RECOMMENDED READING

The recommended texts for this unit are:

• Runco, M.A. (ed.) 1994, Problem Finding, Problem Solving, and Creativity, Creativity
Research. Ablex, Norwood, NJ.

OR

• Sternberg, R.J. (ed). 1999. Handbook of Creativity. Cambridge, Cambridge University

Press.

These books are essentially alternatives. They replace a book which we used for quite a
while (Dacey, J. S. 1989. Fundamentals of Creative Thinking. USA, Lexington Books).
The book by Dacey covers both creativity and problem solving and could still be a useful
one to read if you can obtain a copy of it. I will describe in detail some sections of Dacey
in the Unit Notes, which accompanies this Study Guide. There are quite a few books that
could provide useful information depending on your particular interest, and some of these
are listed below.

Creative Thinking
• Types of thinking
o Forward thinking (deductive)
o Reverse thinking (inductive)
 Given a problem, come up with various methods to solve it (need
brainstorming)
 Analogy: Given the peak of a mountain, try to find a path from the
foot of the mountain to reach the peak.
 Think about whether the problem is ill-posed; if so, reformulate the
problem.
o Vertical thinking:
o Lateral thinking: multidisciplinary, cross multiple areas

Vertical thinking Lateral thinking

Looking for the right approachLooking for as many
approaches as possible
Rightness Richness
Proceeds if there is a direction Proceeds to generate direction
Is analytical Is provocative (brainstorming)
Is sequential Can make jumps
One must be correct at every One does not have to be
step correct at every step
Uses negative to block off There is no negative
certain pathways
 Excludes what is irrelevant
Fixed categories/labels
Explores most likely paths
Is a finite process
Problems and Problem Solving
Welcomes chance intrusions
Labels may change
Explores least likely paths
Is a probabilistic process

Introduction

Problem solving is what engineers do. It is what they are, or should be, good at. At one time
the basic problem solving skills engineering students needed were developed in school, with
university engineering programmes being able to build on them. Unfortunately that is no
longer the case. A look at today's GCSE and A-level papers show us why many students
coming in to university have had very little training in the process of problem solving: the
“problems” set tend to be largely single step tests of knowledge of individual principles. The
current A-level students are not asked to tackle multi-step problems, and if faced with a large
set of information where the required objective cannot be reached in one single familiar step
many will not know what to do. Very few new undergraduates will have the confidence and
mental processes available to say “I don't know how to solve this problem yet, but if I set
about it systematically and think about it I expect I'll work it out”.

It is common in engineering education to talk about the “mathematics problem” i.e. the
weakness in mathematics of students entering university engineering programmes. Certainly
the lack of fluency in specific mathematical techniques is an obvious aspect of this “problem”,
but the more serious aspect may be the lack of understanding of problem solving processes.

It is this author's contention that problem-solving skills may be the most important thing we
can teach our students and, if students don't come to university with the necessary skills, we
do have to teach them. To progress onto other engineering course content without ensuring
that students can apply a systematic problem-solving process is pointless. Consequently
problem solving should be systematically and explicitly taught in the first year of all
engineering degree programmes.

How do we teach problem solving?

We can divide what needs to be taught into two areas: the process of problem solving, which
is generic, and the tools for executing steps of solutions, which are subject specific.

To teach problem solving requires the cooperation of all staff teaching first year students.
Students should be given an agreed general problem solving process and then set multi-step
problems in all their individual subject modules with all staff insisting that the students follow
the same process at all times. Periodically the general process should be reviewed with the
students, helping them to abstract the generic process from its specific applications, and to
appreciate the need to practice specific skills.

The problem solving process

What follows here is a generic description of problem solving that can

apply within any academic discipline or context provided that there is a
familiarity and fluency with the tools applicable to that context.
A problem comprises a situation and an objective. The situation can be real or described, and
where described, can exist in the real world or in an abstract, intellectual, world. The situation
includes resources, which may be physical objects or information, and constraints or rules.
The objective can be a) either to achieve a specific result, (for example a physical change in
the situation or a piece of information) or b) may involve producing a proof or explanation.

Both types involve going through a process, but in the first type that process is a means to an
end whereas in the second type it is the process itself that is important.

The problem solving process, for simple problems, involves:

1. Assemble and evaluate information and resources.

First obtain a clear description of the situation and ensure that it is fully

comprehended. This may involve writing down lists and diagrams, re-describing the

situation, trying to get a clear mental picture of all the relationships which exist within
the situation, of what the resources are and what they can be used for, and of the

constraints and their implications. The objective must also be clarified.

2. Brainstorm and plan solution process

The brainstorming process involves first looking at the situation and asking what

immediate changes can be made, what will be the consequences of these changes,

and looking at the objective and asking what would enable the objective to be

reached. It also involves considering any similar problems previously solved. The aim

is to identify a set of steps that lead from the original situation to the desired

objective.
3. Implement solution

Once a set of steps has been identified, the solution process proceeds from one step to

the next, regularly reviewing progress and checking back to make sure that the steps

taken so far are valid and have produced the required result, until the required

objective is reached.
4. Check results

A final check is then made to verify that the result produced is the required objective.

If, at intermediate stages, checks on progress reveal an error, then it is necessary to

go back one or more steps and rethink the problem, again looking for a set of steps

that leads from the original situation, or from the results of previously verified steps,

to the objective.

Informative speech

The main purpose behind an informative speech is to deliver the information or message clearly to the
audience. An informative speaker is responsible for researching on the topic provided and presents a detailed
presentation in a very clear and concise manner. The basic theme of an informative speech is the information;
therefore, proper understanding of the topic is very important. An informative speech should be an outcome of
the thorough study. An informative speech is required in almost all fields, whether you are software professional
or a nonprofessional, you may require to share information with your subordinates and managers. Keeping this
perspective in mind, we can say that the informative speech is the key factor for success of a professional
irrespective of the field he or she belongs to.

An informative speech should contain useful information that is unique for the audience and draws their
attention towards the speech. If you can achieve this objective then you can easily become an informative
speaker and deliver an informative speech in a proper manner. Most of the informative speeches either are
written for some events or processes or are just meant to describe some new concepts and ideas.

Usually, it is not the speaker who selects the topic of presentation as the topic either is given by the high-level
officers or is situational. However, if you need to figure out the topic for informative speech then you must
concentrate on the topics or field in which you are an expert. Try to recall the personal experiences relating to
that topic that you can include in your speech. Then the next step would be to do detailed study of the subject
so that you have knowledge about every aspect of the topic. For an informative speech, it is very important that
you include the matter by gathering material for the speech from libraries or from the internet.

An informative speech should be divided into three parts. First, a brief introduction of the topic is required.
Then the body part of the speech should include all the details. At last, you need to conclude on a specific
solution. The conclusion should draw the meaning for the informative speech and include the message to be
delivered within the conclusion part of the speech. An informative speech requires the speaker to adjust the
body language according to the type of explanation required, as some audiences may feel distracted due to
irregular body language. Practice makes a person perfect in delivering a speech; therefore, you must practice
the speech so that all the pros and cons are clear in your mind if you have chosen a controversial topic.

While you may feel a little concerned when faced with writing a speech, remember that you know
plenty of things. We are all authorities on something, and have lots of information. The goal is merely
to decide what kind of information we may want to present when we choose informative speech topics.

The informative speech is usually one of four forms. You can give a speech about objects like animals,
vehicles, washing machines, buildings, and et cetera. You can also speak about a process — either
describing how something is done or how to do something. Another theme is to discuss an event,
either one that already occurred or one that will occur. Lastly, you can discuss ideas or concepts,
though this type of speech may be harder because it can easily become a persuasive speech.

With a speech focused on objects your goal is to come up with informative speech topics that will be
easy to clearly describe. You could choose to give a speech on an animal you find fascinating, or
describe virtually anything. Since you usually are composing a speech that will have time limitation,
you want to make sure your information is specific and stays on topic.

Process speeches can be some of the easiest to do, especially when they are the “how to” type. You
can demonstrate how to make a sandwich or you can talk about anything you know “how to” do. There
are plenty of process speech subjects including how to prevent illnesses, how to lose weight, how to
eat healthfully, how to play a specific sport, how to save money when shopping, and the list can go on.

With speeches focused on an event, informative speech topics could be so many different things.
Describe a historical event, talk about an upcoming event in your community, or discuss an event you
attended like the opening of a business, or the first night of your county fair. You can even discuss
things like pet shows, fashion shows, rock concerts, school plays or anything else that comes under
this heading.

When you’re going to choose conceptual informative speech topics, the most important thing is to stay
away from highly contentious issues. It is extremely difficult to give an information only speech on
things like abortion, euthanasia, the death penalty, animal rights, and a few other topics which people
are likely to take strong sides. You can talk about other concepts, such as mercy, love, forgiveness,
anger, but these can be awfully vague. If you want to give a speech on ideas, try to come up with a
concept that will be easy to describe within the time limits of your speech. If you search online, you will
find many websites that list hundreds of informative speech topics. These may be great if you’re really
having a hard time. As you view these topics keep asking yourself, “What do I know about this
subject?” Sometimes the best speeches are those delivered by people who are experts on a particular
subject. So use topic suggestions to remind yourself where your expertise lies.

How to write informative speech

1. Pick a topic. Unless you're writing your speech for a school assignment, you probably
already know what your topic is. If you are writing your speech for school, however, a good
rule is to choose something you know a lot about; this will require the least amount of
research. Alternatively, you may want to pick a topic you're keenly interested in, so you can
research it and learn about it. Remember, informative speeches simply inform people. You
don't want to choose a topic that will require you to base your speech on your opinion: that's
for a persuasive speech.

2. Narrow down your topic. If your speech is limited to five minutes, you don't have
enough time to tell people all about the history of invention or to explain how to build a car.
You may, however, be able to tell people about the history of the zipper. You should be able to
thoroughly cover your topic in the time allotted.

3. Develop your thesis. Your thesis should be a statement of what the speech is about, a
sentence that describes your narrow topic. For example, "I am going to explain how to take
apart a carburetor," or "In this speech you will learn about how the zipper came to be" might be
good theses.

4. Do your research. If there's one rule to writing an informative speech it's this: know your
subject. If you're writing about something you know well, you may not need to do much, if any,
research. Otherwise, hit the books, and learn as much as possible about your topic. Take
notes of important information as you go along.

5. Consider your audience. In general, unless your assignment says otherwise, it's a good
idea to assume your audience knows nothing about your topic. With this in mind, you may
need to give plenty of background information and be careful about what shortcuts you take in
explaining your topic. If, however, you're giving your speech on carburetors to a group of auto
mechanics, you don't need to give a lot of background information, because they already know
the topic well.

6. Outline your speech. Write a list of the information you think should be included. Put the
list in logical order. If you're telling people how to do something, your outline might look a bit
like the bolded first sentences in the steps of this wikiHow article. Remember you want
everyone listening to go away with at least one piece of information they didn't know.

7. Write an introduction. Your introduction should grab the audience's attention, perhaps
with an amusing anecdote or an interesting quote relevant to your topic. Then you should
proceed to give your thesis statement, and then, if it's a long or complicated speech, provide
your audience with a roadmap.

8. Expand your outline to make the body of the speech. Go through each key point on
your outline and expand it.

9. Write your conclusion. A conclusion should quickly summarize the main points of the
speech. Ideally, your conclusion should refer back to the introduction in some way--this shows
the speech is cohesive and tells the audience that you have come full circle.
 10. Time your speech. If you have been given a time limit, practice your speech - out loud -
and time it. Cut out unnecessary material if your speech is too long. Unless your assignment
says otherwise, don't worry if the speech is short of the time limit. The speech should be just
long enough to cover the material thoroughly.

• Your outline is meant to be a guide to help you organize your speech, but it's not set in
stone. As you fill in the details to actually write your speech, you may find that some points in
your outline are unnecessary or out of order. Feel free to add, delete, and rearrange points to
make sense.

• Be sure to edit and practice your speech to make sure everything goes smoothly when
you deliver it to your audience.

• If you have trouble thinking of a topic for your speech, search the internet for topics.
There are sites with lists of potential topics.

• Stick to the facts. Remember, you're not trying to persuade people to adopt an opinion.
You're just informing them about something.

• Don't speak too fast; give your audience a chance to take in the information you are
giving them.

• Speak loud enough for the audience to hear you

The Informative Speech

This section provides some easy, effective techniques with helpful hints and tips on writing an Informative speech to
provide interesting and useful information to increase the knowledge of your audience and might involve providing
information about a person, and animal or an object.

What exactly is an Informative Speech? Definition

Let's start be considering exactly what is an Informative speech. Definition: An Informative speech is written to
provide interesting and useful information to increase the knowledge of your audience. This might involve providing
information about a person, and animal or an object. It might centre around information regarding a process, a 'How
to' speech e.g. How to Surf the Internet. An type of Informative speech is focussed on describing an event like
'Visiting an exhibition on Tutankhamen'. And finally Informative speeches about ideas or concepts like 'Aliens' or
'What happened to the Dinosaurs'. There are various techniques to help complete this type of task and we would also
recommend that you check out our free, fast and concise PowerPoint-style presentations on:

Writing a Speech
Giving a Speech

The Main Elements to Writing an Informative Speech

The main elements to writing a successful and effective Informative speech are to convey your knowledge and your
ability to explain the subject :

 Knowledge - Establish credibility by demonstrating expertise and knowledge of the subject - conveying
information,, presenting ideas, facts and statistics to adequately inform the audience about the subject
 Key Points - Repeat all the Key points to ensure maximum knowledge retention
 Interest - Conveying the subject with enthusiasm and including unusual facts or anecdotes about the subject

List of Informative Speech Topics

The Structure and Outline of an Informative Speech

What is a good structure, outline or good guidelines to writing an Informative speech?

 Your Opener - the opening, ice-breaker or attention grabber

 Introduction - Tell them what the speech is about and what your main points will be
 Knowledge - Establish credibility by demonstrating expertise and knowledge of the subject - conveying
information, presenting ideas, facts and statistics to adequately inform the audience about the subject
 Confirmation - Confirm and repeat the key points
 Conclusion - Try to end with a memorable punch line or positive statement

Famous Examples of Informative Speeches

What are some famous examples of Informative speeches?

 American Declaration of Independence

 British Declaration Of War Neville Chamberlain, 1939

Informative Speech - Tips and Hints on Writing and Giving Speeches

There are more tips and hints on Writing and Giving Speeches in our Free PowerPoint style presentations.

Informative Speech

 Definition and outline ofInformative speech

 Free PowerPoint style presentations on speeches
 Helpful Hints and Tips
 Informing and Interesting speeches
 Main Elements to Writing Informative speeches
 Free, Fast and interesting information
 Gain confidence with the free presentation

Opener, Introduction, Credibility, presenting facts, personal experiences, main arguments, Alternatives and
Conclusion

Informative Speeches

Easy, effective techniques with helpful hints & tips on informing Speeches. Outlines, Openers, Introductions,
presenting facts, personal experiences, memories, closing comments and conclusion.

GUIDELINES FOR USING AUDIOVISUAL AIDS

PLANNING AUDIOVISUAL AIDS

Audiovisual aids--including overhead transparencies, flip charts, slides,

chalkboards (and occasionally film and video)--can supply added impact and
clarity to your, presentation. You can use A/-V to visually reinforce the
points made verbally in your presentation, to summarize the points you will
make, as well as those you have already made, and to visually clarify
important concepts and analogies. Audiovisual aids not only help your target
group follow your presentation, but they provide support to the presenter by
helping to keep, you on track.

The key to preparing effective audiovisual aids is to remember that they are
only aids. Their role is to add a visual dimension to the points that you made
orally. They cannot make those points for you; they can only reinforce them.
When you plan for audiovisual aids, follow these simple guidelines:

1. DO use them to summarize or show the sequence of content.

2. DO use them to visually interpret statistics by preparing charts and
graphs that illustrate what you will say.
3. DO use them to illustrate and reinforce your support statements.
4. DO use them to add visual clarity to your concepts and ideas.
5. DO use them to focus the attention of the target group on key points.
6. DON'T project copies of printed or written text. Instead, summarize
the information and show only the key points on the visual aids. If the
group must read every word, use handouts for reading, either before
or after your presentation.
7. DON'T put yourself in the role of aiding your visuals: A presentation
is primarily an oral form of communication. If your only function is to
read the information on your overheads or slides, the target group will
become easily bored.
 8. DON'T use copies of your transparencies as handouts. They reinforce
what you are saying-- they don't say it for you. If you want your
target group to remember what you meant, you'll need to provide
written text in addition to any key point summaries or charts that you
need for your transparencies.
9. DON'T use charts, graphs, or tables that contain more information
than you want to provide. The group will have difficulty focusing on
the point that you're tying to make.

CHOOSING APPROPRIATE MEDIA

You may wish to combine different types of media in a single presentation.

The media used most often are overhead projection transparencies, flip
charts, slides, blackboards, and handouts. You may occasionally use
videotapes and/or films.

Plan to practice using several different media in this course. You will find
that practicing will increase your comfort level, and therefore afford you
the flexibility of choosing the most appropriate medium. In the future, use
the following guidelines to help you choose the media best suited to your
presentation:

TYPES OF MEDIA AND THEIR USES

Overhead Transparencies
Used for displaying charts and graphs. High visibility for large groups.
Showing summaries, sequences, relationships, and process steps.

Flip Charts
Used for small groups (under 20). Ad lib charting and graphing. Showing
summaries and sequences. Listing, recording, outlining. Developing charts.
Instructions. Reinforcing group contributions.

Blackboards/Whiteboards
Spontaneous presentations. Listing/recording. When no other media is
available.

Slides
Displaying high quality artwork. Displaying a series of photos.
Demonstrating- a "hands-on" process. Creating a mood, or inspiring.
Videotapes and Films
Demonstrating a process. Creating a mood, or inspiring. Presenting*
testimonials. Supplementing presentation ideas.

Written Handouts
Providing background information. "Sending home" your ideas. Reminder of
follow-up activities. Providing a record of presentation. Weighting a variety
of alternatives. Clarifying abstract or complex topics.

OVERHEAD TRANSPARENCIES

Overhead transparencies are inexpensive, easily prepared, and highly

effective visual aids for target groups of five or more people. With smaller
target groups, choose overhead transparencies as your primary A/V medium
if the target group prefers a somewhat formal mode of communication. With
small groups, overhead projection may tend to distance you from the target
group and limit personal interaction. If you are presenting to a relatively
informal group of less than five people, you may wish to use transparencies
only to display charts and graphs.

If costs very little to add color to your charts and graphs, using special
transparency markers and adhesive color film. If fact, some ordinary
markers will work perfectly we on transparency film.

You can use overhead projections in full light in any size room. There are
three simple guidelines for preparing effective transparencies: Visibility,
clarity, and simplicity

VISIBILITY
Lettering should be neat and at least a quarter inch high. You should be able
to read the original at a distance of seven feet. Computers make very
effective, highly visible transparencies. If a computer is not available, use a
typewriter equipped with a special "Orator" typeface, or a special lettering
system designed for overhead transparencies, or "rub-off' lettering
(available at any art supply store) to provide readable lettering. If you must
hand-print, be sure that your printing is neat and even. Use all capital
letters, and write with a black, felt-tipped pen.
CLARITY
Everything displayed on an overhead transparency should be instantly
recognized by the target group. Label all elements of your charts and
graphs. Use color or shading Ito emphasize and clarify key elements. Be sure
to title every transparency.

SIMPLICITY
Try to limit each original to one point or comparison. Use a maximum of six
or seven words per line. No more than six lines should be included in a single
transparency. Use a horizontal format whenever possible so that the
projected image will fit the shape of most standard screens.

FLIP CHARTS AND BOARDS

Flip charts are often the ideal visual aid for small target groups. You can
prepare your chart pages in advance for maximum clarity and impact. The
flip chart can also be used to "ad lib," or give the appearance of spontaneity.
Prepared flip charts can be used to show pre-drawn charts, graphs, and
diagrams, or you can draw them "on the spot."

Chalkboards may be used in the same ways as flip charts. But the space they
provide is more limited and the medium is less permanent.

If possible, draw important charts on chalkboards before the presentation

and mask them with paper. Be sure to consider what information you will be
able to erase during the presentation and what you will save for reference at
a later point.

The guidelines for preparing effective flip charts and boards include the
following:

1. Always title each page (or diagram).

2. Print clearly. For maximum visibility, letters should be at least one
inch high for each ten
feet of distance from viewers.
3. Use pictures, diagrams, and symbols whenever possible.
4. Skip a sheet between prepared flip pages to avoid "bleed through."
5. Leave room for "ad lib" flip pages (plan when you'll ad lib).
6. If you plan to ad lib, make sure you have at least two markers with
you--one will always run out of ink.
SLIDES, VIDEO, AND FILMS
Slides, videotapes, and films are included in the same category because! they
all require professional preparation. These media can have a very dramatic
effect if properly selected. However, unless you are using media that is
available through the company library or training center (or your public
library), all three of these media types are expensive. Slides may
occasionally be in your budget, but very few people have the budget to
produce quality videotapes or, even more expensive, films to supplement a
presentation. If you can afford to use slides, video, or film in your
presentation, be sure the media you select reinforce and enhance what you
have to say, and that the media do not contradict your presentation points.
The guidelines for using slides, tapes, and films include the following:

1. Check the room layout and locate light switches and dimmers. Films
and slides must be shown in a darkened room.
2. Make sure the media are up to date, unless you intend to contrast old
and new.
3. Make sure that the images (and sound) are clear--free of static and
other interference.
4. Know how to use the equipment--or enlist the aid of a projection
assistant for your rehearsal and delivery.
5. Make sure that the media are compelling and interesting to the target
group.
6. If you are using slides, check to make sure that they are all in order
and facing in the right direction (not upside down).
7. Check your equipment. Make sure it can project the media you want to
use, in the manner that you want to use it. Verify that it is in good
working condition and that all cables, wires, plugs, etc., are in place
and ready to go.
8. Load and advance the tape or film to the starting point before the
meeting begins. Check sound levels and image clarity.
9. Plan what you will do if the equipment breaks down.

WRITTEN HANDOUTS
When providing written text, remember that you won't be there to explain
or remind the target group of what you mean. Written communications
should be as brief as possible, but they must also be meaningful to the
reader, whether they are read a week before your presentation or a year
after. They should always be:
CLEAR
Written in language that the target group can easily understand and follow.

RELEVANT
Do not simply provide data. Explain why the information should be read and
what it means. Explanations should not repeat your entire presentation, but
should capsulate it.

SPECIFIC
Do not give your target group a mass of reading material that they do not need. Make
sure that all documentation is absolutely necessary.

• AUDIOVISUAL AIDS Audiovisual aids are defined as any device used to aid in the
communication of an idea. From this definition, virtually anything can be used as an aid,
providing it successfully com- municates the idea or information for which it is designed. In
this chapter, we not only use the term “Audiovisual Aids” but “Instructional Aids,”
“Teaching Aids,” “Audio Aids,” and “Visual Aids” as well. An audiovisual product is
any audiovisual (AV) item such as still photography, motion picture, audio or video
tape, slide or filmstrip, that is prepared singly or in combination to communicate information or
to elicit a desired audience response. Even though early aids, such as maps and drawings,
are still in use, advances in the audiovisual field have opened up new methods of presenting these
aids, such as videotapes and multimedia equip- ment which allow more professional and
enter- taining presentations to be presented. Most of the visual aids covered in this chapter
can be grouped into the following categories—nonpro- jected aids and projected aids.
What is Ethics in Research & Why is It Important?
When most people think of ethics (or morals), they think of rules for
distinguishing between right and wrong, such as the Golden Rule ("Do unto
others as you would have them do unto you"), a code of professional
conduct like the Hippocratic Oath ("First of all, do no harm"), a religious
creed like the Ten Commandments ("Thou Shalt not kill..."), or a wise
aphorisms like the sayings of Confucius. This is the most common way of
defining "ethics": ethics are norms for conduct that distinguish between or
acceptable and unacceptable behavior.

Most people learn ethical norms at home, at school, in church, or in other

social settings. Although most people acquire their sense of right and wrong
during childhood, moral development occurs throughout life and human
beings pass through different stages of growth as they mature. Ethical norms
are so ubiquitous that one might be tempted to regard them as simple
commonsense. On the other hand, if morality were nothing more than
commonsense, then why are there so many ethical disputes and issues in our
society?

One plausible explanation of these disagreements is that all people recognize

some common ethical norms but different individuals interpret, apply, and
balance these norms in different ways in light of their own values and life
experiences.

Most societies also have legal rules that govern behavior, but ethical norms
tend to be broader and more informal than laws. Although most societies use
laws to enforce widely accepted moral standards and ethical and legal rules
use similar concepts, it is important to remember that ethics and law are not
the same. An action may be legal but unethical or illegal but ethical. We can
also use ethical concepts and principles to criticize, evaluate, propose, or
interpret laws. Indeed, in the last century, many social reformers urged
citizens to disobey laws in order to protest what they regarded as immoral or
unjust laws. Peaceful civil disobedience is an ethical way of expressing
political viewpoints.

Another way of defining 'ethics' focuses on the disciplines that study

standards of conduct, such as philosophy, theology, law, psychology, or
sociology. For example, a "medical ethicist" is someone who studies ethical
standards in medicine. Finally, one may also define ethics as a method,
procedure, or perspective for deciding how to act and for analyzing
complex problems and issues. For instance, in a complex issue like global
warming, one may take an economic, ecological, political, or ethical
perspective on the problem. While an economist might examine the cost and
benefits of various policies related to global warming, an environmental
ethicist could examine the ethical values and principles at stake in the issue.

Many different disciplines, institutions, and professions have norms for

behavior that suit their particular aims and goals. These norms also help
members of the discipline to coordinate their actions or activities and to
establish the public's trust of the discipline. For instance, ethical norms
govern conduct in medicine, law, engineering, and business. Ethical norms
also serve the aims or goals of research and apply to people who conduct
scientific research or other scholarly or creative activities, and there is a
specialized discipline, research ethics, which studies these norms.

There are several reasons why it is important to adhere to ethical norms in

research. First, some of these norms promote the aims of research, such as
knowledge, truth, and avoidance of error. For example, prohibitions against
fabricating, falsifying, or misrepresenting research data promote the truth
and avoid error. Second, since research often involves a great deal of
cooperation and coordination among many different people in different
disciplines and institutions, many of these ethical standards promote the
values that are essential to collaborative work, such as trust,
accountability, mutual respect, and fairness. For example, many ethical
norms in research, such as guidelines for authorship, copyright and patenting
policies, data sharing policies, and confidentiality rules in peer review, are
designed to protect intellectual property interests while encouraging
collaboration. Most researchers want to receive credit for their contributions
and do not want to have their ideas stolen or disclosed prematurely. Third,
many of the ethical norms help to ensure that researchers can be held
accountable to the public. For instance, federal policies on research
misconduct, on conflicts of interest, on the human subjects protections, and
on animal care and use are necessary in order to make sure that researchers
who are funded by public money can be held accountable to the public.
Fourth, ethical norms in research also help to build public support for
research. People more likely to fund research project if they can trust the
quality and integrity of research. Finally, many of the norms of research
promote a variety of other important moral and social values, such as
social responsibility, human rights, animal welfare, compliance with the law,
and health and safety. Ethical lapses in research can significantly harm to
human and animal subjects, students, and the public. For example, a
researcher who fabricates data in a clinical trial may harm or even kill
patients, and a researcher who fails to abide by regulations and guidelines
relating to radiation or biological safety may jeopardize his health and safety
or the health and safety and staff and students.

Codes and Policies for Research Ethics

Given the importance of ethics for the conduct of research, it should come as
no surprise that many different professional associations, government
agencies, and universities have adopted specific codes, rules, and policies
relating to research ethics. East Carolina University (ECU) has a variety of
policies pertaining to research, which you will review in this short course.
Many government agencies, such as the National Institutes of Health (NIH),
the National Science Foundation (NSF), the Food and Drug Administration
(FDA), the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), and the US
Department of Agriculture (USDA) also have ethics rules for funded
researchers, which we will also mention in this course. Other influential
research ethics policies include the Uniform Requirements (International
Committee of Medical Journal Editors), the Chemist's Code of Conduct
(American Chemical Society), Code of Ethics (American Society for
Clinical Laboratory Science) Ethical Principles of Psychologists (American
Psychological Association), Statements on Ethics and Professional
Responsibility (American Anthropological Association), Statement on
Professional Ethics (American Association of University Professors), The
Nuremberg Code and The Declaration of Helsinki (World Medical
Association). The following is a rough and general summary of some ethical
principals that various codes address*:

Honesty
Strive for honesty in all scientific communications. Honestly report data,
results, methods and procedures, and publication status. Do not fabricate,
falsify, or misrepresent data. Do not deceive colleagues, granting agencies,
or the public.

Objectivity

Strive to avoid bias in experimental design, data analysis, data interpretation,

peer review, personnel decisions, grant writing, expert testimony, and other
aspects of research where objectivity is expected or required. Avoid or
minimize bias or self-deception. Disclose personal or financial interests that
may affect research.

Integrity

Keep your promises and agreements; act with sincerity; strive for
consistency of thought and action.

Carefulness

Avoid careless errors and negligence; carefully and critically examine your
own work and the work of your peers. Keep good records of research
activities, such as data collection, research design, and correspondence with
agencies or journals.

Openness

Share data, results, ideas, tools, resources. Be open to criticism and new
ideas.

Respect for Intellectual Property

Honor patents, copyrights, and other forms of intellectual property. Do not

use unpublished data, methods, or results without permission. Give credit
where credit is due. Give proper acknowledgement or credit for all
contributions to research. Never plagiarize.

Confidentiality

Protect confidential communications, such as papers or grants submitted for

publication, personnel records, trade or military secrets, and patient records.

Responsible Publication

Publish in order to advance research and scholarship, not to advance just

your own career. Avoid wasteful and duplicative publication.

Responsible Mentoring

Help to educate, mentor, and advise students. Promote their welfare and
allow them to make their own decisions.

Respect for colleagues

Respect your colleagues and treat them fairly.

Social Responsibility

Strive to promote social good and prevent or mitigate social harms through
research, public education, and advocacy.

Non-Discrimination

Avoid discrimination against colleagues or students on the basis of sex, race,

ethnicity, or other factors that are not related to their scientific competence
and integrity.

Competence

Maintain and improve your own professional competence and expertise

through lifelong education and learning; take steps to promote competence
in science as a whole.

Legality

Know and obey relevant laws and institutional and governmental policies.

Animal Care

Show proper respect and care for animals when using them in research. Do
not conduct unnecessary or poorly designed animal experiments.

Human Subjects Protection

When conducting research on human subjects, minimize harms and risks

and maximize benefits; respect human dignity, privacy, and autonomy; take
special precautions with vulnerable populations; and strive to distribute the
benefits and burdens of research fairly.

* Adapted from Shamoo A and Resnik D. 2003. Responsible Conduct of

Research (New York: Oxford University Press).

Ethical Decision Making in Research

Although codes, policies, and principals are very important and useful, like
any set of rules, they do not cover every situation that arises in research,
they often conflict, and they require considerable interpretation. It is
therefore important for researchers to learn how to interpret, assess, and
apply various research rules and how to make decisions about how to act in
various situations. The vast majority of decisions that people must make in
the conduct of research involve the straightforward application of ethical
rules. For example, consider the following case,

Case 1:

The research protocol for a study of a drug on hypertension requires the

administration of the drug at different doses to 50 laboratory mice, with
chemical and behavioral tests to determine toxic effects of the drug. Tom
has almost finished the experiment for Dr. Q. He has only 5 mice left to do.
However, he really wants to finish his work in time to go to Florida on
spring break with his friends, who are leaving tonight. He has injected the
drug in all 50 mice but has not completed all of the tests. He therefore
decides to extrapolate from the 45 completed results to produce the 5
additional results.

Many different research ethics policies would hold that Tom has acted
unethically by fabricating data. If this study were sponsored by a federal
agency, such as the NIH, his actions would constitute a form of research
misconduct, which the government defines as "fabrication, falsification, or
plagiarism" (or FFP). Actions that nearly all researchers classify as unethical
are viewed as misconduct. It is important to remember, however, that
misconduct occurs only when researchers intend to deceive: honest errors
related to sloppiness, poor record keeping, miscalculations, bias, self-
deception, and even negligence do not constitute misconduct. Also,
reasonable disagreements about research methods, procedures, and
interpretations do not constitute research misconduct. Consider the
following case:

Case 2:

Dr. T has just discovered a mathematical error in a paper that has been
accepted for publication in a journal. The error does not affect the overall
results of his research, but it is potentially misleading. The journal has just
gone to press, so it is too late to catch the error before it appears in print. In
order to avoid embarrassment, Dr. T decides to ignore the error.

Clearly, Dr. T's error is not a form of misconduct nor is his decision to take
no action to correct the error. Most researchers as well as many different
policies and codes, including ECU's policies, would say that Dr. T should
tell the journal about the error and consider publishing a correction or errata.
Failing to publish a correction would be unethical because it would violate
norms relating to honesty and objectivity in research.

There are many other activities that the government does not define as
"misconduct" but which are still regarded by most researchers as unethical.
These are sometimes called "other deviations" from acceptable research
practices. Some of these might include:

• Publishing the same paper in two different journals without telling

the editors
• Submitting the same paper to different journals without telling the
editors
• Not informing a collaborator of your intent to file a patent in order to
make sure that you are the sole inventor
• Including a colleague as an author on a paper in return for a favor
even though the colleague did not make a serious contribution to the
paper
• Discussing with your colleagues data from a paper that you are
reviewing for a journal
• Trimming outliers from a data set without discussing your reasons in
paper
• Using an inappropriate statistical technique in order to enhance the
significance of your research
• Bypassing the peer review process and announcing your results
through a press conference without giving peers adequate
information to review your work
• Conducting a review of the literature that fails to acknowledge the
contributions of other people in the field or relevant prior work
• Stretching the truth on a grant application in order to convince
reviewers that your project will make a significant contribution to the
field
• Stretching the truth on a job application or curriculum vita
• Giving the same research project to two graduate students in order to
see who can do it the fastest
• Overworking, neglecting, or exploiting graduate or post-doctoral
students
• Keeping original data at home or taking it with you when you move
• Failing to maintain research data for a reasonable period of time
• Making derogatory comments and personal attacks in your review of
 author's submission
• Promising a student a better grade for sexual favors
• Using a racist epithet in the laboratory
• Making significant deviations from the research protocol approved
by your institution's Animal Care and Use Committee or Institutional
Review Board for Human Subjects Research without telling the
committee or the board
• Not reporting an adverse event in a human research experiment
• Wasting animals in research
• Exposing students and staff to biological risks in violation of your
institution's biosafety rules
• Rejecting a manuscript for publication without even reading it
• Sabotaging someone's work
• Stealing supplies, books, or data
• Rigging an experiment so you know how it will turn out
• Making unauthorized copies of data, papers, or computer programs
• Owning over $10,000 in stock in a company that sponsors your
research and not disclosing this financial interest
• Deliberately overestimating the clinical significance of a new drug in
order to obtain economic benefits

Many of these actions would be regarded as highly unethical and some

might even be illegal. Most of these would also violate different professional
ethics codes or institutional policies. However, they do not fall into the
narrow category of actions that the government classifies as research
misconduct. Indeed, there has been considerable debate about the definition
of "research misconduct" and many researchers and policy makers are not
satisfied with the government's narrow definition that focuses on FFP.
However, given the huge list of potential offenses that might fall into the
category "other deviations," and the practical problems with defining and
policing these other deviations, it is understandable why government
officials have chosen to limit their focus.

Finally, situations frequently arise in research in which different people

disagree about the proper course of action and there is no broad consensus
about what should be done. In these situations, there may be good arguments
on both sides of the issue and different ethical principles may conflict. These
situations create difficult decisions for research known as ethical dilemmas.
Consider the following case:

Case 3:

Dr. S is a post-doctoral student in computer science working on some

programs that eliminate computer viruses. Two other graduate students are
working with her on the project, which is directed by a senior researcher. Dr.
S has just received an email from a research team that is working on a
similar project at another university. The other team would like Dr. S to
share some preliminary data and designs related to the project. Dr. S has not
applied for a patent on this research, although she has discussed possible
patents with her supervisor.

Dr. S faces a difficult choice. On the one hand, the ethical norm of openness
obliges her to share data and designs with the other team. If both teams work
together, they may both benefit and help each other as well as the profession
and society. On the other hand, if she shares data and designs with the other
team, then they may not give her (or her team) proper credit and they may
win they may win the race to be the first team to be credited with the
discovery. By sharing information, Dr. S could jeopardize potential patents
and other intellectual property interests. It seems that there are good
arguments on both sides of this issue and Dr. S needs to take some time to
think about what she should do. What are some steps that researchers, such
as Dr. S, can take to "solve" ethical dilemmas in research? The following is
a series of questions that can help people resolve ethical dilemmas:

What is the problem or issue?

It is always important to get a clear statement of the problem. In this case,

the issue is whether to share information with the other research team.

What is the relevant information?

Many bad decisions are made as a result of poor information. To know what
to do, Dr. S needs to have more information concerning such matters as
university policies that may apply to this situation, the team's intellectual
property interests, the possibility of negotiating some kind of agreement
with the other team, whether the other team also has some information it is
willing to share, etc.

What are the different options?

It is important to spell out the various options as well. People may fail to see
different options due a limited imagination, bias, ignorance, or fear. In this
case, there may be another choice besides 'share' or 'don't share,' such as
'negotiation.'

How do ethical codes or policies as well as legal rules apply to these

different options?

The university may have its own policies on intellectual property or data
management that applies to this case. Broader ethical rules, such as openness
and respect for intellectual property, may also apply to this case. Relevant
laws that would apply to this case might include laws relating to patents,
such as laws on prior disclosure and preliminary patents.

Are there any people who can offer ethical advice?

It may be useful to seek advice from a colleague, a senior researcher, your

department chair, or anyone else you can trust. In the case, Dr. S might want
to talk to her supervisor before making a decision.

After answering these questions, a person facing an ethical dilemma may

decide to ask more questions, gather more information, explore different
options, consider other ethical rules, and so on. However, at some point he
or she will have to make a decision and then take action. Ideally, a person
who makes a decision in an ethical dilemma should be able to justify his or
her decision to himself or herself, as well as colleagues, administrators, and
other people who might be affected by the decision. He or she should be
able to articulate reasons for his or her conduct and should be able to
explain how he or she arrived at his or her decision. He or she should
therefore examine carefully the different options in light of the information
and problems raised. The following are some questions one might consider
at arriving at a final decision.

• Which choice could stand up to further publicity and scrutiny?

• Which choice could you not live with or be unable to defend?
• Think of the wisest person you know. What would he or she do in
this situation?
• Which choice would be the most just, fair, or responsible?
• Which choice will probably have the best overall consequences?

After considering all of these questions, one still might find it difficult to
decide what to do. If this is the case, then it may be appropriate to consider
others ways of making the decision, such as going with one's gut feeling,
seeking guidance through prayer or meditation, or even flipping a coin.
Endorsing these methods in this context need not imply that ethical
decisions are irrational or that these other methods should be used only as a
last resort. The main point is that human reasoning plays a pivotal role in
ethical decision-making but there are limits to its ability to solve all ethical
dilemmas in a finite amount of time.

Promoting Ethical Conduct in Science

Many of you may be wondering why you are being required to have training
in research ethics. You may believe that you are highly ethical and know the
difference between right and wrong. You would never fabricate or falsify
data or plagiarize. Indeed, you also may believe that most of your colleagues
are highly ethical and that there is no ethics problem in research.

If you feel this way, relax. No one is accusing you of acting unethically.
Indeed, the best evidence we have shows that misconduct is a very rare
occurrence in research. There have been 200 confirmed cases of misconduct
in federally funded research in the last 200 years, which works out to a rate
of 1in 10,000 (or 0.01%). Of course, this estimate may be extremely low due
to various biases related to under-reporting. Several studies have surveyed
researchers to ask them whether they have observed misconduct or know
about a case of suspected misconduct. There is a great deal of variation in
these results, ranging from 3% to 12% who say they have observed
misconduct or know about a case of suspected misconduct. These results,
though much higher than 0.01%, still do not support the hypothesis that is
common in science, especially when you consider these results in relation to
the larger body of research. If 5-10% of drivers have witnessed a fatal traffic
accident, this does not prove that fatal traffic accidents are common, if you
consider this in light of total numbers of hours that people drive.

Clearly, it would be useful to have more data on this topic, but so far there is
no evidence that science has become ethically corrupt. However, even if
misconduct is rare, it can have a tremendous impact on research. Consider
an analogy with crime: it does not take many murders or rapes in a town to
erode the community's sense of trust and increase the community's fear and
paranoia. The same thing is true with the most serious crimes in science, i.e.
fabrication, falsification, and plagiarism. However, most of the crimes
committed in science probably are not tantamount to murder or rape. Most
of the crimes in science, like most of the crimes in society, are probably the
less serious but ethically significant misdeeds that are classified by the
government as 'deviations.' Moreover, there are many situations in research
that are genuine ethical dilemmas.

Will training and education in research ethics help reduce the rate of
misconduct in science? It is too early to tell. The answer to this question
depends on how one understands the causes of misconduct. There are two
main theories about why researchers commit misconduct. According to the
"bad apple" theory, most scientists are highly ethical. Only researchers who
are morally corrupt, economically desperate, or psychologically disturbed
commit misconduct. Moreover, only a fool would commit misconduct
because science's peer review system and self-correcting mechanisms will
eventually catch those who try to cheat the system. In any case, a course in
research ethics will have little impact on "bad apples," one might argue.
According to the "stressful" or "imperfect" environment theory, misconduct
occurs because various institutional pressures, incentives, and constraints
encourage people to commit misconduct. Often cited here pressures to
publish or obtain grants or contracts, career ambitions, the pursuit of profit
or fame, poor supervision of students and trainees, and poor oversight of
researchers. Moreover, defenders of the stressful environment theory point
out that science's peer review system is far from perfect and that it is
relatively easy to cheat the system. Erroneous or fraudulent research often
enters the public record without being detected for years. To the extent that
research environment is an important factor in misconduct, a course in
research ethics is likely to help people to get a better understanding of these
stresses, sensitize people to the various ethical concerns, and improve ethical
judgment and decision making.

Misconduct probably results from environmental and individual causes, i.e.

when people who are morally weak, ignorant, or insensitive are placed in
stressful or imperfect environments. In any case, a course in research ethics
could still be useful in helping to prevent deviations from norms even if it
does not prevent misconduct. Many of the deviations that occur in research
may occur because researchers simple do not know or have never thought
seriously about some of the ethical norms of research. For example, some
unethical authorship practices probably reflect years of tradition in the
research community that have not been questioned seriously until recently.
If the director of a lab is named as an author on every paper that comes from
his lab, even if he does not make a significant contribution, what could be
wrong with that? That's just the way it's done, one might argue. If a drug
company uses ghostwriters to write papers "authored" by its physician-
employees, what's wrong about this practice? Ghost writers help write all
sorts of books these days, so what's wrong with using ghostwriters in
research?

Another example where there may be some ignorance or at least some

mistaken traditions is the problem of conflicts of interest in research. A
researcher may think that a "normal" or "traditional" financial relationship,
such as accepting stock or a consulting fee from a drug company that
sponsors her research, raises no serious ethical issues. Or perhaps a
university administrator sees no ethical problem in taking a large gift with
strings attached from a pharmaceutical company. Maybe a physician thinks
that it is perfectly appropriate to receive a $300 finders fee for referring
patients into a clinical trial.

If "deviations" from ethical conduct occur in research as a result of

ignorance or a failure to reflect critically on problematic traditions, then a
course in research ethics may help reduce the rate of serious deviations by
improving the researcher's understanding of ethics and by sensitizing him or
her to the issues.

Finally, training in research ethics should be able to help researchers grapple

with ethical dilemmas in that it introduces researchers to some important
 concepts, tools, principles, and methods that can be useful in resolving these
dilemmas. In fact, the issues have become so important that the NIH has
decided that all intramural researchers should receive training in research
ethics. We will try to make the process as painless and interesting as
possible.

Ethics in Research
We are going through a time of profound change in our understanding of the ethics of
applied social research. From the time immediately after World War II until the early
1990s, there was a gradually developing consensus about the key ethical principles that
should underlie the research endeavor. Two marker events stand out (among many
others) as symbolic of this consensus. The Nuremberg War Crimes Trial following World
War II brought to public view the ways German scientists had used captive human
subjects as subjects in oftentimes gruesome experiments. In the 1950s and 1960s, the
Tuskegee Syphilis Study involved the withholding of known effective treatment for
syphilis from African-American participants who were infected. Events like these forced
the reexamination of ethical standards and the gradual development of a consensus that
potential human subjects needed to be protected from being used as 'guinea pigs' in
scientific research.

By the 1990s, the dynamics of the situation changed. Cancer patients and persons with
AIDS fought publicly with the medical research establishment about the long time
needed to get approval for and complete research into potential cures for fatal diseases. In
many cases, it is the ethical assumptions of the previous thirty years that drive this 'go-
slow' mentality. After all, we would rather risk denying treatment for a while until we
achieve enough confidence in a treatment, rather than run the risk of harming innocent
people (as in the Nuremberg and Tuskegee events). But now, those who were threatened
with fatal illness were saying to the research establishment that they wanted to be test
subjects, even under experimental conditions of considerable risk. You had several very
vocal and articulate patient groups who wanted to be experimented on coming up against
an ethical review system that was designed to protect them from being experimented on.

Although the last few years in the ethics of research have been tumultuous ones, it is
beginning to appear that a new consensus is evolving that involves the stakeholder groups
most affected by a problem participating more actively in the formulation of guidelines
for research. While it's not entirely clear, at present, what the new consensus will be, it is
almost certain that it will not fall at either extreme: protecting against human
experimentation at all costs vs. allowing anyone who is willing to be experimented on.

Ethical Issues
There are a number of key phrases that describe the system of ethical protections that the
contemporary social and medical research establishment have created to try to protect
better the rights of their research participants. The principle of voluntary participation
requires that people not be coerced into participating in research. This is especially
relevant where researchers had previously relied on 'captive audiences' for their subjects
-- prisons, universities, and places like that. Closely related to the notion of voluntary
participation is the requirement of informed consent. Essentially, this means that
prospective research participants must be fully informed about the procedures and risks
involved in research and must give their consent to participate. Ethical standards also
require that researchers not put participants in a situation where they might be at risk of
harm as a result of their participation. Harm can be defined as both physical and
psychological. There are two standards that are applied in order to help protect the
privacy of research participants. Almost all research guarantees the participants
confidentiality -- they are assured that identifying information will not be made available
to anyone who is not directly involved in the study. The stricter standard is the principle
of anonymity which essentially means that the participant will remain anonymous
throughout the study -- even to the researchers themselves. Clearly, the anonymity
standard is a stronger guarantee of privacy, but it is sometimes difficult to accomplish,
especially in situations where participants have to be measured at multiple time points
(e.g., a pre-post study). Increasingly, researchers have had to deal with the ethical issue of
a person's right to service. Good research practice often requires the use of a no-treatment
control group -- a group of participants who do not get the treatment or program that is
being studied. But when that treatment or program may have beneficial effects, persons
assigned to the no-treatment control may feel their rights to equal access to services are
being curtailed.

Even when clear ethical standards and principles exist, there will be times when the need
to do accurate research runs up against the rights of potential participants. No set of
standards can possibly anticipate every ethical circumstance. Furthermore, there needs to
be a procedure that assures that researchers will consider all relevant ethical issues in
formulating research plans. To address such needs most institutions and organizations
have formulated an Institutional Review Board (IRB), a panel of persons who reviews
grant proposals with respect to ethical implications and decides whether additional
actions need to be taken to assure the safety and rights of participants. By reviewing
proposals for research, IRBs also help to protect both the organization and the researcher
against potential legal implications of neglecting to address important ethical issues of
participants.

Ethics in Research
We are going through a time of profound change in our understanding of the ethics of
applied social research. From the time immediately after World War II until the early
1990s, there was a gradually developing consensus about the key ethical principles that
should underlie the research endeavor. Two marker events stand out (among many
others) as symbolic of this consensus. The Nuremberg War Crimes Trial following World
War II brought to public view the ways German scientists had used captive human
subjects as subjects in oftentimes gruesome experiments. In the 1950s and 1960s, the
Tuskegee Syphilis Study involved the withholding of known effective treatment for
syphilis from African-American participants who were infected. Events like these forced
the reexamination of ethical standards and the gradual development of a consensus that
potential human subjects needed to be protected from being used as 'guinea pigs' in
scientific research.

By the 1990s, the dynamics of the situation changed. Cancer patients and persons with
AIDS fought publicly with the medical research establishment about the long time
needed to get approval for and complete research into potential cures for fatal diseases. In
many cases, it is the ethical assumptions of the previous thirty years that drive this 'go-
slow' mentality. After all, we would rather risk denying treatment for a while until we
achieve enough confidence in a treatment, rather than run the risk of harming innocent
people (as in the Nuremberg and Tuskegee events). But now, those who were threatened
with fatal illness were saying to the research establishment that they wanted to be test
subjects, even under experimental conditions of considerable risk. You had several very
vocal and articulate patient groups who wanted to be experimented on coming up against
an ethical review system that was designed to protect them from being experimented on.

Although the last few years in the ethics of research have been tumultuous ones, it is
beginning to appear that a new consensus is evolving that involves the stakeholder groups
most affected by a problem participating more actively in the formulation of guidelines
for research. While it's not entirely clear, at present, what the new consensus will be, it is
almost certain that it will not fall at either extreme: protecting against human
experimentation at all costs vs. allowing anyone who is willing to be experimented on.

Ethical Issues
There are a number of key phrases that describe the system of ethical protections that the
contemporary social and medical research establishment have created to try to protect
better the rights of their research participants. The principle of voluntary participation
requires that people not be coerced into participating in research. This is especially
relevant where researchers had previously relied on 'captive audiences' for their subjects
-- prisons, universities, and places like that. Closely related to the notion of voluntary
participation is the requirement of informed consent. Essentially, this means that
prospective research participants must be fully informed about the procedures and risks
involved in research and must give their consent to participate. Ethical standards also
require that researchers not put participants in a situation where they might be at risk of
harm as a result of their participation. Harm can be defined as both physical and
psychological. There are two standards that are applied in order to help protect the
privacy of research participants. Almost all research guarantees the participants
confidentiality -- they are assured that identifying information will not be made available
to anyone who is not directly involved in the study. The stricter standard is the principle
of anonymity which essentially means that the participant will remain anonymous
throughout the study -- even to the researchers themselves. Clearly, the anonymity
standard is a stronger guarantee of privacy, but it is sometimes difficult to accomplish,
especially in situations where participants have to be measured at multiple time points
(e.g., a pre-post study). Increasingly, researchers have had to deal with the ethical issue of
a person's right to service. Good research practice often requires the use of a no-treatment
control group -- a group of participants who do not get the treatment or program that is
being studied. But when that treatment or program may have beneficial effects, persons
assigned to the no-treatment control may feel their rights to equal access to services are
being curtailed.

Even when clear ethical standards and principles exist, there will be times when the need
to do accurate research runs up against the rights of potential participants. No set of
standards can possibly anticipate every ethical circumstance. Furthermore, there needs to
be a procedure that assures that researchers will consider all relevant ethical issues in
formulating research plans. To address such needs most institutions and organizations
have formulated an Institutional Review Board (IRB), a panel of persons who reviews
grant proposals with respect to ethical implications and decides whether additional
actions need to be taken to assure the safety and rights of participants. By reviewing
proposals for research, IRBs also help to protect both the organization and the researcher
against potential legal implications of neglecting to address important ethical issues of
participants.