Viscous Flow

An Introduction to Boundary Layers

Boundary Layer Transition

Professor K P Garry
Applied Aerodynamics Group, Cranfield University
k.p.garry@cranfield.ac.uk

content
General effects of boundary layer transition
The transition Process
Tollmien-Schlichting Instability
Turbulent Spots

Factors Effecting Transition

Free stream Pressure Gradient
Early Laminar Flow Aerofoils
Surface Roughness
Compressibility Effects
Heat Transfer
Free stream Turbulence & Noise

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 Boundary Layer Transition
As a laminar boundary layer develops it is subjected to numerous disturbances.

For some flow conditions these disturbances are damped and the boundary layer
remains laminar.
However for some flow conditions the disturbances are amplified and the boundary
layer becomes TURBULENT.

This process is known as TRANSITION

the onset of Transition primarily depends on:

FREE STREAM PRESSURE GRADIENT

SURFACE ROUGHNESS
FREESTREAM TURBULENCE
SURFACE CURVATURE
COMPRESSIBILITY EFFECTS
SURFACE TEMPERATURE

Effects of Boundary Layer Transition

The practical effects of transition are:

A large increase in the wall shear stress through the transition region

A corresponding increase in heat transfer rate at the wall

A delay in boundary layer separation due to the fuller velocity profile

of the turbulent boundary layer

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3
 Reynolds Transition Experiment
The classical experiment carried out by Osborne Reynolds in 1883 which first
demonstrated transition from laminar to turbulent flow in a pipe.

Consisted of a water tank with an outlet through a

small tube with a rounded intake and a tap at the
end to control the flow rate.

Transition shown by the break-up of the filament of

dye introduced at the intake.

Reynolds identified the governing parameter,

(ρUd/μ), where U is the mean velocity of the fluid in
the tube, d the tube diameter and μ the fluid
viscosity. This non-dimensional group is now known
as the Reynolds Number.

With great care transition can be delayed until Re = 13000 but could never get
turbulent flow at Re < 2000.

The Onset of Transition

It can be shown that, at Reynolds numbers (based on boundary layer displacement

thickness, δ*) above a specific minimum or ‘critical’ value, disturbances in a certain
band of frequencies will tend to grow with time.

This process is generally referred to as TOLLMIEN-SCHLICHTING INSTABILITY

The disturbances appear initially as 2D ‘waves’ known as TOLLMIEN-SCHLICHTING

WAVES

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 Tollmien-Schlichting Instability

The frequency band for which the

disturbances are amplified is a
function of Reynolds number.
Stability theory predicts a NEUTRAL
CURVE for disturbances of frequency
(β) and Boundary Layer
Displacement Thickness (δ*)

A feature of the diagram is a 'minimum

critical Reynolds number' below which
all infinitesimally small disturbances are
damped. [Obviously finite disturbances
can then be amplified at lower values
than this]

Note that the Rcrit value on the thumb curves denotes the smallest Re No at which disturbances can be amplified -
it is not the point of transition to turbulence this is further downstream.

Schematic illustration
of Schubauer and
Skramstadt
experiment to
identify Tollmien –
Schlichting Instability

Houghton & Carpenter, Aerodynamics

for Engineering Students, Edward Arnold

5
 Flat Plate with 0.2mm thick,
2mm deep metal ribbon
vibrated perpendicular to the
flow to artificially create
Tollmien-Schlichting waves.

(increasing amplitude of
vibration from top to bottom)

Sakagami and Mochizuki, Ochanomizu University

Tollmien-Schlichting Waves and Spiral Vortices.

Spinning Body in a Smoke Wind Tunnel, Re ~ 106, surface rotation speed 61% of free stream.

photograph by Mueller et. al. (1981)

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 Breakup of T-S Waves

The amplification or suppression of these disturbances is only the 1st stage in the
transition process.

The stages in the break-up of the T-S disturbances may be explained in terms of a
break-up of "periodically spaced span-wise vortices”

Loops of vorticity induce

regions of high streamwise
shear.

Distorted velocity profiles

Additional sources of
instability and
disturbance growth

Turbulent Spots

Turbulent Spot in a Flat Plate

Boundary Layer

Reynolds Number, based on

distance from the leading edge
of the plate is ~ 200,000
Visualised by the suspension of
aluminium particles in water.

(photograph by Cantwell et. al.)

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 WEDGES of Turbulence are often observed
ahead of the point of transition from laminar
to turbulent flow

The Wedges of turbulence are attributed

to the formation of TURBULENT SPOTS.

A small excrescence forms a continuous

stream of spots which expand as they
move downstream to form a continuous
'wedge' of semi apex angle ~11 degrees.
Lower sketch of turbulence spot initiated by spark
Velocity profiles in this region are
discharge ref. Schubauer and Klebonhoff (1955)
intermittently laminar and turbulent.

Acenaphthylene – chemical coating used

to visualise boundary layer condition.

Bellanca Skyrocket II, NACA

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Bellanca Skyrocket II, wing upper
surface. NACA

Bellanca Skyrocket II, wing lower

surface. NACA

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 Rutan Long Eze
composite construction, canard foreplane,
laminar section

Lear Jet 55 - winglet

10
 Laminar – Turbulent Transition in a Flat Plate Boundary Layer.
dye sheet in water, Re ~ 75,000
(photograph by Werlé, ONERA)

The Transition Process on a Flat Plate

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 Factors Effecting Transition
Freestream Pressure Gradient
The stability of a laminar boundary layer has been shown to be strongly dependant on the
free stream pressure gradient

Initial (small) pressure drop ~10%, results

in a damping of oscillations.

Subsequent increase in pressure ~5%,

causes transition.

Data from experiment by Schubauer & Skramstad on a

curved plate. Ue = 29m/s, HWA 0.53mm above the
surface

The shape of the boundary layer velocity profile is influenced by the freestream
pressure gradient. This shape can be used to characterise the influence of pressure
gradient on stability.

Pohlhausen put forward a dimensionless δ 2 due

shape factor (λ) for the velocity profile: λ=
ν dx

λ > 0, favourable pressure

gradient.

λ < 0, adverse pressure

gradient.

λ = 0, flat plate (zero pressure

gradient)

For all practical applications:

-12 < λ < +12

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 Using Pohlhausen’s shape factor (λ) for the
velocity profile, the results of a stability
analysis by Sclichting show the influence of
the velocity profile, and hence the
freestream pressure gradient, on boundary
layer stability.

where:
α = disturbance wave number (from wavelength
λ = 2π /α )
δ* = boundary layer displacement thickness

Laminar boundary layers can therefore be

maintained by keeping a favourable
pressure gradient for as long as possible

Early Laminar Flow Aerofoils

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Objective is to maintain the favourable pressure gradient to the largest (x/c). The
subsequent turbulent boundary layer must be left to influence the shortest region
possible while avoiding separation

Symmetrical
aerofoils, CL = 0

T is the point of
transition
corresponding to
Re = 3.5 x 106

Schlichting, 1968

Factors Effecting Transition

Surface Roughness
Surface roughness normally hastens transition since it gives rise to
additional disturbances in the laminar boundary layer

The size of the roughness is significant since the resulting disturbances are
either too small to be amplified and effect transition, or they are large
enough to begin the transition process

Surface roughness is categorised in many ways, primarily 2D cylindrical

roughness elements; point like 3D surface roughness and distributed
roughness elements

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 The Effect of 2D Cylindrical Roughness Elements on
Transition
Effect depends on:
Roughness element size (k)
Boundary layer displacement
thickness at the location of the
roughness element (δ1k)

Data appears to collapse

such that transition is
caused if the element size
is such that; (Uk/ν) > 900

Alternative vertical scales are related by:

Uδ1tr Uxtr
Rtr = = 1.72 = 1.72 Rxtr
υ υ

Location of Boundary Layer Transition Relative to 2D

Roughness Element Position

Boundary layer transition does

not occur at the location of the
2D roughness element (xk)
Transition position (xtr) can be
estimated using:

U ( xtr − xk )
= 2 x10 4
υ

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 The Effect of 2D Cylindrical Roughness Elements on
the Transition Reynolds number for flat plate at zero
incidence
The impact of different free
stream turbulence levels can
be removed by comparing
considering the Transition
Reynolds Number (Rxtr) for the
rough and smooth condition.

The data for simple flat plates at

zero incidence collapse to a
single curve which suggests
roughness element size (k)
needs to be greater than ~30% of
the local boundary layer
displacement thickness to
significantly effect the location of
transition

Uniformly Distributed Roughness

Distributed roughness is normally categorised in terms of
‘sand grains’ of a particular diameter (ks) that are distributed
over the surface such that each grain is in contact with the
next.

Measurements in a range of free stream pressure gradients have shown that

boundary layer transition is only affected by distributed roughness if the grain
size satisfies the criteria:
Uks
≥ 120
υ
the effect of grain sizes greater than this is similar to that of a change in
pressure gradient

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Effect of Uniformly Distributed Roughness Elements

Equivalent Sand Roughness

size (ks)

Conventional ‘sand
roughness’
corresponds to the
maximum density.
Practical roughness
applications are at a
reduced density.
Effect can no longer
be characterised
simply on the basis of
the size of each
element.

Drag Increment Due to 2D Surface Protrusions

Data corresponds to
incremental drag
(∆D) on a flush flat
plate in a near zero
pressure gradient
wall boundary layer.

Incremental drag
coefficient dependant on
protrusion ‘aspect ratio’
∆D when (t/h) < 4.5
CD =
qA
q = dynamic pressure averaged over the height of the roughness
element (h), A = projected frontal area of element.

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 Drag Increment due to Surface Indentation
Effect of an indentation will be dependant on its depth (h, -ve corresponds to an
indentation) relative to the local boundary layer thickness (δ).

Local maxima for all (h/δ)

values at (-h/d) = 0.5
Local minima at (-h/d) ≈ 0.2, 0.8
and 1.35 may correspond to
regular vortex patterns within
the cavity

Data corresponds to incremental

drag coefficient (ΔCD) on a flush
flat plate in a near zero pressure
gradient wall boundary layer.

∆D
CD = 1
4 qπd 2

Admissible Roughness Levels

Admissible roughness (kadm) in

Engineering terms is the maximum
height of an individual roughness
element which causes no increase in
drag compared to the smooth case.

υ
k adm ≤ 100
U∞

Often more practical to re-write in terms

of the body length (l):
100
k adm ≤ l
Rl

Based on data from: flat plates; streamlined bodies

and compressor blades.

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 Circular Cylinder – Effect of Surface Roughness on Critical Reynolds
Number

Equivalent sand roughness (k) non-dimensionalised with respect to

cylinder diameter (d)

Critical Reynolds
number progressively
decreases as
roughness size
increases

Effect of Leading Edge Roughness on 2D Aerofoil Section

Characteristics at Re = 1,000,000
measurements by Davidson (1985)

NACA 643-418
smooth Leading Edge Sand Roughness of
size 0.001c extending over the
LE rough leading 4% of aerofoil chord.

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 Effect of Leading Edge Roughness on 2D Aerofoil Section
Characteristics at Re = 1,000,000
Wortmann FX63-167
Gottingen 797

Summary of roughness effects on maximum L/D ratio (2D)

3 x 105 5 x 105 7 x 105 1 x 106

NACA 64(3)-418
smooth 41 46 50 52
LE rough 25 27 27 27
Gottingen 797
Smooth 128 139 176 178
LE rough 65 40 40 37
Wortmann FX63-137
Smooth 130 140 160 190
LE rough 77 67 67 75

Tolerance to leading edge roughness changes is dependant on

aerofoil section geometry.
Performance degradation can be significant.
Wind tunnel turbulence levels become even more important when
making comparisons of this type

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 Isolated 2D Roughness Elements in a Compressible Flow

At higher Mach numbers the

boundary layer can tolerate a
larger roughness element than in
a compressible flow – sometimes
3 to 7 times higher

Cooling the wall delays

transition, Tw is the surface
temperature

Factors Effecting Transition

Compressibility Effects

Stability theory shows that there

is little effect of compressibility
below M = 1.3

Curves of neutral stability for a laminar flat

plate boundary layer show little change in
the transition Reynolds number for an
insulated adiabatic surface

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 Compressibility Effects

At higher Mach number,

with zero heat transfer
(using an adiabatic or
insulated surface), the
flat plate surface
temperature increases
with Mach number which
generally increases
instability

Experimental evidence is scarce due to its difficulty

Factors Effecting Transition

Heat Transfer
Heat transfer at the surface will result in temperature and velocity variations
within the fluid. These variations result in changes in flow stability

If the surface is hotter than the fluid

there will be heat transfer from the
surface to the fluid, this will promote
small disturbance instability and
hasten transition

A cooled wall will result in heat

transfer to the surface, this makes
the flow less susceptible to small
disturbances and therefore delays
transition

Wall cooling may therefore a feasible

process for achieving extensive
regions of laminar flow

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 Factors Effecting Transition
Free stream Turbulence & Noise
Freestream turbulence can cover a wide range of frequency, wavelength, direction
and velocity of propagation depending on the environment – wind tunnel or flight

The mechanism by which these disturbances are received by the boundary layer and
give rise to Tollmien – Schlichting, or higher order disturbances, are not fully
understood.

Important to define the degree of disturbance, usually denoted by the time average
of the three fluctuating velocity components:

T = 1
3 (u' + v'
2 2
+ w'2 )U
Where T is the TURBULENCE INTENSITY
In general, wind tunnel turbulence is ISOTROPIC such that: u ' 2 = v ' 2 = w' 2

A simpler definition of turbulence intensity is therefore:

u '2
Tu =
U

Influence of Freestream Turbulence on Flat Plate Boundary

Layer Transition
It is seen in practice that turbulence levels of less than 0.08% have little influence on
transition Reynolds number

Theoretical prediction of transition

based on en method, Mack (1977)

n ≈ − 8.43 − 2.4 ln(T )

valid for
0.0007 < T < 0.0298

Tests have shown that the turbulence levels in the upper atmosphere are essentially
zero in so far as they effect boundary layer transition

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 Acoustic Disturbances – Effect on Transition
Tests have shown that ACOUSTIC PRESSURE FLUCTUATIONS ie due to the noise
generated by an aircraft engine, can have a significant influence on transition Reynolds
number. But there is no ‘universal transition curve’

Different effects are seen when

the disturbances are:

(1) Grid generated

(2) Acoustic
(3) Excited standing waves
(4) Excited travelling waves

The tests were carried out in a purpose built low speed wind tunnel with very low
freestream turbulence

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