Scuffing, Pitting, Micro-Pitting and Tooth-Fracture Limits: REG. PROP. INTELECTUAL Nro. A-139301 (2004)

REG. PROP. INTELECTUAL Nro. A-139301 (2004).
Este Proyecto de Ingeniería corresponde a una investigación teórico-experimental relacionada con diseño, estudio
y/o modelación del proceso de fricción, desde el punto de vista de la Termodinámica Irreversible de No-Equilibrio.
Theoretical Friction and Surface Damage:

Scuffing, Pitting, Micro-Pitting and Tooth-Fracture Limits
Rodrigo Bulnes A.*

*
Dr.-Ing. (C). Present address: Metallurgical Engineering Department
University of Santiago de Chile-USACH
Avda. Lib. Bdo. O’Higgins Nr. 3363. Casilla 10233, Correo 2. Santiago de Chile
Tel./Fax (0056) (2) 681 1545. E-mail: rbulnes@usach.cl
Abstract
The entropy rate concept is considered in order to assimilate the in-situ physics of the
frictional process. This consideration results, eventually, in a new theory about the
friction coefficient µ. The new theory suggests that µ is one type of in-situ dissipated
energy due to the micro-fluctuations of the entropy production from a physical-
chemistry regime into the tribo-interface. This new energetic, but mechanochemistry
definition for µ, can be express like one non-linear thermodynamic differential equation
which includes 02 thermomechanical factors. When these two factors are suitable
modified, at least four of the most enigmatic failure curves from Tribology –in title- are
spontaneously reproductible in the “Load Carrying Capacity vs. Speed”-plane.
1. Nomenclature
CP: Specific heat [J/kgK]; g: Gibbs’ free potential [J/kg]; l: Lenght of static deformation from Hertz [m];
FN, V: Load Carrying Capacity [N], Speed [m/s]; θ : Stationary temperature [K];
µ (t/τ): Friction coefficient (Dissipation); µ 0 : Referential friction coefficient (state); t: Time [s];
τ: Delay time [s]; t/τ: Normalized time [−]; σ: Entropy rate [W/kgK]; ϕ: Denotes function;
γ: Coefficient of thermal expansion [m/m0K]; ρ: Density [kg/m3]; λ: Thermal conductivity [W/mK];
ωV: Contact vibrations [hz] ωq: Natural frequency of mechanochemistry origin [hz];
Keywords: entropy rate, mechanochemistry activation, Gibbs’ free energy and friction coefficient.
2. Introduction
An remarkable evidence of the friction between materials is the frictional heating. Frictional heating
affects the physical properties of the surfaces as well as the chemical and rheological features of any
lubricating element. On this matter, the notion of frictional heating justified the use of the 1st Law of
Thermodynamics to calculate the maximum temperature that surfaces can endure before the “tribological
Copyright Nr. 139.301, Santiago de Chile. 27 de Abril del 2004.

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Este Proyecto de Ingeniería corresponde a una investigación teórico-experimental relacionada con diseño, estudio y/o
modelación del proceso de fricción, desde el punto de vista de la Termodinámica Irreversible de No-Equilibrio.
collapse”. Surprisingly, the conclusion using the 1st Law is that the critical breakdown temperature of a
lubricant film is constant and independent from velocity [1]. Successive theoretical changes of the sort of
heat source (circular, square, linear, elliptical, etc...) lead to this contradictory separation between the
temperature and the surface kinetics which is eventual stimulated by the velocity; i.e., the critical thermic
condition of the contact would be independent from the kinetic energy which is dissipated from the surfaces
in movement (this is the very well-known Blok’s hypothesis [1]). Nevertheless, the temperature independent
from velocity does not match experimental testing: the Blok’s flash temperature of the contact is not
constant, it rises along with velocity [2].
The empirical evidence of the critical temperature increasing with velocity invites to think on the
idea -suggested by many authors- about the accumulation of frictional heat into the surfaces (Wärmestau,
according to [3]). Bearing that in mind, an obvious conclusion is that the accumulated superficial heat
requires the essential analysis provided by the 2nd Law of Thermodynamics. Not only the evaluation of the
stationary frictional heat is important, in relation to the contact temperature, but also it should be rather
considered the effect brought about by the irreversible accumulation of frictional heat into the surfaces, at
least, on the friction coefficient. The immediate - and we must to say- irreversible influence on the friction
coefficient, could be the widely-known variation in time of the friction force... That is to say, the fluctuations
of µ would be the final result of the dissipative effects due to thermal, chemical and mechanical micro-
instabilities into the tribo-contact (in Nonlinear Thermodynamics, the heat fluctuations in a dissipative
system they are always remited to a irreversible micro-production, e. i., to an always positive but
microscopical entropy production into the dissipative system [4] and [5]).
To sum up, in every single respect from the standpoint of the 1st Law, the frictional heat should be
considered like one homogeneous and regular phenomenon at stationary quasi-equilibrium (nevertheless,
such a consideration results in a conservative hypothesis as Blok’s flash temperature). On the contrary, from
the standpoint of the 2nd Law, frictional heating may fluctuate at non-homogeneous and, evidently,

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irreversible non-equilibrium -actually this is what usually happens!-, so it may result in non-conservative or
thermodynamically irreversible hypotheses linking to the fluctuations of µ.
The goal of the present analysis is to obtain and then to apply to the in-situ load carrying capacity, a
purely mechanochemistry –e. i. thermodynamically irreversible- definition for the friction coefficient µ.
With the 2nd Law of Thermodynamics one spontaneously comes to this definition but by explicitly leaving
out the mechanical idea of friction force among asperities (Why should we characterise the irreversible
dynamics among asperities with the reversible 2nd Newton’s law?). In simple terms, presently it is assumed
that the entropy rate σ of one friction process –it can perfectly refer to a lubrication failure- is made up by
macroscopic terms and microscopic instabilities. In fact, the macroscopic component of σ has mechanical
origins (the contact pressure, for instance). Nevertheless, and due to the internal frictional entropy micro-
production, the fluctuations of σ have their origins in the microscopic thermodynamic force know as Affinité
(Theopilé De Donder, 1870-1957). According to this new perspective about the friction problematic, the
friction coefficient and not the friction force or surface temperature, is the most relevant measure in the
contemporary Tribology.
3. Theoretical and experimental background
From always, the Tribology has approached the sliding-contact as one complex mechanical
interaction among roughness; under this perspective, the friction force is the most important. On the
contrary, the present work assimilates the sliding-contact as a sofisticated problem of in-situ thermodynamic
fluctuations, because the permanence of the thermodynamic fluctuation in the tribo-contact also suggests the
permanence of an entropy production on microscopic scale (that requires a more conceptual study of the
friction phenomenon. See Fig. 1).
Fig. 1.

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Accepting the evident existence of the thermodynamic fluctuations, it is coherent to suppose that due
to the dissipated frictional power, the entropy rate is a very important quantity in the friction process. In
other words, is natural to expect that the contact process from a referential macro-state at thermo-mechanical
“equilibrium” (e.g. for “t=0” [sec] in Fig. 1), may lead to a spontaneous disturbances of superficial micro-
thermodynamic variables when the bodies rub and slide (see t=3000 [sec]). These microscopic disturbances
in superficial pressure, temperature, etc... are so called thermodynamic fluctuations and always representate
an in-situ entropy production on sub-microscopic or mechanochemistry scale (this mechanism is a
“permanent technological reality” because is well known that is virtually impossible to obtain surfaces with
homogeneous material properties [7]). Additionally, the fluctuations of friction force not only would refer to
a tribo-system of an unstable nature. From a thermodynamic point of view, the fluctuations also refer to a
unstable micro-chemical process which is supposed to be irreversible and not necessarily restricted to the
current extremun principles of classical Thermodynamics. This means that the the instability/fluctuation of
an eventual mechanical-chemical internal micro-mechanism -which produces entropy irreversibly- is a
powerful obstacle to the application of the extremun principles such as maximum entropy, minimum energy,
etc... [8]. On the other hand, we theoretically accept a trivial fact in Physics: once the surface thermodynamic
fluctuations appear, they tend to relax towards an intermediate state of lineal quasi-equilibrium, since the
friction system should fulfil the general conditions of thermic, chemical, and mechanical stability. In other
words, when the friction produces heat, an entropy rate is dissipates -and simultaneously an entropy
production is generated- due to the laws of thermodynamic stability. Violating the laws of stability may
imply the violation of the 2nd Law, so the irreversible transformation of FNV-Value into µFNV-frictional
power always dissipates an in-situ entropy rate "sustained" by thermodynamic micro-fluctuations that
they contribute, in turn, with an entropy production (it is interesting that the irreversible qualitative effect
from this phenomenon of transformation on friction coefficient, can be favourably discussed in terms of

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transient -but evolutive- thermodynamic, i. e., in terms of thermodynamic fluctuations at irreversible non-
equilibrium).
An experimental evidence something indirect of the theoretical considerations suggested here, can be
rescued of some experiments of nano-friction [9]. These experiments check the permanence of the
fluctuations of the friction force for homogeneous samples, even though the actual area of contact keeps
constant! According to Gourdon et. al. (2001), the fluctuations are the result of the shear strength which may
show some spatial variation due to chemical inhomogeneities, such as contaminants or oxide layers (sic). In
other words, the superficial material properties will change over time –it will evolutionate- if superficial
chemical products are incorporated into the interface, coherent notion about the microscopical existense of
an eventual time/gradient but fluctuant micro-mechanism of mechanochemistry nature “inhabit in the
interface” (more than half a million fluctuations per second of the friction coefficient were recorded! [10]).
4. The fluctuations of µ and the surface load carrying capacity (performance of µ)
Is well known that in pure exothermic adsorption states ( ϕ [ ∆g ads ] ), the friction coefficient
monotonically decreases along with the sliding speed at the EP condition [11]. For instance, this results in
the well-known increase of the load carrying capacity as a consequence of the adsorption of the molecules of
additive on the rubbing surfaces (see [11] and [12]). In this case, the monotonous decrease vs. velocity of µ,
“suck up” the instabilities that would cause the emerges of an alternative and spontaneous non-equilibrium
thermodynamic regime into the frictional process, in a way that would look as the thermodynamic
fluctuations of the quantities du, dv, ds,... do not performance any rol in the dynamics of µ. Lets agree on,
then, that our tribo-system shows a homogeneous exothermic adsorption state, so that que this purely
adsorptive phenomenon can be expressed -with no effective influence from fluctuations- as a regressive
relationship between the friction coefficient and the sliding speed:
µ ~ 1/V (1)

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dµ
By developing this expression with µ ≅ ⋅ 1 / V , where dµ / d (1 / V ) : gradient, the eq. (1) corresponds
d (1 / V )
to:
−1
dµ ≅ d (1 / V ) ⋅ V ⋅ µ / * ( dt )
•  dV 
⋅  ⋅V ⋅ µ
−2
µ ≅ −V (2)
 dt 
•  a
µ ≅ −  ⋅µ
V
with a : acceleration (see “A commentary”). A particular result for the equation above is (see [13]):
•
• µ
µ ≅ −ωV ⋅ µ ⇒ ≅ −ωV , (pure ads.= ϕ [ ∆g ]) (3)
µ ads
with ωV [Hz]: denoting contact vibrations or “exciting mechanical macro-force” on the friction process (but
we do not forget that the µ-process is intimately related to the Gibbs’ free energy!!).
If one still considers an increase of the load capacity but this time as a degressive relationship
between the friction coefficient and the sliding speed, one would consider that the pure adsorption state is
subject to a competitive environment; in other words, it is affected by a perturbation towards the state of
desorption (of course this represents a fluctuation of the initial activity regime from ϕ [ ∆g ads ]
to ϕ [ ∆g ads − ∆g des ] ). In mathematical terms, the degressive -and must be appoint- quasi-expontaneous with
velocity effect, can be degressively expressed as:
V
µ ~ ( µeq. − b ) (4)
where µeq. indicates, now, the unstable adsorptive equilibrium condition and b is a number. By calculating
•
the derivative of the equation above: µ ~ -a ⋅ (log e b) ⋅ bV = a ⋅ (loge b) ⋅ ∆ µ , with ∆ µ ~ ( µ − µ eq. ) ≠ 0 , the eq.
(4) result can be expressed in terms of a series of powers around ∆ µ :
•
2
µ ~ C1 ⋅ a ⋅ [δµ + (1 / 2) ⋅ δ µ + .... ] , (5)

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where C1 indicates a constant.
Evidently, the 1st order δµ fluctuation refers to the eq. (3). On the other hand, and to give physical
sense to the 2nd order δ 2µ fluctuation, we began to accept that the problematic of the friction refers to the
own considerations of a dissipated and irreversible process. That is to say, it is valid that the “entropic
evolution” of frictional heat can acquire the following formulism:
1 2
Q( µ ) / θ = S ⇒ ∆ µ ~ (S − Seq . ) = δS + ⋅ δ S + ... , where Q indicates frictional heat. But our interest is focused
2
on a situation at irreversible non-equilibrium where the entropy is not necessarily at the maximum (the
friction system is dissipative or not a closed system!!). That is to say [14], the imposition of a gradient on µ
(e.g. temperature, velocity, etc...) dissipates Q(µ)-energy associated to qualitative changes of the entropy
rate in the friction system. These qualitative changes are directly influenced (affected) by, at least, second
order terms δ 2 of the entropy (Kondepudi & Prigogine, 1998. Pages 301-308). Thus, we accept second order
terms for the change in the dynamics of µ because now the frictional system –which is sufficiently
unstable...!- is not at total adsorptive equilibrium (as aforementioned, there is desorptive competition from
ϕ [∆g ads ] to ϕ [∆g ads − ∆g des ] into the friction system). From the eq. (5):
•
2
µ ≅ C2 ⋅ a ⋅ µ (6)
a 2
where µ ~ δµ ⇒ δµ 2 ~ µ 2 , C2 ⋅ a ≅ [ hz ] and γ [m/m0K]: coefficient of thermal expansion of the
γ ⋅θ
material (the thermodynamic nature of γ allows the association, via θ, with a non-equilibrium situation. This
choice affects negatively the use of a length unit [m] obtained traditionally from Hertz's static homogeneous
deformation at equilibrium).
Joining together the equations (3) and (6) in one single expression (plus additives constant):
•
µ + ωV µ − βµ 2 = 0 (7)

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a
where β = . The solution to nonlinear equation (7) can be formulated with two methods. The first
γ ⋅θ
method provides a "closed" solution with β as a parametric coefficient. The second method is iterative and is
more "realistic" physically, since it lets one consider the fluctuations of a thermo-mechanical quantity of the
material, that is to say, β:
 µ0
µ (t / τ ) = eωV t + ζ ⋅ µ ⋅ (1 − eωV t )
•  0 , (8)
µ + ωV µ − βµ 2 = 0
 µ = −ω ⋅ µ ⋅ (1 − ζ ⋅ µ )
 t +1 V t t

 β 
with ζ =   : a damping factor of thermo-mechanical nature. But: β = a ⋅ 1 ≅ V ⇒ ζ ≅ Pe ,
 ωV  ω V γ ⋅ θ ω V γ ⋅θ γ ⋅θ
where Pe (V , l , ρ , C P , λ ) is Peclet's number which contain, obviously, material parameters.
Both solutions above give the indication that the irregular trajectory of the friction coefficient in
time, is the result of the fluctuations of the thermo-mechanical quantities of the material bodies
(δγ, δl, δρ, δCP, δλ). On the one hand, the first closed solution immediately indicates that the tribological
failures (scuffing, pitting, micro-pitting, ...) may be interpreted –in coherence with ωV- as "thermo-
mechanical resonance" phenomena (see Figs. 2, 3 and 4):
Fig. 2., Fig. 3 and Fig. 4
The second iterative solution in eq. (8) indicates that the origin of the trajectory of the friction
coefficient in time is explicitly chaotic (logic map).
With these preliminar results in mind, one may suggest that the present theory manages to physically
explain -under minimum and plausible hypotheses- concepts ranging from the fluctuation of the friction
coefficient to the in-situ load carrying capacity at the scuffing, pitting, micro-pitting,... limits. Simply, the

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practical aplication of this new thermodynamic definition for the friction suggest that the modern Nonlinear
Thermodynamics is the correct method to approach, in simply and direct way, some tribological problems of
the metal-mechanical industry, e. i., the non-equilibrium thermodynamic definition from the friction
coefficient makes unnecessary the use of any Norme to calculate in-situ the load carrying capacity of a
friction couple.
5. A commentary
It is evident that a rapid identification of a equal to dV/dt (see eq. (2)), forces us to make equal the
micro-dynamic aspects a from “mechanical friction movement”, with the purely macro kynetics V ( a=dV/dt
it is a fundamentally mechanical perspective that do not explore the reasons why the forces that acelerate the
“movement” of the interface process). From this perspective, extremely purist and probably inadequate for
tribological problems, the ωV mechanical contact vibration would be the cause and the origin of all the
phenomenon observed in relation with the friction problematic (¿?). Nevertheless, the fact that appears a kind
of acceleration a forces us to wonder if the act of deriving the dV sliding velocity in relation to the time dt
(whats time?), is it not equivalent to be involved with the time scales from the frictional phenomenom it
self?; because it is an emperical fact that despite of the V= cte. (a=0), the process µ fluctuates at non-
equilibrium (Fig. 1). In fact, the act of involving with the dt, represent the delicate action of "scaling the
friction phenomenom" throughout of its own time scale, due to the necessary appearance of an internal time
τ. Thus the forces that accelerates the “relative movement” of the interfacial process are not in the plane
dt~ωV from the contact vibrations, in which you could say, in general terms, that the a acceleration must be
identify with something more fundamental like the estimulation of the interfacial chemical reactions -or
mechanochemistry activation- due to the friction, but a scale d(t/τ) ∼(ωq/ωV) (this topic is handled precisely by
the Tribochemistry [16]).

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Then, we agree on the fact that the last eqs. (2) suggests a mixture between the Tribochemistry
(represented by a=a(t,τ-1)), and the kinetics from the sliding movement (represented by the contact vibrations
ωV provided by V=V(t)). As in both aspects we do not have, necessarely, to share identical scales probalistics
of time, thus it is understandable that a (or the Tribochemistry) and V ( or the contact vibrations) convultion
with each other, via delay time τ-1, like denoting the rigourous character probabilistic of all experimental or
theoretical measurement. In other words, exists an intrinsic stochastic aspect in the combinated variable a/V~
ϕ(t/τ), in a way that the ecuation (8) must be correct by the most general expresion:
•  ωq 
µ +   ⋅ ϕ (t / τ ) µ − βµ 2 = 0 (10)
 ωV 
where ωq is a natural frequency with a mechanochemistry origin, and ϕ denotes a stochastic function of
probabilities [17]. The ec. (10) justifies again the assumption about the underling dynamic that provokes the
frictional phenomenom fluctuations of µ (the so call frictional dynamic does not have to be take it for
granted that always as reducible a white noise (or ϕ= normal distribution), which is indoubtebly, reversible
or with no memory).
6. Conclusions
Highly coherent with the Godet’s 3th. body notion [18], the present theory about the friction
coefficient µ allows to access -in simply and direct form, and with a minimal hypotheses- to the in-situ
calculation of the load carrying capacity at the enigmatic scuffing, pitting, micro-pitting and tooth-fracture
limit damages (the Physics of the load carrying capacity is a issue of dissipated energy and does not require
any Norm in order to assess it). The theoretical results like this obtained are specially susceptible to be
considered when lubrication failures appear.

10/18
On the other hand, the idea of linking the friction process with the principles of the Nonlinear
Thermodynamics allows to overcome the theoretical contradiction which means to simulate the irreversible
friction process via the reversible 2nd. Newton’s Law, i.e., via the standard concept of friction force.
Summarizing, the entropy rate of the friction process identifies to µ as a thermodynamic reaction sensitive to
Gibbs’ Free Energy activity regime of the friction process. From this point of view, the frictional temperature
only "triggers" levels of Free Energy which the friction coefficient uses to modify its trajectory in time, e. i.,
the irreversible fluctuations of µ would be a measure of the physical and chemical activity ensemble taking
place on the actual contact area. This situation matches the idea that there is no direct and defined
relationship between the friction temperature and the friction coefficient. On this matter, although the friction
coefficient varies whith the sliding velocity, normal load, composition of the surfaces, etc...such a variation
would be just a functional of the Free Energy developed by friction.
To sum up, the variations of the friction coefficient are due to the internal dissipation of the physical-
chemical regime, and not due to the external dissipation of frictional heat ( µ ⋅FN V ) . Therefore, that thing
which takes over the path of µ in (t/τ)-time is the Gibbs’ Free Potential and is not the dissipated energy in
way that something which is not a thermodynamic potential, e. i., in a way of frictional heating. This simple
conclusion could take to very important consequences in the form to approach the Physics of the tribo-
contact, because the frictional heating has been, from always, the axiomatic final results of all tribo-
energetical balance which is “supposedly correlated” with µ. This assumption –which is explicit here
questioned- is something that the tribologist, in general, have trivialy accepted until today.
7. References
[1] Blok H., 1937. “Theoretical Study of Temperature Rise at Surface of Actual Contact Under Oiliness Lubricating
Conditions”. Proc. of the Gen. Disc. of Lub. Inst., London. Vol. 2, pp. 222-235.

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[2] Escobar E., 1973. Überprufüng der Blitztemperaturpostulat von Blok. Diss. Dr.-Ing. Fakultät für
Maschinenelemente. TU-Dresden. Germany. (in German).
[3] Fronius S., 1971. Maschinenelemente-Antriebselemente. VEB Verlag Technik. Berlín. (in German).
[4] Woods L. C., 1986. The Thermodynamics of Fluid Systems. Engineering Sciences Series 2. Oxford.
[5] Leven R., Koch B. und Pompe B., 1994. Chaos in dissipativen Systemen. Akademie Verlag. Berlín. (in German).
[6] Santner E., 27. bis 29. September 1999. Reibkraftschwankungen- Quelle, Informationsquelle, Probleme. Tribologie-
Fachtagung. Göttingen. Germany. (in German).
[7] Kragelsky Y., 1965. Friction and Wear. Butterworths. Washington.
[8] Kondepudi D. & Prigogine I., 1998. Modern Thermodynamics. From Heat Engines to Dissipative Structures. John
Wiley & Sons. England.
[9] Gourdon D., Burnham N., Fritz M., H”hner and Spencer N., 2001. “Nanotribology and Macrotribology: the
Relative Roles of Mechanics and Chemistry in Energy Dissipation Processes”. Internet: http://www.snf.ch
[10] Espinosa H, Patanella A. and Fischer M., 2000. “Dynamic Friction Measurements at Sliding Velocities
Representative of High-Speed Machining Processes”. ASME: Journal of Tribology. Vol. 122. pp. 834-848.
[11] Jahanmir S. & Beltzer M., 1986. “Effect of Additive Molecular Structure on Friction Coefficient and Adsorption”.
ASME : Journal of Tribology. Vol. 108. pp. 109-116.
[12] Cameron A. 1984. “On a Unified Theory of Boundary Lubrication”. Proccedings of the 11th Leeds-Lyon
Symposium on Tribology. Butterworths. pp. 94-99.
[13] Escobar E., 1996. “The Additive EP Condition and the Critical Scuffing Limit for Rolling-Sliding”. ASME: Journal
of Tribology. Vol. 118. pp. 125-130.
[14] Fitch V., Marlow D. and Dementi M. (Editors), 1997. “Critical Problems in Physics”. Princeton Series in Physics.
Pp. 51.
[15] Winter H. & Oster P., 1987. “Influence of Lubrication on Pitting and Micropitting Resistance of Gears”. Presented
at the AGMA Fall Technical Meeting.
[16] Muratov V, Luangvaranunt T. and Fischer E. 1999. “The Tribochemistry of Silicon Nitride: Effects of Friction,
Temperature and Sliding Velocity”. Tribology International 31/10. pp. 601-611.

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[17] Lagouche F., Roekaerts D. and Tirapegui E., 1982: Functional Integration and Semiclassical Expansions.
Mathematics and its Applications. Vol. 10. Published by D. Reidel Publishing Company. Dordrecht: Holland/Boston:
USA/London: England.
[18] Godet M., 1984.” The third body approach, a mechanical view of wear“. WEAR 100. pp. 437-452.

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Fig. 1.

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Fig. 2.

15/18
Theoretical Surface Load Carrying Capacity

vs. Relative Frequency (F N ~1/ µ )
12
10 Scuffing
Pitting
Micro-Pitting
8 Tooth-Fracture
FN [kN]
0
0 1 10 100
ωq / ωV
Fig. 3.

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µ vs. ωq/ωV
10.000
Scuffing
Pitting
Micro-Pitting
Tooth-Fracture
1.000
0.100
µ
0.010
0.001
0.1 ωq /ωV 1
Fig. 4.

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Fig. 1. Fluctuations at irreversible non-equilibrium of the friction force

[6]. The friction coefficient (which would be a measure of the friction
force) is in permanent fluctuating state although the speed, the normal
load, the humidity and the temperature of the experiments are constant.
Tribometer of disc (TiN)-ball (Al2O3).
Fig. 2. Main Limits in 2D of the surface load carrying capacity vs.

tangential speed. Case-carburized steel gears, according to Winter &
Oster[15].
Fig. 3. According to eq. (81), tribological failures limits can be interpreted

as "thermo-mechanical resonance" phenomena. (FN ~ 1/µ).
Fig. 4. According to the eq. (8), the performance of the friction coefficient
vs. normalized (t/τ)-time of each pathological surface damage, can be
alternatively assimilated like a functional one of mechanochemistry ωq
and mechanical ωV frequencies. The thermo-mechanical parameters ωV
and ζ, have been suitably modified in order to reproduce in 3D the
tribological in 2D failures of the Fig. 2.

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REG. PROP. INTELECTUAL Nro. A-139301 (2004).

Theoretical Friction and Surface Damage:

Rodrigo Bulnes A.*

Copyright Nr. 139.301, Santiago de Chile. 27 de Abril del 2004.

constant, it rises along with velocity [2].

Copyright Nr. 139.301, Santiago de Chile. 27 de Abril del 2004.

thermodynamically irreversible hypotheses linking to the fluctuations of µ.

3. Theoretical and experimental background

friction phenomenon. See Fig. 1).

Copyright Nr. 139.301, Santiago de Chile. 27 de Abril del 2004.

an in-situ entropy production on sub-microscopic or mechanochemistry scale (this mechanism is a

an eventual mechanical-chemical internal micro-mechanism -which produces entropy irreversibly- is a

Copyright Nr. 139.301, Santiago de Chile. 27 de Abril del 2004.

4. The fluctuations of µ and the surface load carrying capacity (performance of µ)

relationship between the friction coefficient and the sliding speed:

Copyright Nr. 139.301, Santiago de Chile. 27 de Abril del 2004.

velocity effect, can be degressively expressed as:

(4) result can be expressed in terms of a series of powers around ∆ µ :

Copyright Nr. 139.301, Santiago de Chile. 27 de Abril del 2004.

where C1 indicates a constant.

evolution” of frictional heat can acquire the following formulism:

Copyright Nr. 139.301, Santiago de Chile. 27 de Abril del 2004.

material, that is to say, β:

where Pe (V , l , ρ , C P , λ ) is Peclet's number which contain, obviously, material parameters.

mechanical resonance" phenomena (see Figs. 2, 3 and 4):

Fig. 2., Fig. 3 and Fig. 4

coefficient in time is explicitly chaotic (logic map).

Copyright Nr. 139.301, Santiago de Chile. 27 de Abril del 2004.

the Tribochemistry [16]).

Copyright Nr. 139.301, Santiago de Chile. 27 de Abril del 2004.

considered when lubrication failures appear.

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would be just a functional of the Free Energy developed by friction.

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Maschinenelemente. TU-Dresden. Germany. (in German).

Fachtagung. Göttingen. Germany. (in German).

[7] Kragelsky Y., 1965. Friction and Wear. Butterworths. Washington.

Wiley & Sons. England.

ASME : Journal of Tribology. Vol. 108. pp. 109-116.

Symposium on Tribology. Butterworths. pp. 94-99.

of Tribology. Vol. 118. pp. 125-130.

at the AGMA Fall Technical Meeting.

Temperature and Sliding Velocity”. Tribology International 31/10. pp. 601-611.

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Copyright Nr. 139.301, Santiago de Chile. 27 de Abril del 2004.

Theoretical Surface Load Carrying Capacity

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Fig. 1. Fluctuations at irreversible non-equilibrium of the friction force

Fig. 2. Main Limits in 2D of the surface load carrying capacity vs.

Fig. 3. According to eq. (81), tribological failures limits can be interpreted

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