Design and Calculation of A Wind Turbine of 250 KW in Hvaler Norway PDF

BACHELOR'S THESIS
Design and Calculation of a Wind Turbine of 250 kW in

Hvaler, Norway
Project Number: B18INT04

Author: Alvaro Campos Navarro
Supervisor: Yonas Zewdu Ayele, PhD
Date: June 2018, Fredrikstad
Study programme: Exchange Student, Mechanical Engineering

Faculty: Østfold University College
Abstract
The purpose of this study is the design and calculation of a wind turbine (WT) of 250 kW
in Hvaler Kommune, Norway. The project is a part of A SMART AND SUSTAINABLE
ENERGY SOCIETY (ESBØ) INTERREG PROJECT. The WT is planned to be built in
2020; and, it will be part of an energy production system for the future smart city.
The tower of the WT will oscillate between 30-50 meters of height, it is of vital importance
since it is the support of the system, and this means that it has to be able to support the
whole structure, supporting the wind loads and efforts that are produced in the tower as a
result of this, besides the weight of the tower, nacelle and blades. The study will focus on:
analyse and select possible locations for WT installation, obtain the wind and geological
data of sites, analyse different companies supplying 250 kW WT and select the most
optimal one for our working conditions, obtain the loads that interact in the system and
transmit them to the ground, with the loads obtained, design the foundation, and carry
out an environmental impact of the installation of the WT, in order for the tower sizing to
be adequate and meet the necessary requirements, once all the necessary loads have been
obtained and the necessary combinations have been made with the safety coefficients
applied, the following checks must be carried out: maximum resistance of the tower to
extreme wind, horizontal and vertical deformation, resonance, lateral flexion or
buckling and fatigue.
With the verification of the tower done, the foundation must be designed, both the
dimensions and the amount of reinforcement of the foundation to withstand the stresses
that are created in it. The foundation must guarantee the stability of the structure and
ensure that loads are transmitted to the ground with the appropriate intensity so that it does
not collapse. To determine the dimensions of the foundation, the following checks should
be made: check to prevent overturning, to prevent slippage and check to prevent sinking
of the foundation, in addition the amount of reinforcement necessary to ensure that the
foundation will withstand the stresses to which it will be subjected will be calculated:
flexion reinforcement on the underside, flexion reinforcement on the upper side, shear
reinforcement, punching check.
II
Acknowledgements
Proof that I have fulfilled my first dream.
First of all, I would like to thank the whole team at Høgskolen i Østfold and especially
associate professor Olav and my excellent supervisor, Yonas Ayele Zewdu.
Secondly, I would like to thank my excellent supervisor of the UCLM-Albacete, Jose Luis
Rodriguez Alcaraz.
Also to the ESBØ project team for giving me the opportunity to participate in it, and
especially to Bjørn Winther Johansen.
To my life companions during these 5 and 11 months, Pedro, Josan, Ana, Angela, Javi,
Raquel, Victor, Ro, Giordano and Štěpán.
I couldn't forget my freaky friends from Spain, Salva, Fran, Josele, Oliver, Natalia, Taber
and Bubu.
To my good friend, Poveda.
Of course, my Ron Colegas, companions of experiences, battles and stories that only we
know, Pedro, Contreras and Charly.
To my second family, in which I have spent mornings, afternoons and evenings working
and studying to be to what I am today, the Fernández Zamora Family.
To two of the most important people in my life, Sara Aviles and Miguel Monsalve.
To the person with whom I share my days, evenings, nights; to the person I can consider
my brother, for you my good friend, Bubu.
Thank you, thank you from the bottom of my heart to my Godfather, Uncle and/or part of
my family, Antoñico.
Thanks to my uncles for giving me the energy every Sundays with those great barbecues,
Mari and Pepe.
To my mother, Juana Maria; my father, Jose Daniel; my brother, Daniel; thanks to your
determination and effort, motivation and encouragement to form me as a person today.
Thanks to all the people who once put a smile on my face or happiness on myself.
III
Contents
Abstract ................................................................................................................................. II
Acknowledgements ............................................................................................................. III
Contents ............................................................................................................................... IV
Notation and Abbreviations ................................................................................................VII
List of Figures .................................................................................................................... XV
List of Tables .................................................................................................................... XIX
List of Equations ............................................................................................................... XXI
1. Introduction .................................................................................................................... 1
1.1. Project information ................................................................................................. 1
1.2. Problem statements ................................................................................................. 2
1.2.1. History ............................................................................................................. 3
1.2.2. Current situation in the world .......................................................................... 4
1.2.3. Current situation in Norway ............................................................................ 6
1.3. Objectives ............................................................................................................... 9
1.4. Motivation ............................................................................................................. 10
2. Theoretical framework ................................................................................................. 11
2.1. Global project ....................................................................................................... 11
2.1.1. Short project description ................................................................................ 13
2.2. Background ........................................................................................................... 20
2.2.1. Renewable energies ....................................................................................... 20
2.2.2. Wind energy .................................................................................................. 25
2.3. Project time-line .................................................................................................... 53
3. Research methodology ................................................................................................. 55
4. Analysis discussion ...................................................................................................... 57

IV
4.1. Wind study of the emplacement ........................................................................... 57
4.1.1. Technical report of WINDSIM...................................................................... 57
4.1.2. Interactive wind map ..................................................................................... 65
4.1.3. Wind calculations and wind turbine selection .......................................... 66
4.2. Loads and loads cases ........................................................................................... 73
4.2.1. Different loads to consider ............................................................................ 73
4.2.2. Design situations and load cases ................................................................... 77
4.2.3. Calculating and obtaining forces ................................................................... 80
4.3. Study and tower verification ................................................................................. 86
4.3.1. Maximum tension .......................................................................................... 88
4.3.2. Shear tension ................................................................................................. 90
4.3.3. Horizontal displacement ................................................................................ 92
4.3.4. Vertical displacement .................................................................................... 94
4.3.5. Resonance study ............................................................................................ 95
4.3.6. Buckling calculation ...................................................................................... 97
4.3.7. Fatigue ......................................................................................................... 100
4.4. Foundation design ............................................................................................... 104
4.4.1. Foundation stability checks ......................................................................... 111
4.4.2. Foundation structural checks ....................................................................... 122
4.5. Analysis and results ............................................................................................ 147
4.5.1. Tower analysis ............................................................................................. 147
4.5.2. Analysis and comparison of the foundation ................................................ 155
4.6. Solution recommended ....................................................................................... 159
4.7. Budget ................................................................................................................. 167
5. Conclusion and reflection........................................................................................... 171
5.1. Future work recommendations ........................................................................... 172
6. References .................................................................................................................. 173
V
7. Appendix .................................................................................................................... 180
7.1. Details of locations ............................................................................................. 180
7.2. Eolic map Hvaler ................................................................................................ 184
7.3. Eolic data in other places .................................................................................... 186
7.4. Ice loads .............................................................................................................. 187
7.5. Geological data ................................................................................................... 188
VI
Notation and Abbreviations
: Rods diameter (mm).
: Height study of (m).
: Minimum geometric area quantity (mm2).
: Area quantity (mm2).
: Area not detached (m2).
: Area segment circular (m2).
: Tower ring area (m2).
: Area swept by the blades (m2).
: Effective area (m2).
: Foundation plant area (m2).
: Ring area (m2).
Real area (mm2).
Area stirrups (mm2).
Reinforcement section area in traction or less compressed

(m2).
: Reinforcement section area in traction or less compressed

(m2).
: Area swept by the blades (m2).
: Total area (m2).
: Shape coefficient (-).
( ): The coefficient of thrust as a function of the specific

speed (-).
: Foundation diameter (m).
: Tower diameter (m).
VII
: Minimum resistance of concrete (MPa).
: Destabilizing loads (N).
: Effective load of punching (N).
: Stabilizing loads (N).
: Minimum resistance of reinforcement steel (MPa).
: Tower height (m).
: Height bottom part of foundation (m).
: Height foundation (m).
: Height up part foundation (m).
: Moment of inertia foundation (mm4).
: Moment of inertia part not detached (mm4).
: Moment of inertia of the ring (mm4).
: Moment of inertia of the detached segment (mm4).
: Ballast module (kN/m3)
: Buckling length (m).
: Anchorage length in S2 (mm).
: Anchorage length in S3 (mm).
: Length minimum (mm).
: Height tower (m).
: Moment due to rectangular load (kNm).
: Moment due to triangular load (kNm).
: Moment due to weight concrete (kNm).
: Design moment (kNm).
: Destabilizing moments (kNm).
VIII
: Moment due to weight soil (kNm).
: Stabilizing moments (kNm).
: Axial load comparison (N).
: Axial load in the base tower (N).
: Critical axial load (N).
: Axial load due weight of foundation (N).
: Number of rods (-)
: Reinforcement distance (mm).
: Power generated by the wind turbine (W).
: Wind turbine nominal power (kW).
: Tower radius (m).
: Foundation radius (m).
: Design radius wind turbine (m).
: Interior radius (m).
: Outside radius (m).
: Reference radius (m).
: Rotor radius (m).
: Section to the edge of the foundation (m).
: Stirrups separation (mm).
: Stirrups separation comparison (mm).
: Mechanical capacity of compressed concrete (kN).
: Amount of reinforcement required (kN).
: Mechanical capacity of the traction steel (kN).
: Mechanical capacity of compressed steel (kN).
: Concrete contribution (kN).
IX
: Steel contribution (kN).
: Wind force in the rotor (kN).
( ): Wind force in the cylinder as a function of height

(N/m).
: Wind force in the tower (N).
: Up part foundation volume (m3).
: Foundation volume (m3).
: Maximum flight (m).

: Bottom part foundation volume (m3).
: Soil volume above foundation (m3).
( ) Own weight of nacelle, rotor and blades (N).

: Own weight of tower (N).
: Maximum section resistance module (mm3).
: Minimum section resistance module. (mm3)
: Gravity centre displacement (m).
: Distance between from centre until extreme fibre (m).
: Maximum distance to G' (m).
: Minimum distance to G' (m).
: Effective width (m).
: Eccentricity of loads in relation to G’ (m).
: Characteristic resistance of concrete (MPa).
: Minimum resistance of concrete (MPa).
: Minimum yield strength (MPa).
: Rupture stress (MPa).
: Minimum yield strength (MPa).
: Characteristic resistance of reinforcement steel (MPa).
: Minimum resistance of reinforcement steel (MPa).
: Ballast module (N/mm3).
: Effective length (m).
X
: Net length (mm).
Length rods in I position (mm).
: Minimum coating according to minimum concrete
resistance and service life (mm).
: Nominal covering (mm).
: Wind speed at the studied height (m/s).
: Wind turbine stop speed (m/s).
: Wind speed in the wind turbine hub (m/s).
̅: Distance from de ground to is applied ( ) ( )
: Centre of gravity foundation (m).
: Centre of gravity of the segment with respect to centre of
gravity foundation (m).
: Safety factor for concrete (-).
Safety factor for steel reinforcement (-).
: Specific weight of concrete (kN/m3).
: Partial safety factor for materials according to IEC 61400-
1 (-).
: Partial safety factor for failure consequences according to
IEC 61400-1 (-).
: Specific weight gravel (kN/m3).
: Specific weight of soil (kN/m3).
: Rotor displacement (m).
: Total displacement (m).
: Tower displacement (m).
: Vertical displacement (m).
: Maximum rotation of the axis of the structure (º).
̅: Reduced slenderness (-).
: Air density at level sea (kg/m3).
: Concrete density (kg/m3).
: Gravel density (kg/m3).
: Tower steel density (kg/m3).
: Maximum tension calculated (MPa).
XI
: Maximum tension of the ground (MPa).
: Tension in the reference section (kPa).

: Soil admissible tension (MPa).
: Tower admissible tension (MPa).
: Tension comparison (MPa).
: Maximum tension (MPa).
: Soil maximum tension (MPa).
: Medium tension (MPa).
: Minimum tension (MPa).
: Variable tension (MPa).
: Shear admissible tension (MPa).
: Maximum stress resistance (MPa).
: Nominal tangential tension of calculation in the critical
perimeter (MPa).
: Angular speed (rad/s).
: Tower natural frequency (rad/s).
: Maximum rotor frequency (rad/s).
: Minimum rotor frequency (rad/s).
: Constant amplitude fatigue limits (MPa).
: Cut-off limits tension (MPa).
: Detail category tension (MPa).
: Coating margin depending on the execution level (mm).
DL: Dead load (N).
EQ: Earthquake load (N).
: Height tower (m).
TWL: Wind induced turbine load (N).
WL: Wind load on the tower (N).
Elastic imperfection coefficient (-).
: Internal friction angle (º).
: Intercepted area (m2).
XII
: Elastic module (MPa).
: Energy per unit time (W).
( ): Point load at the distance of ̅ (m).
: Modulus of transverse elasticity for concrete (MPa).
: Rigidity modulus (MPa).
: Foundation inertial moment (mm4).
: Moment of inertia of a hollow cylindrical (mm4).
: Flexing moment (kNm).
: Axial force (N).
: Radius foundation (m).
: Detached (m).
: Reference section 1(m).
: Shear force (N).
: Static moment (mm3).
( ): Width (m).
: Differences between – (m).

: Total section distance (m).
: Useful edge (mm).
: Eccentricity of loads in relation to G (m).
: Gravity load (m/s2).
: Value to depend of the characteristic resistance of
concrete (-).
: Rod radius (mm).
: Thickness of tower (mm).
: Safety distance for tipping test (m).
( ): Wind speed as a function of height (m/s).
: Average wind speed (m/s).
: Coefficient Poisson (-).
: Hellman coefficient (-).
Imperfection coefficient (-).
: Coefficient as a function of the dimensions of the section (-).
XIII
: Type of anchor in function of traction or compression (-).
: Specific speed (-).
: Shear tension (MPa).
: Buckling reduction coefficient (-).
: Safety value for fatigue (-).
XIV
List of Figures
Figure 1-Universities involved in the Bachelor Thesis ......................................................... 2
Figure 2-Windmills evolution .............................................................................................. 3
Figure 3-Evolution of wind turbine heights ......................................................................... 3
Figure 4-Global cumulative installed wind capacity ............................................................. 4
Figure 5-World data in 2017 ................................................................................................. 5
Figure 6-Comparative annual installed capacity by region ................................................... 5
Figure 7-Renewable energy installed in Norway .................................................................. 7
Figure 8-Renewable energy installed in Norway .................................................................. 7
Figure 9-Different places for the WT's ................................................................................. 8
Figure 10-Location of Hvaler in the map .............................................................................. 9
Figure 11-Project participants ............................................................................................. 12
Figure 12-Places of Hvaler and Orust ................................................................................. 13
Figure 13-Goals for Sustainable Development ................................................................... 15
Figure 14-Global Project diagram ....................................................................................... 18
Figure 15-Bachelor Thesis diagram .................................................................................... 19
Figure 16-Solar technologies ............................................................................................... 21
Figure 17-Processes for transforming biomass into energy ................................................ 21
Figure 18-Geothermal power plant...................................................................................... 22
Figure 19-Hydroelectric plant ............................................................................................. 22
Figure 20-How WT works................................................................................................... 23
Figure 21-Renewable energy installed in the World ........................................................... 24
Figure 22-Renewable energy installed in the World ........................................................... 24
Figure 23-Air circulation on a planetary scale .................................................................... 25
Figure 24-WT components .................................................................................................. 26
Figure 25-Variation of speed with height ............................................................................ 27
Figure 26-WT foundation ................................................................................................... 28
Figure 27-Savonius rotor ..................................................................................................... 30
Figure 28-Darrieus rotor ...................................................................................................... 30
Figure 29-Giromill rotor ...................................................................................................... 31
Figure 30-Windside prototype ............................................................................................. 31
Figure 31-Multi-blades rotor ............................................................................................... 32
XV
Figure 32-Leeward orientation ........................................................................................... 33
Figure 33-Windward orientation ......................................................................................... 34
Figure 34-Three-bladed WT ................................................................................................ 34
Figure 35-Two-bladed WT ................................................................................................. 35
Figure 36-Mono-blade WT.................................................................................................. 36
Figure 37-Old wind mills .................................................................................................... 37
Figure 38-Lattice tower ....................................................................................................... 38
Figure 39-Concrete tower .................................................................................................... 38
Figure 40-Steel tower .......................................................................................................... 39
Figure 41-Hybrid tower ....................................................................................................... 39
Figure 42-Offshore wind farm ............................................................................................. 40
Figure 43-Circular foundation ............................................................................................. 41
Figure 44-Jet-grounting steps .............................................................................................. 42
Figure 45-Piles foundation .................................................................................................. 42
Figure 46-Gravity foundation .............................................................................................. 43
Figure 47-Tripod-shaped foundation ................................................................................... 44
Figure 48-Jacket foundation ................................................................................................ 44
Figure 49-Suction Buckets foundation ................................................................................ 45
Figure 50-Floating foundation ............................................................................................. 45
Figure 51-Shadow flicker .................................................................................................... 50
Figure 52-Noise map ........................................................................................................... 51
Figure 53-Weather station Hvaler Kommune ..................................................................... 59
Figure 54-Wind rose and speed distribution at 10 m of #2500 ........................................... 60
Figure 55-Wind rose and speed distribution at 10 m of #01495 ......................................... 60
Figure 56-Wind rose and speed distribution at 10 m of #01482 ......................................... 60
Figure 57-Wind rose and speed distribution at 50 m of long-term ..................................... 61
Figure 58-Wind rose and speed distribution at 10 m of long term on-site .......................... 61
Figure 61-Wind resource map for mean wind speed at 10 m above ground ....................... 63
Figure 62-Locations of the site visit .................................................................................... 64
Figure 63-Different speeds at different heights ................................................................... 65
Figure 64-Power and Energy production curve of DW52-250 model ................................ 71
XVI
Figure 65-Power and Energy production curve of CF250 model ....................................... 72
Figure 66-Uniform load ....................................................................................................... 73
Figure 67-Load wind shear .................................................................................................. 74
Figure 68-Misalignment incident speed .............................................................................. 75
Figure 69-Load diagram on a wind turbine ......................................................................... 80
Figure 70-Graph for calculating CT ..................................................................................... 81
Figure 71-Load distribution in the tower top....................................................................... 83
Figure 72-Tension distribution ............................................................................................ 89
Figure 73-Shear tensions in the tower ................................................................................. 90
Figure 74-Static moment diagram ....................................................................................... 90
Figure 75-Displacements cases ........................................................................................... 92
Figure 76-Single beam in handling: extreme point load ..................................................... 93
Figure 77-Single beam in handling: generic point load ...................................................... 93
Figure 78-Natural vibration modes and frequencies of uniform cantilever beams ............. 95
Figure 79-Fatigue strength curves for the direct stress ranges .......................................... 101
Figure 80-Geological Survey of Norway .......................................................................... 106
Figure 81-Geological map of Skjærhalden, Kirkeøy......................................................... 107
Figure 82-Fixed foundation parameters ............................................................................ 108
Figure 83-Different weight to add ..................................................................................... 109
Figure 84-Distance "u" diagram ........................................................................................ 112
Figure 85-Tensions distributed under the foundation........................................................ 114
Figure 86-Loading under idealised condition .................................................................... 114
Figure 87-Quadratic foundations with effective area ........................................................ 115
Figure 88-Circular and octangular foundation .................................................................. 116
Figure 89-Detach area diagram ......................................................................................... 117
Figure 90-Step to obtain α ................................................................................................. 118
Figure 92-Foundations classification................................................................................. 122
Figure 91-Type of calculations depend of the foundation ................................................. 122
Figure 93-Tension distribution under foundation .............................................................. 124
Figure 94-Radial reinforcement disposition ...................................................................... 125
Figure 95-S1 location ........................................................................................................ 125
Figure 96-Rectangular stress distribution .......................................................................... 125
Figure 97-Tension distribution in reference cross-section ................................................ 128
XVII
Figure 98-Moment analysis in reference section ............................................................... 128
Figure 99-Anchorage length diagram ................................................................................ 132
Figure 100-Rd calculate..................................................................................................... 132
Figure 101-Circular reinforcement disposition ................................................................. 134
Figure 102-Calculates dimensions .................................................................................... 134
Figure 103-Reference section shear reinforcement ........................................................... 138
Figure 104-Shear distribution ............................................................................................ 139
Figure 105-Stirrups separation .......................................................................................... 141
Figure 106-Punching perimeter diagram ........................................................................... 142
Figure 107-Flector on the upper side of the detached part ................................................ 144
Figure 108-Tensions in function of diameter and thickness.............................................. 148
Figure 109- Shear tensions in function of diameter and thickness .................................... 149
Figure 110-Horizontal displacement ................................................................................. 150
Figure 111-Vertical displacement test ............................................................................... 151
Figure 112-Natural resonance in function of thickness and diameter ............................... 152
Figure 113-Axial load comparison in function of thickness and diameter........................ 153
Figure 114- Tension due to fatigue in function of thickness and diameter ....................... 154
Figure 115-Floor area plant ............................................................................................... 157
Figure 116-Concrete volume ............................................................................................. 158
Figure 117-Amount of steel per cubic meter of concrete .................................................. 158
Figure 118-Different analysis of wind turbines installation costs ..................................... 168
Figure 119-Economy in function of power ....................................................................... 168
XVIII
List of Tables
Table 1-WT's UTM coordinates ............................................................................................ 8
Table 2-Types of foundation ............................................................................................... 40
Table 3-Comparison between onshore and offshore wind farms ........................................ 52
Table 4-Location and characteristics of weather stations .................................................... 59
Table 5-Hellman coefficients depending of the terrain ....................................................... 63
Table 6-Summary of places, heights and average speeds. .................................................. 66
Table 7-Summary of radius design optimum radius ........................................................... 67
Table 8-Classification of the type of wind turbine .............................................................. 68
Table 9-Differents data of suppliers of 250 kW wind turbines ........................................... 69
Table 10-Estimated weights of the DW52-250 wind turbine .............................................. 80
Table 11-Value of λ ............................................................................................................. 81
Table 12-Loads at the base of the tower .............................................................................. 84
Table 13-Loads with safety coefficients in case 2 ............................................................... 85
Table 16-Mechanical properties of different types of steel ................................................. 87
Table 17-Common boundary conditions for the transverse vibration of a beam ................ 96
Table 18-Partial safety coefficients for ULS ..................................................................... 105
Table 19-Partial safety coefficients SLS ........................................................................... 105
Table 20-Partial safety material coefficient ULS .............................................................. 105
Table 21-Gravel parameters .............................................................................................. 107
Table 22-Efforts at the base of the foundation .................................................................. 110
Table 23-Summary table of work for the foundation ........................................................ 111
Table 24-Parameters calculated ......................................................................................... 121
Table 25-Loads for reinforcement ..................................................................................... 123
Table 26-Parameters calculated ......................................................................................... 124
Table 27-Different values of maximum tension ................................................................ 147
Table 28-Different values of shear tension........................................................................ 149
Table 29-Different values to compare horizontal displacement ........................................ 150
Table 30-Different values to compare vertical displacement ............................................ 151
Table 31-Different values of natural resonance ................................................................ 152
XIX
Table 32-Different values of axial load comparison ......................................................... 153
Table 33-Different values of fatigue ................................................................................. 154
Table 34-Square foundation data ....................................................................................... 155
Table 35-Hexagonal foundation ........................................................................................ 156
Table 36-Octagonal foundation ......................................................................................... 156
Table 37-Circular foundation ............................................................................................ 157
Table 38-Work cost ........................................................................................................... 169
Table 39-Estimated foundation cost .................................................................................. 170
XX
List of Equations
Equation 1-Energetic content of wind ................................................................................. 26
Equation 2-Hellman Exponential Law ................................................................................ 62
Equation 3-Power generated per area in function of wind speed ........................................ 67
Equation 4-Area swept by the blades .................................................................................. 67
Equation 5-Wind force in the rotor ..................................................................................... 81
Equation 6-Specifies speed .................................................................................................. 81
Equation 7-Wind force in the tower .................................................................................... 83
Equation 8-Centroid distance .............................................................................................. 84
Equation 9-Tension by Navier's equation............................................................................ 88
Equation 10-Shear tension ................................................................................................... 90
Equation 11-Horizontal displacement check ....................................................................... 92
Equation 12-Displacement in a single beam in handling with an extreme point load ........ 93
Equation 13-Displacement in a single beam in handling with a generic point load ........... 93
Equation 14-Vertical displacement check ........................................................................... 94
Equation 15-Vertical displacement due to the wind turbine weight ................................... 94
Equation 16-Natural vibration modes and frequencies of uniform cantilever beams ......... 96
Equation 17-Buckling length ............................................................................................... 97
Equation 18-Critical axial load ............................................................................................ 98
Equation 19-Reduced slenderness ....................................................................................... 98
Equation 20- Elastic imperfection coefficient ..................................................................... 99
Equation 21-Buckling reduction coefficient ....................................................................... 99
Equation 22-Axial load comparison .................................................................................... 99
Equation 23-Tension by Navier's equation........................................................................ 102
Equation 24-Nominal covering ......................................................................................... 109
Equation 25-Distance “u” .................................................................................................. 112
Equation 26-Tipping test ................................................................................................... 112
Equation 27-Sliding test .................................................................................................... 113
Equation 28-Eccentricity ................................................................................................... 117
Equation 29-Characteristic concrete resistance ................................................................. 126
Equation 30-Characteristic steel resistance ....................................................................... 126
Equation 31-Useful edge ................................................................................................... 127
XXI
Equation 32-Mechanical flexion amount in function of the area ...................................... 130
Equation 33-Rods in I position .......................................................................................... 132
Equation 34-Net length ...................................................................................................... 133
Equation 35-Ballast evaluation.......................................................................................... 134
Equation 36-Steel contribution in function of area of stirrups .......................................... 141
Equation 37-Tangential tension ......................................................................................... 143
XXII
B18INT04 INTRODUCTION
1. Introduction
1.1. Project information
In order to obtain the degree of Graduate in Mechanical Engineering, it is necessary to
carry out a Bachelor Thesis.
To this end, the student Mr. Alvaro Campos Navarro has completed this Bachelor Thesis:
“DESIGN AND CALCULATION OF A WIND TURBINE OF 250 KW IN HVALER,
NORWAY”
This Bachelor Thesis appears because the student Mr. Alvaro Campos Navarro has
completed his last year with an ERASMUS-Scholarship which included his Bachelor
Thesis.
First of all, the student took to his ERASMUS destination (Fredrikstad, Norway) an idea
proposed by the University of Castilla-La Mancha, Albacete, related to the Department of
Applied Mechanics. The idea was proposed at the host university Høgskolen I Østfold
College, to which the university responded with an acceptance but with some
modifications to the details, to apply this Bachelor Thesis to a real future case.
Finally, this project is commissioned by the College of Fredrikstad, Høgskolen I Østfold

(HiØ) and the University of Castilla-La Mancha, Albacete with registered office at Gamle
Beddingvei 4, 1671 Kråkerøy and at Paseo de los Estudiantes 02006, Albacete [Figure 1].
This project will be carried out by the Student:
- Alvaro Campos Navarro

- alvarocamposnavarro@gmail.com
- 00 34 672187829
- 47084971S
1
This project is proposed by the Industry and Climate Advisor:

- Bjør Winther Johansen
- bjnjoh@hvaler.kommune.no
- 00 47 97981439
This project will be supervised and tutored by the Associate Professor of HiØ-Engineering
Faculty and the Professor of the University of Castilla-la Mancha, Albacete:
- Yonas Zewdu Ayele (PhD) & Jose Luis Rodriguez Alcaraz
- yonas.z.ayele@hiof.no & Jose.RAlcaraz@uclm.es
- 00 4740983985 & 967 599 200
Figure 1-Universities involved in the Bachelor Thesis
1.2. Problem statements

The concern for environmental degradation and the awareness of reducing dependence on
energy imports and increasing security of supply are the factors that have contributed
decisively to the momentum experienced by renewable energies. Within this field, wind
energy, due to its degree of development, its costs and its clean and inexhaustible character,
has a high potential of application as an endogenous energy resource, in those areas that
have the necessary wind to allow its application. In this way, more and more wind farms
are developing in places where nature is not affected by the construction of them.
2
1.2.1. History
The windmills began to emerge in the 7th Century A.D. in Persia (today Iran), these used
to irrigate and grind grain, although were ineffective, begins to spread throughout China
and the Middle East, in Europe they appeared in the 12th Century in France and England,
thus spreading around the continent. The tower mill was developed in France in the 14th
Century, in addition to irrigation and grain milling, mill built between 15th-19th Century
had other applications, such as water pumping, wood sawmills, paper mills seed pressing
to produce oil. At the end of the 19th Century, wind turbines began to be used to generate
electricity, and in 1973, as a result of the first oil crisis (price increases); a period of wind
energy exploitation began, sharing the leading role with solar energy [1].
Figure 2-Windmills evolution [51]
As the years go by, the technology evolves [Figure 3], increasing the power of the wind
turbines and with it their height.
Figure 3-Evolution of wind turbine heights [52]
3
1.2.2. Current situation in the world

As it was said, due to the energy crisis of 1973 and the increase in the price of the oil, this
technology was revived. The development of this technology has led to the appearance of
the current wind turbines, capable of producing electricity; the technology is totally mature
and continues growing. On a global level, the installed capacity is growing exponentially
[Figure 4] otherwise it can be seen thanks to the International Renewable Energy Agency
(IRENA) and the Global Wind Energy Council (GWEC) in a graph showing the
accumulated power since 2001 [2] [3].
Figure 4-Global cumulative installed wind capacity [3]
The market closed in 2017 [Figure 5] with 487 GW, led by China, USA, Germany and
India and also countries such as France, the Netherlands, Turkey and Germany obtained
great strength. China reached 23,370 GW in 2016 compared to 30 GW in 2015 and also
started with the promotion of offshore technology, surpassing Denmark and establishing
itself in 3rd position in the world ranking after the United Kingdom and Germany. The
USA remained in 2016 as it was in 2015, India set a record in 2016 and Europe had a
strong impact [3].
"The cost of wind energy continues to plummet, exceeding expectations for 2020 and
achieved 5 years earlier," said GWEC Secretary General Steve Sawyer.
4
Figure 5-World data in 2017 [3]
Figure 6-Comparative annual installed capacity by region [3]
5
1.2.3. Current situation in Norway

The Nordic countries are, in many areas, a role model for many people. Their education
system, salaries, the great involvement of their states in social well-being, their equitable
tax system, low unemployment or high rates of happiness are cause for admiration for
many. Now, furthermore, they have decided to lead the fight to save the planet. For
example, in 2017, hydropower is normal for Norwegians, who so far have 275 hydropower
stations. According to the International Hydropower Association, they account for
approximately 99% of the country’s energy production [4].
Norway is planning an initiative to triple its wind energy capacity by 2020, with an
investment of 3$ billion for the sector since 2013. In an effort to support an oil-free
economy, a strategy to build Europe’s largest onshore wind energy project was also
announced. It will comprise six wind farms (1000 MW together) and will be the fourth
largest in the world. This is the Europe’s largest onshore wind power project. The supplies
will be enough to give electricity power to 170000 Norwegian households [5] [6].
In conclusion, maybe the overall explanatory factor slowing down the implementation of
onshore wind power in Norway has arguably been identified on the strategic level; political
uncertainty has caused a lack of political will to establish an efficient support scheme and
to encourage the development of wind power in general. Wind power has proven to be
controversial and politicians have not been immune to complaints from the opponents of
its deployment. The lack of will has been transmitted to the tactical and operational level,
and these two levels have been unable to act adequately in addition not everything is so
easy, the problems are always present and in this bachelor thesis it find several problems:
- One of these problems is finding the right place(s) for the construction the WT.
- How to calculate the foundation dimension searching the economy and rigidity
supporting the loads of the tower and elements of the windmill.
These two problems are related, as it may be the case that the place is right, but people do
not agree or that people agree but when it comes to deciding the place, it is not right.
Another two problems with more technical level are:
- Capacity, quality and soil slope.
- Wind conditions are not enough for the turbine to start to work.
6
[Figure 7] shows the renewable energy installed in Norway and [Figure 8] show the same
but without the hydroelectric energy [2].
Figure 7-Renewable energy installed in Norway [3]
Figure 8-Renewable energy installed in Norway [3]
7
The wind conditions in the areas studied by Hvaler Kommune are suitable for the use of
the 250 kW WT. The different WT will be installed in the different parts of Hvaler shown
below. The possible areas for the installation [Figure 9] [Appendix I] of the WT’s are:
Hauge, Vesterøy; Utgård Harbor, Vesterøy; Rød, Asmaløy; Skjærhalden, Kirkeøy and
whose WT orientation will be South-West, the elevations oscillate between 9 – 33 meters
above sea level.
Figure 9-Different places for the WT's [53]
The Universal Transverse Mercator coordinate system (UTM) will be used to establish the
locations of the WT sites, and the height above sea level will also be added [Table 1]
Table 1-WT's UTM coordinates
PLACES TO INSTALL THE WIND TURBINES
Name Coordinate X (m) Coordinate Y (m) Height (m)

Skjærhalden, Kirkeøy 616538.95 6544967.17 11
Rød, Asmaløy 611553.81 6549467.99 23
Hauge, Vesterøy 607214 6553157 36
Utgård Harbor, Vesterøy 607385.94 655407.4 9
Once the selected sites have been selected, an exhaustive wind and geological study should
be carried out. For this purpose, the wind map made by the company WINDSIM [7] and the
geological map of the Geological Survey of Norway (government agency) [8] will be used.
With the wind map it will be possible to obtain the wind direction and the average speed at
different levels on a selected point (10, 20, 30, 40, 50 and 60 meters) [7] and with the
geological map it will be possible to obtain the type of soil in the desired area.
8
1.3. Objectives
The purpose of this project is the description, analysis, design, calculation and
development of a 250 kW WT or/and wind farm which will provide power to a smart city
in Hvaler, Norway [Figure 10], as well as the main objective of the project. More
specifically, the sub-objectives of the research are:
- To find possible locations for the wind turbine or/and wind farm in Hvaler that is
accepted by the community (visual impact) and how is going to do.
- To carry out various analyses such as geological, weather and wind studies in the
area to guarantee the viability of the wind turbine.
- To calculate the dimensions and reinforcement of the foundation to support the

loads.
Figure 10-Location of Hvaler in the map [53] [54]
9
1.4. Motivation
The interest in the use of renewable energies is increasing significantly in society,
therefore, at the level of the engineering sector is one of the most innovative issues, to this
if it is added the interest in the field of applied civil or mechanical engineering is obtained
as a result of the interest in wind energy in a mechanical framework (structural calculation).
Wind Energy, a little exploited sector in the field of renewable energy in Norway due to
the fact that the country obtains most of its energy from hydropower, aims to take the
example of other potential countries in the wind energy sector, such as Sweden, Denmark
and Spain, so this project, in addition to the content as such, aims to encourage the use of
this form of energy production in the future.
10
B18INT04 THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK
2. Theoretical framework
In this chapter it will describe all the aspects and information related to the project and the
theoretical scope of the field surrounding it.
2.1. Global project

Before this Bachelor Thesis is developed, the way that has led to it will be explained. This
Bachelor Thesis is part of a larger project.
The name of this global project is: A SMART AND SUSTAINABLE ENERGY SOCIETY
(ESBØ) [9].
This global project is part of the municipalities of Hvaler (Norway), Orust (Sweden) and
INTERREG initiative [Figure 11], which aims to stimulate cooperation between regions
of the European Union. It started in 189 and is financed by the European Regional
Development Fund (ERDF). The current programme is called INTERREG EU and covers
the period 2014-2020 [10].
The objective of the Programme is to help European regions to design and implement
regional policies and programmes more effectively, namely the Growth and Employment
programmes of the European Structural and investment Funds, but also the programmes of
the European Territorial Cooperation objective, through the exchange of experiences,
knowledge and good practices between stakeholders from all European regions. The
programme will cover the entire territory of the European Union, Norway and Sweden and
will have a budget of 359 million euros [10]. It will be based on four thematic objectives:
- Strengthening research, technological development and innovation.
- Improving the competitiveness of SMEs / SMBs.
- Supporting the shift towards a low-carbon economy in all sectors.
- Protecting the environment and promoting the efficient use of resources.
11
The program (INTERREG Sweden-Norway program) has a budget of 73 million euros in

aid funds (EU funds 47 million euros, Norwegian IR Midler 26 million euros). Total along
with other Swedish and Norwegian co-financing program approximately 146 million euros
[10].
The programme foresees two main actions:
 To fund interregional cooperation projects enabling partners from the different
EU Member States, Norway and Sweden to work together on a shared regional
policy theme, within the four thematic objectives. By adopting successful
approaches from other project partners, regions participating in these projects
should improve the way their programmes and policies are implemented.
 To assist all European regions through policy learning platforms that will cover
all four thematic objectives. These platforms will offer services such as
individual consultancy evaluations, thematic seminars and recommendations in
the design and implementation of Structural and Investment Funds programmes.
Figure 11-Project participants [10] [55] [56]
12
2.1.1. Short project description

Hvaler Municipality (Norway) and Orust Municipality (Sweden) [Figure 12] wishes to
develop as Smart and Sustainable Opportunities through developing innovative and
industry-leading activities, both municipalities are island communities connected to the
mainland with few connections with road networks, power and water supplies. This make
the municipalities vulnerable but it also opens new opportunities for thinking about smart
solutions for the community in areas such as energy, water, climate and the environment.
There is a clear common idea and vision of how to use the respective unique environments
to develop and become even more attractive and sustainable environments with a
flourishing and efficient use of resources by residents, businesses, enterprises and visitors.
Involvement and understanding of the planning of the people who live and work on our
islands creates an opportunity to address energy and climate issues effectively, both in the
short and long term. Local context and the perspectives of residents and businesses are
necessary for sustainable social planning, which in turn is a prerequisite for positive long-
term social development. Through the test environments it is wanted to create, it is able to
find specific climate solutions to contribute to our goal of becoming energy and climate [9].
Figure 12-Places of Hvaler and Orust [53]
The objective of this global project is to reduce the vulnerability, contribute to reduce
environmental and climate pressure and increase the level of self-sufficiency. This will be
done by creating sustainable social planning, increased proportion of fossil-free motor
driven offshore traffic, reduced energy consumption and increased share of self-sufficiency
in energy. Through sustainable social planning, the conditions will be created to establish
new solutions and to contribute to knowledge sharing and participation as advisors in each
other’s activities.
13
There will be test fields within the identified energy efficiency areas where the quantifiable
effects of energy and climate are measured, presented and communicated. Special focus is
placed on the citizen’s behaviour pattern / behaviour change based on actual results. Test
fields that provide high energy and climate impact should be implemented on a large scale
on the islands. Four test matrices are created within the solar, wind, water and electricity
charge. A superior design project for a community planning provides the basis for work on
the above four elements to ensure future implementation of the trial [9].
The result of the project will generate several long-term effects after the project’s
implementation. Above all, this is about:
- Improved sustainable social planning and development.
- Increased knowledge and interest among residents and entrepreneurs in energy and
climate issues.
- Prerequisites for the world’s first continuous coastal strip with maritime charging
infrastructure.
- Increased share of distributed energy.
- Reduction of the need for operation, maintenance and energy use in water and
sewage networks.
In order to achieve the objectives described above, four paths/areas have been selected, all
of these are based on inhabitants’ involvement and test environments. The four activities
that have been chosen are:
- Sustainable Development
- Green Port
- Digitalization Water Consumption
- Energy production: Sun and Wind
Each of these activities will now be explained in summary form.
14
a) Sustainable development
Test environments will be studied and analysed, and specific development proposals
focused on sustainability will be presented for each of them. It has a geographical area and
theme, works on the information of this and makes site visits, the purpose is to meet, be
able to understand and explain the local context. Test environments, including the study of
everyday life in the area, are examined with the aim of focusing on future developments
from a subregional to a global perspective. The focus is on strategies, planning proposals
and designs that promote sustainable development. Based on the results, Hvaler and Orust
are jointly preparing to develop a sustainable social planning method, it must be
concretized and specified in which activities it is necessary to concentrate on in order to
reach the energy and climate objectives, in the work it will be assumed that residents and
companies are part of the planning [Figure 13]. Tools and methods that work and
collaborate on several levels are needed to ensure energy and climate work becomes a
natural part of daily social planning, while looking at the traditional sectors and stimulating
common knowledge development [9].
Figure 13-Goals for Sustainable Development [57]
15
b) Green port
The communities of Orust and Hvaler have a life very close to the coast, but in summer it
is centre of tourist attraction because its coasts are much visited, thus increasing the
navigation and demand for moorings. Fossil-free navigation is a much talked about but
forgotten topic, not only at the tourist level also at the level of boat transport.
The aim is to establish a pilot project on the field of Green Ports. Norway and Sweden are
powerful countries in the use of electric cars, because they want to promote their use at sea
as well, creating conditions for the marine electric charging infrastructure, focusing on
leisure boats. In Hvaler, Fredrikstad and Sarpsborg (communities in Norway) are in the
process of setting standards for green container ports. A charging infrastructure for electric
and hybrid ships will be developed along the entire coast between Orust and Hvaler.
Green Ports must be based on environmental, social and economic sustainability; they will
be self-sufficient through solar and wind energy. The excess energy may be stored in
hydrogen for later use (equipment, vehicles, etc.). In addition, this pilot project will create
a quieter coastal environment, with greater opportunity to enjoy the coastline and establish
green maritime links, without forgetting that it will create the development and growth of
jobs [9].
c) Digitalization water consumption
This part wishes to examine the socio-economic opportunities available for thinking about
water supply. The objective is to be able to carry out a comprehensive control, monitoring
and measurement of water consumption in the infrastructure itself, and it will be desirable
to develop automatic measurement and eliminate unwanted deviations (water leaks and
theft). Test will be conducted in 60 homes, each with an intelligent water meter, and the
meters will send data where water consumption can be monitored in real time. Leaks are
detected in real time and notification is sent to the property manager. This will reduce
process costs in measurement and liquidation, as well as increase the competitiveness of
water as an environmental factor [9].
16
d) Energy production: sun and wind

Contributing to the growth of the production of distributed energy (installations in points
close to consumption) is important because in the short term energy has a loss in
transmission, from production to the consumer (8%), with this type of production this loss
is reduced. So Hvaler and Orust will do their best to:
- Increasing the production of renewable energy
- Betting on distributed energy production (close to consumption)
Sun
The involvement of the solar sector is more focused on Orust, as it has good solar
conditions an there is a lot of potential for installing solar cells. Therefore, a solar map will
be developed and published on the website of the municipality. It will investigate the
possibility of making rentals of roof, walls or surfaces free of solar cells for individuals,
associations and/or small businesses that cannot invest in it. Orust wants to apply the
Norwegian model of solar panels (best average climate prize in 2015), based on buying the
surplus production of a neighbour’s solar installations. In addition certain national
regulations will have to be reviewed and it will be examined whether the conditions are
different between buying electricity from a photovoltaic producer or from a power plant.
The aim is to reduce greenhouse gas emissions, reduce losses and increase self-sufficiency
[9].
Wind
It is from this point that our Bachelor Thesis begins to come into play, unlike the solar
sector, wind energy is more involved in Hvaler and aims to take the Orust model, which is
based on the bank, the municipality and the residents cooperating in joint economic
solutions. In wind power constructions, not only the area of the construction but also the
impact that can be generated at landscapes or 100 meters in all directions should be
analysed. It is necessary to evaluate the type of installation it wants to have, since in
Norway wind energy is license-free up to 1 MW. Would it be appropriate to invest in small
unlicensed plants or better in large plants? [9]
Below are two diagrams in summary mode [Figure 14] and [Figure 15].
17
Et Smart och Bærekraftige Øysamfunn

A Smart and Sustainable Energy Society
(ESBØ)
Main target / Project Goal:
- To reduce our vulnerability.

- To contribute to reduce environmental and climate pressure.
- To increase the level of self-sufficiency.
HOW?
- Creating sustainable social planning

- Increased proportion of fosil-free motor driven offshore traffic
- Reduced energy comsuption
- Increase share of self-sufficiency
4 Activities
Digitalization Water
Sustainable Development
Comsuption
Green Port Sun & Wind
SUN WIND
Figure 14-Global Project diagram
18
WIND
Design and Calculation of a Wind Turbine of 250 kW in Hvaler, Norway
Planning and work mode
1- Weather analysis in Hvaler Kommune (weather and wind)

2- To find place (s) for the wind turbine/wind farm
3- Geological analysis in found places (type of soil→foundation)
Assess the impact of wind turbine(s) on the landscape
4- To find a supplier of 250 kW wind turbines

5- To obtain specific data of wind turbines and calculate the loads
6- Design the foundation
Figure 15-Bachelor Thesis diagram
19
2.2. Background
In this point it will start with a global vision of renewable energies and installed powers in
the world, then it will focus more on wind energy, talking about its history, its current
situation in the world and in Norway, the advantages and disadvantages of this type of
energy will be seen, the different parts that a wind turbine presents will be seen and finally
special emphasis will be placed on the foundations, both onshore and offshore and the
differences between these two typologies will be highlighted.
2.2.1. Renewable energies

It was not until the 1970s that it was confirmed that fossil fuels (modern world base) would
be depleted in the not too distant future this, together with environmental degradation and
the awareness of reducing energy imports, were the factors that contributed to the
promotion of the use of renewable energies, however it can be said that renewable energy
sources are those that the Earth receives continuously, with origin in the Sun, often
contributed by gravitational fields on land and in the moon, also only 70% of the Sun’s
energy passes through the Earth’s atmosphere, whether or not it undergoes changes in its
characteristics, giving rise to the different sources of renewable energy, captured and used
differently [11] [12].
Solar Energy
Energy coming from the Sun without experiencing noticeable changes is called solar
energy, this can be exploded in two ways [Figure 16], on the one hand a photovoltaic
process with a photovoltaic cell technology and the other hand by a thermal process using
technology such as flat-plate collectors, vacuum tubes, parabolic troughs, paraboloids and
tower power plants, all depending on the degree of temperature [11].
20
Figure 16-Solar technologies [11]
Biomass Energy
Another part of the energy that comes to us from the sun is absorbed by the plants for
their growth, storing it in the form of energy, being the link that later extends to all
living beings, contained in the organic waste they generated. Biomass uses the residues
of organic matter with high carbohydrate content; the different processes are different
[Figure 17] [11].
Figure 17-Processes for transforming biomass into energy [58]
21
Geothermal energy
It is the type energy obtained from the interior of the Earth [Figure 18] [11].
Figure 18-Geothermal power plant [59]
Hydroelectric/Hydraulic Energy
When the sea water absorbs the solar energy, evaporates and later falls again in liquid or
solid form, accumulating at different heights on the earth, little by little they precipitate to
lower areas of the earth, this energy contained in the water is accumulated in
infrastructures made by humans, known as dams [Figure 19] [13].
Figure 19-Hydroelectric plant [60]
22
Sea Energy
The action on the oceans of the gravitational forces of the moon, solar heat and winds
produce three types of energy from the sea, tides, thermal gradients and waves [14].
Wind Energy.
Solar energy also influences the movement of the air masses of the earth, when the air is
heated it tends to rise and is replaced by colder air, thus causing the winds. It will focus
more deeply on wind energy in the following section [Figure 20] [11].
Figure 20-How WT works [61]
[Figure 21] shows the renewable energy installed in the World and [Figure 22] show the
same but without the hydroelectric energy [2].
23
Figure 21-Renewable energy installed in the World [2]
Figure 22-Renewable energy installed in the World [2]
24
2.2.2. Wind energy

Concern for environmental degradation and dependence on the use of non-renewable
(limited) energy sources are some of the factors that have led to the use of renewable
energy sources, within this field there is wind energy, whose level of development, cost
and clean and inexhaustible nature have a high potential for application as an endogenous
resource in areas where wind conditions are appropriate and necessary for its application
therefore as mentioned above, wind energy is a consequence of solar radiation. The Earth
does not receive the same solar radiation as a whole, but different zones are generated
which leads to thermal differences in it, i.e. differences in pressure and temperature, so that
the hot air tends to rise and these masses of air are replaced by masses of cold air, this
movement generated is what is called wind, which can be used to generate electricity
through a device called a wind turbine [12] [11].
In a non-rotating Earth, the thermal and pressure differences between the equatorial and
polar zones would produce a circulatory movement of the air; but, in reality the Earth is in
constant rotation, so the air circulation model becomes more complicated, in the Northern
hemisphere, the air in the upper layers of the atmosphere is diverted to the East by the
Coriolis effect and in the lower layers to the West. In the Southern Hemisphere [Figure
23], the opposite is true [12] [11].
Figure 23-Air circulation on a planetary scale [62]
25
Based on practical use, it is interested in the energetic content of wind, which will take
advantage of it. This can be determined by the “Law of the cube”, defined as the amount of
energy the wind possesses varies with the cube of the average wind speed [12].
(1)
Equation 1-Energetic content of wind
where:
- : energy per unit time (W)
- : intercepted area (m2)
- : air density at level sea (kg/m3)
- : average wind speed (m/s)
The perfect way to measure this average speed is to place an anemometer at the height of
the turbine hub to be installed.
a) Elements of WT
The wind turbine is composed of several elements; each one has its own function and must
be correctly assembled in order to ensure its correct installation and operation [1] [15].
Figure 24-WT components [63]
Rotor hub: for any wind turbine it is common to use wind to produce electricity, there are
two ways, the first one by means of the rotation of a horizontal axis [Figure 24] and the
second one around a vertical axis [Figure 27] to [Figure 30]. The rotor in the horizontal is
made up of the connection node and the axis of rotation of the blades and the blades
26
themselves. The connection between the blades and the nacelle is one of the most delicate
parts and the material is usually made of steel, very resistant to fatigue [1].
Blades: the blades are designed like those of an airplane wing, it is the same principle of
forces, and the rotation is caused by a variation of pressures on both sides of the blade.
Currently the market leader model is the tri-blade, but there are the mono-blade and
double-blade models. The materials are usually made of glass-fibre reinforced plastic or
carbon fibre [16].
Nacelle: this is where all the machinery needed to transform the mechanical energy of
rotation into electrical energy is located; composed of the gears that regulate the speed for
performance, the generator in charge of creating the electrical energy and the braking
system, capable of stopping the rotation in the event of excessively strong winds or any
other type of failure. It also includes an active system of orientation towards the incident
wind. Through the wind sensors located on the outside of the nacelle, information is
provided on whether the nacelle is correctly oriented or not. These elements are the vane
and the anemometer [16].
Tower: In general, the tower can have a multitude of structures and can be made of steel or
reinforced and/or prestressed concrete. The heights can also vary according to their
nominal power; currently it is convenient to choose high altitude towers because wind
speeds are higher and constant at high elevations [Figure 3] and [Figure 25]. The lower
part of this is the one that connects to the foundation and also transmits the loads to the
ground [16].
Figure 25-Variation of speed with height [64]
27
Access ladder: there must be access to the nacelle for maintenance purposes, if necessary;
it can be reached via the access staircase, either from inside the tower (tubular towers) or
outside (concrete towers) [16].
Gearbox: is the one in charge of increasing the force on the shaft, on its left has what is
called the low speed shaft, and on its right the high speed shaft, multiplies the force of the
low speed shaft 50 times that of the high speed shaft.
Connection to the electric grid: this is where the transformer station is located, it is not
directly part of a wind turbine but it is in charge of adapting the electricity produced to the
grid [16].
Foundation: [Figure 26] this is one of the most important parts of the wind turbine; the
task to be performed is to ensure the stability of the tower during its useful life, something
it achieves by transferring the loads it receives to the ground. The entire vertical load
comes from the weight of the tower, nacelle and blades, but certainly, the most significant
load to support is the one that comes from the stresses caused by the wind. Due to the
heights of the towers the wind acts as a horizontal force, producing a considerable bending
moment in the foundation. The foundations are usually characterized by not being very
deep but with a large surface area in contact with the ground, mention that if the
characteristics of the ground are very unfavourable; it is usually decided to incorporate
piles [12].
Figure 26-WT foundation [65]
28
b) Types of turbine
This section will describe the different kind of wind turbines available, as a vertical axis
wind turbines (VAWTs) and horizontal axis wind turbines (HAWTs), this depends of the
rotor dispositions [17].
Vertical axis wind turbines

This type of wind turbine refers to the first waterwheels, in which water was perpendicular
to the axis of rotation, are called VAWTs and also panemone (can receive wind from all
directions) in addition, its main advantages are:
- They do not require orientation devices, so they works by the difference in drag
coefficient between the two half of the section exposed to the wind, which means
that the rotor rotates in the specific direction of the wind.
- All its components can be installed on the ground, as well as the generator,
gearbox…
- The components are easier to repair, as they are installed in the ground.
The disadvantages of this type of turbine are clear:

- As is know from before, less height less wind speed, the average speed in this kind
of turbine is very low.
- The average efficiency of this type of machines is not very good.
- To replace the main rotor bearing, the needs to be disassembled and the entire
turbine needs to be disassembled.
Now it will explain the different types of these turbines, as Savonius, Darrieus, Giromill
and Windside [17].
29
Savonius
It is the simplest model, consisting of a
hollow cylinder split in half, in which its
two halves have been displaced to
become an S [Figure 27] the concave
parts of the S pick up the wind, while the
backs have less wind resistance, thus
turning in the direction that offers less
resistance.
Figure 27-Savonius rotor [66]
The disadvantage of this system is that it presents an overpressure in the interior of the
concave zones because the air cannot escape, thus affecting its performance, this can be
solved by separating the two blades and leaving a space between them so that there is a
flow of air. Due to the high air resistance it offers, it can only be used at low speeds (below
200 rpm), so it is often used for mechanical applications such as water pumping [18].
Darrieus
This model is the most popular in this field; it does not
have propellers as sophisticated as horizontal wind
turbines and also allows higher speeds than the Savonius,
but without reaching the horizontal axis. It consists of thin,
symmetrical airplane wing blades [Figure 28], which are
attached to the shaft only at the two ends with a special
curve designed for maximum performance between the
two shaft joints. The curve model used is the Troposkien,
but also the catenary [12].
Figure 28-Darrieus rotor [67]
Having a shape similar to a jump rope, it makes the Darrieus wings experience a strong
centrifugal force. Working in pure tension makes the ailerons simple and economical. This
rotor presents the problem that cannot start on its own; having to use a secondary starting
system, although once it is running it is capable of being maintained thanks to the
aerodynamics of its blades. The design of the Savonius can be applied or a starting
30
electrical system can be used. This type is simple, robust and cheap. It needs tensioners to
maintain its stability [Figure 28] [12].
Giromill
Darrieus' patent also covered the turbines with straight shaft vertical flaps, called Giromill.
These have flaps which can be oriented to change the angle of attack as shown in [Figure
29] [12].
Figure 29-Giromill rotor [68]
Windside
It is a new wind turbine designed by the Finnish company Windside. It is a relatively new
and promising technology, with yields similar to horizontal wind turbines and is usually
applied to supply medium and small consumption. What makes it different from other
vertical wind turbines is the aerodynamic concept [Figure 30] [1] [19].
Figure 30-Windside prototype [68]
31
Horizontal axis wind turbines

These types are the most common in the world today, and have been the focus of all design
and development efforts and are called HAWTs. This type of turbine works in contrast to
the vertical ones, turning the blades perpendicular to the wind direction. The goal is to
convert linear motion into rotational energy by running a generator. The speed of rotation
of the horizontal axis turbines follows an inverse relationship to the number of their blades,
or more precisely, to the solidity parameter that indicates the quotient between the surface
occupied by the blades and the surface swept by them [17].
Multi-blades rotors, slow WT

This type of turbine is characterized by a high number of blades (between 5 and 24) and
therefore a high strength [Figure 31]. They have high starting torques and low rotational
speed. The linear velocity at the tip of the blade of these machines, under design conditions,
is of the same order as the speed of the incident wind. These characteristics mean that the
application of these has been for the pumping of water. This type of turbine is very typical
on farms [Figure 31], is not usually in applications to generate electricity due to the low
turning speed [17].
Figure 31-Multi-blades rotor [69]
32
Propeller rotors, fast wind turbines

Propeller rotors rotate at a higher speed than multiblade rotors, the speed at the tip of the
blade varies between 6 and 14 times the speed of the incident wind, which makes them
optimal for generating electrical energy. They have a low starting torque but are sufficient
to rotate the rotor in the connection process.
These types of turbines will be classified according to their position in relation to the wind
and the number of blades.
 Classification according to the position of the equipment respect to the wind
WT with leeward rotor

These WT have the rotor located on the leeward
[Figure 32] side of the tower. The advantage of this
is that they can be built without the need for an
orientation mechanism, if the rotor and nacelle are
designed so that the nacelle follows the wind
passively. This passive orientation system is based on
slightly tilting the blades, so that this tilting makes
the shape of a cone. When the rotor is not oriented,
Figure 32-Leeward orientation [70] the blades that are more downwind receive an
aerodynamic thrust that tends to vary the orientation of the rotor towards the balance
position. This typology requires cables to conduct the current out of the generator, because
if the machine has been passively oriented in the same direction for a long period of time
and does not have an orientation mechanism, the cables can suffer an excessive torsion. A
more important aspect is that the rotor can be made more flexible, this is an advantage both
in terms of weight and power dynamics of the machine, and this means that the blades are
bent at high wind speeds which will remove some of the load from the tower. Another
disadvantage is the fluctuation of the wind power, due to the passage of the rotor through
the shelter of the tower. This can create more fatigue loads on the turbine than with a
windward design [20].
33
WT with windward rotor

WT with windward rotor have the rotor facing the wind;
the main advantage being that it avoids "wind shade"
[Figure 33] behind the tower, resulting in lower fatigue
loads, less variation in aerodynamic torque and reduced
noise. Mention that before the wind reaches the
tower/rotor, it begins to deviate, causing the wind
turbine's power to fall. The main disadvantage is that the
rotor needs to be quite inflexible and located at a certain
Figure 33-Windward orientation [70]
distance from the tower, in addition to needing and
orientation mechanism to keep the rotor facing the wind. This type is the most widely used
in the world today [21].
 Classification according to the number of blades
Three-bladed WT
It is the most common and used design [Figure 34], with the windward rotor, using
electric motors in its orientation mechanism. This design tends to impose itself as standard
to the rest of the concepts evaluated, mainly due to its better structural and aerodynamic
stability, lower noise emission and higher energy efficiency compared to the rotors of one
or two blades, another characteristic is the use of asynchronous generator [22].
Figure 34-Three-bladed WT [71]
34
Two-bladed WT
The main advantage is the economic saving of a shovel and weight, in addition to the ease
of mounting on the nacelle, as it can be raised from the ground as a single piece [Figure
33]. However, they have some problems in the market as they need a higher speed of
rotation to produce the same output energy. This type and the single-bladed blade need a
more complex design, a tilting rotor (oscillating hub), the rotor has to be able to tilt
(articulated hub), to avoid strong jolts in the turbine every time one of the blades passes
through the tower. Thus the rotor is mounted at the end of a shaft perpendicular to the main
shaft and rotates in conjunction with it. Such an arrangement may require additional
dampers to prevent the rotor blades from colliding with the tower [22].
Figure 35-Two-bladed WT [72]
35
Mono-blade WT
Its main advantage is the reduction of material costs, but despite this they are not very
widespread commercially, the disadvantages of the two-bladed blades can be applied, in
addition to a higher speed of rotation and excessive noise, they need a counterweight
[Figure 36] on the side of the hub opposite the blade to balance the rotor, another
disadvantage is the introduction into the axis of highly variable stresses thus shortening the
life of the installation [22].
Figure 36-Mono-blade WT [73]
c) Types of tower
At this point it will describe the different types of towers for wind turbines, focusing on the
HAWTs typology as it is the objective of this project. The tower is one of the main
elements of the wind turbine, accounting for 20% of the total cost of the turbine.
The search for higher tower heights has led to changes in the construction materials of the
towers. This change is mainly due to the attempt to achieve towers that are capable of
supporting loads at the lowest possible cost. Due to the great competition, one of the most
important factors that exist is to obtain products capable of performing the same work but
at a lower cost. The most commonly used materials are steel and hybrid towers (one
section is made of concrete and the other of steel). Each type will have advantages and
disadvantages, greater or lesser difficulty in assembly, manufacture and/or durability.
When determining the design of the towers, two very important design parameters must be
taken into account, one being the height, as stated in section a) ELEMENTS OF WT and if
36
it look at [Figure 25], the higher the height - the higher the wind speed - the higher the
energy output, but an increase in the height of the tower means an increase in the
component and greater installation difficulty. Theoretically, the optimum height of the
tower results from the point where the construction of the two functions - cost and energy
efficiency - intersects. Unfortunately this point cannot be indicated by any valid general
formula, so the choice of the tower height is a trade-off between advantages and
disadvantages of increasing this design parameter. In larger turbines, construction costs
increase in relation to small turbines, but energy production increases in relation to small
turbines, is a matter of analysis.
After height, the stiffness is the second important design parameter for a tower; it must
have sufficient stiffness to withstand the thrust loads transmitted by the rotor and the loads
exerted by the wind along the tower. In addition, one of the fundamental factors for the
design of the tower and which is linked to the chosen material is the frequency, the tower
must set the natural bending frequency in such a way that in no stable operating condition
is this frequency itself excited. The goal of the tower design is to be as high as possible, to
have optimum rigidity and to be as cost-effective as possible. Apart from the functional
aspect, aesthetics must also be taken into account as it determines the external appearance.
The old wind turbines did not have towers, but rather rooms [Figure 37]. In relation to the
diameter of the rotor, they had a low and voluminous construction, in accordance with
their function as a “working room”; the necessary rigidity was thus a given circumstance.
It was early on that the advantage of increased height was recognized, so the mill became
slimmer [1].
Figure 37-Old wind mills [74]
37
Lattice tower
The lattice tower is the simplest to build a tall
and rigid tower, consisting of a tower with a
metal structure in which the wind rotor and its
mechanical components are supported at the top
[Figure 38]. They were the first types of wind
turbine test towers; it is very common in towers
of around 30 m. It has the advantage of reduced
cost, but the disadvantage of its complex
accessibility making maintenance tasks difficult.
Figure 38-Lattice tower [75]
Regarding the visual impact, at close distances it
is very high but at long distances it is confused with the horizon. They are commonly used
for electric towers [23].
Concrete tower
The configuration of these towers
can be by reinforced or prestressed
concrete. Prestressed concrete is
more expensive but has better
characteristics for high rigidity
tower designs than reinforced
concrete and is therefore an
economically competitive option
compared to tubular steel towers
when designed with high rigidity.
Figure 39-Concrete tower [76]
The construction of this typology is
not usually done by decking, but rather by prefabricating the tower in 2-3 sections [Figure
39]. Anchored tensioners can be used to provide rigidity or mixed towers made up of a
lower section of concrete and a steel top [23].
38
Steel tower
This typology is the most commonly
used today [Figure 40], they presented
a great structural rigidity, they were
designed in such a way that the natural
frequency of bending of the tower was
higher than the frequency of rotation of
the blade, this was done to reduce the
possibility of exciting this natural
frequency of the system, which gave Figure 40-Steel tower [89]
rise to excessively heavy and expensive designs, so the new towers are designed in such a
way that the natural frequency of bending is lower than these frequencies of rotation of the
blades [23].
The simplest manufacturing criterion for tubular towers is the joining of several sections,
as in concrete towers. In towers of high heights it is usually conical-trunk with decreasing
thickness with the height to save weight and material.
Hybrid tower
They are towers made up of concrete bottom and steel
top [Figure 41], the aim of this is to reduce costs
compared to concrete towers, which, as mentioned
above, is quite expensive. The problem is in the
assembly of the concrete part, since it must be in situ,
increasing the cost. The concrete part will introduce
more rigidity to the tower so it can be higher [24].
It can be said that the advantages of this typology are:
increased rigidity, sufficient to guarantee frequency
limitations under all types of geotechnical conditions
Figure 41-Hybrid tower [77] and heights; savings in transport; no inspection and
maintenance required if a good design is guaranteed in terms of durability; the ultimate
fatigue limit state can be controlled by increasing the characteristic strength of the concrete,
and the disadvantages are: higher assembly costs due to the on-site nature and the need for
machinery; higher initial investment and the need for future improvement.
39
d) Foundations
At this point it is necessary to begin by distinguishing between the term onshore and
offshore; the term onshore refers to wind farms on land as such (usual wind farms) [Figure
26] and the term offshore refers to wind farms in the sea [Figure 42].
Figure 42-Offshore wind farm [78]

The calculation of the foundation depends on the loads produced by the tower in general
(wind and weight of the elements). Once the foundation is under load, it must guarantee
the correct response to its solicitations, on the one hand it must ensure the stability of the
wind turbine by preventing it from tipping over and sliding due to horizontal actions (terms
that will be defined later on), on the other hand the ground, when the loads are transmitted
to it, will generate a distribution of pressure under the foundation, which will cause
bending and shearing stresses in the concrete, and it is essential to place steel rods.
Onshore
For the onshore case, the geology of the ground must be taken into account, if it is
sufficiently compact, the compact foundation is usually used, on which a ferrule is
mounted that will later be attached to the lower flange of the tower.
The types of foundations that have been carried out to support wind turbines are
fundamentally surface and pile-based surface foundations. Depending on the soil
conditions, one or the other type of foundation will be chosen [Table 2].
Table 2-Types of foundation
Type of ground Type of foundation
Reinforced concrete surface supported on the rock

Rock close to the surface
and anchored by bolts
Firm ground Reinforced concrete surface (can incorporate piles)
Low load-bearing capacity land Reinforces concrete surface with piles
40
The superficial foundation is characterized by a great extension in plant, based on

transmitting the loads it receives and its own weight to the ground, the geometries are
usually circular [Figure 43] or polygonal [Figure 26] and the material used is reinforced
concrete.
The loads that are transmitted by the
connection with the tower are mainly
the weight of the structure and the wind
thrust, these loads must be carried to
the ground without exceeding the load-
bearing capacity of the ground, which
is why the contact surface between
foundation and ground must be
sufficiently large, since the greater the
Figure 43-Circular foundation [79] surface, the lower the pressure that the
ground must support, but the higher the economic cost of the foundation. This type of
foundation is suitable for rigid soils that offer small settlements, which means that it is
used in soils with a high angle of internal friction and not in clay, organic soils or soils
with low modulus of elasticity.
It may be the case that the soil does not have adequate characteristics, properties such as
rigidity, shear strength, permeability or soil homogeneity, but these irregularities can be
adjusted/solved by different soil stabilization methods:
- Preload, compaction or vibration: by exposing the soil to preload or compaction
processes, soil consolidation can be achieved and future settlement can be reduced.
Other methods include dropping weights onto the ground from a certain height or
introducing vibrations that reorganize the soil's particles.
- Cement grout infiltrations: injecting cement grout is a common method, they are
able to modify the permeability of the soil and consequently the flow of water or
increase the carrying capacity.
- Via jet-grouting: it consists of drilling a hole in the ground and filling it with a
mixture of cement grout and soil in columns [Figure 44]. After drilling to a certain
depth, the drilling element is removed while the mixture is being injected, thus
filling in the spaces between soil particles.
41
Figure 44-Jet-grounting steps [80]
If the soil properties are not sufficient to ensure good foundation support, it may be a good
option to install piles that conduct the loads to a better, deeper ground. Due to the big
bending moment from the wind, piles might be exposed to tensional loads which have to
be considered [Figure 45] [18] [25] [26].
Figure 45-Piles foundation [81]
42
Offshore
The offshore term as mentioned is the nomenclature for offshore wind farms. In
comparison with onshore wind farms, they have characteristics that can be seen in section
e) ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES. However, although offshore wind farms are
expected to have a great future due to their production capacity, the need for offshore
platforms and the difficult civil works and maintenance, make investments very costly, not
to mention the environmental problems of coastal encroachment. As far as construction
complexity is concerned, a clear example is found in their foundations, they are usually
built on land and transported by boat to their destination, this process is not easy.
Unlike onshore, the typologies for offshore are very diverse, depending on the depth and
the properties of the terrain, one or the other typology is chosen, increasing the cost the
further away from the coast. This type of foundation must be designed to withstand
additional loads than those mentioned above, as they are affected by wave, pressure
variation with depth and the existence of an increased risk of instability due to the erosion
of the submerged soil. Now the different types of offshore foundations will be explained.
Gravity foundation
This type of foundation is based on the same principle as onshore surface foundation, the
dimensions are usually larger. It is not usually solid to facilitate transport by ship and is
then filled by land. They are used at depths of less than 20 m and are more expensive from
10 m (left) [Figure 45]. In places prone to frost, a wider area is usually available to protect
against icebergs (right) [Figure 46] [27].
Figure 46-Gravity foundation [82]
43
Tripod-shaped foundation
This type of foundation is used for depths of 30 and 40 m [Figure 47]. The tripod is
anchored to the bottom by means of steel piles; it is more expensive than the previous one
(gravity foundation) [28].
Figure 47-Tripod-shaped foundation [83]
Type Jacket
This type of structure comes from the offshore oil industry and is used up to depths of 60
m [Figure 48]. High manufacturing costs. This system is anchored to the seabed using
piles and is transported and installed in one piece and requires special boats [28].
Figure 48-Jacket foundation [84]
44
Suction Buckets foundations

It consists of a design similar in appearance to the gravity foundation. The (steel)
foundation is deposited on the seabed and suction is applied to the base so that it penetrates
into the ground [Figure 49] [27].
Figure 49-Suction Buckets foundation [85]
Foundation of floating supports

This type of lift is very avant-garde and it remains to be seen what its real scope will be. It
seems that for intermediate depths the costs could be similar to those of fixed structures
and, in addition, it would significantly expand the potential locations. In its favour, the
construction process plays a role in reducing the visual impact and making it more flexible.
The complexity of its design is much greater than for any other case, as it is challenge
necessary to model the coupled movement of the support structure and the turbine [Figure
50]. Electricity infrastructure is also a new [28].
Figure 50-Floating foundation [86]
45
e) Advantages and disadvantages

One third of the contamination generated worldwide comes from the electricity production
process. The development of renewable energy sources is both desirable and necessary.
Below are the advantages and disadvantages of this type of renewable energy and the use
of onshore and offshore wind farms.
Advantages
Renewable and sustainable
This type of energy is inexhaustible, unlike fossil fuels, making it a sustainable type of
energy and also allows us to conserve these natural supplies for future generations.
Generating electricity from wind energy reduces the need to burn fossil fuel alternatives
such a coal, oil and gas. This can help to conserve dwindling supplies of the earth’s natural
resources, allowing them to last longer and help to support future generations.
Environmentally friendly
It is very respectful of the environment, producing little or no pollution as a result. Just as
they do not produce greenhouse gases such as CO2 or CH4; they also have no impact on
the physical-chemical characteristics of the soil or erodability, do not generate pollutants or
spills and do not require large earthworks; it does not produce alteration on aquifers neither
by consumption nor by generation of residues; for general the electricity is not necessary
any combustion process or stage of thermal transformation, reason why it preserves the
atmosphere, the soil, the water, the fauna and the vegetation. It does produce a type of
acoustic and visual contamination, but they don’t have a negative effect on the earth, water
table or the quality of the air it breathe.
Wind energy is free and inexhaustible

Unlike some other energy sources, wind energy is completely free. There’s no market for
the supply and demand of wind energy, it’s there to be used by anyone and will never run
out. This makes wind energy a viable option for generating cheap electricity. The energy
wind energy is inexhaustible. The energy is obtained in the form of mechanical and is
converted to electrical with excellent performance.
46
Small footprint
Wind turbines have a relatively small land footprint. Although they can tower high above
the ground, the impact on the land at the base is minimal. The area around the base of a
wind turbine can often be used for other purposes such as agriculture.
Industrial and domestic installation

Wind turbines are not just limited to industrial-scale installations such as wind farms. They
can also be installed on a domestic scale, with many landowners opting to install smaller,
less powerful wind turbines in order to provide part of a domestic electricity supply. In
very windy areas it is capable of guaranteeing all the necessary energy supply on its own
without the need for support from other energy sources. However, in areas with little wind,
it is essential that it be accompanied by other renewable sources in addition domestic wind
turbines are often coupled with other renewable energy technologies such as solar panels
or geothermal heating systems.
Remote power solution and new opportunities

Wind turbines can play a key role in helping to bring power to remote locations. This can
help to benefit everything from a small off-grid village to a remote research station; can
provide the area with infrastructure, business opportunities, self-sufficiency, local and
national wealth, as well as creating a large global market for the manufacture of wind
turbines, installation and maintenance, and wind energy consulting.
Wind technology becoming cheaper

Since the invention of the first wind turbine, wind turbines have improved significantly
and today the technology is beginning to come down in price, making it much more
affordable.
Government subsidies are also helping to reduce the cost of installing a wind turbine, and
many governments around the world offer incentives not only for the installation of such
technologies, but also for the continued supply of environmentally friendly electricity.
47
Low maintenance and energetic exploitation

Energy exploitation requires a relatively simple and proven technology, the wind turbine
has safety systems to protect itself, such as self-braking or changing the plane of the blades
when wind speeds are extreme. Wind turbines are considered relatively low maintenance.
A new wind turbine can be expected to last some time prior to any maintenance work
needing to be carried out. Although older wind turbines can come up against reliability
issues, each new generation of wind turbine is helping to improve reliability [29].
Disadvantages
Most of the disadvantages of this type of energy refer to the environmental impact.
The wind fluctuates
Although wind energy is sustainable and will never run out, the wind isn’t always blowing.
This can cause serious problems for wind turbine developers who will often spend
significant time and money investigating whether or not a particular site is suitable for the
generation of wind power. For a wind turbine to be efficient, the location where it is built
needs to have an adequate supply of wind energy. This is why it often sees wind turbines
built on top of hills or out at sea, where there are less land obstacles to reduce the intensity
of wind energy.
Installation is expensive
Although costs are reducing over time, the installation of a wind turbine is considered
expensive. First, a site survey will need to be carried out which may involve having to
erect a sample turbine to measure wind speeds over a significant period of time. If deemed
adequate, the wind turbine will need to be manufactured, transported and erected on top of
a pre-built foundation. All of these processes contribute to the overall cost of installing a
wind turbine. When the above is taken into account for offshore wind farms, costs become
much greater. It’s much harder to install wind turbines out at sea than it is on land, and
some companies have even commissioned bespoke ships capable of transporting and
installing wind turbines at sea.
48
Impact on flora and erosion

This impact is affected during the construction phase of the wind farm or wind turbine,
mainly due to the movement of earth in the preparation of accesses to the wind farm and
the laying of foundations for the wind turbines and control buildings. Depending on the
climatic conditions and the magnitude of the wind turbines, erosion problems may arise.
This should be taken into account in the early stages of project development with a view to
carrying out the relevant hydrological and rainfall studies, road layout, riverbed and
watercourse analyses.
Problems with birdlife

Numerous studies have been carried out on the behaviour of birds and the frequency of
collisions with a wind turbine, and it has been found that the significant danger is very
small compared to other causes of bird deaths (power lines, roads, etc.). In any case, park
construction should be avoided in certain areas such as migration routes and areas where
sensitive or endangered species live. In the case of birds (with the exception of gliders),
which normally live in an area with wind turbines, the risk of collision is relatively low, as
birds learn to avoid obstacles in their own territory. For daytime migratory birds, the
danger of collision is negligible (with good weather conditions), as they often spot the
obstacle and change their flight path a long way from wind farms. Night-time migrants do
appear to have greater collision problems, especially concentrated on so-called
"catastrophic nights". In adverse conditions, birds sometimes descend to minors the danger
of collision is increased. It also appears that, as it is passed through in coastal areas,
migratory birds fly much lower. There is evidence that can be disoriented by the lights.
In general, power lines cause more problems than wind turbines themselves, which are
visible and more easily avoidable structures than power lines. Electrocution and collision
with power lines are the two most frequent causes of mortality, the incidence of which
varies according to the type of species affected and the design of the network.
Visual pollution
Visual intrusion into the landscape is the most frequent objection made to wind turbines
and the main factor determining public attitudes against the application of wind energy.
Therefore, it is a problem that cannot be ignored in its development. This is the least
quantifiable environmental impact of wind turbines and the least investigated in
49
comparison with other types of environmental impacts. The reason why research is
infrequent is because the visual impact is often subjective and in any case difficult to
estimate and quantify, as there are many people who like the appearance of wind turbines.
Human perception of the environment is a complex process in which the observer and the
observed physical reality interact. Physical reality is recorded by the sense organs. The
impulses are interpreted and assessed according to the knowledge, experience and
expectations stored in our brain. This is the process of perception. The time factor must
also be taken into account. When new knowledge and experience are acquired, our
expectations can be changed.
The most negative effect that this disadvantage has is the so-called "shadow flicker"
[Figure 51] produced by the rotation of the blades and producing a shadow in locations
near the park or WT .
Figure 51-Shadow flicker [87]
In any case, the visual impact is inherent to this way of producing energy. It can be
minimized as much as possible, for example by painting the towers grey, but never
completely avoided. In flat areas it is usually a good strategy to arrange the turbines
according to a simple geometric distribution, easily perceptible by the spectator.
However, there are limits to the use of simple patterns: in landscapes with steep slopes, the
use of a simple pattern is seldom feasible, and is usually a good idea. Better to have the
turbines follow the contours of the landscape's altitude, or the fences or other
characteristics of the same.
50
Noise pollution
Noise is a secondary problem today. It is interesting to note that the noise emission levels
of all new wind turbine designs tend to be grouped around the same values [Figure 52].
This seems to indicate that the gains due to the new designs, such as quieter blade tips, are
invested in slightly increasing the speed of the blade tip and therefore in increasing the
energy produced by the machines. Wind turbines produce noise derived from their own
operation. Four factors determine the noise nuisance:
- The noise produced by the wind turbine itself.
- The position of the turbines.
- The distance that the residents of the area are located with respect to the wind
turbines.
- The existing background sound.
Noise pollution from wind turbines has ruined the lives of some homeowners. Although
steps are often taken to site wind turbines away from dwellings, they do sometimes get
built too close to where people live and this is why new wind farms often come up against
strong public objection [29].
Figure 52-Noise map [21]
51
Below is a table [Table 3] in which the offshore and onshore wind farms are differentiated.
Table 3-Comparison between onshore and offshore wind farms
TYPOLOGY VS CHARACTERISTICS
ONSHORE OFFSHORE
2000 hours of maximum annual 4000 hours of maximum annual

Resources performance. performance.
Limited locations Large number of possible location.
1-3 MW each wind turbine.

3-5 MW each wind turbine.
Wind farms around 20-50 MW.
Dimensions Wind farms around 100-1000 MW.
Investment per wind farm 30-70
Investment per wind farm 1-2 billion euros.
million euros.
Aggressive marine conditions.

Mild conditions.
Environment Distance to the surface 1-70 km.
24 hours access.
Access limited by storms.
On solid ground. Sand, clay, rock…and with a lot of erosion.

Foundation In-situ surface with or without Type of foundation as a function of the
piles. depth and bearing capacity of the soil.
52
2.3. Project time-line
53
54
B18INT04 RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
3. Research methodology
The methodology has been carried out in the following steps:
- Perform a wind and weather analysis in the community of Hvaler, search for
possible sites for the construction of the wind turbines and obtain geological
data on them.
- With all of the above, analyse different suppliers of 250 kW wind turbines with
their corresponding technical data sheets, select the one that best suits wind
conditions.
- Calculate the loads caused by the wind, tower and wind turbine components,
applying the safety coefficients according to the standard and with them
perform an analytical check of the tower.
- Once the tower has been checked, the foundation will be designed taking into
account the loads submitted and the quantities of reinforcement required to
support the loads will be calculated.
55
B18INT04 RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
The methodology used for the development of this project is presented in the following
diagram:
56
B18INT04 ANALYSIS DISCUSSION AND RESULTS
4. Analysis discussion
Well, this part will describe the entire development and analysis part of the final thesis.
4.1. Wind study of the emplacement

As mentioned above, the main objective of this thesis is the installation of a wind
turbine(s) in the Hvaler Kommune area that will form part of a future Smart City (ESBØ).
To do this, the most important factor when installing a wind turbine is to determine a study
of where it will be located and know the characteristics of the wind that will be found in
the area, in addition to other factors such as soil type, effects on nature....
The study of the wind zone is the most important, as it will define the most important and
determining aspects of the wind turbine, such as power (imposed, 250 kW), rotor diameter,
tower height, dimensions, weights...
For this thesis, the wind data study was obtained through a study carried up by WINDSIM
and the help of Hvaler Kommune.
WINDSIM developed a technical report in which it obtained different wind maps at

different heights in which the average speeds could be determined, also the wind direction
with the wind rose. Later on and with the help of this project and Hvaler Kommune an
interactive application was developed in which the average speed can be obtained at
different heights (10, 20, 30, 40, 50, 60 m) at any point desired [7].
4.1.1. Technical report of WINDSIM

The methodology used by WINDSIM to develop this report was in the process of analysis
of local reference wind condition, WINDSIM have investigated and analysed multiple data
sources to design the suitable approach. Based on the raw data available, WindSim applied
the data cleaning procedure to generate on-site wind conditions. The short-term data is
combined with long-term reference wind, from reanalysis wind data, to generate wind
conditions suitable for wind condition and energy assessment of wind energy. The
procedure for long-term data correction has undertaken trough a careful analysis.
57
The WINDSIM flow model is established to transfer the long-term correlated wind
conditions at reference positions to any other position within the site area, and thereby
obtain a high resolution three-dimensional wind resource maps. The wind flow is affected
by the local terrain. The digital terrain model including elevation and roughness has been
established, and grid for the flow domain is generated for the air above it. RANS (Reynolds
Averaged Navier-Stokes) equations have been applied to numerically solve the wind flow
in every wind direction. The wind resource maps are generated by predicted free stream
wind speed distribution at potential hub height of the turbine, giving detailed information
on wind speed and direction distribution. The site visit is conducted, and the elevation and
land cover databases used in the flow modelling are verified during the site visit. The wind
resource result is also verified during the site visit, by investigating the vegetation and
contact with local people. The data used for wind resource analysis are from two sources:
 MERRA-2
 Local Weather Stations
The Modern-Era Retrospective analysis for Research and Applications, Version 2
(MERRA-2) provides data beginning in 1980. It was introduced to replace the original
MERRA dataset because of the advances made in the assimilation system that enable
assimilation of modern hyperspectral radiance and microwave observations, along with
GPS-Radio Occultation datasets. It also uses NASA ozone observations after 2005.
Additional advances in both the GEOS-5 model and the GSI assimilation system are
included in MERRA-2. Spatial resolution remains about the same (about 50 km in the
latitudinal direction) as in MERRA. The two nearest MERRA_C and MERRA_D are
chosen for later long-term reference wind analysis, respectively located 20km and 18 km
south-western and south-eastern to the centre of the planned wind farm/wind turbines. The
three local weather stations #01495, #01482, #02500 are selected as short term on-site
wind data for further analysis. The weather station #01495 is located 12km north-western
to the centre of the site with coordinates. #01482 and #02500 are located 25km and 18km
respectively western and southern to the site centre [Figure 53].
58
Figure 53-Weather station Hvaler Kommune [7]
Thanks to the data obtained from these stations and the work of the WINDSIM Company
was obtained the following wind rose and speed distribution at 10 m of each local weather
station [Figure 54], [Figure 55] and [Figure 56]:
Table 4-Location and characteristics of weather stations [7]
WEATHER STATIONS
Wind speed
Elevation Prevailing wind
Name Latitude Longitude frequency
(m) direction (º)
(m/s)
MERRA C 0 59º 0' 0.00'' N 10º 37' 30.00'' E 210 5-6
MERRA D 73 58º 59' 59.98'' N 11º 15' 0.00'' E 210 4-5
#01495 3 59º 9' 5.65'' N 10º 49' 46.34'' E 240 5-7.5
#01482 2 59º 1' 39.04'' N 10º 31' 28.67'' E 240 5-7.5
#02500 14 58º 53' 31.88'' N 11º 0' 16.06'' E 210 4-5
59
Figure 56-Wind rose and speed distribution at 10 m of #01482 [7]
60
The analysis showed that the MERRA_C and MERRA_D stations obtained an almost
identical analysis in terms of wind speed and wind rose due to the nearly same wind trend
between MERRA_C and MERRA_D [Figure 57] [7].
Figure 57-Wind rose and speed distribution at 50 m of long-term of MERRA_C & MERRA_D [7]
Thanks to a measurement, correlation and predictive (MCP) process, it was possible to link
local weather stations with MERRA weather stations [Figure 58], [Figure 59] and [Figure
60].
Figure 58-Wind rose and speed distribution at 10 m of long term on-site wind of #01482_MCP [7]
61
CFD (Computational Fluids Dynamics) modelling with the Hellman's Exponential Law, it
was possible to transfer wind conditions from the measuring points to interested positions
within the site at different heights and develop the follow wind maps:
( ) ( ) (2)
Equation 2-Hellman Exponential Law
where:
- ( ): wind speed at the height to be studied (m/s)
- : wind speed at the studied height (m/s)
- : hub height to study (m)
- : height study of (m)
- : Hellman coefficient (depends of the terrain description [Table 5])
62
Table 5-Hellman coefficients depending of the terrain

Terrain Description Power law exponent (α)
Smooth, hard ground, lake or ocean 0.1
Short grass on untilled ground 0.14
Level country with foot-high grass, occasional tree 0.16
Tall row crops, hedges, a few trees 0.2
Many trees and occasional buildings 0.22-0.24
Wooded country-small towns and suburbs 0.28-0.30
Urban areas with tall buildings 0.4
With all this it is possible to obtain wind maps [Figure 61] of the Hvaler Kommune area at
different heights, other figures can be seen in the [Appendix II]:
Figure 61-Wind resource map for mean wind speed at 10 m above ground [7]
Generally, the wind resource is better at higher heights above ground. The resource is
better in the south part of the municipality and close to the coast. However, quite a lot of
more windy area is located in Ytre Hvaler National Park, where erection of wind turbines
will not be allowed. Three sites were visited on 10.8.2017 for verification study [Figure
62] [7].
63
Figure 62-Locations of the site visit [7]
- Site visit 1 is located at the parking lot of Stolsfjellet, access by Stolsberget. It’s
outside the edge of Ytre Hvaler National Park; the predicted average wind speed is
8.0 m/s at 60 m height.
- Site visit 2 is located at Holmetangen, the east of Spjærøykilen, near the cabin
number 116, outside the edge of Ytre Hvaler National Park, the predicted average
wind speed is 7.8 m/s at 60 m height.
- Site visit 3 is located in Skjærhalden, in the urban area. The predicted average wind
speed is 7.4m/s at 60m height.
As conclusions to this first assessment was obtained:

The wind resource map in six different heights, as 10, 20, 30, 40, 50, and 60m in Hvaler
Kommune are presented [7].
 The wind resource at higher height is greater than at lower heights.
 The resource is better in the south part of the municipality and close to the coast.
 However, quite a lot of more windy area is located in Ytre Hvaler National Park,
where one may not be able to setup wind turbines.
 Mean wind speed is in the range of 7.0 m/s and 8.0 m/s for most of the Hvaler
Kommune at 60m.
64
Kommune at 40m.
Kommune at 20m.
4.1.2. Interactive wind map

With the work carried out by ESBØ project, WINDSIM [7] and Hvaler Kommune, a more
accurate interactive wind map was developed, in which the average speed could be
obtained at any desired height at any point between 10-60 m above the indicated point.
First of all, the possible locations for the installation of the wind turbine were analysed
[Figure 9] and [Table 1].
The characteristics of the different locations are described below:
- Skjærhalden, Kirkeøy: one of the most touristic areas of the area (especially in
summer) as it has some beautiful beaches and various areas for hiking, has about 40
single-family homes, and plans to build a hotel in the Vekkop area. It would be a
good place to install the wind turbine, as it could supply around 40-60 houses as
planned. The different wind speeds obtained through the interactive map were:
Figure 63-Different speeds at different heights [7]
65
- Rød, Asmaløy: this place is less inhabited than the previous one, with respect to the
number of homes, it contains a few less but in this one, there’s a secondary school
and a sports centre. The different wind speeds with their respective heights can be
viewed in the [Appendix III].
- Hauge, Vesterøy: here there are also fewer homes than in the first one, and there is
also another nursery school. The different wind speeds with their respective heights
can be viewed in the [Appendix III].
- Utgård Harbor, Vesterøy: in this last analysed place there is a fishing port with a
fish factory, Fjordisk AS, and the number of houses in this place is much reduced.
The different wind speeds with their respective heights can be viewed in the
[Appendix III].
Finally, the candidate sites are established with their different heights and average speeds.
Table 6-Summary of places, heights and average speeds.
HEIGHT (m)
Places 10 20 30 40 50 60
Skjærhalden, Kirkeøy 4.6 5.7 6.4 6.9 7.4 7.5
Rød, Asmaløy 4.9 6 6.7 7.1 7.4 7.7 AVERAGE
SPEED
Hauge, Vesterøy 6.2 6.8 7.2 7.4 7.7 7.9 (m/s)
Utgård Harbor, Vesterøy 5.9 6.5 6.9 7.2 7.5 7.7
4.1.3. Wind calculations and wind turbine

selection
The heights of 40, 50 and 60 m are selected as interesting heights, as the hub heights of the
250 kW wind turbine towers are between 40-60 m depending on the company.
Next, a pre-design of the wind turbine can be established in terms of its radius, since the
nominal power of the wind turbine and the power per area due to the average speed are
available.
66
(3)
Equation 3-Power generated per area in function of wind speed
where:
- : power generated per area in function of wind speed (W/m2)
- : wind speed in the wind turbine hub (m/s)

- air density at level sea (kg/m3)
(4)
Equation 4-Area swept by the blades
From here the different radius are obtained from which the optimum performance would
be obtained, this means that the ideal case would be to find wind turbines with rotor radius
of this size [Table 7].
Table 7-Summary of radius design optimum radius
HEIGHT (m)
40 50 60
2
POWER PER AREA (W/m ) NAME
P/A (W/m2)
NOMINAL POWER
Skjærhalden, Kirkeøy 201 248 258

Rød, Asmaløy 219 248 280
Hauge, Vesterøy 248 280 302
Utgård Harbor, Vesterøy 229 258 280
40 50 60
250000
AREA (m2 )
A (m2)
(W)

Rød, Asmaløy 1140 1007 894
40 50 60
DESIGN RADIUS (m)
R (m)
Rød, Asmaløy 19 18 17
67
A wind turbine with a nominal wind speed approaching the rotor speed and a rotor radius
similar to the calculated one is required. According to the IEC 61400-1 standard [30], the
type of wind turbine must be selected according to our average wind speed in the hub.
Table 8-Classification of the type of wind turbine [30]
The criterion used is as follows:

- If the wind speed varies between Class I
- If the wind speed varies between Class II
- If the wind speed varies between Class III
The next step is that the company supplying wind turbines of 250 kW contract, analyse
different technical data, as well as characteristics of weights, winds, heights… It is
necessary to select the wind turbine according to our wind in the hub height in order to
obtain the highest efficiency of the wind turbine and to reduce costs, that is to say, not to
select a wind turbine that works at high speeds to those of our location and height. In our
case class III for a tower height of 40 m, type II for heights of 50 and 60 m.
The following models of 250 kW wind turbine suppliers are available: WES-250, DW52-
250, WTN-250, GEV MPC, P250, SIVA250, SRC31 and CF250 [31], the characteristics of
the wind turbines are listed in [Table 9].
The different technical data sheets of the wind turbines are in hand, not including them in
the document but in the bibliography so as not to load the document too much.
68
ANALYSIS DISCUSSION AND RESULTS
Table 9-Differents data of suppliers of 250 kW wind turbines

COMPANIES SUPPLIERS OF 250 KW WIND TURBINES
WES-250 DW52-250 WTN-250 GEVMPC P250 SIVA250 HALBES25 SRC31 CF250
UNITED KINGDOM /
COUNTRY NETHERLANDS GERMANY FRANCE INDIA INDIA TURKEY INDIA IRELAND
NETHERLANDS
ROTOR D (m) 30 52 29 / 30 32 29,6 30 32 31 35
30/40/45/50-TUBULAR
TOWER HEIGHT (m) 30 / 39 / 48 35 / 40 / 50 30 / 40 55 / 60 50 40,5 30 / 36 / 45 35 / 40 / 50
50-LATTICE
CUT IN
<3 2,5 4 3-5 3,5 3-4 2 4 3
WIND SPEED (m/s)
CUT OUT
25 25 25 25 25 25 30 25 25
WIND SPEED (m/s)
RATED
13 8 14 11 15 14 10 13 10-5
WIND SPEED (m/s)
BLADES 2 3 3 2 3 3 3 3 3
69
NOISE 45db 8 m/s 300 m low - - - - - 50 db 5 m/s 100 m 35 db
POWER CURVE YES YES YES YES YES NO YES YES YES
ENERGY PRODUCTION
YES YES YES YES NO NO YES YES YES
CURVE
LIFE EXPENTANCY 20 - 20 20 - 20 - 20 -
IIA-29M
WIND CLASS II IIA II-IV - - - - II
IIIA-30
WEIGHT COMPONENTS
ROTOR (kg) 2970 5000 4200 - 5400 4150 - 5500 -
NACELLE (kg) 10700 13000 9750 7800 12500 - - 8500 -
BLADES (kg) 315 1320 - - 750 750 - 725 -
B18INT04
23500-LATTICE
TOWER (kg) - 28000 11500 / 21000 12000 24000 - 14000 / 18000 / 30000 -
35000-TUBULAR
During the first study, if the speed is observed as a function of the different heights, at the
height of 50 meters the speed is higher, so it is more optimal for our type of wind turbine,
with this height selected can exclude out different companies supplying wind turbines
below 50 meters towers, having as possible candidates: WES-250 (tower 48 m), DW52-250
(tower 50 m), GEVMPS (tower 55-60 m), P250 (tower 50 m), SIVA-250 (tower 50 m), CF-
250 (tower 50 m).
The next step is to check the rated speeds of our candidates and compare them with the
average speeds of the locations, can be seen in the following chart:
RATED SPEED VS SUPPLIERS

16
P250; 15
14
SIVA250; 14
12
WES-250; 13
Rated speed (m/s)
10
GEVMPC; 11
CF250; 10
8
DW52-250; 8
LOC 4; 7.5
LOC 2; 7.4
LOC 1; 7.4
LOC 3; 7.7
4
If the rated wind speed of the possible candidates is now analysed and compared with the
velocity distributions shown above the document, it can be said that a good possible rated
wind speed range would be between 7-8.5 m/s, thus, the most optimal candidates for
selection are, DW52-250 (8 m/s) [Figure 64] [32] and CF250 (10-5 m/s) [Figure 65] [33]
according to the technical data sheets, these data are checked with the power curves of
these:
70
Figure 64-Power and Energy production curve of DW52-250 model [32]
71
Figure 65-Power and Energy production curve of CF250 model [33]
The CF250 company includes in its technical data sheet a rated wind speed range between
10 and 5 m/s which does not correspond with the power curve, with the rated wind speed
actually being slightly more than 10 m/s, so this is also discarded and the candidate used is
the DW52-250 which shows that at a speed of 8 m/s a power of 250 kW is obtained.
Finally, the DW52-250 wind turbine with a south-west orientation will be used.
72
4.2. Loads and loads cases

4.2.1. Different loads to consider
In short, the knowledge of loads will make it possible to determine whether or not the wind
turbine complies with the stress and deformation limits established.
Wind turbine materials must be designed with sufficient mechanical strength to prevent the
component from breaking and with a certain rigidity to resist deformation. The increase in
the size of the structures makes them more elastic, this means that in the case of wind
turbines there is a complex interaction between the aerodynamic forces and displacements
that appear in the structure, this phenomenon can induce vibrations and resonances as well
as instability problems. The load regime is caused by forces whose origin may be:
- Inertial and gravitational, produced by the movement of the structure or effect of
gravity, vibration, rotation, seismic activity. For example, the wind turbine blades
produce centrifugal loads produced by their rotation.
- Aerodynamics, these are the static and dynamic loads caused by the air flow and its
interaction with the stationary and mobile parts of the wind turbine. This is not a
stationary type of load, but is dependent on atmospheric turbulence and is also non-
linear.
- Structural, those generated by the ligature reactions produced by the different type
of support.
On the other hand, the loads that appear in a wind turbine can be classified according to
duration, as well as stationary, transient, cyclic and turbulent [1].
a) Stationary loads
In order to study the stationary loads produced on the rotor of a

wind turbine, it is necessary to know the aerodynamic forces and
moments acting on the blades when the wind is uniform [Figure
66], perpendicular and of constant value over the entire surface of
the rotor. Stationary loads of inertial origin produced on a wind
rotor are due to centrifugal forces. These loads are not particularly
relevant in wind turbines. With proper design, centrifugal forces
can reduce the loads on the blades.
Figure 66-Uniform load
73
b) Transitory loads
The loads on a wind turbine must be carried out under normal operating conditions,
emergency stop operation, start-up operation...The average wind speed incident on the
wind turbine can change abruptly (gusts), thus giving rise to transient loads.
 Variation of the average wind speed (gusts).
Gusts consist of sudden variations in wind speed, which can be analysed with the rotor
stopped or when it is running. For example, when the rotor is stopped, the elements that
suffer the most are the blades, particularly if they have a fixed pitch.
 Transitory operation of the wind turbine.
This type of load occurs during periods when the system is started, stopped on a scheduled
basis or by means of an emergency stop caused by a fault in the system.
c) Cyclic loads
This type of load occurs during periods when the system is started, stopped on a scheduled
basis or by means of an emergency stop caused by a fault in the system. The knowledge
and evaluation of this type of load is of fundamental importance as it has a decisive
influence on the fatigue calculations of the wind turbine materials.
 Wind shear.
The longitudinal component of the wind speed incident on the

rotor of a wind turbine usually has an increasing law with the
height [Figure 67]. The blade of a wind turbine in its
movement is subjected to different wind speeds depending on
whether it is located at the top or bottom of the rotor. This
causes the torque transmitted by the blade to oscillate
superimposed on an average value whose temporal frequency
corresponds to the rotation speed of the rotor.
Figure 67-Load wind shear
74
 Tower shadow.
The shadow effect of the tower refers to the disturbance of the velocity field and therefore
of the forces that appear on the blades when they pass through the area of influence of the
tower. This effect depends on the orientation of the machine (windward or leeward), the
geometry of the tower and the Reynolds number of the fluid [Figure 32] and [Figure 33].
For windward facing machines, tower interference is reflected in a simple fluid delay. This
is why practically all of the current wind turbines are windward oriented. The shading
effect has an important effect on the bending moment of the blade.
 Permanent rotor misalignment.
Sometimes it is the case that the rotor has a

misalignment with respect to the incident speed,
causing a transverse component in the rotation plane of
the rotor [Figure 68].
Figure 68-Misalignment incident speed
 Angle of inclination of the rotor axis.

The rotor's rotary axis usually has a tilting axis with the horizontal plane, in order to
increase the distance between the blades' rotation and the tower. The effect produced is
analogous to the permanent rotor misalignment.
 Gravitational loads of the blades.
In a rotor without inclination angle, the weight of the blades generates a bending moment
of drag on its base proportional to the mass of the blade, the acceleration of the gravity and
the distance to its centre of gravity.
d) Turbulent loads
The field of wind speeds that affect a wind rotor presents spatial and temporal variations
that, when they affect the turbine blades, generate aerodynamic loads of a random nature.
The field of wind speeds that affect a wind rotor presents spatial and temporal variations
that, when they affect the turbine blades, generate aerodynamic loads of a random nature.
They must be superimposed on the cyclic loads indicated above together with the
stationary stresses produced by a constant and uniform mean value regime.
75
e) Fixed loads
These loads are those of the same structure that do not vary throughout the useful life of
the wind turbine (except for causes of deterioration).
The nacelle, together with the weight of the blades and the rotor, produce a compression in
the tower; another element is the tower itself, which also produces a compression effort.
f) Seismic loads
The seismic load must depend on the ground acceleration requirements and the response
spectrum as defined in the local codes. The most active earthquake areas are on or near the
boundaries of tectonic plates. Norway is located at a safe distance from such an active
tectonic border, but it is still one of the most active areas in Northern Europe when it
comes to earthquake activity. Each year, several earthquakes occur in Norway and adjacent
areas. The most active earthquake areas are Nordland County, Western Norway and the
North Sea; but Eastern Norway and Finnmark can also experience many earthquakes.
Earthquake activity in and near Norway is moderate, but can be noticeable to humans.
Historically speaking, the most powerful earthquakes in Norway have a registered strength
of between 5 and 6, but there is no confirmation of whether any of these earthquakes have
caused fatalities or significant damage. Earthquake activity in Norway is monitored by the
Norwegian National Seismic Network at the University of Bergen and by NORSAR. In
this case the location is not a place exposed to earthquakes, so this type of load will not be
taken into account.
g) Other loads
There may be other loads such as undulating loads, load trails, load impact, ice loads
[Appendix IV], etc.
76
4.2.2. Design situations and load cases

According to IEC 61400-1: 2005, Chapter 7.4, Design situations and load cases [30].
For design purposes, the service life of a wind turbine can be represented by a set of design
states covering the most significant conditions the wind turbine may experience.
The load cases must be determined from the operating modes or other design states, such
as the specific installation, mounting or maintenance conditions, together with the external
conditions. Relevant load assumptions with a reasonable probability of occurrence,
together with the behaviour of the control and protection systems, should be considered.
The design load assumptions used to verify the structural integrity of a wind turbine should
be calculated from the following combinations:
- Normal design situations and appropriate external or external conditions.
- Design situations give failures and appropriate external conditions.
- Transportation, facility design and maintenance states and appropriate external
conditions.
According to the standard, two groups of conditions are established, normal and extreme.
- Normal: Normal Wind Profile Model (NWP) and Normal Turbulence Model (NTM)
- Extreme: Extreme Wind Speed Model (EWM), Extreme Operation Gust (EOG),
Extreme Direction Change (EDC), Extreme Coherent Gust (ECG) and Extreme
Coherent Gust with Direction change (ECD).
At each design stage, several design load assumptions should be considered. At a

minimum, the design assumptions in Table 2, IEC 61400-1: 2005 [30] should be
considered.
In this table the load assumptions are specified for each design state by the description of
wind, electrical and other external conditions.
For each design load assumption, the appropriate type of analysis is set out by 'F' and by
'U' in Table 2, IEC 61400-1: 2005 [30]. "F" refers to the analysis of fatigue loads, to be
used in the fatigue stress assessment. "U" refers to the analysis of breaking loads, with
reference to material stress, blade end deformation and structural stability.
The design load assumptions indicated by 'U' are classified as normal (N), abnormal (A),
or transport and assembly (T). Normal design load assumptions are expected to occur
77
frequently within the lifetime of the turbine. The turbine in a normal state or may have
experienced minor failures or abnormalities. Abnormal design states are less likely to
occur. They usually correspond to design states with severe faults resulting from the
activation of protection system functions. The design state types N, A, or T determine the
partial safety factor that is applied to the breaking loads. These factors are given in
Table 3, IEC 61400-1: 2005 [30].
For this final thesis, only the NTM (normal turbulence model) and EWM (extreme
velocity) cases will be analysed, due to the fact that there is a lack of data on forces
generated in special cases.
Thanks to the LWST Phase I Project Conceptual Design Study: Evaluation of Design and
Construction Approaches for Economical Hybrid Steel/Concrete Wind Turbine Towers
standard [34] and in order not to falsify data, the following load combinations are carried
out:
γ·DL (1) DL: dead load; tower, nacelle,

γ·DL + (γ·TWL + γ·WL) (2) rotor, blades weights.
γ·DL + EQ (3) TWL: wind induced turbine
γ·DL – (γ·TWL + γ·WL) (4) load; wind load in the rotor.
γ·DL – EQ (5) WL: wind load on the tower.
γ·DL + ΔWL turbine (fatigue load) (6) EQ: earthquake load.
γ·DL + γ·TWL + γ·WL (7)
Cases 3 and 5 can be excluded because there is no risk of earthquake.

- γ·DL (1)
- γ·DL + (γ·TWL + γ·WL) (2)
- γ·DL – (γ·TWL + γ·WL) (4)
- γ·DL + ΔWL turbine (fatigue load) (6)
- γ·DL + γ·TWL + γ·WL (7)
For the selection of the coefficients of increase, the IEC 61400-1 standard for wind loads
and the EUROCODE 1 [35] for those derived from dead weight have been taken into
account, therefore for wind loads and according to IEC 61400-1 [30] a safety factor of 1.35
Table 3-IEC 61400-1 has been established.
78
- Case 1: case in which the wind is considered null and void, so there is no load
on the rotor or the tower and the dead weight is considered an unfavourable
situation, γ = 1.35.
- Case 2: case in which the wind and the own weight act, considering the own
weight as unfavourable and the action of the wind as normal. It is taken into
account as compressive stresses (wind and tower), γ = 1.35.
- Case 3: in this case it is taken into account the weight of the tower as
favourable as it takes into account the betrayed side of the tower so it is
counteracted with the compressed side. Thus, for the dead-weight it will be γ =
0.8 and for the wind as in case 2, γ = 1.35.
- Case 4: shall be used in accordance with the IEC 64100-1 standard, fatigue
failure, γ = 1.
- Case 5: will be used for the calculation of serviceability limit state (SLS),
where γ = 1.
Thus obtaining the different load hypotheses with their respective safety coefficients:
- 1.35·DL (1)
- 1.35·DL + (1.35·TWL + 1.35·WL) (2)
- 0.8·DL – (1.35·TWL + 1.35·WL) (4)
- 1.0·DL + ΔWL turbine (fatigue load) (6)
- 1.0·DL + 1.0·TWL + 1.0·WL (7)
Therefore, combination 2 will be used as the most restrictive, combination 6 for the fatigue
calculation and combination 7 for the SLS.
79
4.2.3. Calculating and obtaining forces
where:
- ( ) own weight of nacelle,
rotor and blades.
- own weight of tower.
- wind force in the rotor.
- wind force in the tower.
- flexing moment.
- shear force.
- axial force.
- tower height
Figure 69-Load diagram on a wind turbine [26]
a) Fixed load values

Since the weights in this data sheet were not available, they have been estimated on the
basis of the other data sheets [Table 10].
Table 10-Estimated weights of the DW52-250 wind turbine
Weight (kg)
Nacelle 13000
Rotor 5000
Blade 1320
Tower 28000
( ) ( )
( )
80
So our axial force will have a value of:
b) Wind load in the rotor

The calculation of the wind force on the rotor/axis can approximate the expression:
( ) (5)
Equation 5-Wind force in the rotor
where:
- ( ) is the coefficient of thrust as a function of the specific speed (λ)
- : wind speed in hub of wind turbine (m/s)
- rotor radius (m)
- speed specifies that it is the quotient between the tangential speed of the outermost
point on the blade from the axis of rotation, also known as the blade tip speed and the
nominal wind speed.
(6)
Equation 6-Specifies speed
- tangential speed (m/s)

The value of also depends on the number of blades in our wind turbine:
Table 11-Value of λ
Blades Value of λ
8-24 1
6-12 2
3-6 3
2-4 4
2-3 λ≥5
Figure 70-Graph for calculating CT [15]
81
Our wind turbine has 3 blade, so it is selected a value of specific speed of 7, with the
[Figure 70] the value of CT is obtained, the value is approximately 0.86 and finally it is
possible to obtain the value of the VR [36].
This can be for one blade, so for all 3 blades: , in addition it

has also been consulted in another bibliography that the action of the wind in a wind
turbine should be taken into account aerodynamic considerations or laboratory tests on a
reduced scale so that it can be estimated by means of a ratio of the surface swept by the
blades and the wind forces exerted on the rotor. This ratio is determined from several wind
turbine manufacturers, the ratio being 0.1 kN/m2, [37] so it can be established that:
This is close to the value obtained by the calculation.
82
c) Wind load in the tower

The wind force in a cylinder can be approximated by:
( ) ( ) (7)
Equation 7-Wind force in the tower
where:
- ( ) wind force in the cylinder as a function of height (N/m)
- ( ): wind speed as a function of height (m/s)
- tower diameter (m)
- : shape coefficient
The value of the load distributed over the hub height

can be obtained with the wind speed at the rotor/hub
in worst-case scenario :
( )
Figure 71-Load distribution in the tower top
As is known, wind speed increases as a function of height, so the curve that defines this
function and determines the curve of the distributed load is [Equation 2].
If the [Equation 7] is integrated with respect to height (h), the equivalent point load can be
obtained at the centroid of the shape of our distributed load or at a distance x from the
ground (unknown):
( ) ∫ ( )
If it is replaced in ( ) our function of wind variation with height:
( ) ∫ ( ( ) ) ( )
( ) ∫ ( ( ) )
83
Now the question is where this point load is located, for this purpose the formula is used to
determine the centroid point of a given function:
∫ ( )
̅ (8)
∫ ( )
Equation 8-Centroid distance
Particularizing for our case:
∫ ( ) ∫ ( ( ) )
̅ ̅
∫ ( ) ∫ ( ( ) )
∫ ( ( ) )
̅
∫ ( ( ) )
Finally, with this calculation, a point load of N was obtained at a distance of

29,17 m from the ground, and the values of the loads in the ground are [Figure 69]:
- N: vertical compression load caused by the weight of the structure with its components.
- V: horizontal load caused by wind thrust on the rotor and tower (acts in any direction).
- M: flexing moment caused by wind thrust in the rotor and tower (can act in any
direction).
( ) ̅
Table 12-Loads at the base of the tower
N (kN) V (kN) M (kNm)

491 246 11576
84
The values are now entered into our hypotheses with their respective safety coefficients:
- ( )
Table 13-Loads with safety coefficients in case 2

663 332 15628

491 246 11576
- ( )

491 246 11576
85
4.3. Study and tower verification

The tower must satisfy theoretical bases and a series of checks for stability, it will proceed
to check:
- Maximum tension: this maximum resistance is determined by the calculation of static
loads due to the weight of the tower itself and of all the elements located at the top,
taking into account the flexion moment supported by the tower base by the
aerodynamic forces produced.
- Shear Tension: The one that fixes a plane acts tangent to it, is the one that tends to
cause a shear due to an external horizontal force and the anchoring response to this
force.
- Horizontal and vertical displacements (rigidity): the structure requires the necessary
rigidity requirements to avoid the displacement that can cause the loads; this rigidity is
provided by the material and the thickness of the structure.
- Resonance study: it is important to carry out a natural frequency study of the structure
to avoid that it coincides with any other frequency such as that of the rotor rotation.
- Buckling calculation: one of the most important design problems for this type of
(slender) structure is buckling or lateral bending. To avoid this phenomenon, the
rigidity of the tower must be increased by increasing its thickness.
- Fatigue: there are variable loads that are very significant over time and it is not only
useful to test them against static loads to determine their long-term behaviour. These
types of structures are designed to last for many years, so it is essential that this test be
done to avoid breakage due to fatigue.
The calculation of the tower will be modelled in a simple way; an analytical study will be
carried out, thus obtaining the previously described checks.
Initial parameters of thickness, diameter, and material will be established. After this it is
possible to move on to a more detailed study using a numerical model.
86
Once the first check is done using an Excel sheet, the optimization of thickness and
diameter will be studied.
It is started from the height of our tower (50 m) and increased loads [Table 13].
The type of steel used for the tower will be S355-JR steel. The characteristics of this are
given by the EUROCODE 1 [35] standard [Table 16].
Table 16-Mechanical properties of different types of steel [35]
The thickness with which it will be worked will be between 16 and 40 mm, so the
following characteristics will be obtained:
- Minimum yield strength
- Rupture stress
- Elasticity modulus
- Rigidity modulus
- Coefficient Poisson
- Steel density
From this point on, the tower checks begin and will be use a diameter of 3000 m and a
thickness of 40 mm to calculate.
87
4.3.1. Maximum tension

In accordance with IEC 61400-1, the limit state function can be separated in the load and
resistance functions of S and R so that the condition results IEC 61400-1, Equation 30:
( ) ( )
The strength generally corresponds to the maximum allowable design strength values of
the material, hence ( ), while the function for breaking stress analysis is usually
defined as the highest value of the structural response, in our case, hence ( ) .
The equation turns out IEC 61400-1, Equation 31:
where:
- with the higher loads in the calculations.
- set previously with a value of
- partial safety factor for materials according to IEC 61400-1 establishes that
, the EUROCODE is used setting a value of 1.5.
- partial safety factor for failure consequences, IEC 61400-1 [30] sets a .
The check that has to be made is:
(9)
Equation 9-Tension by Navier's equation
where:
- tension (MPa or N/mm2)
- flexing moment at the tower base, 1.5628·1010 Nmm
- the distance from the shaft to the extreme fibre of the section, where:
(mm)
- : moment of inertia of a hollow cylindrical, ( ( ) ) (mm4)
88
- axil value of our structure, 663000 N

- tower ring area, ( ( ) ) (mm2)
- : tower thickness (mm)

It is now explained [Equation 9], on the one hand the tower will always be subjected to
compression due to axial force, on the other hand the base of the tower will be
subjected to bending due to wind forces, and as the wind can blow in either direction it
will be subjected to compression on one side and traction on the other. When one side
is subjected to compression due to the flexion, the axillary stress will increase the
compressive stress, making it the most unfavourable situation and the one to be
analysed [Figure 72].
Figure 72-Tension distribution
( ( ) ) ( ( ) )
FULFILLS THE VERIFICATION AT MAXIMUM TENSION
89
4.3.2. Shear tension
Figure 73-Shear tensions in the tower
The calculation of shear tension is determined by [Equation 10]:
(10)
Equation 10-Shear tension
where:
- shear tension (N/mm2)
- shear load value , 332000 N
- total section distance, ( ) (mm)
- : moment of inertia of a hollow cylindrical (mm4)
- static moment (mm3)
( ) ( )
Figure 74-Static moment diagram
90
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
( )
( ( ) )
FULFILLS THE VERIFICATION AT SHEAR TENSION
91
4.3.3. Horizontal displacement

Wind turbine towers of high heights are subjected to lateral loads due to the wind, and are
also analysed as brackets or cantilevers (fixed-free), there is a case in which if these loads
introduce a displaced end and if it exceeds this value, it may even collapse. These checks
will be carried out without any major charges.
For the calculation of this deformation, there are two cases, the displacement that
originates and the displacement that originates the EUROCODE 1 [35] states that it
must be complied with:
(11)
Equation 11-Horizontal displacement check
Figure 75-Displacements cases
92
Both calculations are standardized and can be found in displacement records [38]:
(12)
Equation 12-Displacement in a single beam in handling with an extreme point load
where:
- load in the rotor, 212372 N
- tower height, 50 m
- elasticity modulus, 2.1·1011 N/m2
- moment of inertia of a hollow cylindrical (m4)
( ( ) )
Figure 76-Single beam in
handling: extreme point load
̅
( ̅) (13)
Equation 13-Displacement in a single beam in handling with a generic point load
where:
- load in the tower, 32812.5 N
- ̅ distance to point load, 29.17 (m)
Figure 77-Single beam in

handling: generic point load
( )
( ( ) )
93
ONE OF THE MOST RESTRICTIVE ASPECTS

FULFILLS THE VERIFICATION HORIZONTAL DISPLACEMENT
4.3.4. Vertical displacement

This displacement will be the least critical, thanks to the Navier-Bresse equations are
obtained the formula of vertical displacement, this means that the structure would move
vertically ("sink") [39]:
(14)
Equation 14-Vertical displacement check
∫ (15)
Equation 15-Vertical displacement due to the wind turbine weight
where:
- load of wind turbine, 663 n
- elasticity modulus, 2.1·1011 n/m2
- tower ring area (m2)
( ( ) )
FULFILLS THE VERIFICATION VERTICAL DISPLACEMENT
94
4.3.5. Resonance study

Another parameter that has to be checked is the frequency or resonance of the wind turbine,
the reason for this is that if any of these frequencies coincide the system can enter into
resonance and the case of breakage can occur, these frequencies are:
- The frequency of the wind turbine inside the nacelle, which does not worry about very
high frequencies, around 500-2000 rpm.
- The rotor speed rotation.
- The natural frequency of the tower produced by buckling of the tower.
Therefore, the natural frequency of the tower will be compared with that of the rotor, so it
is not necessary to compare it with that of the generator, since it is impossible to match
these frequencies. The range of rotation of our wind turbine goes from start to stop, where:
The formula used to calculate the frequency of the tower is shown below [Figure 78]:
Our case is similar to the first one [40] [41].
Figure 78-Natural vibration modes and frequencies of uniform cantilever beams [40]
95
Table 17-Common boundary conditions for the transverse vibration of a beam [41]
The formula to use will be:
( ) √ (16)
Equation 16-Natural vibration modes and frequencies of uniform cantilever beams
where:
- steel density, 7850 kg/m3
96
( ( ) )
( ) √
( ( ) )
According to the RISØ standard [42], the frequency of the tower must exceed 10% of the
rotor frequency.
As it can be seen, it meets one of the limits:
FULFILLS THE VERIFICATION HORIZONTAL DISPLACEMENT
4.3.6. Buckling calculation

This check is very important for this type of structures, since one of the most important
problems to be considered, especially in pillars or towers of high height and with reduced
rigidity (slender structures), is the phenomenon of buckling. To prevent this phenomenon
from occurring, the stiffness of the structure must be increased, this is achieved by
increasing the thickness of the structure, for the calculation the EUROCODE 3 [43] will
continue to be checked.
The buckling length has to be determined in the first step, knowing that our case resembles
a cantilever, the buckling length will be:
(17)
Equation 17-Buckling length
where:
- buckling length (m)
- tower length (m)
97
Now it is obtained the critical axial load:
( ) (18)
Equation 18-Critical axial load
where:
- critical axial load (N)
- buckling length (m)
( ) ( ( ) )
Now the reduced slenderness is calculated, if the value were less than 0.2 the buckling
reduction coefficient with value 1 would be used:
̅ √ (19)
Equation 19-Reduced slenderness
where:
- ̅ reduced slenderness
- critical axial load (N)
- minimum yield strength 345 N/mm2
( ( ) )
̅ √
98
The value of the elastic imperfection coefficient is determined, by using buckling

calculation tables it is obtained:
[ ( ̅ ) ̅ ] (20)
Equation 20- Elastic imperfection coefficient
where:
- elastic imperfection coefficient
- imperfection coefficient (depends of tables EUROCODE [43])
[ ( ̅ ) ̅ ] ( )
The value of the buckling reduction coefficient is obtained:
(21)
√ ( ̅)
Equation 21-Buckling reduction coefficient
where:
- buckling reduction coefficient
- elastic imperfection coefficient
√ ( )
The compression resistant axil is:
(22)
Equation 22-Axial load comparison
99
where:
- axial load comparison (N)
- buckling reduction coefficient
- minimum yield strength 345 N/mm2
- safety factors
( ( ) )
FULFILLS THE VERIFICATION BUCKLING CALCULATION
4.3.7. Fatigue
Fatigue is the progressive and localized loss of structural strength of a material subjected to
repetitive cyclic loads of varying amplitude but not exceeding the limit of material failure,
to greater number of cycles, more probability of breakage.
This phenomenon is important in this type of structures, as some of the components have a
useful life of around 30 years. The fatigue can be due to turbulence or bursts causing an
excess of tension in the tower, the analysis due to these behaviours is very complex for this
work, since it is necessary to obtain an exhaustive study of the loads due to gusts of wind
or turbulence, and also the frequency of these. Another aspect that causes fatigue is the
change of direction of the wind, so if it blows first in one direction, one part of the tower
will be subjected to compression and the other to traction, however if the wind changes
and blows the other way, the traction part will be under compression and the compression
part will be under traction; therefore, it will not always be subject to the same tension.
The fatigue strength of a material is determined by the fatigue curve that represents the
amplitude of the stress in function of the number of load cycles to produce the material
breakage. This curve or graph is called the S-N curve and is defined in 3 sections; this
curve is obtained from EUROCODE 3 [43] [Figure 79].
100
Figure 79-Fatigue strength curves for the direct stress ranges [43]
The sections vary according to the cycles and values of the tensions. The first section goes
from the 104 to the 5·106 cycles, in this section of cycles the slope has a value of m = 3.
The second section varies from 5·106 to 108 and the slope of this line is m = 5. And the last
section the voltage will remain constant for any number of cycles.
S355JR steel wind turbines are usually designed for a value of = 80 MPa and
correspond to a value of 2·106 cycles.
If the design value has been defined , the stress values must be defined for different
cycle number values. Thus the EUROCODE 3 [43] standard defines the following values:
[ ]
[ ]
Also of interest is the value of the limit tension in which it remains constant and it
8
starts from 10 cycles since below this stress it will withstand an infinite number of cycles
so there will be no fatigue [34]:
101
[ ]
[ ]
Wind turbines should be designed for 20-30 years of service life, equivalent to 5.29·108
cycles, so they are in the constant tension zone, meaning that they are made for infinite life
in terms of fatigue.
In order to be conservative, the loads obtained without increasing will be used for the
fatigue check calculation, so they will begin by calculating the values of the maximum and
minimum stresses:
(23)
Equation 23-Tension by Navier's equation
where:
- tension (N/mm2)
- flexing moment at the tower base (Nmm)
- the distance from the shaft to the extreme fibre of the section, where:
(mm)
- : moment of inertia of a hollow cylindrical (mm4)

- axil value of our structure (N)
- tower ring area (mm2)
- : tower thickness (mm)
( ( ) ) ( ( ) )
102
( ( ) ) ( ( ) )
The averaged and variable tensions values are now obtained:
As it can be seen, the average component is not null, thus having a mean and a variable
tension, a tension value must be obtained to check if it will withstand the number of cycles
for an infinite life as mentioned before.
The value shall be obtained from IEC 61400-1 so:

- for steel structures a value of 1.1 shall be taken.
- for the safety factor for the consequence of the failure the one corresponding to
class 2 will be used whose value is 1.15.
FULFILLS THE VERIFICATION FATIGUE CALCULATION
103
4.4. Foundation design

The foundations of the wind turbines can be of different geometries (square, hexagonal,
octagonal....) but no geometry has not yet been established as a rule, it should be noted that
the circular type are the most common since there have been improvements in the
processes of assembly of radial shape, in addition to the circular are those that require less
amount of steel reinforced, also that for the same loads, the dimensions are smaller than the
circular shape. In addition, it is very common for the sections of these to be variable-edged,
since the concrete volumes are reduced, so for this study a circular foundation of variable
section has been selected.
The foundation is the connecting element of the tower to the ground and is also responsible
for transmitting the loads produced in the tower to the ground. All this must be done
without exceeding the load-bearing capacity of the soil and the deformations must be
permissible for the structure.
The previous step to the foundation is to know the area where the wind turbines are going
to be installed, as well as the type of soil found in it (whether sandy, limestone, loamy,
gravelly, clayey...) to size the foundation. By means of the exploration of the land and
geotechnical study of the land the different data that allow knowing its behaviour are
obtained, the different tests and studies are:
- Sounding: standard penetration test (SPT), vane test (VT), presiometric test
(PMT), Lefranc test and Lugeon test.
- On surface or in well: load test with plate.
- In well: pumping test.
With the studies carried out previously it will be possible to obtain: depth of the water
table, different layers of soil, inclination, thickness and mechanical and chemical
characteristics, permissible vertical pressure (sinking), vertical operating pressure
(tolerable seats), ballast module; active, passive and resting thrusts; permissible and
expected differential seats, aggressiveness of the soil and water and soil samples for other
mechanical characteristics.
104
The formulation used and the criteria adopted have been taken from the Structural
Concrete Instruction (EHE-08) [44] for the different limit states. Like the tower, it must
comply with the Ultimate Limit States (ULS) and the Service States (SLS).
Table 18-Partial safety coefficients for ULS [44]
Persistent or transitory
Accidental situation
situation
TYPE OF ACTION
Favourable Unfavourable Favourable Unfavourable
effect effect effect effect
Permanent γG=1.00 γG=1.35 γG=1.00 γG=1.00

Prestressing γP=1.00 γP=1.00 γP=1.00 γP=1.00
Non-constant permanent value γG*=1.00 γG*=1.50 γG*=1.00 γG*=1.00
Variable γQ=0,00 γQ=1,50 γQ=0.00 γQ=1.00
Accidental - - γA=1.00 γA=1.00
Table 19-Partial safety coefficients SLS [44]
Unfavourable
TYPE OF ACTION Favourable effect
effect
Permanent γG=1.00 γG=1.00
Prestressing Pre-tensioned reinforcement γP=0.95 γP=1.05
Post-tensioned reinforcement γP=0.90 γP=1.10
Non-constant permanent value γG*=1.00 γG*=1.00
Variable γQ=0.00 γQ=0.00
Table 20-Partial safety material coefficient ULS [44]
Passive and active

PROJECT SITUATION Concrete steel
γc γs
Persistent or transitory 1.5 1.15

Accidental 1.3 1.0
105
The loads transferred to the foundation must be taken into account:

 Gravitational loads: static and dynamic loads resulting from vibration, blade
rotation, gravity and seismic activity.
 Aerodynamic loads: static and dynamic loads resulting from the action of the air
flow and its interaction with the wind turbine.
a) Terrain parameters
Wind turbine foundations are usually of the surface type [Figure 42], which in turn can be
reinforced by piles [Figure 44]. As explained in [Table 2], the choice of one or the other
depends on the type of soil can be had and work with. As mentioned above, one of the
objectives is to select the dimensions of the foundation that will support the loads to which
it is subjected and the calculation of the necessary reinforcement for the foundation.
Thanks to the methods mentioned above and to the Geological Survey of Norway [Figure
80] [8] which developed a geological map which allows us to obtain the type of soil it have
in any area of Norway that is searched for.
Figure 80-Geological Survey of Norway [8]
It will show how the soil type has been determined with the geological map in the area in
which the tower has been calculated (Skjærhalden, Kirkeøy), the rest can be seen in
[Appendix V].
106
Figure 81-Geological map of Skjærhalden, Kirkeøy [8]
The translation of “grus” (Norwegian) is gravel, so it can be seen that our soil is gravel so
the characteristics of a gravel soil are as follows [Table 21]:
Table 21-Gravel parameters
TERRAIN PARAMETERS
Admissible pressure (σadm,soil) 0.61803 MPa
Maximum pressure (σmax,soil : 1.25· σadm,soil) 0.772538 MPa
Specific weight (γn) 1800 kg/m3
Cohesion (c) 0
Internal friction angle (Փ) 30º
Ballast module (k30) 12-15 kg/cm3
It should be noted that in all analysis sites there is a gravel soil.
107
b) Fixed starting parameters for the foundation

The edge of the foundation will be fixed, in total 2 m, the cylindrical part resting on the
ground will be 1 m and the variable section will also have a height of 1 m. It will start from
a diameter of 11.2 m so that the variation of the variable edge will go from 11.2 m in
diameter to 3 m in diameter of the tower, the variation of this edge can be taken advantage
of since the weight of the soil will contribute favourably thus saving on concrete. With this
fixed dimensions will be analysed the foundation checking that allow the stability of the
tower.
Figure 82-Fixed foundation parameters
c) CHARACTERISTICS FOUNDATION MATERIAL

To determine the materials for the foundation, the life of the project and the type of
exposure class foundation depending on the possible corrosion of the reinforcement must
first be taken into account (according to the EHE standard [44]):
- Service life: 100 years
- Exposure class foundation: IIa
With the exposure class foundation, the minimum strength of the reinforced concrete is
determined:
- Minimum resistance: 25 N/mm2
108
Therefore, a concrete of the type HA-25/B/20/IIa is chosen, in addition to determining the

nominal covering, which is the distance between the outer surface of the reinforcement
(including frames and stirrups) and the nearest concrete surface.
(24)
Equation 24-Nominal covering
where:
- nominal covering (mm)
- minimum coating according to minimum concrete resistance and service life
(mm)
- coating margin depending on the execution level (mm)
The steel chosen for the assembly will be a type B-500S.
d) Loads to be transmitted to the ground

The first thing to do is to establish the loads that the foundation must bear, calculating
them at the base of the foundation. The loads calculated in point 4.2.3. CALCULATING
AND OBTAINING FORCES and [Table 12] shall be used. The shear and flexion moment
values will be the same, but the axil value will change as the weight of the foundation
(blue) and soil (red) must be added [Figure 83].
Figure 83-Different weight to add
109
( )
The shear force will be the same, but what will also change will be the moment produced
since now 2 meters more height is added, what the horizontal forces will produce 2 meters
more for now.
( ) ( )
So our new loads will be:
Table 22-Efforts at the base of the foundation
4950 246 12066
110
Table 23-Summary table of work for the foundation
DATA FOR THE CALCULATION OF THE FOUNDATION
Elements Parameter Value

Height (m) 50
Dimensions of the wind turbine
Diameter base tower (m) 3
N (kN) 4950
Loads transmitted to the foundation V (kN) 246
M (kNm) 12066
σadm,soil (MPa) 0,61803
γn (kg/m3) 1800
Soil characteristics
Փ (º) 30
3
k30 (kg/cm ) 13,5
Dfoundation (m) 11,2
Fixed foundation dimensions Hfoundation (m) 2
Hbase (m) 1
Fck (MPa) 25
γn (kg/m3) 2500
Material foundations characteristics
rnominal (mm) 30
Fyk (MPa) 500
4.4.1. Foundation stability checks

The first thing that must be done is the 3 checks that all foundations require prior to
assembly, these checks are the so-called stability checks, and these checks are carried out
with the loads without wholesale [Table 22].
a) Tipping test
In this check must take into account the loads that try to overturn the structure, this is due
to the lateral loads produced by the wind, it must also take into account the safety
coefficients established by the standard, so that the safety factor must be greater or equal to
2. According to the Spanish standard, “Guia sobre cimentaciones, ministro de fomento”
[45], this verification can be evaluated according to plastic criteria, so it will be necessary
to first calculate a distance ''u'' [Figure 84], which is the distance from the edge or to the
axis of rotation, so that the axis of rotation will not be at the extreme edge, but will be at a
certain distance from the end of the foundation.
111
Figure 84-Distance "u" diagram
The formula to apply is:
(25)
√ ( )
Equation 25-Distance “u”
where:
- distance (m)
- axil load (N)
- terrain admissible load (MPa)
- foundation radius (m)
√ ( )
∑ ∑ (26)
Equation 26-Tipping test
where:
- ∑ ( ) stabilizing moment (kNm)
- ∑ destabilizing moment (kNm)

- stabilizing action factor
- destabilizing action factor
112
( )
DIMENSIONS COMPLY WITH THE TIPPING TEST
b) Sliding check
Slippage is the case where side loads tend to drag the structure out of position; these forces
that drag the structure are due to wind loads.
(27)
Equation 27-Sliding test
where:
- ( ) stabilizing moment (kNm)
- destabilizing moment (kNm)

- stabilizing action factor
- destabilizing action factor
( )
LOADS COMPLY WITH THE TIPPING TEST
113
c) Sinking check
In situations where the moment is more decisive than the axillary moment, the eccentricity
of the loads can be located outside the central core of the section, causing them to take off;
in this case, the distribution of stresses under the foundation is triangular. This case, the
distribution of stresses under the foundation is triangular.
Figure 85-Tensions distributed under the foundation
The theoretical basis begins with; the forces acting on the foundation, including forces
transferred from the wind turbine, are transferred to the foundation base and combined into
resultant forces N and V in the horizontal and vertical direction, respectively, at the
foundation-soil interface. It is assumed that the forces N and V are the forces obtained by
the calculation and increased with their respective safety coefficient, the load centre called
LC, is the point where the resultant V and N intersects with the soil-foundation, thus
implying an eccentricity E of the force N relative to the central line of the foundation
[Figure 86] [42].
Figure 86-Loading under idealised condition [42]
114
In situations where the moment is more decisive than the axial moment, the eccentricity of
the loads is located outside the central core of the section, thus causing it to take off. In
such a situation, a certain zone is "detach", the physical properties of the section will vary
according to this lifting, that is to say the area that collaborates is reduced, and having a
different centre of gravity from the original one and therefore the inertia of the section is
also modified.
For the analysis of the bearing capacity an effective foundation surface is required, it is
constructed in such a way that the geometrical centre coincides with the load centre and
following as close as possible the closest contour of the actual area of the foundation base.
In the quadratic case it is obtained [Figure 87] [42]:
Figure 87-Quadratic foundations with effective area [42]
{ √
For a circular foundation area with radius R, an elliptical effective foundation area Aeff
[Figure 88] can be defined as:
[ ( ) √ ]
115
Figure 88-Circular and octangular foundation [42]
( )
√ ( )
Now it is possible to start calculating our eccentricity.
116
As shown in the [Figure 89], the eccentricity (e) of the load with respect to the initial
centre of gravity of the part (G) must be equal to the displacement of this centre of gravity
(Xg) produced by detach plus the eccentricity (e') of the loads with respect to the new
centre of gravity (G').
(28)
Equation 28-Eccentricity
where:
- eccentricity of the loads in relation
to G (m)
- : displacement of G (m)
- eccentricity of the new gravity
centre (m).
There will be lifting so that part of the

foundation will be lifted due to loads, when
part of the foundation is lifted the centre of
gravity of the foundation in contact with the
ground will change so it will be necessary to
calculate several values.
Now the dimensions of the foundation are
calculated, this is done by means of an
iterative process implemented in an Excel
Figure 89-Detach area diagram
sheet [37], for it a value is imposed to S
(detached zone limit) and the values of Xg and e' are calculated, until the sum of both is
equal to M/V, when this is fulfilled, it can be said that they are valid values. After the
iterative process it’s obtain the value of S = 3.3 m.
Once the value of S has been determined, certain steps will be followed to calculate the
different parameters:
117
- Calculate the angle of the circular sector (α) [Figure 90]:
( ( ))
( ( ))
Figure 90-Step to obtain α
- The area of this segment is now calculated (Asegment):
( ) ( )
- The rest of the area is calculated:
- The centre of gravity of the circular segment is calculated with respect to the
foundation:
( ) ( )
( ( ) ( )) ( ( ) ( ))
118
- The complete foundation area is calculated to obtain the centre of gravity of the rest of
the foundation, which will be the distance between the centre of the foundation and the
new centre of gravity of the raised foundation, subtracting the total area of the circular
sector from the total area:
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
( ) ( )
The negative sign indicates the direction in which the new centre of gravity is located.
- The moment of inertia of the not detach part of the foundation is now required, the
moment of inertia of the foundation is calculated and the moment of inertia of the
circular segment is subtracted:
( )
- The Ymin value is calculated, distance from the detach point within the foundation to
the new centre of gravity of the foundation due to the detach:
119
- Now it is possible to calculate the value of e' as stated above:
With all the calculated pre-values, the verification d is checked:
With this equality fulfilled, the tension calculations can be carried out, for this purpose, the
value of S calculated; the values of the tensions that are given on the foundation are
determined, to verify that the supporting ground will withstand them, for this purpose the
following verification is carried out:
( ) ( )
And check:
( ) ( )
( )
120
( ) ( )
( )
Table 24-Parameters calculated
PARAMETERS
CALCULATED
S(m) 3.30
2
A’(m ) 74.28
Xg (m) 1.19
I (m4) 323.23
Ymax (m) 4.41
Ymin (m) 3.49
3
Wmax (m ) 92.49
Wmin (m3) 73.37
e’(m) 1.25
e’+Xg (m) 2.44
σmax (kPa) 150.49
σmin (kPa) 0
121
4.4.2. Foundation structural checks

Once the dimensions of the foundation have been established and the relevant checks have
been calculated, the reinforcement of the foundation must be calculated. The reinforcement
of the foundation consists of different layouts of steel rods, whose purpose is to provide
tensile strength to the concrete, for this calculation will follow the above mentioned
standard, Structural Concrete Instruction (EHE-08) [44].
It is also necessary to determine the type of foundation has, since depending on it (whether
it is rigid or flexible) it will proceed in one way or another to calculate the reinforcements.
In order to guarantee that the foundation does not suffer a structural failure due to
insufficient strength of the materials, Structural Concrete Instruction (EHE-08), Article 58
[44]standard, will be followed, which tells us about the difference between rigid and
flexible [Figure 91] foundations.
Figure 92-Type of calculations depend of the foundation
Figure 91-Foundations classification [44]
FOUNDATION FLEXIBLE
122
As has been proven, there is a flexible type of foundation. In rigid foundations, the
distribution of the deformations is non-linear at the section level, and therefore, the method
for its calculation is the method of connecting rods and tie rods, included in Articles 20 and
40 of the EHE-08 [44], however in our case (flexible foundation) the distribution of
deformations can be considered linear (not entirely true in our case). In the first place, it
must be determined with which loads are going to work, unlike in the stability tests, the
higher loads will be used, the axil load will be weighted by 1.35 because it is a persistent,
unfavourable and permanent load, and for the flexion moment it will be weighted with 1.5
because it is persistent, unfavourable and variable. So our efforts will be:
Table 25-Loads for reinforcement
N (kN) M (kNm)
6683 18099
Increasing the loads will mean a variation in eccentricity, so the tensions under the
foundation will have to be calculated to calculate its reinforcement.
As it can be seen, the moment is more decisive than the axillary moment, so it will have a
detached part in our foundation, it has also been proven that our stress diagram is
triangular so it will have to recalculate the dimensions of the detached foundation and
determine the length S (repeat iterative process of section 4.4.1. c) SINKING CHECK)
[Table 26].
123
Table 26-Parameters calculated
PARAMETERS
CALCULATED
S(m) 4.05
A’(m2) 66.40
Xg (m) 1.56
I (m4) 237.24
Ymax (m) 4.04
Ymin (m) 3.11
Wmax (m3) 76.17
Wmin (m3) 58.79
e’(m) 1.15
e’+Xg (m) 2.71
σmax (kPa) 230.66
σmin (kPa) 0
Figure 93-Tension distribution under foundation
Below are the calculations for the foundation reinforcement, which will be: radial
reinforcement, circular reinforcement, shear reinforcement, punching check and superior
flexion reinforcement.
124
a) Radial reinforcement
To calculate the necessary bending

reinforcement, the EHE-08, Article 58 [44]
standard, stipulates that the reference section
"S1" [Figure 95] is the one located at a distance
of towards the inside of the support,
being “a” at the distance of the support that in
our case is the diameter of the tower 3 m.
Figure 94-Radial reinforcement disposition
So knowing what the diameter of our wind turbine

is worth, it can be determine that section S1 is:
Figure 95-S1 location [44]
The specifications of Appendix 7 of the EHE-08, which in turn have been taken from
EUROCODE 2 [46] to calculate these reinforcements, shall be followed, following the
scheme of the [Figure 96] distribution of rectangular tensions:
Figure 96-Rectangular stress distribution [46]
125
According to this rectangular distribution and observing the deformations that occur, it is
ideal to design the section so that the reinforcement reaches its elastic limit without the
concrete first suffering a compression brittle break. The minimum mechanical amount at
bending must be calculated. In order to avoid brittle breakage with reinforced parts, in
which the steel was exhausted before the concrete cracking, it is necessary to place a
minimum amount of reinforcement in the traction zone. This avoids the brittle breakage
that could occur. First of all, certain values must be established for the calculation of the
minimum amount, such as the characteristic resistance of the concrete and steel, and the
useful edge.
- Characteristic resistance of the concrete:
(29)
Equation 29-Characteristic concrete resistance
where:
- minimum resistance of concrete 25 N/mm2
- safety factor [Table 20] 1.5
- Characteristic resistance of steel:
(30)
Equation 30-Characteristic steel resistance
where:
- minimum resistance of steel 500 N/mm2
- safety factor [Table 20] 1.15
126
- Useful edge:
(31)
Equation 31-Useful edge
where:
- foundation height (mm)
- nominal covering [Equation 24] (mm)
With all this, it is possible to start calculating the minimum amount, for which it has two
cases:
1) First case:
( √ )
2) Second case:
where:
( )
127
First of all the moment of calculation Md

has to be determined, so the stress
distribution under the foundation has to
be analysed in the reference cross-
section S1 [Figure 97].
The tension in the reference section can

be calculated from the similarity of
Figure 97-Tension distribution in reference cross-section

triangles:
The moments must now be analysed and

calculated from the reference section [Figure
98].
Now it is explained [Figure 98], as can be seen
in the reference section, there are a few
moments (M1 and M2) due to the stresses,
these will be analysed as a distributed
Figure 98-Moment analysis in reference section rectangular load and another distributed
triangular load, as it is a circular foundation and the distance from the centre of the section
to the edge of the foundation is not known (b), otherwise it will vary and these moments
will be left depending on that length, so that:
( )
( ) ( ) ( )
128
It must also be taken into account that the two calculated moments must be subtracted from
the weight of the foundation and the weight of the soil above the foundation. For this
purpose, the height of the concrete will be the same as that of the soil. These moments will
also be divided by the length, due to the complexity of the foundation.
( )
( )
Once the moment of calculation has been calculated, the value of the amount should be
calculated, as explained above:
( )
Now it is necessary to check in what case of calculation this is:
CASE 1
There is no mechanical quantity to compression (Us2), but if to traction, it is also known

that the minimum mechanical quantity in flexion (Us1) is:
( √ ) ( √ )
129
In addition:
(32)
Equation 32-Mechanical flexion amount in function of the area
where:
- mechanical quantity in flexion (kN/m)
- reinforcement section area in traction or less compressed (m2/m)
- characteristic steel resistance (kN/m2)
Now the dimensions of the reinforcement rods and the number of reinforcement rods have
to be determined, the rods will have a length equal to the diameter of the foundation
(somewhat less so really) but are calculated with the diameter to facilitate calculations, so
that:
Once the reinforcement area has been calculated to withstand the bending stresses, it is
checked that this value is greater than the minimum mechanical and geometric quantity
required.
- Minimum geometric quantity EHE-08:
130
With this verification it can be seen that the mechanical amount is greater than the
geometric amount, so to build the foundation the mechanical amount will have to be used.
The number of rods required can now be estimated by studying different types of rod
diameters:
- 20 mm diameter rods:
45 rods are selected to be equally distributed, now it has to be calculated the separation
between them, the EHE-08 standard establishes that the minimum separation has to be 30
cm.
RADIAL REINFORCEMENT, 45 25c/230
131
Once the necessary rods have been

determined, the necessary anchorage
lengths must be seen, following the figure
of the EHE-08 [Figure 99].
The anchorage lengths must be set
according to the standard, which are:
- The reinforcement shall be
anchored from a section S2 located at a
useful edge of the reference section S1.
- The reinforcement is anchored
Figure 99-Anchorage length diagram [44] from section S3 for a force.
Then the anchor lengths will be:
Figure 100-Rd calculate
The point load Rd of the [Figure 99] must then be calculated [Figure 100] and according
to EHE-08:
- Anchor length S2:
(33)
Equation 33-Rods in I position
132
where:
- length rods in I position (mm)
- value to depends of the characteristic resistance of concrete
- minimum resistance of steel (MPa)
Now is calculated the net length:
(34)
Equation 34-Net length
where:
- : net length (mm)
- type of anchor in function of traction or compression
- reinforcement section area in traction or less compressed (m2)
- real area (m2)
- Anchor length S3:
133
b) Circular reinforcement
The circular reinforcement will be necessary to

withstand the bending stresses to which the
foundation will be subjected, for this purpose the
specifications according to the book "Calculo de
estructuras, Anejo B, J.Calavera" [47] have
been followed.
After analysing the equilibrium conditions of the

differential element and developing an extensive
calculation relating the deformations to the
stresses, the following calculation process is
deduced:
Figure 101-Circular reinforcement disposition
a) First, the dimensions necessary for the calculation are established, as well as the
radius and reference section [Figure 102].
where:
- tower radius, 1.5 m
- : foundation radius, 5.6 m
- : reference radius, m
b) Evaluate the ballast module:

Figure 102-Calculates dimensions
( ) (35)
Equation 35-Ballast evaluation
134
where:
- ballast module (kN/m3)
- ballast coefficient, 0.132435 N/mm3
- differences between –
( )
c) Calculation of ξ:
( )
( )
where:
- coefficient as a function of the dimensions of the section
-
-
- concrete elastic module, 30·106 kN/m2
- foundation inertial moment
- modulus of transverse elasticity for concrete. 12.6·106 kN/m2

-
- moment of inertia of the ring ( )
- : ring area ( )
135
( )
( )
d) Calculation of the maximum rotation of the structure axis:
e) The value of the reinforcement moment is calculated:
With this moment it is possible to determine the amount of reinforcement required, the
quantity is now calculated:
136
Knowing the mechanical capacity, the required reinforcement area value can be
determined:
diameters:
between them, the EHE-08 [44] standard establishes that the minimum separation has to be
30 cm:
( )
137
As can be seen, the separation does not comply, the other diameters are analysed and do
not comply either, so what is done is to study the number of rods from the minimum
separation:
( )
In all cases a number of 15 rods are obtained, so the 25 mm diameter rods are chosen.
CIRCULAR REINFORCEMENT, 15 25c/300
c) Shear reinforcement
The amount of shear reinforcement is calculated by means of the EHE-08, following the
prescriptions of this instruction, the resistance to tangential stresses in flexible foundations
must be checked with shear as a linear element and with punching. The reference section
will be located at a distance equal to the useful edge, counting from the face of the support
or pedestal (tower in our case) and should be flat and orthogonal to the base of the
foundation, so our diagram will be [Figure 103]:
The shear stress will be that produced by

the tension distribution of the ground under
the module in question, and it will be
necessary to counteract it with the weight of
the earth and concrete.
Figure 103-Reference section shear reinforcement
138
where:
-
-
Figure 104-Shear distribution
The tension in the reference section can be calculated from the similarity of triangles:
( ) ( )
( )
The ultimate limit state (ULS) of shear load exhaustion can be achieved by:
- Oblique compression depletion (concrete depletion), VU1

- Tension depletion of stirrups, VU2
139
These verifications should be carried out:
For this bachelor thesis, only the exhaustion by traction will be analysed:
where:
- concrete contribution
- steel contribution
The calculation of will be done through the following formula:
[ ( ) ]
where:
- safety coefficient, 1.5
- minimum resistance of concrete (MPa)
- foundation diameter, (m)
- geometric amount of betrayed longitudinal reinforcement anchored at a distance
'd' from the study section:
( )
√ √
140
( )
Once the shear stress supported by the steel has been determined, the area of the stirrups
should be determined:
(36)
Equation 36-Steel contribution in function of area of stirrups
where:
- useful edge
- stirrups separation (m)
- area stirrups (m)
- characteristic steel resistance (MPa)
Figure 105-Stirrups separation [44]
Stirrups separation will be 600 mm
141
The area obtained is very small, so there will be a circular line from reinforcement to shear,
a diameter of 10 mm stirrup will be selected, a radius value of 2500 mm is chosen, so the
number of rods to be place will be:
CIRCULAR REINFORCEMENT, 10s 10c/600

d) Punching check
Punching is a stress produced by traction in a part, due to the tangential stresses originating
from a load located on the surface [44]. For its checking it is essential to know the
punching perimeter ( ), so the radius R [Figure 106]:
Figure 106-Punching perimeter diagram
In order for the foundation to comply with the regulations, it must be established that:
- : nominal tangential tension of calculation in the critical perimeter (N/mm2)

- maximum stress resistance (N/mm2)
142
(36)
( )
Equation 37-Tangential tension
where:
- effective load of punching (kN)
where:
- : 1.5 (coefficient that takes into account the momentum)
- : weight of the installation (wind turbine)
- : safety coefficient, 1.5
( )
Now it’s calculated the value of
( )
where:
- minimum resistance of concrete 25 N/mm2
- 1.32, calculated in the previous section
- , calculated in the previous section
-
( )
PUNCHING WILL NOT BE A PROBLEM
143
e) Superior flexion reinforcement

As seen above, there is a possible take-off from the foundation area; this raised area is
subjected to the bending (Mpp) generated by its own weight and soil located above it. The
stresses of the foundation structure due to this phenomenon are very similar to those
produced in a cantilever; this requires the placement of a superior reinforcement to
withstand these stresses [Figure 107].
Figure 107-Flector on the upper side of the detached part [26]
These moments are much lower than those produced on the underside of the foundation,
but this does not mean that they should be overlooked. The flexion reinforcement shall be
distributed on the upper side in a fan-shaped manner and in the central area a meshed area
shall be distributed, respecting the separations of the adjacent fan-shaped reinforcement
[44].
The reference section will be the same as the one used in the radial reinforcement:
The reference section will be the same as the one used in the radial assembly, but this time
towards the inside of the diameter because it is a bending stress.
The calculation will be made on the safety side, assuming that the volume of concrete and
soil causing the bending stress is composed only of concrete and is composed of the
volume of a cylinder:
( )
144
Once the moment of calculation has been calculated, the value of the amount should be
calculated, as explained above:
( )
Now it is necessary to check in what case of calculation this is:
CASE 1
There is no mechanical quantity to compression (Us2), but if to traction, it is also known
that the minimum mechanical quantity in flexion (Us1) is:
( √ ) ( √ )
Now the dimensions of the reinforcement rods and the number of reinforcement rods have
to be determined, the rods will have a length equal to the diameter of the foundation
(somewhat less so really) but are calculated with the diameter to facilitate calculations, so
that:
Once the reinforcement area has been calculated to withstand the bending stresses, it is
checked that this value is greater than the minimum mechanical and geometric quantity
required.
145
- Minimum geometric quantity EHE-08:
With this verification it can be seen that the geometric amount is greater than the
mechanical amount, so to build the foundation the geometric amount will have to be used.
diameters:
between them, the EHE-08 standard establishes that the minimum separation has to be 30
cm.
SUPERIOR FLEXION RADIAL REINFORCEMENT, 41 25c/260
146
4.5. Analysis and results

In this section the different analyses on the wind turbine will be analysed, on the one hand
the optimum dimensions will be determined in terms of diameter and thickness for the
tower, this will be done by calculating the verifications of the tower varying the thickness
and diameter; and on the other hand the optimum dimensions for the foundation will be
determined. It is worth mentioning that for the analysis of the tower the loads and weights
of the components will be left fixed, which means that obviously if it has more or less
thickness and more or less diameter, there will be more or less weight of the tower
translated more or less axial.
4.5.1. Tower analysis

Here it will be analysed check by check selecting the optimum thickness and diameter for
the tower, and once all the optimum dimensions have been analysed, it will be chosen for
the most determining one.
a) Maximum tension
Using an Excel sheet, the different values of the maximum tension according to the
thickness and diameter has been implemented [Table 27].
Table 27-Different values of maximum tension
MAXIMUM
Thickness (mm)
TENSION (MPa)
Diameter (mm) 16 20 25 30 35 40
2000 325.843 262.226 211.345 177.434 153.222 135.071
2500 208.614 167.683 134.942 113.119 97.536 85.851
3000 145.152 116.578 93.722 78.486 67.606 59.447
3500 106.944 85.843 68.963 57.711 49.674 43.648
4000 82.156 62.97 52.927 44.267 38.083 33.444
4500 65.156 52.26 41.943 35.066 30.154 26.471
5000 52.986 42.986 34.089 28.49 24.491 21.492
If the values are entered in a graph, the thicknesses being abscissa and the stress values
ordered, it is obtain 7 curves and in addition a curve is added with limit tension name to
know the limit of the maximum tension [Figure 108].
147
On the one hand if a thickness is fixed and the diameter is increased it means that there
will be more moment of inertia, and more area, thus distributing the pressures of the axial
force, on the other hand if a diameter is fixed and the thickness is increased on the other
hand if it is done in an inverse way, a diameter is fixed and the thickness is varied.
MAXIMUM TENSION
350 Diameter 2 m
Maximum tension (MPa)
300 Diameter 2.5 m
250 Diameter 3 m
200 Diameter 3.5 m
150 Diameter 4 m
100 Diameter 4.5 m
50 Diameter 5 m
0 Limit = 230 MPa

16 18 20 22 24 26 28 30 32 34 36 38 40
Thickness (mm)
Figure 108-Tensions in function of diameter and thickness
Our ideal optimal value would be the curve that passes through the point that cuts the
tension limit with the ordinate axis, since it would have the smallest possible diameter and
the smallest possible thickness complying with the limit tension, it would be a slightly
smaller diameter of 2.5 m and a thickness of 16 mm, but obviously manufacturers do not
have diameters to measure, but standardized diameters so that our actual optimal
dimensions could be two possible:
- Select the minimum thickness and see what diameter it meets, thickness = 16 mm and
diameter = 2.5 m.
- Select the minimum diameter and see what thickness it meets, diameter = 2 m and
thickness = 23 mm.
The decision of one or the other serious solution would be determined by economic
analysis, which is cheaper, more diameter and less thickness, or less diameter and more
thickness?
148
b) Shear tension
Table 28-Different values of shear tension
SHEAR TENSION
Thickness (mm)
(MPa)
Diameter (mm) 16 20 25 30 35 40
2000 6.637 5.32 4.267 3.564 3.063 2.6868
2500 5.301 4.248 3.4 2.8433 2.4419 2.14
3000 4.413 3.5353 2.833 2.36 2.03 1.77
3500 3.779 3.0273 2.425 2.02 1.737 1.5223
4000 3.3 2.647 2.1202 1.769 1.5182 1.330148
4500 2.9369 2.351 1.883 1.5712 1.34827 1.181
5000 2.6423 2.115 1.694 1.4131 1.2125 1.06
Fixing one thickness or diameter and varying the other is the same, since what determines
the response to shear stress is the surface anchored to the ground.
SHEAR TENSION
125
Diameter 2 m
Diameter 2.5 m
Shear tension (MPa)
100
Diameter 3 m
75
Diameter 3.5 m
50 Diameter 4 m
Diameter 4.5 m
25
Diameter 5 m
0 Limit = 115 MPa
16 18 20 22 24 26 28 30 32 34 36 38 40
Thickness (mm)
Figure 109- Shear tensions in function of diameter and thickness
Here it can be seen that the shear stress is not decisive, so it is possible to select the
smallest thickness and the smallest diameter.
149
c) Horizontal displacement
Table 29-Different values to compare horizontal displacement
HORIZONTAL
Thickness (mm)
DISPLACEMENT
Diameter (mm) 16 20 25 30 35 40
2000 0.109 0.136 0.168 0.2 0.232 0.2637
2500 0.214 0.267 0.331 0.395 0.458 0.52
3000 0.371 0.462 0.575 0.687 0.797 1
3500 0.591 0.736 1 1.095 1.272 1.448
4000 0.884 1.102 1.372 1.64 1.906 2.17
4500 1.26 1.571 1.957 2.341 2.722 3.101
5000 1.731 2.158 2.69 3.218 3.743 4.265
As can be seen together [Figure 110] and [Table 29] this check is one of the most
restrictive, since the formula that was seen [Equation 11] should exceed the value of 1.
HORIZONTAL DISPLACEMENT
4,5
Diameter 2 m
4
Diameter 2.5 m
3,5
Formula value
3 Diameter 3 m
2,5 Diameter 3.5 m
2
Diameter 4 m
1,5
1 Diameter 4.5 m
0,5 Diameter 5 m
0
16 18 20 22 24 26 28 30 32 34 36 38 40
Limit value = 1
Thickness (mm)
Figure 110-Horizontal displacement
The two possible solutions that can be found are:

- Choose a diameter of 3 m and maximum thickness.
- Choose a thickness of 25 mm and a diameter of 3.5 m.
For our case it was decided to choose a diameter of 3 m and thickness 40 mm
150
d) Vertical displacement
Table 30-Different values to compare vertical displacement
VERTICAL
Thickness (mm)
DISPLACEMENT
Diameter (mm) 16 20 25 30 35 40
2000 63.1757 78.81 98.26 117.62 136.87 156.028
2500 79.09 98.71 123.141 147.4711 171.7 195.83
3000 95.08 118.613 148 177.32 206.529 235.635
3500 110.93 138.515 172.895 207.176 241.357 275.438
4000 126.86 158.417 197.772 237.028 276.1849 315.241
4500 142.78 178.31 222.649 266.68 311.012 355.0451
5000 158.703 198.22 247.47 296.733 345.844 394.848
This value is one of the least restrictive, as it depends mainly on the value of the axle it is
had, which in our case and taking into account that it is a small wind turbine all thicknesses
and diameters meet. It can be seen in the [Figure 111].
VERTICAL DISPLACEMENT
450 Diameter 2 m
400
Diameter 2.5 m
350
Formula value
300
Diameter 3 m
250 Diameter 3.5 m
200
Diameter 4 m
150
100 Diameter 4.5 m
50 Diameter 5 m
0
16 18 20 22 24 26 28 30 32 34 36 38 40 Limit value = 1
Thickness (mm)
Figure 111-Vertical displacement test
151
e) Resonance
Table 31-Different values of natural resonance
RESONANCE (Hz) Thickness (mm)
Diameter (mm) 16 20 25 30 35 40
2000 0.812 0.81 0.808 0.806 0.804 0.802
2500 1.016 1.015 1.012 1.011 1.009 1.007
3000 1.221 1.219 1.2177 1.2157 1.2137 1.2116
3500 1.426 1.4244 1.4224 1.4203 1.418 1.416
4000 1.63 1.629 1.627 1.625 1.623 1.6209
4500 1.8353 1.8337 1.8317 1.8296 1.82765 1.8256
5000 2.04 2.038 2.03637 2.0343 2.0323 2.0302
RESONANCE
2,5
Diameter 2 m
2 Diameter 2.5 m
Resonance (Hz)
Diameter 3 m
1,5 Diameter 3.5 m
Diameter 4 m
1
Diameter 4.5 m
0,5 Diameter 5 m
w rotor min = 0.165012

0
w rotor max = 0.403362
16 18 20 22 24 26 28 30 32 34 36 38 40
Thickness (mm)
Figure 112-Natural resonance in function of thickness and diameter
In this check the most restrictive values are the height and density of the material, but even
so, they do not present problems when determining thickness and diameter, since our
natural frequency of the tower is above the maximum of the rotor, so it is possible to opt
for the smaller diameter and thickness for this check.
152
f) Buckling calculation
Table 32-Different values of axial load comparison
BUCKLING
CALCULATION Thickness (mm)
(kN)
Diameter (mm) 16 20 25 30 35 40
2000 5960.9 7409.1 9196.14 10957.51 12693.465 14404
2500 11079.41 13789.19 17144.64 20462.9 23744.8 26990.56
3000 17791.384 22166.19 27593.86 32976.31 38313.69 43606.18
3500 25473.7 31763.51 39581.65 47350.84 55071.156 62742.66
4000 33317.27 41569.524 51841.5 62065.35 72241.063 82368.66
4500 40834 50970.57 63599.19 76182.18 88719.53 101211.242
5000 47946 60164.18 74721.96 89536.41 104307.542 119035.322
As mentioned, this type of structure is affected by buckling; the solution to it is to increase

the rigidity [Table 32] [Figure 113] of it by increasing its diameter and/or thickness. As it
can see it's really not a problem for our case.
BUCKLING
140000
Diameter 2 m
120000
Diameter 2.5 m
100000
Buckling (kN)
Diameter 3 m
80000 Diameter 3.5 m
60000 Diameter 4 m
40000 Diameter 4.5 m
20000 Diameter 5 m
0 Axial load = 663 kN

16 18 20 22 24 26 28 30 32 34 36 38 40
Thickness (mm)
Figure 113-Axial load comparison in function of thickness and diameter
153
g) Fatigue
Table 33-Different values of fatigue
FATIGUE (MPa) Thickness (mm)
Diameter (mm) 16 20 25 30 35 40
2000 13.6 8.85 6.1755 4.767 3.85 3.25
2500 7.597 5.517 4.11 3.2831 2.733 2.342
3000 5.44 4.105 3.1437 2.5486 2.1442 1.85
3500 4.3 3.305 2.566 2.0978 1.775 1.5388
4000 3.5815 2.78 2.1777 1.7894 1.519 1.32039
4500 3.081 2.411 1.896 1.5635 1.3304 1.158176
5000 2.71148 2.131 1.68 1.3901 1.18477 1.0325
The increase in diameter and thickness in this test makes our structure more rigid and
stable, making it more resistant to fatigue due to external stresses, the values of diameter
and thickness can be selected as minimum.
TENSION TO COMPARE
35 Diameter 2 m
TENSION TO COMPARE
30 Diameter 2.5 m
25 Diameter 3 m
20 Diameter 3.5 m
(kN)
15
Diameter 4 m
10
Diameter 4.5 m
5
Diameter 5 m
0
16 18 20 22 24 26 28 30 32 34 36 38 40 σe =32.38 MPa
Thickness (mm)
Figure 114- Tension due to fatigue in function of thickness and diameter
Finally, once all the tests for the different thicknesses and diameters have been analysed, a
conclusion can be drawn to this, which is that the most decisive test for our tower design is
the horizontal arrow, so the solution obtained in this test will prevail over all the others.
154
4.5.2. Analysis and comparison of the

foundation
Due to the fact that in the project only a circular type foundation analysis has been carried
out, the analyses carried out in this section are extrapolated to the analysis of 4 types of
foundations in a 3.5 MW wind turbine, with a tower diameter of 7.5 m, 100 m high and a
rotor diameter of 100 m [26].
Below are the different foundations to be compared and analysed [26].
Table 34-Square foundation data
SQUARE FOUNDATION DATA

GEOMETRIC DEFINITION
BASE SIDE (m) 16.8
TOWER DIAMETER (m) 7.5
HEIGHT BASE FOUNDATION (m) 1
HEIGH VARIABLE FOUNDATION (m) 1
DIAGONAL SIDE FOUNDATION (m) 23.76
LOADS
SITE OPERATION N (kN) V (kN) M (kNm)
TOWER BASE 12000 1500 100000
FOUNDATION BASE 25278.79 1500 103000
FOUNDATION REINFORCEMENT
kg 51177
MATERIAL UNITS
CONCRETE (m3) 445.45
CLEANING CONCRETE H-12,5-100 mm (m2) 282
155
Table 35-Hexagonal foundation
HEXAGONAL FOUNDATION DATA

SIDE (m) 10.2
LENGHT BETWEEN SIDES (m) 17.67
LENGHT BETWEEN CORNERS (m) 20.4
LOADS
TOWER BASE 12000 1500 100000
FOUNDATION BASE 24723,35 1500 103000
kg 38454
MATERIAL UNITS
CONCRETE (m3) 427. 55
2
CLEANING CONCRETE H-12,5-100 mm (m ) 270
Table 36-Octagonal foundation
OCTAGONAL FOUNDATION DATA

SIDE (m) 7.4
LENGHT BETWEEN SIDES (m) 18.87
LENGHT BETWEEN CORNERS (m) 19.34
LOADS
TOWER BASE 12000 1500 100000
FOUNDATION BASE 24449,44 1500 103000
kg 35960
MATERIAL UNITS
CONCRETE (m3) 418.7
156
Table 37-Circular foundation
CIRCULAR FOUNDATION DATA

RADIUS (m) 9.1
DIAMETER 18.2
LOADS
TOWER BASE 12000 1500 100000
FOUNDATION BASE 24251,85 1500 103000
kg 30701
MATERIAL UNITS
CONCRETE (m3) 412. 3
What is intended to be analysed in this section is a comparison of geometries between the

foundations, the area in the plant, quantity of volume and kg of steel will be analysed.
Analyses will be performed comparing the number of sides of the foundation; the circular
foundation will be taken as infinite side by side.
285
282.24
280
279
Floor area plant (m2)
275
270.3
270
265
260
260
255
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60
Sides number
Figure 115-Floor area plant
157
450
445.45
445
440
Concrete volume (m3)
435
430
427.55
425
420 418.7
415 412
410
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60
Sides number
Figure 116-Concrete volume
In the [Figure 115] shows how the floor area and concrete volume [Figure 116] are
reduced as the sides of the foundation are reduced. The saving of concrete means saving in
the transport of it, these advantages are for a wind turbine, so the effect will be much
greater if it looked at the installation of a wind farm.
With respect to the concrete reinforcement [Figure 117], it is reduced as the number of
sides of the foundation is reduced, the characteristic reduction of the polygonal foundations
to the circular one is due to the fact that the reinforcement in the circular one is radial and
circular, however in the others it is arranged in an orthogonal way, in addition the efforts
that the steel reinforcement must support are smaller for geometries with greater number of
sides.
140
120 115
kg steel/m3 concrete (kg/m3)
100
86
80 90 74
60
40
20
0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60
Sides number
Figure 117-Amount of steel per cubic meter of concrete
158
All these savings in these characteristics translate into economic savings both in terms of
the wind turbine and in the long term for the installation of a wind farm, largely due to the
savings in reinforcement for the circular foundation.
4.6. Solution recommended

Once all the calculations for both the tower design and the foundation design have been
made, a final solution will be established, a tower thickness of 40 mm and a diameter of 3
m have finally been selected, in addition to the circular foundation. It is worth mentioning
that due to the similarity of wind and geological conditions in the 4 selected sites, the same
wind turbine design will be adopted for the 4 sites.
TECHNICAL DATA, SOLUTION 1
LOCATION DATA
LOCATION NAME Skjærhalden, Kirkeøy
COORDENATE X (m) 616538.95
COORDENATE Y (m) 6544967.17
HEIGHT (m) 11
AVERAGE WIND SPEED AT 50 m (m/s) 7.4
TYPE OF SOIL GRAVEL
GRAVEL ADMISSIBLE PRESSURE (MPa) 0.61803
GRAVEL DENSITY (kg/m3) 1800
INTERNAL FRICTION ANGLE (º) 30
3
BALLAST MODULE (kg/cm ) 13.5
WIND TURBINE DATA
MODEL NAME DW52-250
ROTOR DIAMETER (m) 52
HEIGHT TOWER (m) 50
BLADES 3
NOMINAL POWER (kW) 250
MINIMUM YIELD STRENGHT (MPa) 345
TOWER DIAMETER (m) 3
WALL THICKNESS (mm) 40
STEEL DENSITY (kg/m ) 3 7850
159
FOUNDATION DATA
BASE DIAMETER (m) 11.2
TOP DIAMETER (m) 3
CONCRETE DENSITY (kg/m3) 2500
3
STEEL REINFORCEMENT DENSITY (kg/m ) 7850
MINIMUM YIELD STRENGHT STEEL REINFORCEMENT (MPa) 500
MINIMUM YIELD STRENGHT CONCRETE REINFORCEMENT (MPa) 25
LOADS
TOWER BASE 491 246 11576
FOUNDATION BASE 4950 246 12066
STABILITY AND SINKING
STRUCTURAL SINKING TEST,
TIPPING TEST SLIDING TEST
σmax (kPa)
2.07 7.35 230.65
DIAMETER
TYPE REINFORCEMENT Nº RODS SEPARATION (mm)
(mm)
RADIAL BOTTOM REINFORCEMENT 45 25 230
CIRCULAR BOTTOM REINFORCEMENT 15 25 300
RADIAL TOP REINFORCEMENT 41 25 260
CIRCULAR TOP REINFORCEMENT 15 25 300
SHEAR REINFORCEMENT 10 STIRRUPS 10 600
MATERIAL UNITS
STEEL REINFORCEMENT (kg) 13236
RADIAL BOTTOM REINFORCEMENT 1942
CIRCULAR BOTTOM REINFORCEMENT 4794
RADIAL TOP REINFORCEMENT 1683
CIRCULAR TOP REINFORCEMENT 4794
SHEAR REINFORCEMENT 23
160
LOCATION DATA
LOCATION NAME Rød, Asmaløy
HEIGHT (m) 23
TYPE OF SOIL GRAVEL
GRAVEL ADMISSIBLE PRESSURE (MPa) 0.61803
3
WIND TURBINE DATA
MODEL NAME DW52-250
HEIGHT TOWER (m) 50
BLADES 3
3
STEEL DENSITY (kg/m ) 7850
FOUNDATION DATA
TOP DIAMETER (m) 3
CONCRETE DENSITY (kg/m3) 2500
STEEL REINFORCEMENT DENSITY (kg/m3) 7850
161
LOADS
TOWER BASE 491 246 11576
TIPPING TEST SLIDING TEST STRUCTURAL SINKING TEST, σmax (kPa)
2.07 7.35 230.65
TYPE REINFORCEMENT Nº RODS DIAMETER (mm) SEPARATION (mm)
MATERIAL UNITS
2
CLEANING CONCRETE H-12,5-100 mm (m ) 99
162
LOCATION DATA
LOCATION NAME Hauge, Vesterøy
COORDENATE X (m) 607214
COORDENATE Y (m) 6553157
HEIGHT (m) 36
TYPE OF SOIL GRAVEL
GRAVEL ADMISSIBLE PRESSURE (MPa) 0,61803
3
WIND TURBINE DATA
MODEL NAME DW52-250
HEIGHT TOWER (m) 50
BLADES 3
3
FOUNDATION DATA
TOP DIAMETER (m) 3
3
CONCRETE DENSITY (kg/m ) 2500
3
163
LOADS
TOWER BASE 491 246 11576
2.07 7.35 230.65
MATERIAL UNITS
164
LOCATION DATA
LOCATION NAME Utgård Harbor, Vesterøy
HEIGHT (m) 9
TYPE OF SOIL GRAVEL
GRAVEL ADMISSIBLE PRESSURE (MPa) 0,61803
3
WIND TURBINE DATA
MODEL NAME DW52-250
HEIGHT TOWER (m) 50
BLADES 3
3
FOUNDATION DATA
TOP DIAMETER (m) 3
3
CONCRETE DENSITY (kg/m ) 2500
3
165
LOADS
TOWER BASE 491 246 11576
2.07 7.35 230.65
MATERIAL UNITS
166
4.7. Budget
The economic cost of installing wind turbines varies over the years and depending on the
countries in which they are installed [Figure 118].
167
Figure 118-Different analysis of wind turbines installation costs [3] [2]
The first figure shows the typical breakdown of the costs of an onshore wind farm, the
second one shows the typical breakdown of costs for some countries between 1998 and
2016 and the last one shows the breakdown of investment for a turbine in Germany.
The following is an indicative economic valuation, since, for example, due to the
confidentiality of company data, they keep the prices of wind turbines under contract, so
that the price of the wind turbine has been estimated according to its power [Figure 119]
[21].
Figure 119-Economy in function of power [21]
168
The cost of civil works for the installation of a wind turbine always depends on the
dimensions, material and construction method. But most of the time, the foundations
represent a high percentage of the civil works (26-38%). The cost of the wind turbine will
be estimated [Figure 117] and the study will focus a little more on the cost of the
foundation as such.
According to the power of our tower (250 kW) it is estimated that the cost of it is around:
Due to the importance of the foundation element in the civil works budget, the costs of the
three most representative items of the foundation will be accounted for, as well as the
cleaning concrete surface, the volume of concrete used, the kg of steel used, and the
surface of the formwork [Table 38] [48].
Table 38-Work cost
WORK COST COST
Cleaning concrete H-12.5-100mm for foundation seat, including installation and transport. 8.79 €/m2
HA-25 concrete for foundations and pile foundations, including laying, vibrating and curing. 87 €/m3
B-500-S steel in rods with an elastic limit of not less than 500 MPa and installed. 0.92 €/kg
Formwork and stripping of curved formwork on unseen walls. 52.37 €/m2
169
With the prices of the works and the measurements, the price of the foundation can be
estimated [Figure 39].
Table 39-Estimated foundation cost
FOUNDATION
Description u Measurement Price Amount

Cleaning concrete H-12.5-100mm for foundation seat,
m2 98.52 8.79 865.9908
including installation and transport.
HA-25 concrete for foundations and pile foundations,

m3 143.51 87 12485.37
including laying, vibrating and curing.
B-500-S steel in rods with an elastic limit of not less

kg 13236 0.92 12177.12
than 500 MPa and installed.
Formwork and stripping of curved formwork on unseen

m2 35.19 52.37 1842.9003
walls.
TOTAL COST (€) 27371.3811
Finally, it can be established that the civil works part of the wind turbine and foundation
will be around:
170
B18INT04 CONCLUSION AND REFLECTION
5. Conclusion and reflection

With all the calculations and analyses done, the conclusions to this Bachelor Thesis can be
established.
First of all, it can be said that the proposed objectives of this project have been met, since
the sites for the installation of these wind turbines have been determined, the wind and
geological data of these sites have been analysed, a wind turbine supplier has been found
for our wind conditions, the loads influencing the wind turbine have been obtained and
with them the dimensions of the turbine have been optimised, in terms of diameter and
thickness, and finally the foundations have been designed and calculated in their entirety
(dimensions and reinforcement).
On the other hand, some interesting points can be made about this project:
- The nature of the acting loads shows that the most determining effort is the moment
produced by the wind force in our wind turbine, producing the tower bending,
translated into compressions and tractions in it.
- In the analysis of the tower it can be said that the most important restrictions are the
horizontal displacement and although not in our case, the resonance is also a very
decisive factor and the factor that relates these two restrictions is the height.
- In addition to the fact that wind is the external force to our structure and can change, it
means that while one part of the tower is bending the other to compression, these
values can alternate resulting in fatigue wear.
- Focusing on the foundation, and mentioning that the predominant effort is the moment,
this generates an eccentricity of the loads, generating the detachment of it.
- On the reinforcement of the foundation, this supposes in orientate values 65% of it to
resist the inferior flexion, 22% for the superior flexion and 13% for the shear.
- Simplified analytical models make it possible to approximate the overall response of a
beam-type structure, but do not make it possible to do so in terms of overall results,
which is why it is necessary to resort to computer programs for this purpose.
171
B18INT04 CONCLUSION AND REFLECTION
Personally, I would have liked to contrast the results with some software, but due to the
time taken to develop the project and the little knowledge of a good software tool it has not
been possible to do this due to the situation and the short time available.
Another interesting aspect of the choice of a 250 kW wind turbine is the current standard
established on January 1, 2015:
“With effect from 1 January 2015, the Energy Law Regulations have been amended so that
the limit for the license obligation for wind power plants under the Energy Act is now 1
MW of total installed power in the plant. This means that the Energy Act shall not apply to
wind turbines that are 1 MW or less. Minor wind farms shall be treated by the
municipalities in accordance with the Planning and Building Act (pbl.). In addition, there
is a limitation on five wind turbines within each project. Larger facilities are treated by the
Norwegian Water Resources and Energy Directorate (NVE) in accordance with the
Energy Act. Owner of wind power plants without a license obligation shall report to NVE
when the facility has received final permission under the Planning and Building Act.”
Regarding our results, it is established that the DW52-250 wind turbine with a tower
height of 50 meters and a circular geometry surface foundation is the most optimal.
5.1. Future work recommendations

Study other types of materials for the wind turbine as a whole; for the tower and avoid the
use of concrete and steel or try to reduce it as much as possible.
The tendency to develop larger wind turbines as a whole has led to much larger loads and,
as seen in the project, the determination of these loads is somewhat complex, since there is
no established methodology for this, as is the case with fatigue loading, requiring tests in
wind tunnels or more sophisticated programmes.
To implement in a general software program, the wind databases of the different countries
of the world as well as geological data, even if it is difficult in the long term.
172
B18INT04 REFERENCES
6. References
[1] M. J.F. , M. J.G. and R. A.L., WIND ENERGY EXPLAINED THEORY, DESIGN
AND APPLICATION, UK: WILEY, 2009.
[2] International Renewable Energy Agency, “IRENA - International Renewable Energy
Agency,” Intergovernmental Organisation, 1981. [Online]. Available:
https://www.irena.org/.
[3] GWEC, “GWEC GLOBAL WIND ENERGY COUNCIL,” 2005. [Online].
Available: http://gwec.net/.
[4] NATURAL, “Noruega, el primer país del mundo en prohibir la deforestacion,” LA
VANGUARDIA, 13 June 2006.
[5] EFE, “emol.Economia,” Santiago, 23 February 2016. [Online]. Available:
http://www.emol.com/noticias/Economia/2016/02/23/789631/Noruega-comenzara-
a-construir-el-mayor-proyecto-eolico-terrestre-de-Europa.html.
[6] reve, “reve Revista Eólica y del Vehículo Eléctrico,” 26 October 2017. [Online].
Available: https://www.evwind.com/2017/10/26/eolica-noruega-siemens-gamesa-
suministra-67-aerogeneradores-con-281-mw/.
[7] windsim, “Wind resource assesment for Hvaler kommune,” Hvaler, 2017.
[8] NGU, “Norges Geologiske Undersokelse,” 2015. [Online]. Available:
http://www.ngu.no/.
[9] Orust och Hvaler, “Et Smart och Bærekraftige Øysamfunn (ESBØ),” Orust kommun
& Hvaler kommune, 2017.
[10] Interreg Europe, “Interreg Europe l European Union l European Regional
Development Fund,” INTERREG, 2014. [Online]. Available:
https://www.interregeurope.eu/.
[11] F. JARABO FRIEDRICH, C. PEREZ DOMINGUEZ, N. ELORTEGUI
ESCARTIN, J. FERNANDEZ GONZALEZ and J. J. MACIAS HERNANDEZ, EL
LIBRO DE LAS ENERGIAS RENOVABLES, Madrid: ERA SOLAR, 1988.
173
B18INT04 REFERENCES
[12] T. Burton , D. Jenkins, D. Sharpe and E. Bossanyi, Wind Energy Handbook, UK:
WILEY, 2011.
[13] G. Tiwari and M. Ghosal, Fundamentals of RENEWABLE ENERGY SOURCES,
India: Alpha Science, 2007.
[14] A. Khaligh and O. C. Onar, ENERGY HARVESTING Solar, Wind, and Ocean
Energy Conversion System, 2010: CRC Press.
[15] I. Núñez Ayala, DISEÑO Y CÁLCULO DE LA TORRE Y LA CIMENTACIÓN
DE UN AEROGENERADOR, Bilbao, 2015.
[16] D. A. SPERA, WIND TURBINE TECHNOLOGY FUNDAMENTAL CONCEPTS
OF WIND TURBINE ENGINEERING, New York: ASME PRESS, 2009.
[17] F. Kreith and J. F. Kreider, Principles of Sustainable Energy, UK & US: CRC Press.
[18] R. Gálvez Roman, Diseño y cálculo preliminar de la torre de un aerogenerador,
Madrid, 2005.
[19] N. Cignus, “Prezi,” 23 February 2015. [Online]. Available:
https://prezi.com/mniibzg685gh/diseno-de-un-aerogenerador-tipo-espiral-windside-
par/.
[20] Parque Eólico Experimental SOTAVENTO, “Parque Eólico Experimental
SOTAVENTO,” [Online]. Available: http://www.sotaventogalicia.com/es/area-
tecnica/instalaciones-eolicas/funcionamiento.
[21] DANISH WIND INDUSTRY ASSOCIATION, “DROMSTORRE,” [Online].
Available: http://xn--drmstrre-64ad.dk/wp-
content/wind/miller/windpower%20web/es/tour/wres/index.htm.
[22] ECOVIVE, “ecovive,” Energias Renovables, 3 February 2010. [Online].
[23] F. Miceli, “Wind farms construction,” May 31 2012. [Online]. Available:
http://www.windfarmbop.com/tag/.
[24] S. Engstrom, T. Lyrner , M. Hassanzadeh, T. Stalin and J. Johansson, “Wind
Power,” July 2010. [Online]. Available:
https://www.windpower.org/download/1266/vindforsk_projectpdf.
[25] W. Tong, Wind Power Generation and Wind Turbine Design, UK: WITPRESS,
2010.
174
B18INT04 REFERENCES
[26] V. Herrando Germán, OPTIMIZACION DEL DISEÑO DE LA CIMENTACION

PARA UN AERGOENERADOR DE GRAN ALTURA, Barcelona, 2012.
[27] 4Coffshore, “4coffshore,” 5 June 2013. [Online]. Available:
https://www.4coffshore.com/news/gravity-based-support-structures-aid8.html.
[28] WINDENERGIE, “OFFSHORE-WINDENERGIE.NET,” [Online]. Available:
https://web.archive.org/web/20141002081335/http://www.offshore-
windenergie.net/en/technology/fundaments.
[29] J. Bratley, “cleanenergyideas,” 16 October 2017. [Online]. Available:
https://www.clean-energy-ideas.com/wind/wind-energy/advantages-and-
disadvantages-of-wind-energy.
[30] IEC-61400-1, Wind turbines Design requirements.
[31] Wind Energy Market Intelligence, “THE WIND POWER Wind Energy Market
Intelligence,” [Online]. Available: https://www.thewindpower.net/index_es.php.
[32] EWT, “ewtdirectwind,” February 2004. [Online]. Available:
http://ewtdirectwind.com/.
[33] C&F , “C&F Green Energy,” 1989. [Online]. Available:
http://www.cfgreenenergy.com/cf-250/.
[34] LaNier, M.W. ABAM Engineers Inc., LWST Phase I Project Conceptual Design
Study: Evaluation of Design and Construction Approaches for Economical Hybrid
Steel/Concrete Wind Turbines Tower, NREL - National Renewable Energy
Laboratory, 2002-2004.
[35] EUROPEAN COMMITEE FOR STANDARDIZATION, EUROCODE 1: Actions
on structures, 1991.
[36] R. N. Ricardo, DISEÑO MECÁNICO DE UN AEROGENERADOR EÓLICO,
Bilbao, 2014-2015.
[37] A. d. l. F. Antequera, PROYECTO DE LANZAMIENTO DE UN NUEVO
SISTEMA DE TORRES DE AEROGENERADORES, Barcelona, 2007.
[38] J. J. Lopez, Prontuario básico de estructuras simples, 2012.
[39] C. Navarro, “CONCEPTOS BASICOS DEL CALCULO ESTRUCTURAL”.
[40] A. K. Chopra, DYNAMICS OF STRUCTURES Theory and Applications to
Earthquake Engineering, PRENTICE HALL .
175
B18INT04 REFERENCES
[41] S. S. Rao, Mechanical Vibrations, PEARSON.

[42] DNV/Riso, Guidelines for Design of Wind Turbines.
[43] EUROPEAN COMMITEE FOR STANDARDIZATION , EUROCODE 3: Design
of steel structures, 1993.
[44] MINISTERIO DE FOMENTO, Instruccion de Hormigon Estructural, 2011.
[45] MINISTERIO DE FOMENTO, Guia de cimentaciones en obras de carretera, 2009.
[46] EUROPEAN COMMITEE FOR STANDARDIZATION, EUROCODE 2: Design of
concrete structure, 1992.
[47] J. Calavera, Cálculo de Estructuras de cimentacion, INTEMAC.
[48] CYPE Ingenieros, “Generador de precios de rehabilitacion,” CYPE, [Online].
Available: http://www.generadordeprecios.info/espacios_urbanos/.
[49] E. Yuzugullu, Synergies for SUSTAINABLE ENERGY, U.S. & U.K.: ARTECH
HOUSE.
[50] S. Bent, RENEWABLE ENERGY, vol. III, London and Washington DC: earthscan,
2011.
[51] ENAIR, “ENAIR,” [Online]. Available: https://www.enair.es/es/empresa/historia.
[52] W. Benjamin, “CLEAN ENERGY WIRE,” 25 January 2018. [Online]. Available:
https://www.cleanenergywire.org/factsheets/german-onshore-wind-power-output-
business-and-perspectives.
[53] GOOGLE, “Google Maps,” w.d.. [Online]. Available:
https://www.google.com/maps/@59.0677511,10.935464,12539m/data=!3m1!1e3.
[54] One Planet Nations Online, “nationsonline,” [Online]. Available:
http://www.nationsonline.org/oneworld/map/Norway-map.htm.
[55] HVALER KOMMUNE, “hvaler kommune,” [Online]. Available:
https://www.hvaler.kommune.no/.
[56] Orust kommun, “orust,” [Online]. Available: https://www.orust.se/.
[57] ASH, “medium,” 27 April 2017. [Online].
[58] extension, “Woody Biomass Properties,” 31 July 2013. [Online].
176
B18INT04 REFERENCES
[59] a student's guide to GLOBAL CLIMATE CHANGE, “archieve.epa,” [Online].

Available:
https://archive.epa.gov/climatechange/kids/solutions/technologies/geothermal.html.
[60] Wikipedia, “Energy Education,” [Online]. Available:
http://energyeducation.ca/encyclopedia/Hydroelectric_facility#cite_note-3.
[61] ATLANTIS SOLAR, “atlantissolar,” [Online]. Available:
http://www.atlantissolar.com/wind_story.html.
[62] A. C and A. B, “history.aip,” February 2011. [Online].
[63] CC BY-SA 3.0, “Wikipedia,” 1 February 2007. [Online]. Available:
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wind_turbine_design#/media/File:Wind_turbine_int.sv
g.
[64] UPV, “grebus,” 24 September 2015. [Online]. Available:
https://grebus.wordpress.com/category/energia-eolica/.
[65] CNBM Internationar Wind Power, “steelwindtower,” [Online]. Available:
http://www.steelwindtower.com/wind-turbine-foundation-5-foundation-types-
explained-for-onshore-wind-turbine/.
[66] W. Tian, Z. Mao, B. Zhang and Y. Li, “Shape optimization of Savonius wind rotor
with different convex and concave sides,” ELSEVIER, 2017.
[67] Wind turbine models, “en.wind-turbines-models,” [Online]. Available:
https://en.wind-turbine-models.com/turbines/93-dornier-darrieus-55.
[68] J. C. Antezana Nuñez, “Diseño y Construccion de un Prototipo de Generador Eolico
de Eje Vertical,” Santiago de Chile, 2004.
[69] CC-BY-SA 3.0, “Wikipedia,” 30 June 2009. [Online]. Available:
https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bombeo_e%C3%B3lico#/media/File:20090630_De_P
utter_Westerbroekstermadepolder_Groningen_NL.jpg.
[70] OPEX energy, “opex-energy,” [Online]. Available: http://opex-
energy.com/eolica/tipos_aerogeneradores.html.
[71] SUSTENTATOR, “sustentator,” 3 August 2015. [Online].
[72] WIND ENERGY SOLUTIONS, “windenergysolutions,” WES, [Online]. Available:
https://windenergysolutions.nl/.
177
B18INT04 REFERENCES
[73] A. Martinez, “desenchufados,” 28 September 2009. [Online]. Available:

https://desenchufados.net/un-nuevo-aerogenerador-monopala-podria-dar-energia-de-
forma-mas-uniforme/.
[74] F. J. Sole Ribas, “fragmentsdevida,” 11 April 2012. [Online]. Available:
https://fragmentsdevida.wordpress.com/2012/04/11/los-molinos-de-don-quijote-en-
consuegra/.
[75] FABRIMET, “fabrimet,” [Online]. Available:
http://www.fabrimet.com/en/Manufacturer-of-wind-turbine-lattice-structures.php.
[76] Berkshire Hataway Energy, “berkshirehatawayenergyco,” 16 November 2015.
[Online]. Available:
https://www.berkshirehathawayenergyco.com/news/midamerican-energy-installing-
first-concrete-wind-turbine-tower.
[77] F. Ozturk, “researchgate,” February 2016. [Online]. Available:
https://www.researchgate.net/figure/Concrete-steel-hybrid-tower_fig4_292610311.
[78] S. Evans, “carbonbrief,” 13 January 2015. [Online]. Available:
https://www.carbonbrief.org/five-innovations-that-could-cut-the-cost-of-offshore-
wind.
[79] Special Formwork, “SF,” [Online]. Available: https://www.formwork.co.uk/wind-
farms/.
[80] be bulgaria engineering, “bulgaria-engineering,” [Online]. Available:
https://bulgaria-engineering.com/tehnologiya_jet_grouting.
[81] S. Shrestha, “DESIGN AND ANALYSIS OF FOUNDATION FOR ONSHORE
TALL WIND TURBINES,” South Carolina, 2015.
[82] TETHYS, “tethys,” [Online]. Available: https://tethys.pnnl.gov/technology-
type/offshore-wind.
[83] BINE Information Service, “bine,” [Online]. Available:
http://www.bine.info/en/publications/publikation/rave-forschen-am-offshore-
testfeld/anlagentechnik-und-komponenten/?type=333.
[84] IBERDROLA, “iberdrola,” [Online]. Available: https://www.iberdrola.com/top-
stories/iberdrola-shares-with-you/offshore-wind-turbines-foundations.
178
B18INT04 REFERENCES
[85] Forewind, “SUBSEA world news,” 19 October 2011. [Online]. Available:

https://subseaworldnews.com/2011/10/19/forewind-to-use-innovative-met-masts-
foundation-design-for-dogger-bank-uk/.
[86] Statoil, “CARBON TRUST,” [Online]. Available:
https://www.carbontrust.com/offshore-wind/floating/.
[87] Wind Aware, “Wind Aware Ireland,” [Online]. Available:
http://www.windawareireland.com/shadow-flicker/.
[88] A. V. D. ROSA, FUNDAMENTALS OF RENEWABLE ENERGY PROCESSES,
UK: Academic Press, 2013.
[89] E. de Vries, “WIND POWER MONTHLY,” 26 April 2012. [Online]. Available:
https://www.windpowermonthly.com/article/1129016/close-siemens-prototype-
steel-shell-tower.
179
B18INT04 APPRENDIX
7. Appendix
7.1. Details of locations
- Skjærhalden, Kirkeøy
180
B18INT04 APPRENDIX
- Rød, Asmaløy
181
B18INT04 APPRENDIX
- Hauge, Vesterøy
182
B18INT04 APPRENDIX
- Utgård Harbor, Vesterøy
183
B18INT04 APPRENDIX
7.2. Eolic map Hvaler

- Wind resource map for mean wind speed at 20 m above ground.
184
B18INT04 APPRENDIX
185
B18INT04 APPRENDIX
7.3. Eolic data in other places

- Rød, Asmaløy
- Hauge, Vesterøy
186
B18INT04 APPRENDIX
7.4. Ice loads

Norway being a country located in the north of the world, presents certain climatic
problems, as well as very cold temperatures during most of the year, periods in which the
night is very long...
All this if added to the fact that as the altitude
increases, the temperature decreases, it can
cause certain problems when installing wind
turbines, as ice can form on the blades or
certain parts can freeze. Fortunately, the
location of Hvaler, in the south of the country
and the fact that the wind turbine installed is
not very high, does not present any major problems when it comes to the formation of ice
on the blades, however, in places like Tromsø, or in the northern areas, it is necessary to
take this fact into account.
187
B18INT04 APPRENDIX
7.5. Geological data

- Rød, Asmaløy
188
B18INT04 APPRENDIX
- Hauge, Vesterøy
189
B18INT04 APPRENDIX
190
..\..\..\Desktop\wrty.PNG
DESIGN AND CALCULATION OF A WIND TURBINE OF 250 KW IN

HVALER, NORWAY
Scale: 1/20 Date: June, 2018 Sign:
Student: ALVARO CAMPOS NAVARRO

..\..\..\Desktop\COSAS AUTOCAD\location 2.1.PNG

HVALER, NORWAY

..\..\..\Desktop\COSAS AUTOCAD\Location 3.PNG

HVALER, NORWAY

HVALER, NORWAY

I 1
R1
46
0
50000
DETAIL 1
40
I WIND TURBINE TOWER 1 S355-JR

MARK DENOMINATION MATERIAL

HVALER, NORWAY
WIND TURBINE TOWER
Scale: W/S Date: June, 2018 Sign:

I
1000 1000
II
II CLEANNING CONCRETE 1 HA-12.5-100 mm
I WIND TURBINE FOUNDATION 1 HA-25/B/20/IIA

DETAIL 1 MARK DENOMINATION MATERIAL

100 HVALER, NORWAY
WIND TURBINE FOUNDATION
Scale: W/S Date: June, 2018 Sign:

Design and Calculation of A Wind Turbine of 250 KW in Hvaler Norway PDF

Caricato da

Informazioni sul documento

Descrizione originale:

Titolo originale

Copyright

Formati disponibili

Condividi questo documento

Condividi o incorpora il documento

Opzioni di condivisione

Hai trovato utile questo documento?

Questo contenuto è inappropriato?

Copyright:

Formati disponibili

Design and Calculation of A Wind Turbine of 250 KW in Hvaler Norway PDF

Caricato da

Copyright:

Formati disponibili

BACHELOR'S THESIS

Design and Calculation of a Wind Turbine of 250 kW in

Project Number: B18INT04

Date: June 2018, Fredrikstad

Study programme: Exchange Student, Mechanical Engineering

To my good friend, Poveda.

Acknowledgements ............................................................................................................. III

Notation and Abbreviations ................................................................................................VII

List of Figures .................................................................................................................... XV

List of Tables .................................................................................................................... XIX

List of Equations ............................................................................................................... XXI

1.1. Project information ................................................................................................. 1

1.2. Problem statements ................................................................................................. 2

1.2.1. History ............................................................................................................. 3

1.2.2. Current situation in the world .......................................................................... 4

1.2.3. Current situation in Norway ............................................................................ 6

1.3. Objectives ............................................................................................................... 9

1.4. Motivation ............................................................................................................. 10

2. Theoretical framework ................................................................................................. 11

2.1. Global project ....................................................................................................... 11

2.1.1. Short project description ................................................................................ 13

2.2. Background ........................................................................................................... 20

2.2.1. Renewable energies ....................................................................................... 20

2.2.2. Wind energy .................................................................................................. 25

2.3. Project time-line .................................................................................................... 53

3. Research methodology ................................................................................................. 55

4. Analysis discussion ...................................................................................................... 57

4.1.1. Technical report of WINDSIM...................................................................... 57

4.1.2. Interactive wind map ..................................................................................... 65

4.1.3. Wind calculations and wind turbine selection .......................................... 66

4.2. Loads and loads cases ........................................................................................... 73

4.2.1. Different loads to consider ............................................................................ 73

4.2.2. Design situations and load cases ................................................................... 77

4.2.3. Calculating and obtaining forces ................................................................... 80

4.3. Study and tower verification ................................................................................. 86

4.3.1. Maximum tension .......................................................................................... 88

4.3.2. Shear tension ................................................................................................. 90

4.3.3. Horizontal displacement ................................................................................ 92

4.3.4. Vertical displacement .................................................................................... 94

4.3.5. Resonance study ............................................................................................ 95

4.3.6. Buckling calculation ...................................................................................... 97

4.3.7. Fatigue ......................................................................................................... 100

4.4. Foundation design ............................................................................................... 104

4.4.1. Foundation stability checks ......................................................................... 111

4.4.2. Foundation structural checks ....................................................................... 122

4.5. Analysis and results ............................................................................................ 147

4.5.1. Tower analysis ............................................................................................. 147

4.5.2. Analysis and comparison of the foundation ................................................ 155

4.6. Solution recommended ....................................................................................... 159

4.7. Budget ................................................................................................................. 167

5. Conclusion and reflection........................................................................................... 171

5.1. Future work recommendations ........................................................................... 172

6. References .................................................................................................................. 173

7.1. Details of locations ............................................................................................. 180

7.2. Eolic map Hvaler ................................................................................................ 184

7.3. Eolic data in other places .................................................................................... 186

7.4. Ice loads .............................................................................................................. 187

7.5. Geological data ................................................................................................... 188

: Height study of (m).

: Minimum geometric area quantity (mm2).

: Area quantity (mm2).

: Area not detached (m2).