Effects of Salt Contamination on Steel Substrates and on Coating Performance

The effect of soluble salt contamination on a substrate has been hugely controversial for
decades. This controversy is mainly due to several factors that determine if salt contamination
actually has an effect on the performance of protective coatings. These factors could include,
but are not limited to, the concentration of the salt contamination, the environment where the
coated substrate will be exposed, the coating type and the coating thickness.

It is well known that a substrate with no salt contamination at all is the best and most desirable
condition. However, the upfront costs associated with salt detection and removal must be
compared to the benefit that will be gained in having a salt-free substrate. In this article we will
discuss the effect of various non-visible salts on coating performance, an approach to risk
assessment regarding the cost of soluble salt removal versus the risk of future coating failure,
how to test for the presence of soluble salts, and some salt contamination removal methods that
should be performed prior to coating application.

Effects of Salt Contamination on Coating Performance and Longevity

Although it is well known that salt contamination has an effect on coating performance, a
definitive value that precisely shows the salt concentration that will affect a given coating is not
available. That can be attributed to the fact that coatings may contain
several pigments, resins and coating materials that can be formed into a single coat or a multi-
coat system. In addition to this there are several other variables such as the coating system
thickness and the environment to which the coated substrate is exposed. This combination of
variables makes it difficult to develop a simple formula, chart or table that can predict an
allowable salt concentration.

Salts can affect the substrate or the coating primarily in two ways:
1. By accelerating corrosion of the underlying steel surface. Dissolved salt solutions
can accelerate the oxidation of steel, resulting in undercutting of the coating.
Although corrosion can occur in the absence of any salts due to crevice
corrosion, oxygen concentration cells or general corrosion, the presence of
soluble salts increases the corrosion rate.
2. As a cause of osmotic blistering (although osmotic blistering can occur in the
absence of soluble salts due to entrapped polar solvents and over-
driven cathodic protection systems). The presence of soluble salts can
cause blistering of a coating when moisture permeates through the coating film
and dissolves soluble salts in the entrapped water underneath the coating. In this
case the coating acts as a semipermeable membrane between a dilute salt
solution outside the coating and a concentrated salt solution underneath the
coating. This difference in concentration will drive water to the higher
concentrated salt solution, which will increase the osmotic pressure beneath the
coating and eventually form blisters when the osmotic pressure increases
 beyond the bond strength of the coating. (Osmotic blistering is further examined
in The Role of Soluble Salts in Osmotic Blistering.)
It should be taken into consideration that the effect of salt contamination varies
according to coating type:
 Some inorganic coating types such as inorganic zinc rich coatings and metallized
coatings are considered more tolerant to salt contamination than organic
coatings such as fusion bonded epoxies and epoxy phenolics.
 The coating thickness impacts its ability to tolerate salt contamination. Thicker
coating systems are more impervious to water than thinner systems, and
therefore are more resistant to salt contamination than thinner coating systems.

Another aspect that should be taken into account is that some soluble salt contaminants
are more corrosive to steel than other contaminants. For example, nitrates are slightly
less corrosive to steel than chlorides and sulfates at lower concentrations, but this is not
the case in higher nitrate concentrations. In addition to this the effect of the cation
(positive ion) should also be considered. For example, in chloride salts the order of
corrosiveness from the most corrosive to the least corrosive is lithium chloride, sodium
chloride and potassium chloride. The corrosiveness of a salt solution is directly
proportional to the conductivity of the electrolyte formed when the salt dissolves, which
is a function of the salt’s ionic species.
It should be noted that the corrosiveness of salts to steel isn’t related to the effect that
these salts have on the coating's performance. Osmotic blistering of coatings is
independent of the species of the salts and is related to the number of ions in the
solution. For example, the solubilities in 100 ml of ambient water at 20 °C are 87.6 g for
sodium nitrate, 35.9 g for sodium chloride and 19.5 g for sodium sulfate. Therefore,
nitrates are expected be the salt with the most destructive power with regards to
blistering, although they are the least corrosive to steel at low concentrations.
To determine the allowable salt levels, coating specification writers are advised to check
the coating manufacturer's technical data sheet or to contact the coating manufacturer
directly. The allowable salt level is dependent on the expected service life for the
specified coating in a particular environment. Salt contamination is usually expressed in
ug/cm2 or mg/m2.

An Approach to Risk Assessment

As mentioned above, having a substrate with no salt contamination at all is the best
condition to apply a coating. However, the extra costs incurred for salt removal and salt
testing makes the decision to have an uncontaminated substrate more difficult and must
be determined based on a risk assessment method. In the following sections we will
briefly explain the meaning of a risk assessment and how it can be used as a decisive
criteria for salt contamination removal and testing.
What is Meant by Risk?
Risk is a combination of the probability of a hazard occurring and the consequence or
impact of this hazard. A hazard is defined as something that has the potential to cause
harm or damage. To assess a risk, the hazard must be identified, its probability of
occurrence must be estimated, and the consequence of the hazard occurrence must be
defined. In our case, the risk assessment includes defining the potential hazard, which
is the presence of soluble salts on the substrate. The probability of occurrence is
estimated by defining the quantity of soluble salts on the surface. A consequence of the
hazard occurring will be corrosion of the substrate or premature coating failure.

Making Use of a Risk Assessment

This risk assessment example could be used to quantify the risk associated with the
presence of soluble salt contamination and to measure the reduction in risk associated
with the removal of the salt contamination, which will reduce the probability and
consequences of the hazard. The benefit of reducing the risk is compared against the
cost of testing and removing soluble salts in order to obtain a proper decision with
respect to the cost incurred in salt contamination removal.
The following factors must be kept in mind when assessing the risk associated with
soluble salt contamination:
 The service environment to which the substrate has been exposed
 The service environment to which the substrate will be exposed (see Defining
Service Requirements & Environmental Factors for Coating Specification for
more information)
 The coating system and coating thickness to be used
 The method of surface preparation and degree of surface cleanliness achieved
before coating
 The accessibility of the substrate and the ability to repair it later
 The consequence of coating failures and substrate corrosion (cost, time delays,
etc.) if caused by salt contamination on the surface before coating

Testing for the Presence of Salt Contamination

Although contaminating salts are usually invisible, their presence and effect can often
be visually detected. In this section we will be presenting how we can visually predict
the presence of salt contamination on a substrate.
Bare Steel (New or Old)
Visual observations provide a preliminary assessment for the presence of soluble salts
on a substrate. If there are unusual or unexplained rust patterns or non-uniform
rusting then there is a possibility for the presence of soluble salts. Pitted areas of steel
are the most vulnerable areas where salt contamination might be present. If the pitted
areas develop flash rust after abrasive blasting and there are dark brown or black
deposits in the bottom of the pits then there is a higher probability for the presence of
salt contamination. (Recommended reading: A Guide to Flash Rust Prevention and
Protection.)
Moreover, if there is flash rusting on any abrasive cleaned steel without an obvious
humidity source (higher than 60% relative humidity) or a source of water, then there is a
possibility of salt contamination. (Also see 7 Things to Know About Flash Rust.) It
should be noted that uncontaminated steel will develop an even, light brown colored
rust compared to contaminated steel where a dark or black appearance usually
presents itself after abrasive blasting.
It should be also taken into account that the use of a dehumidifier may mask the
presence of salt contamination on a substrate because the dehumidifier reduces the
relative humidity considerably, thus increasing the time for flash rust to occur.
Coated Steel
A visual examination can also be used as a preliminary indicator for the presence of
salts when evaluating a previously coated surface before abrasive blast cleaning. The
type and degree of coating failure can be used as an indicator for the presence of salts.
If the substrate's coating is intact and no rust spots are evident then there is a low
probability for the presence of salts underneath the coating.

Field Tests to Detect the Presence of Salts

Several field tests are available that detect the presence of salt contaminants. However,
the quantitative accuracy of these field methods and their effectiveness are yet to be
established.
A problem that always exists in field tests is that although the measurement of salts in a
solution extracted from the surface are accurate, the degree of extraction of the salts
from a surface may vary considerably. The extent of soluble salt extraction from a
surface depends on the initial concentration of salts on the surface, the extraction test
method used, and the operation of the test procedure. The amount of rust remaining on
the surface, the depth and configuration of any pitting, the type of extraction solution,
temperature, and other variables are also typical factors that affect the extraction of
salts from a surface. No method exists that ensures total extraction of all salt
contaminants on weathered substrates, especially within pits.
In the following sections we will present a brief description of some salt contamination
field test methods. (Note: Additional information can be found in the article Field
Methods for Extraction and Analysis of Soluble Salts.)

1. Potassium Ferricyanide
This method is only a qualitative method to detect the presence of ferrous soluble salts
on a substrate. It is done by applying a test paper over the misted surface to be tested.
If a dark blue color appears then soluble salts are present.

2. Bresle Patch
This test method is commonly used in specifications referring to ISO 8502-
6 and ISO/DIS 8502-9. In this method the following steps should be followed to perform
a successful test:

1. Bresle patch shall be adhered on the substrate to be tested. The substrate must
be clean and free from any adherent rust, dirt or moisture.
2. Remove the backing and the foam circle from the test cell. Adhere the cell firmly
on the test area.
3. Insert the syringe needle into the spongy foam perimeter, and pull back the
syringe to remove the air from the test area.
4. Inject the supplied reagent water into the cell.
5. Remove the syringe needle from the center of the cell, leaving it in the spongy
perimeter. Gently massage the top of the cell for 10 to 15 seconds. Withdraw and
reinject the water a minimum of four times.
6. Retrieve as much water as possible through the syringe and place it in a clean
vial or tube.
7. Test the extracted solution using a conductivity meter or Kitigawa tubes or any
other suitable method to measure the concentration of salts in the solution.

3. Sleeve Test
There are two variations in this method; one of them measures the salt concentration
using a titration tube and the other uses a colorimeter to determine the results of the
test.
In this method we perform the following steps:

1. Pour a pre-measured amount of the supplied solution into the sleeve provided in
the test kit.
2. Adhere the sleeve onto the substrate where the test shall be done.
3. Hold the sleeve in an upright position in order to force the solution to flow over
the substrate to be tested.
4. Massage the solution against the test surface though the test sleeve for
approximately 2 minutes.
5. Remove the sleeve from the surface while retaining the solution inside the
sleeve.
6. Follow the manufacturer's recommendations if you are using the titrator tube or
the colorimeter instrument.
7. The results from both test methods are presented in parts per million (ppm),
which is equivalent to micrograms per square centimeter.
It should be noted that salt testing should be performed before surface preparation, after
surface preparation and repeated if any salt removal attempts have been made. Keep in
mind that salt testing should be performed as soon as possible after completing surface
preparation to minimize the possibility of insoluble iron oxide re-rusting, which may
reduce salt extraction efficiencies when testing a contaminated substrate.

Salt Removal Methods

Several methods are available to remove salt contamination before coating application.
These methods include dry abrasive blasting, wet abrasive blast cleaning, water
jetting, chemical cleaning, steam cleaning and hand/power tool cleaning. Experience
has shown that several cycles of cleaning are usually required in order to achieve a salt
contamination level that lies within the tolerable levels advised by the coating
manufacturer.

Conclusion
Having a substrate with no salt contamination is known to be the best method of
ensuring a flawless coating that will perform its intended function for its design lifetime.
However the extra cost incurred to test for salt contamination as well as the cost
associated with salt removal makes the decision to have a substrate with zero salt
contamination a little bit tricky. Therefore, asset owners of the substrates to be coated
can use a risk assessment technique to determine if there is a necessity to have no salt
contamination or if they can accept the risk of having some salt contamination and the
subsequent risk of having the coating fail earlier than it is supposed to.
Related Terms and Definition

 Soluble salts
 Soluble Salt Contaminants
 Protective Coating
 Osmotic Blistering
 Service Exposure
 Flash Corrosion
 Visual Test
 Corrosion resistance
 Paint System
 Substrate Preparation

Definitions on each above-mentioned terms

Soluble Salts
Soluble salts are ionic compounds that dissociate their constituents during their
interaction with a solvent such that it forms a solution with a concentration of at least 0.1
moles per litre at room temperature. They arise from acidic reactions.
A salt is soluble when the energy produced during the interaction of the ions with
solvent molecules is able to break the ionic bonds in the salt and also separate the
solvent molecules so that the ions are freely inserted to form a solution. They are found
in the soil and water sources.

Soluble Salts
Most chlorides, nitrates and sulfates—calcium, magnesium, sodium etc.—fall under
soluble salts. These corrosion substances are leading contributors of premature coating
or painting failures and corrosion under insulation whenever their threshold value is
exceeded. They are available at the surface due to contamination from the atmosphere
and surface preparation methods. Since the surface of any substrate contains pits, the
presence of these salts in the pits makes them hard to eliminate.
During surface preparation, chances are that the substances will remain undetected.
The presence of these corrosive substances under a coating creates suitable conditions
for corrosion such as moisture. Corrosion is thus achieved by the osmotic pull of the
water molecules through the coatings or insulations—hence, leads to under-film metallic
rusting.
As they reduce the pH, more oxygen is consumed and air moisture drawn onto the
surface of the substrate. They also provide low electricity resistivity, which results in
corrosion cells. This is one of the biggest contributors to steel corrosion. Chemical
active acids and salt removers are normally used in blasting and brushing methods
before any coating or insulation application. The thickness of the coating can also
reduce the effect of soluble salts.

Soluble salt contaminants

Soluble salt contaminants are inorganic substances that are soluble in water. The major
soluble salts that cause the most damage to coatings and base materials are chlorides,
nitrates and sulfates.
A soluble salt contaminant in between a coating and a base material causes soluble salt
contamination and can cause subsequent material failure through a variety of means.

Soluble Salt Contaminant

Soluble salt contamination can be detrimental to a coating due to a process called
blistering, which occurs when a soluble salt trapped beneath the coating draws water
through the coating. Over time the water creates pressure and causes the coating to
have an appearance similar to a blister. This process can cause portions of the coating
to eventually break off, leaving an unprotected base material.
Soluble salt contamination can also have an undesirable effect on the base material
itself. When water is drawn in by soluble salts it forms a saline solution that changes the
electrical potential of some areas of the base material and promotes oxidation.
Furthermore, saline solutions are often acidic and can further degrade the base
material.

Protective Coating

A protective coating is a layer of material applied to the surface of another material with
the intent of inhibiting or preventing corrosion. A protective coating may be metallic or
non-metallic. Protective coatings are applied using a variety of methods, and can be
used for many other purposes besides corrosion prevention.
Commonly used materials in non-metallic protective coatings include polymers, epoxies
and polyurethanes. Materials used for metallic protective coatings include zinc,
aluminum and chromium.
Corrosionpedia explains Protective Coating
A zinc coating over steel is an example of a reactive protective coating. The zinc reacts
with the atmosphere more readily than the steel, thus preventing the oxidation of the
steel.
A protective coating can be painted on, sprayed on, plated on or even welded onto a
material. Polymer coatings are commonly sprayed on. Zinc protective coatings are
typically applied by the electroplating or hot dipping method.
A protective coating is not necessarily limited to corrosion prevention. A protective
coating can also be used to increase a material's wear resistance and aesthetic appeal.
A protective coating can provide water resistance or electrical properties that the
material did not have prior to the protective coating being applied.

Osmotic Blistering

Osmotic blistering is the formation of liquid-filled, dome or spherical-shaped raised

areas of coating. An osmotic blister develops if moisture or a low-concentration solution
from the environment diffuses or passes through the semi-permeable coating to form a
high-concentration solution with the salt or other contamination on the substrate
surface.
The variance in concentrations of the liquids on both sides of the semi-permeable
coating causes moisture or the low-concentration liquid to continue passing through the
semi-permeable coating until equilibrium is achieved. The increasing amount of liquid
under the coating pushes it upwards, increasing the size of the osmotic blister.
Some coating materials like polymers are semi-permeable to liquids and gases.

Corrosionpedia explains Osmotic Blistering

When one sees osmotic blistering, poor adhesion of the coating with the substrate
resulting from poor surface preparation is usually thought to be the first cause. There
are other causes to be considered.
Osmotic blistering is one of the major causes of coating failures. It is therefore important
to know its causes or the conditions at which it is most likely to occur, such as any of the
following:
Semi-permeable surface coating
Thick polymer and other organic coatings are generally considered as effective barriers
to moisture and other liquids. However, all polymers are semi-permeable to liquids and
gases, which results in the accumulation of high-concentration solutions that push the
coating upwards.
Water dissolved solids (soluble salts, pigments or solvents)
The presence of water soluble solids are due to poor surface preparation before coating
or leached out from the coating or substrate itself. Water that passes through the semi-
permeable coating forms a high-concentration solution with the solids between the
substrate and the inner side of the coating.
Different concentrations
The differences in the concentrations of the liquids on both sides of a semi-permeable
material will cause the solvent of the less concentrated liquid to pass through the semi-
permeable material until equilibrium is attained. The volume of the more concentrated
solution increases to push the coating upwards into dome-shaped blisters.
Osmotic blistering can be prevented or reduced by choosing coating material that can
resist water or other liquids it will be exposed to, as well as a surface preparation
method that will completely remove water soluble solids.

Service Exposure
Service exposure refers to the actual environment in which equipment is exposed to
and subjected to during its operation. This exposure is used to determine the
effectiveness of corrosion protection methods such as coatings and inhibitors.
By understanding service exposure conditions, manufacturers can determine the
appropriate protection to last throughout the equipment lifespan, minimizing corrosion
and related failures.

Corrosive environments are influenced by several factors, and the extent of corrosion
varies from one medium to another. Other than environmental factors, corrosion may
arise due to byproducts of a process or inefficiency of a system such as leaks.
Manufacturers usually carry out accelerated laboratory testing or short-term service
exposure tests to determine the effectiveness of protective methods. The accelerated
test is only indicative and may not include all factors present in the real operational
environment.
A typical short-term service exposure test for automotive coatings is carried out by
placing multiple test panels of automotive finishes onto automotive test fleets that
traverse a defined road course. The test takes about ten weeks with the panel exposed
to the environment for at least 20 hours a day, seven days a week and accumulating
over 100,000 miles of exposure. Such testing is valuable for the verification of the
performance of automotive coatings and correlation with laboratory test data.
Various service exposure factors that influence the rate of corrosion are:

 Chemistry of the medium, such as the presence of acids, alkalis, reactive salts
and factors such as electrical conductivity and resistance
  Type of exposure, whether fluctuating, partial or complete, and whether the
equipment is exposed to chemicals, sunlight, humidity, moisture, condensation,
splash exposure and other weather effects
 Temperature, fog, snowfall, storm, UV exposure, etc.
 Reactivity and properties of the products being handled either as final products,
inputs or byproducts
 Particulate matter (PM), a mixture of solid particles and liquid droplets in the air,
may consist of several components such as acids, organic chemicals, metals,
and soil or dust particles

Flash Corrosion/Rust
Flash corrosion is the general and rapid corrosion that instantly occurs when metals are
exposed to corrosive environments. This is a phenomenon associated with the rusting
of a wet cast-iron pan that is left to dry by air.
Metals such as copper and aluminum can oxidize rapidly to form a layer for passivation.
In this process, corrosion inhibitors are typically used to hinder formation of a
passivation layer by keeping oxygen interaction on the surface.
Flash corrosion is also known as flash rusting or flashing.

Flash corrosion is a severe problem for all water-borne-type coatings on steel. This type
of corrosion occurs from the steel bleeding through the coat, leading to staining within
hours after the coat has been applied. Flash corrosion occurs quickly, especially when
thin water films reside on the steel surface, triggering the corrosive action. Most of the
time, the corrosion products are soluble and capable of migrating within the coat and
result in a stain.
This corrosion phenomenon occurs at the stages of paint application and drying. Thus,
corrosion inhibitors or additives should be added during the drying stage to prevent
flash corrosion from taking place. In fact, there are corrosion laboratory tests that can
measure the effectiveness of corrosion inhibitors in terms of flash rusting. Such
inhibitors are applied to the paint to prevent oxidation that is responsible for rusting.
These tests are often carried out to assess the effectiveness of anti-flash corrosion
additives in a particular type of coating. The duration of the test depends on the kind of
coating and the results are usually expressed as the degree and rate of corrosion.
Such additives serve as one of the best ways to control flash corrosion. These
chemicals are capable of insulating coating electrically or making the coating
impermeable to fight electrochemical reactions. Therefore, the use of these chemicals
can be very helpful, especially in water-borne systems as they can effectively combat
flash rust and offer rust protection.
Visual Test
A visual test refers to the close examination of a material's surface (often a metallic
surface) to determine its state of wear and/or the presence of corrosion based only on
what can be seen and crossed-referenced with governing inspection standards.
Visual testing is typically the first type of test performed to determine corrosion
infiltration. It is conducted in an environment with ample lighting and with reference to
support publications to facilitate the proper identification of observed discrepancies.
Standard references such as ASTM International, ASME and ANSI are all crossed-referenced
to draw finite conclusions of visually observed occurrences. Video cameras can be used to
record observations for reference purposes. Visual testing is often followed by chemical or
biological testing to make conclusive decisions.

Corrosion Resistance
Corrosion resistance refers to the resistance a material offers against a reaction with
adverse elements that can corrode the material. Various materials have this property
intrinsically, depending upon their corrosion resistance rate. Alternatively, some
methods or treatments can be used to resist corrosion, such as painting or hot dip
galvanizing, or a combination of these methods with coating.
Corrosion is a process in which a material is oxidized by substances in the environment
that cause the material to lose electrons. Corrosion resistance is the capacity to hold the
binding energy of a metal and withstand the deterioration and chemical breakdown that
would otherwise occur when the material is exposed to such an environment.

Usually the resistance to corrosion is expressed in terms of the corrosion rate and
measured in units of millimeter per year or "mils." These measurements for resistance
to corrosion attack are taken in a particular environment at defined operating conditions,
pressure, temperature and fluid velocity.
Besides intrinsic corrosion resistance, a metal's resistance to corrosion can be
increased by applying different methods such as cathodic protection, coating, painting
and applying a corrosion inhibitor. There are no materials that are resistant to all
corrosion in all environments. Materials must be matched to the environment they will
experience. Corrosion resistances for metals are estimated and data is used to check
the sustainability of a metal in a particular environment.
Protective coatings are the most widely used corrosion control technique. Essentially,
protective coating materials are a means for separating the surfaces that are
susceptible to corrosion attack. Another method, cathodic protection, interferes with the
natural action of electrochemical cells that are responsible for corrosion. Cathodic
protection can be effectively used to resist corrosion of surfaces that are immersed in
water or exposed to soil.
Corrosion resistance is an important factor to consider when selecting materials for
corrosion control. The materials most resistant to corrosion are those for which
corrosion is thermodynamically unfavorable. Some metals have naturally slow reaction
kinetics, even though their corrosion is thermodynamically favorable. These include
metals such as zinc, magnesium and cadmium. Thus, a material's own resistance to
corrosion or protective methods to arrest corrosion fall under the category of corrosion
resistance.

Substrate Preparation
Substrate preparation refers to the entirety of activities, codes, standards and/or guidelines that
must be performed to ensure the readiness of a material prior to applying a protective coating or
other substance to its surface.

Substrate preparation ensures the readiness of a material's surface to receive and support a
protective coating. This preparation involves several activities depending on the material's type
and application. Some key activities include chemical cleaning, mechanical cleaning, shot
blasting, sand basting and acid etching, among others. The majority of such activities involve
smoothing the material's surface to ensure debris is entirely removed and acquire the proper
surface profile. Several industry standards must be closely followed to perform these activities
correctly and ensure safety.