26/09/2016 1

Dr Shahzad Arshad
 Course Review

26/09/2016 4
 When an event in one place has an effect on
something at a different location, we talk
about the events as being connected by a
“field”.
 A field is a spatial distribution of a quantity;
in general, it can be either scalar or vector in
nature.

5
 Electric and magnetic fields:
◦ Are vector fields with three spatial components.
◦ Vary as a function of position in 3D space as well as
time.
◦ Are governed by partial differential equations
derived from Maxwell’s equations.

6
 A scalar is a quantity having only an
amplitude (and possibly phase).

Examples: voltage, current, charge, energy, temperature

 A vector is a quantity having direction in
addition to amplitude (and possibly phase).

Examples: velocity, acceleration, force

7
 Fundamental vector field quantities in
electromagnetics:
◦ Electric field intensity E 
units = volts per meter (V/m = kg m/A/s3)
◦ Electric flux density (electric displacement) D 
units = coulombs per square meter (C/m2 = A s /m2)
◦ Magnetic field intensity H 
units = amps per meter (A/m)
◦ Magnetic flux density B 
units = teslas = webers per square meter (T = Wb/ m2 = kg/A/s3)

8
 Universal constants in electromagnetics:
◦ Velocity of an electromagnetic wave (e.g., light) in
free space (perfect vacuum)
c  3 108 m/s
◦ Permeability of free space
 0  4 10 7 H/m
◦ Permittivity of free space:
 0  8.854 1012 F/m
◦ Intrinsic impedance of free space:

0  120 

9
 Relationships involving the universal
constants:

1 0
c 0 
0 0 0

In free space:
B  0 H

D  0 E
10
 Obtained
sources
• by assumption
Ji, Ki • from solution to IE

Solution to
fields Maxwell’s equations
E, H
Observable
quantities

11
 Maxwell’s equations in integral form are the
fundamental postulates of classical
electromagnetics - all classical electromagnetic
phenomena are explained by these equations.
 Electromagnetic phenomena include
electrostatics, magnetostatics,
electromagnetostatics and electromagnetic wave
propagation.
 The differential equations and boundary
conditions that we use to formulate and solve EM
problems are all derived from Maxwell’s
equations in integral form.

12
 Various equivalence principles consistent with
Maxwell’s equations allow us to replace more
complicated electric current and charge
distributions with equivalent magnetic
sources.
 These equivalent magnetic sources can be
treated by a generalization of Maxwell’s
equations.

13
 d
C E  d l   dt S B  d S  S K c  d S  S K i  d S
d
C H  d l  dt S D  d S  S J c  d S  S J i  d S
 DdS   q V
ev dv
Adding the fictitious magnetic
S source terms is equivalent to
living in a universe where
 BdS   q V
mv dv magnetic monopoles (charges)
S exist.

14
 
S 
• The continuity
J  d s   q dv
t V
ev equations are
implicit in
 Maxwell’s
S K  d s   t V qmv dv equations.

15
 • open surface S bounded by
S C closed contour C
• dS in direction given by
RH rule
dS
S
• volume V bounded by
closed surface S
V • dS in direction outward
dS from V

16
 Jc = (electric) conduction current density
(A/m2)
 Ji = (electric) impressed current density
(A/m2)
 qev = (electric) charge density (C/m3)

17
 Kc = magnetic conduction current density
(V/m2)
 Ki = magnetic impressed current density
(V/m2)
 qmv = magnetic charge density (Wb/m3)

18
 Sources of EM field:
◦ Ki, Ji, qev, qmv

 Responses to EM field:
◦ E, H, D, B, Jc, Kc

19
 B
 E    Kc  Ki
t
D
 H   Jc  Ji
t
  D  qev
  B  qmv

20
 qev • The continuity
J   equations are
t implicit in
Maxwell’s
qmv
K   equations.
t

21
Region 1
n̂
Region 2

22

n  E 1  E 2    K S

n  H 1  H 2   J S

n  D1  D 2   qes

n  B1  B 2   qms
23
 Can be either sources of or responses to EM
field.
 Units:
◦ Ks - V/m
◦ Js - A/m
◦ qes - C/m2
◦ qms - W/m2

24
 In time-varying electromagnetics, we
consider E and H to be the “primary”
responses, and attempt to write the
“secondary” responses D, B, Jc, and Kc in
terms of E and H.
 The relationships between the “primary” and
“secondary” responses depends on the
medium in which the field exists.
 The relationships between the “primary” and
“secondary” responses are called constitutive
relationships.

25
 Most general constitutive relationships:

D  D( E , H )
B  B( E , H )
J c  J c (E, H )
K c  K c (E, H )
26
 In free space, we have:

D  0 E
B  0 H
Jc  0
Kc  0
27
 In a simple medium, we have:

D E • linear (independent of field

strength)
B  H • isotropic (independent of position
within the medium)
• homogeneous (independent of
Jc  E direction)
• time-invariant (independent of
Kc m H time)
• non-dispersive (independent of
frequency)

28
 ε = permittivity = εrε0 (F/m)
 μ = permeability = μrμ0 (H/m)
 σ = electric conductivity = εrε0 (S/m)
 σm = magnetic conductivity = εrε0 (W/m)

29
 A phasor is a complex number representing
the amplitude and phase of a sinusoid of
known frequency.

phasor

A cost     Ae j

time domain frequency domain

30
 Phasors are an extremely important concept
in the study of classical electromagnetics,
circuit theory, and communications systems.
 Maxwell’s equations in simple media, circuits
comprising linear devices, and many
components of communications systems can
all be represented as linear time-invariant
(LTI) systems. (Formal definition of these
later in the course …)
 The eigenfunctions of any LTI system are the
complex exponentials of the form: j t
e
31
 If the input to an
LTI system is a
sinusoid of e j t
LTI H  j  e j t
frequency ω, then
the output is also a
sinusoid of A complex constant (for
frequency ω (with fixed ); as a function of 
different amplitude gives the frequency
response of the LTI
and phase). system.

32
 The amplitude and phase of a sinusoidal
function can also depend on position, and the
sinusoid can also be a vector function:

aˆ A A(r ) cost   (r )  aˆ A A(r ) e j ( r )

33
 Given the phasor (frequency-domain)
representation of a time-harmonic vector
field, the time-domain representation of the
vector field is obtained using the recipe:


E r , t   Re E r  e jt


34
 Phasors can be used provided all of the media
in the problem are linear  no frequency
conversion.
 When phasors are used, integro-differential
operators in time become algebraic
operations in frequency, e.g.:

 E r , t 
 j E r 
t
35
 If the sources are time-harmonic (sinusoidal),
and all media are linear, then the
electromagnetic fields are sinusoids of the
same frequency as the sources.
 In this case, we can simplify matters by using
Maxwell’s equations in the frequency-
domain.
 Maxwell’s equations in the frequency-domain
are relationships between the phasor
representations of the fields.

36
  E   j B  K c  K i
  H  j D  J c  J i
  D  qev
  B  qmv

37
  E   j   m  H  K i
  H   j    E  J i
qev
E 

qmv
H 

38