Viscous Flow

An Introduction to Boundary Layers

Boundary Layer Transition II

Professor K P Garry
Applied Aerodynamics Group, Cranfield University
k.p.garry@cranfield.ac.uk

contents

Transition due to surface curvature – Centrifugal Instability

Gortler Vortices

Cross Flow Instability

Attachment line contamination

Laminar Boundary Layers on Swept Wings

1
 Transition due to Centrifugal Instability

Transition due to stream-wise

curvature is a VERY different
mechanism to those discussed
previously.

In order for the fluid element to be in equilibrium:

pressure force = centrifugal force.

The pressure force acts TOWARDS surface for

CONVEX and AWAY from surface for CONCAVE

Convex Surface
- net pressure force must act towards the surface

If a fluid element is displaced

outwards for some reason, its angular
velocity (and hence centrifugal force)
is reduced.

The pressure force acts to return the

element to its original position.

Convex is therefore stabilising

2
 Concave Surface
- net pressure force must act away from the surface

If a fluid element is displaced

outwards for some reason, its angular
velocity (and hence centrifugal force)
is reduced.

Pressure force acts to further displace

the element from its original position.

Concave is therefore de-stabilising

Gortler Vortices
Gortler Longitudinal Vortices – which form on concave surfaces when :
U ∞δ
≅5
ν A 3D system of alternating vortices
have a strong influence on transition with axes in the streamwise direction.

The streamwise vortices are

predicted to form at a Reynolds
number much below that for the
appearance of the Tollmien-
Schlichting waves.

This mechanism is important on:

swept wings
propeller blades
helicopter rotors

3
 Cross Flow Instability
A transition mechanism
that relates to the flow near
the leading edge of a Swept
Wing.

3D boundary layer caused

by lateral pressure
gradients linked to surface
curvature.

~ even if the stream wise profile has no point of

inflection, there will be a range of planes normal
to the surface in which the component velocity
profile will be inflected.

~ in such planes the flow is unstable to small

disturbances in the form of Tollmien-Schlichting
waves.

~ cross flow therefore ensures that at all but very

low Reynolds numbers, there is a family of
directions for which disturbances grow

Cross Flow Instability

In a 3D boundary layer there

will be a range of planes
normal to the surface in
which the velocity profile
has a point of inflection.
Lateral flow curvature will depend on section
profile and wing sweep angle.

In such planes the flow is susceptible to disturbances in the form

of Tollmien – Schlichting waves above a certain critical Reynolds
number.

4
 Criteria for Cross Flow Instability

The analysis of transition on a leading edge depends on the value of a Reynolds

number defined:
Weη
R =
ν η= ν k

4q∞ cos ϕ
k=
We = q∞ sin ϕ D

where; freestream velocity (q∞), leading edge sweep angle (φ), diameter of the leading
edge ‘cylinder’ (D)

Typical wing root values of are in the range 400 – 700 for current civil transport
aircraft.

Laminar Flow on Swept Wings

Spanwise turbulent contamination 1st seen by Gray

(1952) on the Armstrong Whitworth 52 'Flying Wing'

5
 Attachment Line Contamination

The Attachment Line is a line in the spanwise direction along which

the flow splits over the top and bottom surface of the wing – part of
the dividing stream surface.

Attachment Line Contamination

Flow along the attachment line
can undergo a shear layer
instability as a result of
turbulence convected from the
turbulent boundary layer on the
fuselage.

This process can make the flow

turbulent over the whole wing
and is known as Attachment Line
Contamination

Classical solution is the ‘Gaster Bump’ (1967) – on attachment line, close to wing root,
blocks turbulence originating on the fuselage by creating a stagnation point on the
upstream face. Limited to Ŕ < 400 therefore not suitable for current commercial
transport aircraft.

6
 Example of Active Flow Control to Maintain Laminar
Flow on Swept Wings
There are potential difficulties in
relation to high speed cruise when
sweep angles are relatively large
and aerofoil thickness small.
Wings of the Northrop X-21, sweep angle 30 degrees,
were equipped with spanwise suction slots nearly
extending over the whole span.

Suction slots distributed over the full chord on both

the top and bottom surfaces, each having a
chordwise width between 75 and 250 μm, depending
on their chordwise positions.

The chordwise distance between successive slots

varied between 2.5 and 5 cm.

Laminar flow was maintained up to 96% chord at Reynolds numbers of 20 x 106 in the
outer part of the wing (Pfenninger 1965).

Though successful, the suction-slot technique did not enter regular operation on airliners
owing to enhanced maintenance and costs necessary to keep the slots clean.

Practical Configurations for Civil Transport Aircraft

Version of the “Pro-Active

Green” aircraft concept
being studied within the EC
NACRE project.

Has the potential to

achieve high L/D by a
combination of NFLC and
increased wing span.

The configuration illustrated has a wing with low forward sweep and
consequently a lower cruise Mach number than current turbofan aircraft;
this might be acceptable on shorter routes if the result is a considerable
reduction in fuel burn, and might be coupled with open rotor propulsion.