration and injected volume will increase as the radius of
Sustainability 2019, 11, 2838 13 of 15

has a low production rate due to the condensate damage. Thermochemical fluids can be injected into
the gas production well to increase temperature and pressure around the wellbore and consequently
affect the condensate behavior. The treatment duration and the injected volume can be selected based
on the radius of condensate liquid. The duration and injected volume will increase as the radius of
condensate region increases. Finally, the performance of thermochemical treatment can be compared
with the performance of other methods, such as solvent or gas injection.

4. Conclusions
Great challenges are associated with sustaining gas production from gas condensate reservoirs.
Injection of thermochemical fluids has been introduced as a new and cost-effective technique for
stimulating tight reservoirs. In this paper, the impact of thermochemical injection on sustaining gas
production from gas condensate reservoir was discussed. Further, the alteration of a pore network due
to thermochemical treatment was evaluated using coreflooding experiments and NMR measurements.
This study demonstrates that thermochemical treatment can create different types of fractures (single
or multistaged fractures) based on the injection method. Batch, continuous or cyclic injection of
thermochemical fluids can be applied. The pressure pulse generated due to the thermochemical
reaction can induce fractures in the tight sandstone formations. Single and multifractures were
observed in the treated rock samples after the batch and cyclic injection of thermochemical fluids,
respectively. Flooding the heterogeneous formation with thermochemical fluids can result in improving
the formation conductivity, by connecting the isolated pores (micro-, miso-, and macropores), and
consequently increase the absolute permeability. In all treated samples, the absolute permeabilities
were increased after the thermochemical treatment. Permeability improvements of 10% and 502% were
achieved using the batch and continuous injection of thermochemical fluids, respectively. Based on
this study, the advantages of applying thermochemical treatment are generating the pressure pulses
only inside the targeted zone and then minimizing energy losses. Thermochemical injection reduces
capillary pressure by 57%, removes the accumulated liquids, and improves gas relative permeability by
a factor of 1.2. Ultimately, injection of thermochemical fluids into tight and heterogeneous reservoirs
can result in improving pore conductivity and increasing formation permeability, and consequently
enhances and sustains hydrocarbon production.

Author Contributions: Formal analysis, M.A.M.; Investigation, D.A.-S.; Methodology, A.A.A.-M.; Supervision,
M.A.M.; Validation, A.R.A.-N.; Visualization, M.A.B.; Writing—original draft, A.M.H.
Funding: This research was funded by Saudi Aramco, grant number CIPR2317.
Acknowledgments: The college of Petroleum and Geoscience, at King Fahd University of Petroleum & Minerals,
and Saudi Aramco are acknowledged for the support and permission to publish this work. Saudi Aramco is
also acknowledged for funding this research under project number CIPR2317. Authors are grateful to Syed
Rizwanullah for conducting the NMR measurements. We also thank Abdulrauf Adebayo for approval to access
the NMR equipment at the Center for Integrative Petroleum Research (CIPR)—CPG, KFUPM.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.

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