BUILDING TECHNOLOGY 1: RESEARCH WORK

A Research Work
Presented to the Faculty of
College of Architecture and Fine Arts Department
University of Mindanao, Davao City

In Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements

in AR 217 (12039): Building Technology 1
Summer Class, SY 2020

Submitted by:

Benogsodan, Rhobie Shayne A.

Submitted to:
Ar. Adrian Dennis P. Domingo

July 16, 2020

1 What are Metals? 
Metal, any of a class of substances characterized by high electrical and
thermal conductivity as well as by malleability, ductility, and high reflectivity of
light. Approximately three-quarters of all known chemical elements are
metals. The most abundant varieties in the Earth’s crust
are aluminum, iron, calcium, sodium, potassium, and magnesium. The vast
majority of metals are found in ores (mineral-bearing substances), but a few
such as copper, gold, platinum, and silver frequently occur in the free state
because they do not readily react with other elements [ CITATION Enc20 \l 1033 ].

The high electrical and thermal conductivities of the simple metals (i.e.,
the non-transition metals of the periodic table) are best explained by reference
to the free-electron theory. According to this concept, the individual atoms in
such metals have lost their valence electrons to the entire solid, and these
free electrons that give rise to conductivity move as a group throughout the
solid. In the case of the more complex metals (i.e., the transition elements),
conductivities are better explained by the band theory, which takes into
account not only the presence of free electrons but also their interaction with
so-called d electrons [ CITATION Enc20 \l 1033 ].

The mechanical properties of metals, such as hardness, ability to resist

repeated stressing (fatigue strength), ductility, and malleability, are often
attributed to defects or imperfections in their crystal structure. The absence of
a layer of atoms in its densely packed structure, for example, enables a metal
to deform plastically, and prevents it from being brittle [ CITATION Enc20 \l 1033 ].

2 What are Ferrous and Non-Ferrous

Metals?
Ferrous metals contain iron, and are known for their strength. Think
steel, stainless steel, carbon steel, cast iron. Ferrous metals are used in both
architectural and industrial fabrication, such as skyscrapers, bridges, vehicles,
and railroads. Thanks to their magnetic properties, ferrous metals are also
used in appliances and engines. (Yep—thanks to ferrous metals, you can
display your child’s report card or your shopping list with a magnet on your
refrigerator door.) Ferrous metals also have a high carbon content, which
generally makes them prone to rust. The exceptions are stainless steel,
because of chromium, and wrought iron because of its high pure iron content.

A list of ferrous metal properties:

 Durable
 Great tensile strength
 Usually magnetic
  Low resistance to corrosion
 A silver-like color
 Recyclable
 Good conductors of electricity

These qualities make them usable in constructions of long-lasting

skyscrapers. On top of that, they are utilized in making tools, vehicle engines,
pipelines, containers
Examples of ferrous metals are:

 Steel: Iron plus carbon; widely used in construction and industrial metal
fabrication
 Carbon steel: Even higher carbon content added to iron; exceptionally
hard metal
 Stainless steel: An alloy steel made with added chromium which
protects against rust
 Other alloy steels: Lightweight metals such as chromium, nickel,
titanium added to strengthen other metals without adding weight
 Cast iron: Iron, carbon, silicon; heavy, hard metal that is resistant to
wear

Non-ferrous metals have been used since the Copper Age, around 5,000
B.C. Since non-ferrous metals don’t contain iron, they’re usually more
corrosion-resistant than ferrous metals. Some examples of non-ferrous metals
are aluminum, aluminum alloys, and copper, which are often used in industrial
applications such as gutters, roofing, pipes, and electrical. Non-ferrous metals
also include brass, gold, nickel, silver, tin, lead, and zinc. Other common
properties of non-ferrous metals are non-magnetic, malleable, and lightweight.
This makes them ideal for use in aircraft and other applications.

Non-Ferrous Metals are used in residential, commercial, industrial

industry. Material selection for a mechanical or structural application requires
some important considerations, including how easily the material can be
shaped into a finished part and how its properties can be either intentionally or
inadvertently altered in the process. Depending on the end use, metals can be
simply cast into the finished part, or cast into an intermediate form, such as an
ingot, then worked, or wrought, by rolling, forging, extruding, or other
deformation process. Although the same operations are used with ferrous as
well as nonferrous metals and alloys, the reaction of nonferrous metals to
these forming processes is often more severe. Consequently, properties may
differ considerably between the cast and wrought forms of the same metal or
alloy.

Non-ferrous metals’ advantages make them usable in many applications

instead or iron and steel.

The properties of non-ferrous metals:

 High corrosion resistance

  Easy to fabricate – machinability, casting, welding, etc.
 Great thermal conductivity
 Great electrical conductivity
 Low density (less mass)
 Colorful
 Non-magnetic

Examples of non-ferrous metals are:

 Aluminum: Lightweight, low-strength, easily shaped

 Copper: Highly malleable with high electrical conductivity
 Lead: Heavy, soft, malleable metal; low melting point, low strength
 Tin: Soft, malleable, low tensile strength metal often used to coat steel
to prevent corrosion
 Zinc: medium-strength metal with low melting point widely used in
galvanizing to prevent rust on iron or steel

3 What is the structure of Ferrous

metals? Non-Ferrous Metals?

Crystalline Structure of Ferrous Metals:

Crystalline Structure of Non-Ferrous Metals:

4 What are the different kinds of Metals, its
composition, Properties, and Uses?
Common Types of Metals and its Uses:

Aluminum

Aluminum has a dull silver finish, making it similar in appearance to stainless steel. It
is lighter in weight and more affordable than steel, but it isn't as strong as steel.
While aluminum doesn't rust, it does oxidize – creating a chalky white residue.
Aluminum is most often used in outdoor furniture and tends to work best with cool
colors.

Stainless Steel

An alloy of carbon, iron, chromium, and other metals, stainless steel is found in
furniture and fixtures throughout the home – from accent tables to kitchen sinks.
Because of the chromium, it has corrosion resistance – it doesn't rust, oxidize, or
corrode and is a low-maintenance material. It's much stronger than its look-alike,
aluminum. Stainless steel is versatile and works particularly well with cool tones, but
it can also fit in with warm tones. If you use stainless steel with warm tones, using
other gray accent pieces can help the metal fit in better.

Carbon Steel

This is the basic steel, good ‘ol carbon and iron, although some other very small
amounts of other elements might be added. The three general categories are low,
medium, and high carbon steel. More carbon means harder and stronger. Less
carbon means cheaper, softer, and easier to produce. Carbon steel is most
commonly found as a structural building material, in simple mechanical components,
and in various tools.

Brass

While shiny, polished brass was out of style for several years, matte, antiqued brass
has made its way back into the home decor scene. A mix of copper and zinc alloys,
brass can be made in various colors, such as red, yellow, gold, bronze, and brown.
However, the most common color is gold. This metal is typically corrosion-resistant
and antimicrobial – making it great for knobs and faucets. While it is corrosion-
resistant, harsh cleaners can cause cracking. We recommend washing brass with
mild soap and water. Solid brass can be expensive – look for brass plating for a
budget-friendly price. Brass can be used to brighten a space with cool tones, and it
mixes well with wrought iron.

Copper

If you want to brighten your space and include warm tones, copper is right for you.
Using copper is a great way to add warmth to a white or neutral-toned kitchen or
bathroom. Copper is reddish orange in color and is found on all types of decor and
fixtures, such as lighting and sinks. It is resistant to corrosion and is antimicrobial.
Look for copper on high-quality cookware because of its superior heat conductivity.
Copper can acquire a patina of greenish blue over time due to oxidation. To prevent
this from occurring (especially if copper is used outdoors), coat with beeswax or
carnauba wax, buff with a clean cloth, apply a coat of linseed oil, and then cover it in
lacquer.

Bronze

This is made primarily with copper, but it also contains around 12% tin. The result is
a metal that’s harder and tougher than plain copper. Bronze can be an alloy with
other elements, too. For example, aluminum, nickel, zinc and manganese are
common alloying elements. Each of these can very noticeably change the metal.
Bronze has massive historical significance (like in the Bronze Age) and is easy to
pick out. One common place to see it is in massive church bells. Bronze is tough and
strong, so it doesn’t crack or bend like other metals when it’s being rung. It also
sounds better. Modern uses include sculptures and art, springs and bearings, as well
as guitar strings.

Nickel

Nickel is a really common element that’s used all over. Its most common application
is in making stainless steels, where it boosts the metal’s strength and corrosion
resistance. Actually, almost 70% of the world’s nickel is used to make stainless steel.
Interestingly, nickel only makes up 25% of the composition of the five cent American
coin. Nickel is also a common metal to use for plating and alloying. It can be used to
coat lab and chemistry equipment, as well as anything that needs to have a really
smooth, polished surface.
Cobalt

This is a metal that has been used for a long time to make blue pigment in paints
and dyes. Today, it’s primarily used in making wear-resistant, high-strength steel
alloys. Cobalt is very rarely mined by itself, it’s actually a by-product of the
production of copper and nickel.

Tin

Tin is really soft and malleable. It’s used as an alloying element to make things like
bronze (1/8th tin and 7/8ths copper). It’s also the primary ingredient in pewter (85-
99%).

Lead

Lead is really soft and malleable, and it’s also very dense and heavy. It’s got a really
low melting point, too. In the 1800s it was discovered that lead is actually pretty toxic
stuff. That’s why it’s not so common in modern times, although it wasn’t all that long
ago that it was still found in things like paints and bullets. Lead is a neurotoxin that
can cause brain damage and behavioral problems, among other things. That said, it
still does have modern uses. For example, it’s great for radiation shielding. It’s also
occasionally added to copper alloys to make them easier to cut. The copper-lead mix
is often used to improve the performance of bearings.

Silicon

Technically speaking, silicon is a metalloid. This means that it has both metallic and
non-metallic qualities. For example, it looks like a metal. It’s solid, shiny, bendable,
and has a high melting point. However, it does a terrible job of conducting electricity.
This is partly why it’s not considered a full metal. Even still, it’s a common element to
find in metals. Using it for alloying can change the metal’s properties quite a bit. For
example, adding silicon to aluminum makes it easier to weld.

Titanium

This is a really amazing modern metal. It was first discovered in 1791, first created in
its pure form in 1910, and first made outside of a laboratory in 1932. Titanium is
actually really common (the 7th most abundant metal on Earth), but it’s really hard to
refine. This is why this metal is so expensive. It’s also really worthwhile:

 Titanium is biocompatible, meaning that your body won’t fight and reject it.
Medical implants are commonly made from titanium.
 Its strength to weight ratio is higher than any other metal. This makes it
extremely valuable for anything that flies.
 It’s really corrosion resistant
 Titanium nitride (titanium that’s reacted with nitrogen in a high energy
vacuum) is an insanely hard and low-friction coating that’s applied to metal
cutting tools.

Tungsten
Tungsten has the highest melting point and the highest tensile strength of any of the
pure metals. This makes it extremely useful. About half of all tungsten is used to
make tungsten carbide. This is an insanely hard material that’s used for cutting tools
(for mining and metalworking), abrasives, and heavy equipment. It can easily cut
titanium and high-temperature superalloys. It gets its name from the Swedish words
“tung sten“, which mean “heavy stone”. It’s about 1.7 times the density of lead.
Tungsten is also a popular alloying element. Since its melting point is so high, it’s
often alloyed with other elements to make things like rocket nozzles that have to be
able to handle extreme temperatures.

Wrought Iron

Wrought iron refers to metal that has been hammered or bent into shape as opposed
to being cast or poured. Therefore, it has a rough surface. Since it is corrosion-
resistant and durable, it is commonly used to make fireplace accessories, outdoor
furniture, pot racks, rustic beds, lighting, and more. Wrought iron shines in a space
that is mostly white or neutral-toned. Avoid using wrought iron in a room with lots of
dark colors, as it will blend in with the space.

Zinc

This is an interesting metal because of how useful it is. On its own, it has a pretty low
melting point which makes it very easy to cast. The material flows easily when
melted and the resulting pieces are relatively strong. It’s also very easy to melt it
back down to recycle it. Zinc is a really common metal that’s used in coatings to
protect other metals. For example, it’s common to see galvanized steel, which is
basically just steel dipped in zinc. This will help to prevent rusting.

Should You Mix Metals?

When you’re decorating with metal, you can stick to the same kind of metal or use a
primary metal with one or two accent metals. Think about the base colors in the
room you’re working with: If your space has mostly dark tones, use bright metals to
contrast. If your space is lighter in color, use black and matte metals. Similarly, if
your room has mostly red tones, avoid using copper which will fail to stand out.

When you’re mixing metals, you can choose to stick to a cool-toned or warm-toned
color palette, or if you’re comfortable, mix contrasting tones. Remember to create a
color story with your metal – group similar metals together, such as using all copper
knobs on lower cabinets and wrought-iron pulls on upper cabinets. This will make
your design choices look intentional.

General properties in all metals:

There is no simple definition of metal; however, any chemical element having

“metallic properties” is classed as a metal. “Metallic properties” are defined as luster,
good thermal and electrical conductivity, and the capability of being permanently
shaped or deformed at room temperature. Chemical elements lacking these
properties are classed as nonmetals. A few elements, known as metalloids,
sometimes behave like a metal and at other times like a nonmetal. Some examples
of metalloids are as follows: carbon, phosphorus, silicon, and sulfur.

Physical Properties:

Metals are hard, non-adhesive, cold and smooth, they are very often shiny and
strong. They are also ductile and malleable, do not break easily. Metals are very
good conductors of electricity, sound and heat. When temperature rises they
expand, and when it falls, they always contract. They can be easily welded to other
metals.

Chemical Properties:

Metals react with oxygen in water and air. It's known as oxidation or rusting and it's a
reddish- or yellowish-brown flaky coating of iron oxide that is formed on iron or steel,
especially in the presence of moisture.

Ecological Properties:

Most metal are recyclable and some metals such as lead or mercury are toxic and
they are a danger for humans being and for the environment.

Extraction of metals

There are two types of mines to obtain metals:

 Surface mining that is used when the mineral is near the surface.
 Underground mining that is used when the mineral is deep below the surface.

It's used excavators, drills, explosives for extracting minerals from the rock. The
minerals are separated into ore and gangue.

5 What are the different methods of castings?

State their advantages and
disadvantages.
Casting manufacturing is a process in which liquefied material, such as
molten metal, is poured into the cavity of a specially designed mold and
allowed to harden. After solidification, the work piece is removed from the
mold to undergo various finishing treatments or for use as a final product.
Casting methods are typically used to create intricate solid and hollow
shapes, and cast products are found in a wide range of applications, including
automotive components, aerospace parts, etc.
 There are several factors that should be considered when selecting a casting
material (e.g., desired weight, appearance, durability, texture, cost, timing).
One of these factors is the casting method. Popular methods include:

Solid Pour

Material is poured into the mold, resulting in a solid casting.

 Advantages: Fast, Strong

 Disadvantages: Heavy, Potential High Cost
 End Uses: Small objects, Industrial Tools

Gel Coat and Layup

A thin surface coat is applied and then subsequent layers of reinforcing materials
(e.g., fiberglass mat and resin) are built-up to a thin, strong laminate.

 Advantages: Lightweight, Uses less material

 Disadvantage: Time-Consuming
 End Uses: Rigid molds, Mold shells, Large Objects, Props and Displays,
Bonded bronzes

Slush Cast

Casting material is manually rotated in the mold, creating a thin layer, which results
in a hollow, lightweight casting.

 Advantages: Lightweight, Uses less material

 Disadvantage: Time-Consuming
 End Uses: Props and Displays, Art objects, Bonded bronzes

Rotational Cast

A closed mold is rotated by machine as a small amount of casting material coats the
surface and sets, which results in a hollow, lightweight casting.

 Advantages: Fast, Easy, Lightweight, Six-sided parts

 Disadvantage: Requires a rotational casting machine
 End Uses: Large statues, Props and displays, Hollow parts

Injection

Liquid is forced into the mold under pressure.

 Advantages: High quality parts

 Disadvantage: Requires setup time, Requires a machine or pressure pot
 End Uses: Thin-walled parts

Solid Pour with Vacuum/Pressure

Material is poured into the mold and then vacuum or pressure is applied, which
eliminates bubbles in the resulting casting.

 Advantages: High quality parts

 Disadvantage: Requires setup time, Requires a vacuum pump or pressure pot
and chamber
 End Uses: Prototypes, Figurines, Clear castings

Direct Layup/Spray (No Mold)

Material is sprayed over a screen armature or foam substrate. Surface detail is

sculpted into the wet casting material or cured plastic hard coat.

 Advantages: Lightweight, Uses less material

 Disadvantage: Time consuming, often requires equipment, Produce single
part
 End Uses: Amusement/themeparks, Sculpted rocks, Props and displays

Sand casting

The basic raw materials for making sand moulds are foundry sand and sand binder.
The most commonly used foundry sand is siliceous sand. When the high
temperature performance of silica sand cannot meet the requirements for use,
special sands such as zircon sand, chromite sand, and corundum sand are used.
The most widely used sand binder is clay, and various dry or semi-dry oils, water-
soluble silicates or phosphates, and various synthetic resins can be used as the
sand binder. The outer sand mold used in sand casting is divided into three types:
clay wet sand mold, clay dry sand mold, and chemically hardened sand mold
according to the binder used in the molding sand and the way to build strength.

 Advantage:
Clay is rich in resources and cheap. Most of the used clay wet sand can be
recovered and reused after proper treatment; the cycle for making molds is
short and the work efficiency is high; the mixed sand can be used for a long
time; Small pieces, large pieces, simple pieces, complex pieces, single
pieces, large quantities can be used;

 Disadvantages and limitations:

Because each sand casting mould can only be poured one time, the casting
mould is damaged after obtaining the casting and must be reshaped, so the
production efficiency of sand casting is low; the rigidity of the casting mould is
not high, and the dimensional accuracy of the casting is poor; Defects such as
sand washing, sand inclusion, air holes, etc.

Investment Casting

When using wax to make patterns, investment casting is also called "lost wax
casting". Investment casting usually refers to making patterns in fusible materials,
covering the surface of the pattern with several layers of refractory materials, and
then melting the pattern out of the mold shell to obtain a mold without a parting
surface. After high temperature baking can be sand-filled casting scheme. Because
the pattern is widely made of waxy materials, investment casting is often referred to
as "lost wax casting". The types of alloys that can be produced by investment casting
are carbon steel, alloy steel, heat-resistant alloy, stainless steel, precision alloy,
permanent magnet alloy, bearing alloy, copper alloy, aluminum alloy, titanium alloy,
and nodular cast iron.

 Advantage:
High dimensions accuracy. Generally can reach CT4-6 (CT10 ~ 13 for sand
casting and CT5 ~ 7 for die casting); it can improve the utilization rate of metal
materials. Investment casting can significantly reduce the amount of
processing of the product's forming surface and mating surface, save the
consumption of cutting table materials and cutting tool materials; can
maximize the similarity between the blank and the part, and bring great
benefits to the structural design of the part. Convenience. Casting castings
with complex shapes Investment casting can cast castings with very
complicated shapes, castings with wall thickness of 0.5mm and weight as
small as 1g, and can also cast combined and integral castings; it is not
restricted by alloy materials. Investment casting can cast carbon steel, alloy
steel, ductile cast iron, copper alloy and aluminum alloy castings, as well as
castings of high-temperature alloys, magnesium alloys, titanium alloys and
precious metals. For alloy materials that are difficult to forge, weld, and cut, it
is particularly suitable for casting by precision casting; high production
flexibility and adaptability. Investment casting is suitable for both mass
production, small batch production and even single piece production.

 Disadvantages and limitations:

The size of the casting must not be too large. The casting process is
complicated and the cooling rate is slow. Investment casting is the most
complex of all blank forming methods, and the cost of castings is also high.
However, if the product is selected properly, the part design is reasonable,
and the high casting cost is compensated by reducing cutting, assembly and
saving metal materials. Then investment casting has good economy.

Die-casting

The principle of the die casting process is to use high pressure to press the metal
liquid into a precision metal mold cavity at high speed, and the metal liquid is cooled
and solidified under pressure to form a casting. Cold and hot chamber die castings
are two basic ways of die casting process. In the cold chamber die casting, the metal
liquid is poured into the pressure chamber by a manual or automatic pouring device,
and then the injection punch is advanced to hydraulically press the metal into the
cavity. In the hot-chamber die casting process, the pressure chamber is
perpendicular to the crucible, and the metal liquid automatically flows into the
pressure chamber through the feeding port on the pressure chamber. The injection
punch moves downwards, pushing the molten metal through the gooseneck into the
cavity. After the molten metal solidifies, the die-casting mold is opened, and the
casting is taken out to complete a die-casting cycle.
  Advantage:
Product quality is good. The castings have high dimensional accuracy, which
is generally equivalent to 6 ~ 7, or even up to 4; the surface finish is good,
generally equivalent to 5 ~ 8; the strength and hardness are higher, and the
strength is generally 25 ~ 30% higher than that of sand casting, but the
extension The rate is reduced by about 70%; the size is stable and the
interchangeability is good; it can die-cast thin-walled complex castings; and
the production efficiency is high. The machine can do die-cast 3,000 to 7000
times every eight hours on average. The life of the die-casting mold is long.
One pair of die-casting molds and die-casting bell alloys have a service life of
hundreds of thousands of times, even millions of times. It is easy to realize
mechanization and automation. Excellent economic results. Due to the
precise dimensions of the die-casting parts, the surface is smooth and
smooth. Generally no longer use mechanical processing and use directly, or
the processing volume is small, so it not only improves the metal utilization
rate, but also reduces a large number of processing equipment and man-
hours; the price of castings is easy; combined die casting can be used for
other metal or non-metal materials . Save both assembly man-hours and
metal.

 Disadvantages and limitations:

During die casting, due to the high speed of the liquid metal filling cavity and
the unstable flow state, the general die casting method is easy to produce
pores and cannot be heat treated. For intricate concave castings, die casting
is more difficult; high melting point alloys (such as copper, black Metal), the
life of the die-casting mold is low; it is not suitable for small batch production,
mainly due to the high cost of die-casting mold manufacturing, high production
efficiency of the die-casting machine, and small batch production is not
economical.

Metal mold casting

Also known as permanent mold casting, it is a casting method in which liquid metal is
poured into a metal mold to obtain a casting. The mold is made of metal and can be
used repeatedly (hundreds to thousands of times), also known as permanent
casting. Generally, metal molds are made of cast iron and cast steel. The inner
cavity of the casting can be either a metal core or a sand core. There are many types
of metal types, such as horizontal type, heavy straight type, and composite type. The
vertical parting is convenient for opening the gate and taking out the castings; the
horizontal parting is mostly used to produce thin-walled wheel-shaped castings; the
upper part of the composite parting is formed by the two parts of the vertical parting
using hinges, and the lower part It is a fixed horizontal bottom plate, mainly used in
the casting of more complex castings.

 Advantage:
It has good reusability and can be used for "one mold and multiple castings",
saving modeling materials and man-hours. Due to the strong cooling ability of
the metal mold to the casting, the structure of the casting is dense and the
mechanical properties are high. The dimensional accuracy of the casting is
high, the tolerance grade is IT12 ~ IT14; the surface roughness is low, and Ra
 is 6.3m. Metal mold casting does not use sand or less sand, which improves
working conditions.

 Disadvantages and limitations:

Metal molds have high manufacturing costs, long cycles, and strict process
requirements. They are not suitable for the production of single-piece small-lot
castings. They are mainly suitable for large-scale production of non-ferrous
alloy castings, such as aluminum pistons for aircraft, automobiles, internal
combustion engines, motorcycles, Cylinder blocks, cylinder heads, oil pump
casing and copper alloy bearing bush, bushing, etc. For black alloy castings, it
is also limited to small and medium-sized castings with simpler shapes.

6 What are the effects of different types

of impurities in iron on its physical and
mechanical properties?
Impurities in the iron from the Blast Furnace include carbon, sulphur, phosphorus
and silicon. These have to be removed. Sulphur has to be removed first in a
separate process. Magnesium powder is blown through the molten iron and the
sulphur reacts with it to form magnesium sulphide.

Carbon (C)

Carbon is the most important element in steel, it is essential in steels which have
to be hardened by quenching and the degree of carbon controls the hardness
and strength of the material, as well as response to heat treatment
(hardenability). And ductility, forgeability and machinability will decrease if the
amount of carbon increases, as well as weldability properties of the steel.

Manganese (Mn)

Manganese could be the second most important element after Carbon on steel.
Mn has effects similar to those of carbon, and the steel producer uses these two
elements in combination to obtain a material with the desired properties.
Manganese is a necessity for the process of hot rolling of steel by its combination
with oxygen and sulfur.

Its presence has below main effects:

It is a mild deoxidant acting as a cleanser taking the sulphur and oxygen out of
the melt into the slag. Steels usually contain at least 0.30% manganese,
however, amounts of up to 1.5% can be found in some carbon steels.
 Manganese also tends to increase the rate of carbon penetration during
carburizing and acts as a mild deoxidizing agent. However when too high carbon
and too high manganese accompany each other, embrittlement sets in.
Manganese is capable to form Manganese Sulphide (MnS) with sulphur, which is
beneficial to machining. At the same time, it counters the brittleness from sulphur
and is beneficial to the surface finish of carbon steel.

For welding purposes, the ratio of manganese to sulphur should be at least 10 to

1. Manganese content of less than 0.30% may promote internal porosity and
cracking in the weld bead, cracking can also result if the content is over 0.80%.
Steel with low Manganese Sulphide ratio may contain sulphur in the form of iron
Sulphide (FeS), which can cause cracking in the weld.

Phosphorus (P)

Although it increases the tensile strength of steel and improves machinability it is

generally regarded as an undesirable impurity because of its embrittling effect.

Effect of phosphorus element will have various effects on steel depending on

concentration.

The maximum amount of phosphorus in higher grade steel is between 0.03 to

0.05% due to the fact that is detrimental. Up to 0.10% of phosphorus in low-alloy
high-strength steels will increase the strength as well as improve the steel's
resistance against corrosion. The possibility of brittlement increases when the
content in hardened steel is too high. Even though the strength and hardness is
improved, the ductility and toughness decreases.

The machinability is improved in free-cutting steel, but weld brittle and/or weld
cracks can occur during welding if the phosphorus content is more than 0.04%.
Phosphorus also affects the thickness of the zinc layer when galvanising steel.

Sulfur (S)

Sulfur is normally regarded as an impurity and has an adverse effect on impact

properties when a steel is high in sulphur and low in manganese. Sulphur
improves machinability but lowers transverse ductility and notched impact
toughness and has little effects on the longitudinal mechanical properties. Its
content is limited to 0.05% in steels but is added to free cutting steels in amount
up to 0.35% with the manganese content increased to counter any detrimental
effects since alloying additions of sulfur in amounts from 0.10% to 0.30% will tend
to improve the machinability of a steel. Such types may be referred to as
"resulfurized" or "freemachining". Free cutting steels have sulphur added to
improve machinability, usually up to a maximum of 0.35%.

Even though the effect of sulphur on steel is negative at certain stages, any
sulphur content less than 0.05% has a positive effect on steel grades.

Silicon (Si)
 Silicon is one of the principal deoxidizers for steel. Silicon helps to remove
bubbles of oxygen from the molten steel. It is the element that is most commonly
used to produce semi- and fully killed steels, and normally appears in amounts
less than 0.40 percent, usually only small amounts (0.20%) are present in rolled
steel when it is used as a deoxidizer. However, in steel castings, 0.35 to 1.00% is
commonly present.

Silicon dissolves in iron and tends to strengthen it. Some filler metals may contain
up to 1% to provide enhanced cleaning and deoxidation for welding on
contaminated surfaces. When these filler metals are used for welding on clean
surfaces, the resulting weld metal strength will be markedly increased. Silicon
increases strength and hardness but to a lesser extent than manganese. The
resulting decrease in ductility could resent cracking problems.

For galvanizing purposes, steels containing more than 0.04% silicon can greatly
affect the thickness and appearance of the galvanized coating. This will result in
thick coatings consisting mainly zinc-iron alloys and the surface has a dark and
dull finish. But it provides as much corrosion protection as a shiny galvanized
coating where the outer layer is pure zinc.

Chromium (Cr)

Chromium is a powerful alloying element in steel. Cr presents in certain structural

steels in small amounts. It is primarily used to increase hardenability of steel and
increase the corrosion resistance as well as the yield strength of the steel
material. For that reason often occurs in combination with nickel and copper.
Stainless steels may contain in excess of 12% chromium. The well-known “18-8”
stainless steel contains 8 percent of nickel and 18 percent of chromium.

When the percent of chromium in the steel exceeds 1.1% a surface layer is
formed that helps protect the steel against oxidation.

Vanadium (V)

The effects of Vanadium chemical element are similar to those of Mn, Mo, and
Cb. When used with other alloying elements it restricts grain growth, refines grain
size, increases hardenability, fracture toughness, and resistance to shock
loading. Softening at high temperatures, fatigue stress and wear resistance are
improved. At greater than 0.05%, there may be a tendency for the steel to
become embrittled during thermal stress relief treatments.

Vanadium is used in nitriding, heat resisting, tool and spring steels together with
other alloying elements.

Tungsten (W)

It is used with chromium, vanadium, molybdenum, or manganese to produce high

speed steel used in cutting tools. Tungsten steel is said to be "red-hard" or hard
enough to cut after it becomes red-hot.
 After heat treatment the steel maintains its hardness at high temperature making
it particularly suitable for cutting tools.

Tungsten in the form of tungsten carbide:

 Gives steel high hardness even at red heats.

 Promotes fine grains
 Resists heat
 Promote strength at elevated temperatures

Molybdenum (Mo)

Molybdenum has effects similar to manganese and vanadium, and is often used
in combination with one or the other. This element is a strong carbide former and
is usually present in alloy steels in amounts less than 1%. It increases
hardenability and elevated temperature strength and also improves corrosion
resistance as well as increased creep strength. It is added to stainless steels to
increase their resistance to corrosion and is also used in high speed tool steels.

Cobalt (Co)

Cobalt improves strength at high temperatures and magnetic permeability.

Increases hardness, also allows for higher quenching temperatures (during the
heat treatment procedure). Intensifies the individual effects of other elements in
more complex steels. Co is not a carbide former, however adding Cobalt to the
alloy allows for higher attainable hardness and higher red hot hardness.

Nickel (Ni)

In addition to its favorable effect on the corrosion resistance of steel, Ni is added

to steels to increase hardenability. Nickel enhances the low-temperature behavior
of the material by improving the fracture toughness. The weldability of the steel is
not decreased by the presence of this element. The nickel drastically increases
the notch toughness of the steel. Nickel is often used in combination with other
alloying elements, especially chromium and molybdenum. It is a key component
in stainless steels but at the low concentrations found in carbon steels. Stainless
steels contain between 8% and 14% nickel.

One more reason Ni is added to an alloy is that it creates brighter portions in

damascus steels.

Copper (Cu)

Copper is another primary corrosion resistance elements. It also has a small

impact on hardenability. It is typically found in amounts not less than 0.20
percent, and is the primary anti-corrosion component in steel grades like A242
and A441.

Most often found as a residual agent in steels, copper is also added to produce
precipitation hardening properties and increase corrosion resistance.
Aluminum (Al)

Aluminum is one of the most important deoxidizers in very small amounts in the
material, and also helps form a more fine-grained crystalline microstructure and
increase the steel grade’s toughness. It is usually used in combination with silicon
to obtain a semi- or fully killed steel.

Titanium (Ti)

Ti is used to control grain size growth, which improves toughness. Also

transforms sulfide inclusions form elongated to globular, improving strength and
corrosion resistance as well as toughness and ductility. Ti is a very strong, very
lightweight metal that can be used alone or alloyed with steels. It is added to steel
to give them high strength at high temperatures. Modern jet engines used
titanium steels.

 It prevents localized depletion of chromium in stainless steels during long

heating
 Prevents formation of austenite in high chromium steels
 Reduces martensitic hardness and hardenability in medium chromium
steels.

Niobium (Nb, formerly known as Columbium-Columbium, Cb )

Niobium is a key grain refining element, as well a strength-enhancing elements in

steel production. Niobium is a strong carbide former and forms very hard, very
small, simple carbides. Improves ductility, hardness, wear and corrosion
resistance. Also, refines grain structure. Formerly known as Columbium.

Boron (B)

The most important effect and the purpose of boron in steel is to drastically
improve the hardenability. The biggest advantage of boron is that a small amount
can be added to get the same result as other elements required in large amount
in terms of added hardenability. Typical range in steel alloys is 0.0005 to 0.003%.

During the heat treatment process boron, a replacement for other elements, is
added to increase the hardenability of medium carbon steel. The cutting
performance for high-speed steels is increased but at the expense of the forging
quality. It is also possible that the content of boron can be too high which
decreases hardenability, toughness as well as cause embrittlement. The
percentage carbon present in the steel also plays a role in the hardenability effect
of boron. As boron's effect on hardenability increases the amount of carbon
should proportionally be decreased.

When boron is added to steel, precaution must be taken to ensure that it does not
react with oxygen or nitrogen as the combination of boron with either one of the
two will make the boron useless.
Lead (Pb)

The addition of lead in levels in very small amounts to improve machinability, up

to 0.30%, improves machinability. Providing the distribution is homogenous it has
little effect on the physical properties of the steel, and contrary to popular belief, it
does not affect weld ability.

Zirconium (Zr)

Zirconium is added to steel to modify the shape of inclusions. Typically added to

low alloy, low carbon steels. The result is that toughness and ductility are
improved when transforms shape from elongated to globular, improving
toughness and ductility.

Tantalum (Ta)

Chemically very similar to Niobium (Nb), as such, has similar effect on the alloy -
forms very hard, very small, simple carbides. Improves ductility, hardness, wear
and corrosion resistance. Also, refines grain.

Nitrogen (N)

Nitrogen acts very similar to Carbon in the alloy. N substitutes C in small amounts
(or even large, with modern technologies) to increase hardness. Obviously,
Nitrogen forms Nitrides, not Carbides. INFI has N, and there's few more, with
Sandvik being the champion, having 3% N in the alloy, completely substituting C.
Sadly, not available for knife makers. Because Nitrogen is less prone to form
Chromium nitrides than Carbon is to form Chromium carbides, its presence
improves corrosion resistance, leaving more free Chromium in the alloy. Since
Nitrogen is less reactive in forming Nitrides, it can be used for added hardness
without increasing carbide size and volume, e.g. Sandvik 14C28N steel.

Selenium (Se)

Typically not desirable in cutlery steel. Added to improve machinability. Similar

with Sulfur, in the same chalcogen group.

7 Different rolled steel sections. Provide

illustration and section of each.

1. Rolled Angle Sections

Angle sections are manufactured in “L” shape. It contains two legs. Some angle
sections contains legs with similar dimensions are called as equal angle sections
and some contains different legs are called as unequal angle sections.

Angle sections are widely used for roof truss constructions and for filler joist floors.

Equal angle sections are available from 20 mm x 20 mm x 3 mm to 200 mm x

200mm x 25 mm with their corresponding weights as 9 N and 736 N per meter
length respectively

Unequal angle sections are available from 30 mm x 20 mm x 3 mm to 200mm x

150mm x 18mm with 11 and 469 N per meter length weight respectively.

2. Rolled Channel Sections

The channel section or C- section consists two equal flanges connected to web at
both ends. Channel sections are extensively used in steel framed structures.

They are available in various sizes ranging from 100 mm x 45 mm to 400mm x 100
mm. Corresponding unit weights are 58 N and 494 N per meter length respectively.
 3. Rolled T- Sections

T section consists of flange and web arranged in “T” shape. They are used in steel
roof trusses to form built up sections. Two angle sections can also be joined to get T
section.

Rolled T sections size varies from 20 mm x 20 mm x 3 mm to 150 mm x 150mm x 10

mm with 9 N and 228 N as their corresponding weights per meter length.

4. Rolled I – Sections

I sections which are also called as steel beams or rolled steel joist are extensively
used as beams, lintels, columns etc. It consists two flanges and a web connected as
shown in figure.
These are available in various sizes ranges from 75 mm x 50 mm at 61 N per meter
length to 600 mm x 210 mm at 995 N per meter length.

5. Rolled Round Bars

Round bars contain circular cross sections and these are used as reinforcement in
concrete and steel grill work etc. Round bars are available in various diameters
varies from 5 mm to 250 mm.

6. Rolled Square Bars

Square bars contain square cross sections and these are widely used for gates,
windows, grill works etc. the sides of square cross section ranges from 5 mm to 250
mm.

7. Rolled Flat Bars

Flat bars are also used for gates, windows, grill works etc. Flat bars are designated
with width of the bar which varies from 10 mm to 400 mm. thickness of flat bars will
be from 3 mm to 40 mm.

8. Corrugated Sheets
Plain steel sheets are passed through machines which produce bends by pressing
them called corrugations. These sheets are used for roof coverings.

9. Expanded Metal

Expanded metal sheets are made from mild steel sheets. Which are cut through
machine and expanded. Generally, Diamond shaped mesh is appeared in this type
of sheets.

10. Rolled Steel Plates

Steel plates are well used items in steel structures. They are used for connecting
steel beams, tensional member in roof truss etc. They are designated with their
thickness which is varying from 5 mm to 50 mm.
 11. Ribbed Bars (HYSD)

Ribbed HYSD bars are made of high yield strength steel. Ribs are nothing but
projections produced on bars by cold twisting of bar in hot rolled condition. The twist
is made according the standard requirements.

HYSD bars are important innovation of steel and they are extensively used as main
reinforcement materials in all concrete works like bridges, buildings, precast concrete
works, foundations, roads etc..

They are available in many sizes varying from 6 mm to 50 mm diameter. The reason
why these are more famous than any other bars is because of following advantages:

 HYSD bars can be bend up to 180o without any cracks.

 High strength and durable.
  30 to 40% of cost reduced when compared to other round bars.
 Suitable for any type of concrete work.
 Excellent bonding properties with concrete.
 HYSD bars can be welded using electronic flash butt welding or arc welding.

12. Ribbed Bars (Mild Steel)

Ribbed bars can also be produced from mild steel. These are look-alike HYSD
ribbed bars but these bars are not recommended by any code and they also have
very less strength compared to HYSD bars.

13. Rolled Thermo-Mechanically Treated (TMT) Bars

Thermo-mechanically treated bars or TMT bars are manufactured by a special

technique in which the red-hot steel bars are suddenly quenched by spraying water
on it. So, surface of bar gets cooled down and inner side or core of the bar still in hot
condition.
The core helps the outer surface to be tempered. By this combination of different
temperature, the bar gains more yield strength and exhibits good elongation at
ultimate failure.

Copper, phosphorus and chromium etc. are added in manufacturing process of TMT
bars which improves its corrosion resistance.

14. Welded Wire Fabrics

Welded wire fabrics are nothing but a series of mild steel bars which are arranged
perpendicular to each other and welded at all intersection.

These are used as reinforcement for floor slabs, small canal linings, pavement’s etc.

RECENT DEVELOPMENTS IN SECTIONS

The rolled steel beam sections with parallel faces of flanges are recently developed.
These beam sections are called as parallel flange sections. These sections have
increased moment of inertia, section modulus and radius of gyration about the weak
axis. Such sections used as beams and columns have more stability. Theses
sections possess ease of connections to other sections as no packing is needed as
in beams of slopping flanges. The parallel flange beam sections are not yet rolled in
our country.

New welded sections using plates and other steel sections are developed because
of welding. The development of beams with tapered flanges and tapered depths is
also due to welding. The open web sections and the castellated beams were also
developed with the rapid use of welding.
 Fig. 2.1 Beam section Fig. 2.2 Channel section

Fig. 2.3 Tee section

 Fig. 2.4 Angle section

Fig. 2.5 Bar section

Fig. 2.6 Tube section

Fig. 2.7 Flat section

8 What is a reinforcing steel bar?

Rebar, also known as reinforcement steel and reinforcing steel, is a steel bar or
mesh of steel wires used in reinforced concrete and masonry structures to
strengthen and hold the concrete in tension. To improve the quality of the bond with
the concrete, the surface of rebar is often patterned.
Rebar is necessary to compensate for the fact that whilst concrete is strong in
compression, it is relatively weak in tension. By casting rebar into concrete, it is able
to carry tensile loads and so increase overall strength.
Different uses of rebar include:
 Primary reinforcement: Used to provide resistance to support design loads.
 Secondary reinforcement: Used for durability and aesthetic purposes by
providing localised resistance to limit cracking and temperature-induced
stresses.
 Provide resistance to concentrated loads, spreading it through a wider area.
 Assist other steel bars in accommodating their loads by holding them in the
correct position.
 External steel tie bars to constrain and reinforce masonry structures,
sometimes as a means of building conservation.
 Reinforced masonry: Some masonry blocks and bricks include voids to
accommodate rebar to carry tensile loads. The rebar is secured in place using
grout.
Rebar is commonly manufactured using mild or high yield steel of grade 250 or 250
N/mm2 characteristic tensile strength. The constituents of both of these grades are
around 99% iron, along with manganese, carbon, sulphur and phosphorous. The
quality and grade of steel is dependent on the proportion of carbon. Mild cold-worked
steel contains around 0.25% carbon, whereas high yield hot-rolled steel contains
around 0.40%.
Rebars can be manufactured in various forms:
  Round.
 Square-twisted.
 Ribbed.
 Stretched, twisted and ribbed.
 Ribbed and twisted.

9 What are the classifications of reinforcing

steel bars?
ASTM International (formerly the American Society for Testing and Materials) is
responsible for classifying different types of rebar in the U.S. Rebar is a steel rod that
workers insert into concrete before the concrete cures or hardens. These rods
reinforce concrete structures, like patios, floors, walls and foundations, and help
unify curing concrete. Most distributors stock rebar in lengths of 20 and 60 feet.

Grade

The grade a section of rebar receives from ASTM International depends on its
tensile strength, which refers to the amount of tension a material can endure or resist
before fracturing. According to the University of Illinois, while high- or premium-grade
rebar is more expensive than lower-grade rebar, the strength of high-grade rebar
means that you can use less of it in a concrete construction project, lessening the
labor intensiveness of the project. Some of the most common rebar grades include
grade 40, which can resist tensions of 40,000 pounds per square inch (psi); grade
60, which can resist tensions of 60,000 psi; and grade 75, which can resist tensions
of 75,000 psi. As Sizes.com notes, ASTM International also allows for the
substitution of inch-pound rebar grades with metric rebar grades, which measure
tensile strength using mega-pascals. Grade 40 is the equivalent of metric grade 280
-- which, for example, has a tensile strength of 280 mega-pascals; grade 60 is the
equivalent of metric grade 420 and grade 75 is the equivalent of metric grade 520.

Thickness

As with rebar grade, ASTM International provides English -- or standard -- as well as

metric classifications for rebar thickness. While thin sections of rebar are more ideal
for concrete structures with small dimensions like patios, thicker sections are more
suitable for larger structures like the foundations of buildings. Under the standard
classification system for rebar thickness, each rod receives a single-digit number. As
Learning Construction notes, by dividing this number by 8, you can determine rebar
thickness. For example, #3 rebar is 3/8-inch thick; #4 rebar is 1/2-inch thick; and #8
rebar is 1-inch thick. Metric thickness grades are typically two digits. To convert
metric into English, you must first subtract 1 from the metric grade, and divide the
result by 3. So rebar with a #25 metric thickness grade is the equivalent of rebar with
a #8 English thickness grade.

Pattern
The majority of rebar sections are deformed, which means they have repeating
patterns of ridges and depressions on their surfaces. These “deformities” help
concrete grip -- or adhere to -- rebar. While the specific types of deformity patterns
are not specified, as Sizes.com mentions, rebar manufacturers do include the
number, height and spacing distances of the ridges. Plain rebar, which is free of
deformities, is also available, but workers only use it in situations where the rebar
sections need to slide. For example, workers use plain rebar in highway pavement to
facilitate weather-induced expansion and reduce cracking.

The compressive strength of concrete is tremendous. Incredible force is

required to crush concrete. However, concrete has relatively weak tensile strength.
Far less force is required to crack concrete by bending or twisting it than is required
to crush concrete. To increase the tensile strength of concrete, reinforcing bar —
rebar — is used to increase the tensile strength of concrete.

A variety of rebar lengths and diameters are available, but there are only six
common types of rebar: European (a carbon, manganese, silicon, etc. alloy); carbon
steel (basic “black” rebar); galvanized; epoxy coated; glass-fiber-reinforced-polymer
(GFRP); and stainless steel. The different types of rebar each unique strengths and
weaknesses.

Types of Rebar:

Basalt rebar

Basalt rebar is a product formed from basalt, which is an inert volcanic rock, and
which offers several advantages over standard steel rebar. Basalt rebar is 2-3 times
stronger than steel rebar and is about ¼ the weight for a similar diameter product. In
addition, basalt rebar is non-conductive electrically or thermally, is non-hygroscopic,
and is resistant to corrosion.

European Rebar

The strength of European rebar is its cost. Made principally of manganese,

European rebar is the least resistant type of rebar with respect to bending. While
easy to work with, it is generally not recommended for use in areas that experience
earthquakes nor for projects that require substantial structural integrity from its rebar.

Carbon Steel Rebar

The most common rebar, “black” bar is used on every type and scale of project with
few exceptions. The biggest weakness of black rebar is that it corrodes. When rebar
corrodes, it expands cracking and breaking the concrete around it. For situations in
which the rebar might be exposed to humidity or water saturation, there are better
options than black rebar. However, with respect to is value/tensile strength ratio,
black rebar is the best rebar available.

Epoxy-Coated Rebar
Epoxy-coated rebar is black rebar with an epoxy coat. It has the same textile
strength, but is 70 to 1,700 times more resistant to corrosion. However, the epoxy
coating is incredibly delicate. The greater the damage to the coating, the less
resistant to corrosion.

Galvanized Rebar

Galvanized rebar is only forty times more resistant to corrosion than black rebar, but
it is more difficult to damage the coating of galvanized rebar. In that respect, it has
more value than epoxy-coated rebar. However, it is about 40% more expensive than
epoxy-coated rebar.

Glass-Fiber-Reinforced-Polymer (GFRP)

GFRP is a composite much like carbon fiber. As a result, field bends are not
permitted when using GFRP. However, it will not corrode, period. In that respect,
GFRP is an unparalleled concrete reinforcement bar. While it costs ten times as
much as epoxy coated rebar per pound, it is extremely light, so the cost is only about
double when considering talking linear feet.

Stainless Steel Rebar

Stainless steel rebar is the most expensive reinforcing bar available, about eight
times the price of epoxy-coated rebar. It is also the best rebar available for most
projects. However, using stainless steel in all but the most unique of circumstances
is often overkill. But, for those who have a reason to use it, stainless steel rebar
1,500 times more resistant to corrosion than black bar. It is more resistant to damage
than any of the other corrosive-resistant or corrosive-proof types or rebar and it can
be bent in the field.

Threaded rebar

Threaded rebar also referred to as jumbo rebar, contains single or double threaded
ends on the bar to enable the use of standard UNC fasteners to be used for securing
items in place, similar to an anchor bolt. Threads need to be cut by either first milling
down the rebar to generate a turned-down section that is equal in diameter to the
rebar deformation at its lowest point, and then utilizing a roll or cut thread process.

Welded Wire Fabric (WWF)

While not identified using the word rebar, welded wire fabric is a product constructed
of fusion welded low carbon steel wire or stainless steel wire joined into a square
grid pattern or mesh in common sizes that is used for the reinforcement of concrete
slabs. It serves to enhance the tensile strength of concrete slabs in the same manner
as other types of rebar.

10 What is an Alloy Steel?

When other elements comprising metals and non-metals are added to carbon steel,
alloy steel is formed. These alloy steels display various environmental, chemical and
physical properties that can vary with the elements used to alloy. Here the proportion
of alloying elements can provide different mechanical properties.

Alloying elements can alter carbon steel in several ways. Alloying can affect micro-
structures, heat-treatment conditions and mechanical properties. Today’s technology
with high-speed computers can foresee the properties and micro-structures of steel
when it is cold-formed, heat treated, hot-rolled or alloyed. For instance, if properties
such as high strength and weldability are required in steel for certain applications,
then carbon steel alone will not serve the purpose because carbon’s inherent
brittleness will make the weld brittle. The solution is to reduce carbon and add other
elements such as manganese or nickel. This is one way of making high strength
steel with required weldability.

Types of alloy steel

There are two kinds of alloy steel – low-alloy steel and high-alloy steel. As mentioned
earlier, the composition and proportion of alloying elements determine the various
properties of alloy steel. Low-alloy steels are the ones which have up to 8% alloying
elements whereas high-alloy steels have more than 8% alloying elements. Alloying
elements

There are around 20 alloying elements that can be added to carbon steel to produce
various grades of alloy steel. These provide different types of properties. Some of
the elements used and their effects include:

 Aluminium – can rid steel of phosphorous, sulfur and oxygen

 Chromium – can increase toughness, hardness and wear resistance
 Copper – can increase corrosion resistance and harness
 Manganese – can increase high-temperature strength, wear resistance,
ductility and hardenability
 Nickel – can increase corrosion, oxidation resistance and strength
 Silicon – can increase magnetism and strength
 Tungsten – can increase strength and hardness
 Vanadium – can increase corrosion, shock resistance, strength and
toughness

11 Properties and Uses of Alloy Steel

Alloy steels can contain a wide variety of elements, each of which can enhance
various properties of the material, such as mechanical thermal and corrosion
resistance. Elements added in low quantities of less than around 5 wt.% tend to
improve mechanical properties, for example increasing hardenability and strength,
whereas larger additions of up to 20 wt.% increase corrosion resistance and stability
at high or low temperatures [2].
The effects of adding various elements to steel, along with the typical amounts in
weight fraction, is summarised in the table below [2].
 

Element Symbol wt. % Function

Aluminium Al 0.95– Alloying element in nitriding

1.30 steels

Bismuth Bi – Improves machinability

Boron B 0.001– Improves hardenability

0.003

Chromium Cr 0.5–2.0 Improves hardenability

4–18 Corrosion resistance

Copper Cu 0.1–0.4 Corrosion resistance

Lead Pb – Improves machinability

Manganese Mn 0.25– Prevents brittleness in

0.40 combination with sulfur

>1 Increases hardenability

Molybdenu Mo 0.2–0.5 Inhibits grain growth

m

Nickel Ni 2–5 Increases toughness

12–20 Improves corrosion resistance

Silicon Si 0.2–0.7 Increases strength and

hardenability

2 Increases yield strength (spring

steel)

Higher Increases magnetic properties

%

Sulfur S 0.08– Improves machinability (free-

0.15 machining steel properties)

Titanium Ti – Reduces martensitic hardness in

Cr steels

Tungsten W – Increases hardness at high

temperatures

Vanadium V 0.15 Increases strength while

maintaining ductility, promotes
fine grain structure
Overall, in comparison to carbon steels, alloy steels can exhibit increased strength,
ductility and toughness. The disadvantages, however, are that alloy steels usually
have lower machinability, weldability and formability.

Applications & examples:

As the term alloy steel encompasses numerous types of steel, its application area is
broad.

Low alloy steels are used in a wide range of industries due to their extreme strength,
machinability, cost-effectiveness and availability. They are found in military vehicles,
construction equipment, ships, pipelines, pressure vessels oil drilling platforms and
in structural components. Examples include HY80 and HY100.

High-alloy steels can be expensive to manufacture and difficult to process.

Nevertheless, their superior hardness, toughness and corrosion resistance make
them ideal for structural components, automotive applications, chemical processing
and power generating equipment. Examples of high-alloy steels include the grades
HE, HF, HH, HI, HK, and HL.

Alloy Steel Elements & Their Benefits:

 Chromium – Adds hardness. Increased toughness and wear resistance.

 Cobalt – Used in making cutting tools; improved Hot Hardness (or Red
Hardness).
 Manganese – Increases surface hardness. Improves resistance to strain,
hammering & shocks.
 Molybdenum – Increases strength. Improves resistance to shock and heat.
 Nickel – Increases strength & toughness. Improves corrosion resistance.
 Tungsten – Adds hardness and improves grain structure. Provides improved
heat resistance.
 Vanadium – Increases strength, toughness and shock resistance. Improved
corrosion resistance.
 Chromium-Vanadium – Greatly improved tensile strength. It is hard but easy
to bend and cut.

Alloy Steel Is Used by Many Industries Including:

 Agriculture
 Bearings
 General engineering
 Automotive
 Hydraulics
 Railway
 Mining
 Construction
 Aerospace
 Windpower
 Chemical
  Medical
 Defense

12 Describe briefly corrosion of steel and

measures adopted for its prevention
Metal corrosion occurs when metal is exposed to moisture and other elements or
chemicals. While it is generally a natural process it can lead to a severe decrease in
the functionality and esthetics of metal products. Whatever your reason for wanting
to stop and prevent the corrosion of metals, here are some helpful ways to prevent
corrosion of metals:

Corrosion is a deterioration of a material caused by environmental interactions. It is a

natural phenomenon, requiring three conditions: moisture, a metallic surface, and an
oxidizing agent known as an electron acceptor. The process of corrosion converts
the reactive metal surface into a more stable form, namely its oxide, hydroxide, or
sulfide. A common form of corrosion is rust.

Corrosion can have a variety of negative effects on metal. When metal structures
suffer from corrosion, they become unsafe which can lead to accidents, such as
collapses. Even minor corrosion requires repairs and maintenance.

Mechanism of Corrosion

Several theories have been advanced to explain it over the period of time. However,
the modern view which is known as the electrochemical theory seems more
practical. Let’s understand this theory with the help of an example of rusting of iron.

Water containing oxygen and carbon dioxide acts as an electrolyte and helps in the
flow of electrons. The formation of rust on the surface of iron occurs through the
following steps:

The corrosion of steel can be considered as an electrochemical process that occurs

in stages. Initial attack occurs at anodic areas on the surface, where ferrous ions go
into solution. Electrons are released from the anode and move through the metallic
structure to the adjacent cathodic sites on the surface, where they combine with
oxygen and water to form hydroxyl ions. These react with the ferrous ions from the
anode to produce ferrous hydroxide, which itself is further oxidised in air to produce
hydrated ferric oxide (i.e. red rust.) The sum of these reactions can be represented
by the following equation:

Fe + 3O2 + 2H2O = 2Fe2O3H2O

(Steel) + (Oxygen) + (Water) = Hydrated ferric oxide (Rust)

However, after a period of time, polarisation effects such as the growth of corrosion
products on the surface cause the corrosion process to be stifled. New, reactive
anodic sites may be formed thereby allowing further corrosion. In this case, over long
periods, the loss of metal is reasonably uniform over the surface, and this is usually
described as 'general corrosion'. A schematic representation of the corrosion
mechanism is shown (above right).

The corrosion process requires the simultaneous presence of water and oxygen. In
the absence of either, corrosion does not occur.

Examples of Corrosion

Some of the most common examples of corrosion are:

 Tarnishing of the silver

 Iron being covered with a brittle brown coloured layer
 Brass and copper is covered with a green coloured deposit
 The surface of the aluminium becoming dull and losing its shine

While all metals corrode, it is estimated that 25-30% of corrosion could be prevented
using suitable protection methods:

 Turn to non-corrosive metals such as aluminum and stainless steel.

 Keep the area around the metal surface dry.
 Use drying agents and moisture barrier products.
 Make sure underground piping is laid in a layer of backfill, such as limestone.
 Make sure any electrical components are cleaned regularly

You can also prevent corrosion by selecting the right:

 Metal Type
 Protective Coating
 Environmental Measures
 Sacrificial Coatings
 Corrosion Inhibitors
 Design Modification

Additional Ways to Prevent Metal Corrosion

Aside from the above suggestions, there are methods of treating metal that can stop
the corrosion of metals before it starts; a coating of grease or oil maintained on a
metal surface, for instance. Painting is another method of preventing metal
corrosion. Also consider using cathodic protection to prevent corrosion on the
primary metal pieces.

Carbon Fiber Coating to Prevent Corrosion in Metal

Carbon fiber coating is another excellent method of preventing the corrosion of

metals. In this process, sheets of carbon fiber are sealed around and often inside a
metal pipe or on any metal surface. This not only helps to prevent corrosion but
strengthens the metal, prevents cracks and stops leaks from forming.
Metal Type

One simple way to prevent corrosion is to use a corrosion resistant metal such as
aluminum or stainless steel. Depending on the application, these metals can be used
to reduce the need for additional corrosion protection.

Protective Coatings

The application of a paint coating is a cost-effective way of preventing corrosion.

Paint coatings act as a barrier to prevent the transfer of electrochemical charge from
the corrosive solution to the metal underneath.

Another possibility is applying a powder coating. In this process, a dry powder is

applied to the clean metal surface. The metal is then heated which fuses the powder
into a smooth unbroken film. A number of different powder compositions can be
used, including acrylic, polyester, epoxy, nylon, and urethane.

Environmental Measures

Corrosion is caused by a chemical reaction between the metal and gases in the
surrounding environment. By taking measures to control the environment, these
unwanted reactions can be minimized. This can be as simple as reducing exposure
to rain or seawater, or more complex measures, such as controlling the amounts of
sulfur, chlorine, or oxygen in the surrounding environment. An example of this would
be would be treating the water in water boilers with softeners to adjust hardness,
alkalinity, or oxygen content.

Sacrificial Coatings

Sacrificial coating involves coating the metal with an additional metal type that is
more likely to oxidize; hence the term “sacrificial coating.”

There are two main techniques for achieving sacrificial coating: cathodic protection
and anodic protection.

Cathodic Protection

The most common example of cathodic protection is the coating of iron alloy steel
with zinc, a process known as galvanizing. Zinc is a more active metal than steel,
and when it starts to corrode it oxides which inhibits the corrosion of the steel. This
method is known as cathodic protection because it works by making the steel the
cathode of an electrochemical cell. Cathodic protection is used for steel pipelines
carrying water or fuel, water heater tanks, ship hulls, and offshore oil platforms.

Anodic Protection

Anodic protection involves coating the iron alloy steel with a less active metal, such
as tin. Tin will not corrode, so the steel will be protected as long as the tin coating is
in place. This method is known as anodic protection because it makes the steel the
anode of an electrochemical cell.
Anodic protection is often applied to carbon steel storage tanks used to store sulfuric
acid and 50% caustic soda. In these environments cathodic protection is not suitable
due to extremely high current requirements.

Corrosion Inhibitors

Corrosion inhibitors are chemicals that react with the surface of the metal or the
surrounding gases to suppress the electrochemical reactions leading to corrosion.
They work by being applied to the surface of a metal where they form a protective
film. Inhibitors can be applied as a solution or as a protective coating using
dispersion techniques. Corrosion inhibitors are commonly applied via a process
known as passivation.

Passivation

In passivation, a light coat of a protective material, such as metal oxide, creates a

protective layer over the metal which acts as a barrier against corrosion. The
formation of this layer is affected by environmental pH, temperature, and surrounding
chemical composition. A notable example of passivation is the Statue of Liberty,
where a blue-green patina has formed which actually protects the copper
underneath. Corrosion inhibitors are used in petroleum refining, chemical production,
and water treatment works.

Design Modification

Design modifications can help reduce corrosion and improve the durability of any
existing protective anti-corrosive coatings. Ideally, designs should avoid trapping
dust and water, encourage movement of air, and avoid open crevices. Ensuring the
metal is accessible for regular maintenance will also increase longevity.

13 What type of steel would you

recommend in the following cases:

1. Reinforcement in prestressed concrete and cement concrete:

Ordinary mild steel and deformed bars are used in RCC are not used in PSC
(prestressed concrete) because their yield strength is not very high. In the
prestressed concrete, loss of prestress (about 20 %) occurs due to many factors. If
mild steel bars or HYSD bars are used then very little prestress will be left after the
losses and will be of no use. Therefore, high tensile strength steel is used for
prestressing. In addition to the high strength, the steel used in prestressing must
have a higher ultimate elongation. Various forms of steel used for prestressing as
follows:
Tendons:

Tendons are high strength tensile wires available in various diameters from 1.5 mm
to 8 mm. the following table gives the ultimate tensile strength of steel wires used for
prestressing.

Diameter of wire (mm) Ultimate tensile strength (MPa)

1.5 2350
2.0 2200
3.0 1900
4.0 1750
5.0 1600
7.0 1500
8.0 1500
 

Wires strands or cables:

A strand or cable is made of a bundle of wires spun together. The overall diameter of
a cable or strand is from 7 to 17 mm. They are used for post-tensioning systems.

Bars:

High tensile steel bars of diameter 10 mm or more are also used in prestressing.

2. Cables of suspension bridge

Many of the components of a suspension bridge are made of steel. The girders
used to make the deck rigid are one example. Steel is also used for the saddles,
or open channels, on which the cables rest atop a suspension bridge's towers.

When steel is drawn (stretched) into wires, its strength increases; consequently,
a relatively flexible bundle of steel wires is stronger than a solid steel bar of the
same diameter. This is the reason steel cable is used to support suspension
bridges. For the Akashi Kaikyo Bridge, a new low-alloy steel strengthened with
silicon was developed; its tensile strength (resistance against pulling forces) is
12% greater than any previous steel wire formulation. On some suspension
bridges, the steel wires forming the cables have been galvanized (coated with
zinc).
 The towers of most suspension bridges are made of steel, although a few have
been built of steel-reinforced concrete.

3. Springs
The selection of materials to use in the design and fabrication of springs relies on
an understanding of the tensile and yield strengths of the various alloyed metals.
These materials include high-carbon spring steels, alloy spring steels, stainless
spring steels, copper-based spring alloys, and nickel-based spring alloys. In the
paragraphs below, we present information about the spring materials, their
mechanical properties, typical uses, as well as applications to avoid.

High-Carbon Spring Steels in Wire Form

These spring steels are the most commonly used of all spring materials
because they are the least expensive, are easily worked, and are readily
available. However, they are not satisfactory for springs operating at high or
low temperatures or for shock or impact loading. The following wire forms are
available:

 Music Wire, ASTM A228 (0.80-0.95 percent carbon): This is the most widely
used of all spring materials for small springs operating at temperatures up to
about 250°F. It is tough, has a high tensile strength, and can withstand high
stresses under repeated loading. The material is readily available in round
form in diameters ranging from 0.005 to 0.125 inch and in some larger sizes
up to 3⁄16 inch. It is not available with high tensile strengths in square or
rectangular sections. Music wire can be plated easily and is obtainable
pretinned or preplated with cadmium, but plating after spring manufacture is
usually preferred for maximum corrosion resistance.

 Oil-Tempered MB Grade, ASTM A229 (0.60-0.70 percent carbon): This

general-purpose spring steel is commonly used for many types of coil springs
where the cost of music wire is prohibitive and in sizes larger than are
available in music wire. It is readily available in diameters ranging from 0.125
to 0.500 inch, but both smaller and larger sizes may be obtained. The material
should not be used under shock and impact loading conditions, at
temperatures above 350 °F, or at temperatures in the sub-zero range. Square
and rectangular sections of wire are obtainable in fractional sizes. Annealed
stock also can be obtained for hardening and tempering after coiling. This
material has a heat-treating scale that must be removed before plating.

 Oil-Tempered HB Grade, SAE 1080 (0.75-0.85 percent carbon): This material

is similar to the MB grade except that it has a higher carbon content and a
higher tensile strength. It is obtainable in the same sizes and is used for more
accurate requirements than the MB Grade, but is not so readily available. In
lieu of using this material it may be better to use an alloy spring steel,
particularly if a long fatigue life or high endurance properties are needed.
Round and square sections are obtainable in the oil-tempered or annealed
conditions.
  Hard-Drawn MB Grade, ASTM A227 (0.60-0.70 percent carbon): This grade is
used for general purpose springs where cost is the most important factor.
Although increased use in recent years has resulted in improved quality, it is
best not to use this grade where long life and accuracy of loads and
deflections are important. It is available in diameters ranging from 0.031 to
0.500 inch and in some smaller and larger sizes also. The material is
available in square sections but at reduced tensile strengths. It is readily
plated. Applications should be limited to those in the temperature range of 0 to
250 °F.

High-Carbon Spring Steels in Flat Strip Form

Two types of thin, flat, high-carbon spring steel strip are most widely used, although
several other types are obtainable for specific applications in watches, clocks, and
certain instruments. These two compositions are used for over 95 percent of all such
applications. Thin sections of these materials under 0.015 inch having a carbon
content of over 0.85 percent and a hardness of over 47 on the Rockwell C scale are
susceptible to hydrogen-embrittlement, even though special plating and heating
operations are employed. The two types are described as follows:

 Cold-Rolled Spring Steel, Blue-Tempered or Annealed, SAE 1074, also

1064, and 1070 (0.60 to 0.80 percent carbon): This very popular spring
steel is available in thicknesses ranging from 0.005 to 0.062 inch and in
some thinner and thicker sections. The material is available in the
annealed condition for forming in 4-slide machines and in presses, and
can readily be hardened and tempered after forming. It is also available
in the heat-treated or blue-tempered condition. The steel is obtainable
in several finishes such as straw color, blue color, black, or plain.
Hardnesses ranging from 42 to 46 Rockwell C are recommended for
spring applications. Uses include spring clips, flat springs, clock
springs, and motor, power, and spiral springs.

 Cold-Rolled Spring Steel, Blue-Tempered Clock Steel, SAE 1095 (0.90

to 1.05 percent carbon): This popular type should be used principally in
the blue-tempered condition. Although obtainable in the annealed
condition, it does not always harden properly during heat-treatment as
it is a “shallow” hardening type. It is used principally in clocks and
motor springs. End sections of springs made from this steel are
annealed for bending or piercing operations. Hardnesses usually range
from 47 to 51 Rockwell C. Other materials available in strip form and
used for flat springs are brass, phosphorbronze, beryllium-copper,
stainless steels, and nickel alloys.

Alloy Spring Steels

These spring steels are used for conditions of high stress, and shock or
impact loadings. They can withstand both higher and lower temperatures than
the high-carbon steels and are obtainable in either the annealed or pre-
tempered conditions.
  Chromium Vanadium, ASTM A231: This very popular spring steel is
used under conditions involving higher stresses than those for which
the high-carbon spring steels are recommended and is also used
where good fatigue strength and endurance are needed. It behaves
well under shock and impact loading. The material is available in
diameters ranging from 0.031 to 0.500 inch and in some larger sizes
also. In square sections, it is available in fractional sizes. Both the
annealed and pre-tempered types are available in round, square, and
rectangular sections. It is used extensively in aircraft-engine valve
springs and for springs operating at temperatures up to 425 °F.

 Silicon Manganese: This alloy steel is quite popular in Great Britain. It

is less expensive than chromium-vanadium steel and is available in
round, square, and rectangular sections in both annealed and pre-
tempered conditions in sizes ranging from 0.031 to 0.500 inch. It was
formerly used for knee-action springs in automobiles. It is used in flat
leaf springs for trucks and as a substitute for more expensive spring
steels.

 Chromium Silicon, ASTM A401: This alloy is used for highly stressed
springs that require long life and are subjected to shock loading. It can
be heat-treated to higher hardnesses than other spring steels so that
high tensile strengths are obtainable. The most popular sizes range
from 0.031 to 0.500 inch in diameter. Very rarely are square, flat, or
rectangular sections used. Hardnesses ranging from 50 to 53 Rockwell
C are quite common, and the alloy may be used at temperatures up to
475°F. This material is usually ordered specially for each job.

Stainless Spring Steels

The use of stainless spring steels has increased and several compositions are
available all of which may be used for temperatures up to 550 °F. They are all
corrosion-resistant. Only the stainless 18-8 compositions should be used at sub-zero
temperatures.

 Stainless Type 302, ASTM A313 (18 percent chromium, 8 percent

nickel): This stainless spring steel is very popular because it has the
highest tensile strength and quite uniform properties. It is cold-drawn to
obtain its mechanical properties and cannot be hardened by heat
treatment. This material is nonmagnetic only when fully annealed and
becomes slightly magnetic due to the cold-working performed to
produce spring properties. It is suitable for use at temperatures up to
550 °F and for sub-zero temperatures. It is very corrosion resistant.
The material best exhibits its desirable mechanical properties in
diameters ranging from 0.005 to 0.1875 inch, although some larger
diameters are available. It is also available as hard-rolled flat strip.
Square and rectangular sections are available but are infrequently
used.
  Stainless Type 304, ASTM A313 (18 percent chromium, 8 percent
nickel): This material is quite similar to Type 302, but has better
bending properties and about 5 percent lower tensile strength. It is a
little easier to draw, due to the slightly lower carbon content.

 Stainless Type 316, ASTM A313 (18 percent chromium, 12 percent

nickel, 2 percent molybdenum): This material is quite similar to Type
302 but is slightly more corrosion-resistant because of its higher nickel
content. Its tensile strength is 10 to 15 percent lower than Type 302. It
is used for aircraft springs.

 Stainless Type 17-7 PH ASTM A313 (17 percent chromium, 7 percent

nickel): This alloy, which also contains small amounts of aluminum and
titanium, is formed in a moderately hard state and then precipitation
hardened at relatively low temperatures for several hours to produce
tensile strengths nearly comparable to music wire. This material is not
readily available in all sizes, and has limited applications due to its high
manufacturing cost.

 Stainless Type 414, SAE 51414 (12 percent chromium, 2 percent

nickel): This alloy has tensile strengths about 15 percent lower than
Type 302 and can be hardened by heat-treatment. For best corrosion
resistance it should be highly polished or kept clean. It can be obtained
hard drawn in diameters up to 0.1875 inch and is commonly used in flat
cold-rolled strip for stampings. The material is not satisfactory for use
at low temperatures.

 Stainless Type 420, SAE 51420 (13 percent chromium): This is the
best stainless steel for use in large diameters above 0.1875 inch and is
frequently used in smaller sizes. It is formed in the annealed condition
and then hardened and tempered. It does not exhibit its stainless
properties until after it is hardened. Clean bright surfaces provide the
best corrosion resistance, therefore the heat-treating scale must be
removed. Bright hardening methods are preferred.

 Stainless Type 431, SAE 51431 (16 percent chromium, 2 percent

nickel): This spring alloy acquires high tensile properties (nearly the
same as music wire) by a combination of heat-treatment to harden the
wire plus cold-drawing after heat-treatment. Its corrosion resistance is
not equal to Type 302.

Copper-Base Spring Alloys

Copper-base alloys are important spring materials because of their good electrical
properties combined with their good resistance to corrosion. Although these
materials are more expensive than the high-carbon and the alloy steels, they
nevertheless are frequently used in electrical components and in sub-zero
temperatures.
  Spring Brass, ASTM B 134 (70 percent copper, 30 percent zinc): This
material is the least expensive and has the highest electrical
conductivity of the copper-base alloys. It has a low tensile strength and
poor spring qualities, but is extensively used in flat stampings and
where sharp bends are needed. It cannot be hardened by heat-
treatment and should not be used at temperatures above 150 °F but is
especially good at sub-zero temperatures. Available in round sections
and flat strips, this hard-drawn material is usually used in the “spring
hard” temper.

 Phosphor Bronze, ASTM B 159 (95 percent copper, 5 percent tin): This
alloy is the most popular of this group because it combines the best
qualities of tensile strength, hardness, electrical conductivity, and
corrosion resistance with the least cost. It is more expensive than
brass, but can withstand stresses 50 percent higher. The material
cannot be hardened by heat-treatment. It can be used at temperatures
up to 212 °F and at sub-zero temperatures. It is available in round
sections and flat strip, usually in the “extra-hard” or “spring hard”
tempers. It is frequently used for contact fingers in switches because of
its low arcing properties. An 8 percent tin composition is used for flat
springs and a superfine grain composition called “Duraflex” has good
endurance properties.

 Beryllium Copper, ASTM B 197 (98 percent copper, 2 percent

beryllium): This alloy can be formed in the annealed condition and then
precipitation hardened after forming at temperatures around 600 °F, for
2 to 3 hours. This treatment produces a high hardness combined with a
high tensile strength. After hardening, the material becomes quite
brittle and can withstand very little or no forming. It is the most
expensive alloy in the group and heat-treating is expensive due to the
need for holding the parts in fixtures to prevent distortion. The principal
use of this alloy is for carrying electric current in switches and in
electrical components. Flat strip is frequently used for contact fingers.

Nickel-Base Spring Alloys

Nickel-base alloys are corrosion resistant, withstand both elevated and sub-zero
temperatures, and their non-magnetic characteristic makes them useful for such
applications as gyroscopes, chronoscopes, and indicating instruments. These
materials have a high electrical resistance and therefore should not be used for
conductors of electrical current.

 Monel* (67 percent nickel, 30 percent copper): This material is the least
expensive of the nickel-base alloys. It also has the lowest tensile
strength but is useful due to its resistance to the corrosive effects of
seawater and because it is nearly non-magnetic. The alloy can be
subjected to stresses slightly higher than phosphor bronze and nearly
as high as beryllium copper. Its high tensile strength and hardness are
obtained as a result of cold-drawing and cold-rolling only, since it can
not be hardened by heat-treatment. It can be used at temperatures
 ranging from −100 to +425 °F at normal operating stresses and is
available in round wires up to 3⁄16 inch in diameter with quite high
tensile strengths. Larger diameters and flat strip are available with
lower tensile strengths.

 “K” Monel * (66 percent nickel, 29 percent copper, 3 percent

aluminum): This material is quite similar to Monel except that the
addition of the aluminum makes it a precipitation-hardening alloy. It
may be formed in the soft or fairly hard condition and then hardened by
a long-time age-hardening heat-treatment to obtain a tensile strength
and hardness above Monel and nearly as high as stainless steel. It is
used in sizes larger than those usually used with Monel, is non-
magnetic and can be used in temperatures ranging from −100 to +450
°F at normal working stresses under 45,000 pounds per square inch.

 Inconel* (78 percent nickel, 14 percent chromium, 7 percent iron): This

is one of the most popular of the non-magnetic nickel-base alloys
because of its corrosion resistance and because it can be used at
temperatures up to 700 °F. It is more expensive than stainless steel but
less expensive than beryllium copper. Its hardness and tensile strength
is higher than that of “K” Monel and is obtained as a result of cold-
drawing and cold-rolling only. It cannot be hardened by heat treatment.
Wire diameters up to 1⁄4 inch have the best tensile properties. It is
often used in steam valves, regulating valves, and for springs in
boilers, compressors, turbines, and jet engines.

 Inconel “X”* (70 percent nickel, 16 percent chromium, 7 percent iron):

This material is quite similar to Inconel but the small amounts of
titanium, columbium and aluminum in its composition make it a
precipitation-hardening alloy. It can be formed in the soft or partially
hard condition and then hardened by holding it at 1200 °F for 4 hours.
It is non-magnetic and is used in larger sections than Inconel. This
alloy is used at temperatures up to 850 °F and at stresses up to 55,000
pounds per square inch.

 Duranickel* (“Z” Nickel) (98 percent nickel): This alloy is non-magnetic,

corrosion-resistant, has a high tensile strength and is hardenable by
precipitation hardening at 900 °F for 6 hours. It may be used at the
same stresses as Inconel but should not be used at temperatures
above 500 °F.

Nickel-Base Spring Alloys with Constant Moduli of Elasticity

Some special nickel alloys have a constant modulus of elasticity over a wide
temperature range. These materials are especially useful where springs undergo
temperature changes and must exhibit uniform spring characteristics. These
materials have a low or zero thermo-elastic coefficient and therefore do not undergo
variations in spring stiffness because of modulus changes due * Trade name of the
International Nickel Company.to temperature differentials. They also have low
hysteresis and creep values which makes them preferred for use in food-weighing
scales, precision instruments, gyroscopes, measuring devices, recording instruments
and computing scales where the temperature ranges from −50 to +150 °F. These
materials are expensive, none being regularly stocked in a wide variety of sizes.
They should not be specified without prior discussion with spring manufacturers
because some suppliers may not fabricate springs from these alloys due to the
special manufacturing processes required. All of these alloys are used in small wire
diameters and in thin strip only and are covered by U.S. patents. They are more
specifically described as follows:

 Elinvar** (nickel, iron, chromium): This alloy, the first constant-modulus

alloy used for hairsprings in watches, is an austenitic alloy hardened
only by cold-drawing and cold-rolling. Additions of titanium, tungsten,
molybdenum and other alloying elements have brought about improved
characteristics and precipitation-hardening abilities. These improved
alloys are known by the following trade names: Elinvar Extra, Durinval,
Modulvar and Nivarox.

 Ni-Span C** (nickel, iron, chromium, titanium): This very popular

constant-modulus alloy is usually formed in the 50 percent cold-worked
condition and precipitation-hardened at 900 °F for 8 hours, although
heating up to 1250 °F for 3 hours produces hardnesses of 40 to 44
Rockwell C, permitting safe torsional stresses of 60,000 to 80,000
pounds per square inch. This material is ferromagnetic up to 400 °F;
above that temperature it becomes non-magnetic.

 Iso-Elastic† (nickel, iron, chromium, molybdenum): This popular alloy is

relatively easy to fabricate and is used at safe torsional stresses of
40,000 to 60,000 pounds per square inch and hardnesses of 30 to 36
Rockwell C. It is used principally in dynamometers, instruments, and
food-weighing scales.

 Elgiloy‡ (nickel, iron, chromium, cobalt): This alloy, also known by the
trade names 8J Alloy, Durapower, and Cobenium, is a non-magnetic
alloy suitable for sub-zero temperatures and temperatures up to about
1000 °F, provided that torsional stresses are kept under 75,000 pounds
per square inch. It is precipitation-hardened at 900 °F for 8 hours to
produce hardnesses of 48 to 50 Rockwell C. The alloy is used in watch
and instrument springs.

 Dynavar*** (nickel, iron, chromium, cobalt): This alloy is a non-

magnetic, corrosion-resistant material suitable for sub-zero
temperatures and temperatures up to about 750 °F, provided that
torsional stresses are kept below 75,000 pounds per square inch. It is
precipitation-hardened to produce hardnesses of 48 to 50 Rockwell C
and is used in watch and instrument springs.

4. Bridge girder
Steel box girders and steel and concrete composite box girders are used for long
spans, where the self weight of the bridge needs to be minimized, and for
situations where their excellent high torsional stiffness is of particular benefit. The
clean lines of box girders bridges, usually with no visible external stiffening, is
generally considered to give a excellent appearance and durability, since there
are no traps for dirt and moisture. This article illustrates a few examples of box
girder construction for bridges.

Steel is one of the most common elements used in the U.S. and all over the
globe to build many types and sizes of bridges, including:

 Long-span bridges
 Highway bridges
 Railroad bridges
 Footbridges

Some of the characteristics of steel that make it an attractive option for bridge
builders include its versatility, cost effectiveness, longevity, and sustainability.
These qualities allow designers to develop structures that would be impossible to
build without steel components.

Many of the great landmark bridges are constructed of steel. Still, it’s important to
note that steel bridges aren’t just attractive, they’re generally stronger, safer,
faster to build, require less maintenance, and are more flexible, which makes
them perfect for earthquake-prone and high-wind sites. Steel is also used to
protect elements on bridges, including utility infrastructure.

In addition to all this, environmentalists are more likely to support the construction
of steel bridges compared to other types because they’re generally more
sustainable and earth-friendly.

Box girder bridges

Box girders comprise two webs that are joined top and bottom by a common
flange creating a closed cell that offers very good torsional stiffness, which may
be required on highly curved bridges. In beam and slab bridges, box girders are
an alternative to plate girders at the upper end of the span range, where they
offer a lower steel weight, although this has to be balanced against increased
fabrication costs. Such composite box girder decks may take the form of multiple
closed steel boxes, with the deck slab over the top, or an open top trapezoidal
box, closed by the deck slab.

Longer spans of 100 to 200m typically use either a single box or a pair of boxes
with crossbeams. For such long spans and for bridges such as lifting bridges,
where minimising structural weight is very important, an all-steel orthotropic deck
may be used instead of a reinforced concrete slab. Above about 200m, box
girders are likely to be part of a cable-stayed bridge or a suspension bridge,
where they are specially shaped for optimum aerodynamic performance.

Highway bridges
Composite box girders

For highway bridges, the structural configuration is usually of a reinforced

concrete deck slab, carrying the traffic, on top of steel girders. The deck slab acts
compositely with the steel girders.

For spans in the range 45 to 100m, multiple girders are used, with the slab
spanning transversely between the webs. For such configurations, relatively
narrow rectangular steel box sections have sometimes been chosen, as shown
right. However, such sections are rather small and introduce significant hazards
for access for construction and maintenance and are rarely chosen now for this
span range.

Steel box girders

For spans over about 200m, all steel construction is often used. The roadway is
then carried on a longitudinally stiffened steel top flange, commonly known as an
orthotropic steel deck. Such construction is lighter but is more complex to
fabricate.

Cable-supported box girders

For very long spans, cable stayed construction is often used in conjunction with
steel or composite box girders. Steel box girders are also used as stiffening
girders of suspension bridges. For such applications an ‘aerodynamically shaped’
cross section profile is used.

Curved bridges

Where the road is curved in plan, box girders can be curved to suit, which
ensures that the cantilevers are of constant length.

Railway bridges

For railways, construction depth is usually very tightly constrained and half
through construction must be employed. One option is then the Network Rail
‘Standard Box Girder’.

The Network Rail Standard Box Girder type bridge that covers a span range from
21m to 39m uses trapezoidal box girders with a transverse ribbed steel deck
spanning between notionally pin-jointed shear plate connections: the box girders
are stabilised by linear rocker bearings. This design is particularly suited to
piecemeal crane erection during track possession. With half through construction,
the deck can be either in situ concrete, partially encasing close centred cross
girders, or a normal slab above more widely spaced cross girders. Stiffened steel
plate construction can also be used, depending on the proposed erection method
and available construction depth.

For railways on new alignments, where construction depth may not be so tightly
constrained, the track can be carried on a slab-on-beam composite bridge, in the
same way as used for highways. The use of box girders is then particularly
advantageous as their greater torsional stiffness reduces susceptibility to track
twist.

Footbridges

Box girders are usually considered for footbridges only for spans over about 30m,
and most box girder footbridges adopt an all-steel configuration. The advantage
in using an all-steel configuration is that the whole cross section, including
parapets, can be fabricated at the works for delivery and erection in complete
spans; the weight of such spans is modest and easily handled by a mobile crane.
The thickness of the top flange which also forms the floor plate will be determined
by overall bending strength rather than local floor loading. The plate is typically
supported by transverse stiffeners which cantilever to edge beams. Two or three
longitudinal stiffeners may be provided to stiffen the floor plate when acting as the
compression flange of the box. Diaphragms are needed at supports and are often
provided at several positions along the length of the girder (typically the third
points) to control distortion. Large holes will be required in the diaphragms if
access is required during fabrication or maintenance.

Construction and maintenance aspects

All the features of stiffening and diaphragms mentioned above lead to more
complex fabrication, without the advantage of the semi-automatic processes that
can be employed with I-section girders, and thus to more costly fabrication. This
is particularly true for steel decks: the fabrication of orthotropic decks requires
much experience and special welding procedures in order to achieve the
necessary tolerances on flatness.

For composite bridges, the use of temporary formwork to construct the slab
would in most cases lead to difficult and hazardous work inside the girders and
thus permanent formwork (or possibly full thickness precast slab units) is almost
always used.

To avoid a continuing requirement to maintain an internal corrosion protection

system over the life of a bridge, it is now common practice to use weathering
steel for the box girders, even when an external coating system is specified
(either for corrosion protection or appearance).

Externally, there are very few features on box girders that can accumulate dirt
and moisture; this should ensure good durability for either a coating system or a
weathering steel surface. If a coating system is applied, maintenance is easier
with the clean surfaces of the girders.

Why choose steel box girders?

The selection, or otherwise, of a steel box girder always needs a consideration of

the relative advantages and disadvantages of box girder elements compared to
the more traditional 'I' girder elements.
 Advantages, compared to 'I' girders:

 High torsional stiffness and strength, giving greater suitability for horizontally
curved bridges, greater aerodynamic stability and reduced susceptibility to
lateral buckling of flanges (in lateral-torsional or distortional buckling modes)
 Reduced need for support points
 Improved durability and reduced maintenance of protective coatings (less
exposed surface, fewer edges, avoidance of exposed horizontal surfaces, no
exposed bracing and stiffeners).
 The clean lines of a closed box girder are also often considered give an
excellent appearance, particularly for footbridges where the visual impact is
considered to be important.

Disadvantages:

 Greater fabrication costs on account of the reduced scope for automated

fabrication and greater difficulty of handling and rotating during fabrication and
coating.
 Greater design input.
 Risks associated with working in enclosed spaces.

5. Hammer
Hammer heads are made of high carbon, heat-treated steel for strength and
durability. The heat treatment helps prevent chipping or cracking caused by repeated
blows against other metal objects. Certain specialty hammers may have heads made
of copper, brass, babbet metal, and other materials. Dead-blow hammers have a
hollow head filled with small steel shot to give maximum impact with little or no
rebound.

The handles may be made from wood, steel, or a composite material. Wood handles
are usually made of straight-grained ash or hickory. These two woods have good
cross-sectional strength, excellent durability, and a certain degree of resilience to
absorb the shock of repeated blows. Steel handles are stronger and stiffer than
wood, but they also transmit more shock to the user and are subject to rust.
Composite handles may be made from fiberglass or graphite fiber-reinforced epoxy.
These handles offer a blend of stiffness, light weight, and durability.

Steel and composite handles usually have a contoured grip made of a synthetic
rubber or other elastomer. Wood handles do not have a separate grip. Steel and
composite handles may also be encased in a high-impact polycarbonate resin. The
addition of this material around the handle increases shock absorption, improves
chemical resistance, and offers protection against accidental overstrikes. An
overstrike is when the hammer head misses the nail and the handle takes the impact
instead. This is a common cause of handle failure.

Plain Carbon Steel

10XX 1020 is a mild steel, 1045 medium carbon, 1095 high carbon. 1095 is the
similar to W1 tool steel, a very good steel for woodworking tools. 1060 steels have
been used for many hammers.

SOURCES:
 https://www.britannica.com/science/metal-chemistry
 https://depts.washington.edu/matseed/mse_resources/Webpage/Metals/metalstructu
re.htm
 https://www.metalsupermarkets.com/what-is-a-ferrous-metal/
 https://www.asm-recycling.co.uk/ferrous-and-non-ferrous-metals/#:~:text=Ferrous
%20metals%20contain%20iron%20and,to%20corrosion%2C%20than%20ferrous%20metals.
 https://smithy.com/machining-handbook/chapter-2/page/6
 https://www.metalsupermarkets.com/the-difference-between-ferrous-and-non-ferrous-
metal/
 https://slideplayer.com/slide/10842720/
 https://fractory.com/types-of-metal/
 https://www.edu.xunta.gal/centros/cafi/aulavirtual2/pluginfile.php/38297/mod_imscp/cont
ent/1/metals_general_properties_extraction_and_classification_of_metals.html
 https://makeitfrommetal.com/different-types-of-metal-facts-and-uses/
 https://www.thomasnet.com/articles/custom-manufacturing-fabricating/types-of-casting-
processes/
 https://www.researchgate.net/publication/306293969_Final_Report_on_Effect_of_Impuriti
es_in_Steel
 https://www.linkedin.com/pulse/21-chemical-elements-effects-steel-mechanical-properties-
jeremy-he
 https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0892687519304339
 https://www.cambridge.org/core/services/aop-cambridge-
core/content/view/S1431927610054838
 https://theconstructor.org/practical-guide/steel-reinforcement-types-grades/24730/
 https://www.designingbuildings.co.uk/wiki/Rebar
 http://www.bnproducts.com/blog/what-are-the-different-types-of-rebar-and-why-do-types-
matter/
 https://www.gardenguides.com/12445152-classification-of-rebar.html
 https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/small-biz/productline/building-materials/alloy-steel-
everything-you-need-to-know-about-alloy-steels-and-their-role-in-building-and-
construction-industry/articleshow/70344024.cms?from=mdr#:~:text=Alloy%20steels%20are
%20made%20of,%2C%20manganese%2C%20copper%20and%20chromium.&text=Alloy
 %20steel-,When%20other%20elements%20comprising%20metals%20and%20non
%2Dmetals%20are%20added,steel%2C%20alloy%20steel%20is%20formed.
 http://www.amardeepsteel.com/blog/SpecificBlog/1/index.html
 https://matmatch.com/learn/material/alloy-steel
 https://www.hj3.com/how-to-stop-metal-corrosion/#:~:text=Whatever%20your%20reason
%20for%20wanting,agents%20and%20moisture%20barrier%20products.
 https://www.metalsupermarkets.com/how-to-prevent-corrosion/
 https://www.toppr.com/guides/chemistry/electrochemistry/corrosion-prevention-method/
 https://civilengineeringbible.com/article.php?i=104#:~:text=In%20the%20prestressed
%20concrete%2C%20loss,steel%20is%20used%20for%20prestressing.
 https://uknowledge.uky.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?
article=1761&context=ktc_researchreports
 https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/engineering/suspension-bridges
 https://www.jsbaileybridges.com/?
gclid=EAIaIQobChMI4OqhzY_N6gIVjauWCh0c2QfjEAAYAiAAEgKQdvD_BwE
 https://www.thomasnet.com/articles/metals-metal-products/types-of-spring-
materials/#:~:text=High%2DCarbon%20Spring%20Steels%20in%20Wire
%20Form&text=Music%20Wire%2C%20ASTM%20A228%20(0.80,high%20stresses%20under
%20repeated%20loading.
 https://www.steelconstruction.info/Bridges
 https://bridgemastersinc.com/strong-flexible-beautiful-the-benefits-of-steel-bridge-
construction/
 https://www.steelconstruction.info/Box_girder_bridges
 https://www.langfengmaterials.com/product/TM52XZ-Titanium-Carbide-Based-High-
Manganese-Steel-Bonded-Alloy-Wear-Resistant-Material.html?gclid=EAIaIQobChMI89W4-
pHN6gIVVMEWBR1DBQWGEAAYASAAEgIpWfD_BwE
 http://www.madehow.com/Volume-4/Hammer.html
 http://www.tidewaterblacksmiths.com/steels.html#:~:text=1020%20is%20a%20mild
%20steel,been%20used%20for%20many%20hammers.&text=1541%20is%20a%20high
%20manganese,being%20used%20in%20auto%20axles.
 https://theconstructor.org/structural-engg/rolled-steel-sections-shapes-sizes/17155/
 http://ecoursesonline.iasri.res.in/mod/page/view.php?id=2489