20.

ASTRONOMY

In his examination of the Yuan period, H. Franke (1) confirms the view that the
association of eclipses with other portents must always be taken into consideration.
During the reign of the last Yuan emperor, Shun Ti, a great number of portents were
recorded, but it may be doubted whether they were really more frequent then. There
was a stylised pattern of what was supposed to take place at the catastrophic close of
a dynasty.
Many passages must exist, if one could only find them, throwing light on the customs
and mental processes of the members of the Astronomical Bureau in the various
dynasties, and Franke discovered an excellent one in the Shan Chii. Hsin Hua (New
Discussions from the Mountain Cabin), written by Yang Yii in + 1360. It throws a
flood of light on what went on. Yang Yii says:

When I was a Co-signatory Observer in the Bureau of Astronomy, there came a special
imperial edict that we were to pay particular attention to celestial presages. On the first day
of the seventh month in the sixth year of the Chih-Yuan reign-period (+ 1340), there came (to
my house) one of the Senior Observers, a Mr Chang, who asked me to go to the Observatory
as quickly as possible. When we arrived there together, we were met by Commissioner Li,
dressed up in state apparel, who said: 'Last night there appeared the Ching Hsing pheno-
menon. a That is a very auspicious omen. I consider that it ought to be memorialised imme-
diately. I suppose we shall be richly rewarded.' So I looked up the files which contained the
records of earlier memorials, and came to a very different conclusion. I said, 'Although the
phenomenon has occurred on the last day of the month (i.e. at the new moon), its shape was
slightly different from what it ought to be. Besides, if the Ching Hsing appears, there ought
to be reports coming in of wine-sweet springs, phoenixes, purple herbs, and felicitous clouds,
in order to corroborate (lit. assist,fu 1 ) (the celestial omen). But (on the contrary) there are
epidemics and catastrophes in Shensi, brigands and robbers in the central provinces, and in
Fukien rebels are active. I am afraid it won't do. Why should the Tao of heaven be pro-
claiming the opposite (to the Tao of earth)?' But Mr Li was most obstinate, and stuck to his
opinion. So I said 'Up to now, only the six Observers here have seen the phenomenon. In
the unlikely possibility of its having been generally seen by people throughout the country,b
will they not have taken it as an omen of evil?' Finally he agreed to wait and see if it
appeared again (that night), before we memorialised about it. And indeed only nine days
later the planet Venus' crossed the meridian'. c All this shows how careful one has to be not
to take lightly responsibilities like these. d

It is thus fairly clear that before the Chinese records can be made full use of by
modern astronomers or meteorologists interested in periodicities, a good deal more
historical analysis and research will be needed. Nevertheless, if they were not more
accurate than would appear from some of their severest critics, it would have been

a What this was will be explained a few pages below (p. 422).
b This reminds us that in the absence of artificial light available on any considerable scale, nearly
everyone went to bed at dusk and rose at dawn, so the official Observers on duty were not likely to be
checked by any educated person, and others whose trade might keep them abroad at night were unlikely
to know very much about the heavens.
C This was a very bad sign; cf. Schlegel (5), p. 635; Chavannes (I), vo!. 3, p. 374.
d P. 14a, tr. H. Franke (2), no. 35, eng. auct. Cf. Franke (8).
420 20. ASTRONOMY
impossible to find known periodicities in them, as has in fact been done, e.g. in the case
of the sun-spot cycle (p. 435 below). A striking example of their correctness has been
given by Dubs a with regard to the solar eclipse of - 96. This had been among the
unidentified group until Chavannes studied some of the calendar tablets discovered
by Stein in a Han watch-tower in the desert, and found that Huang (3) had assumed
wrongly the position of a certain intercalary month-then when the necessary correc-
tion was made, the statement of the Chhien Ban Shu was shown to be accurate.
Around - 16 the astronomers were, for some reason or other, watching for solar eclipses
with particular care, and Dubs thinks that they used some special means, such as
mirrors, for detecting partial eclipses. b For one of these it is said: '(Heaven) caused
the capital alone to know of it; the kingdoms in the four (directions) did not
perceive it'. Conversely, the provinces had their observers. In - 145 there was an
eclipse visible only at sunrise at the tip of the Shantung peninsula; yet it was duly
reported and recorded.
It is interesting to see the gradual advance in precision in the records. Already in
the Chhun Chhiu there are three cases in which the word chi I occurs, showing that
the eclipse was total. With regard to the solar eclipses of - 442, - 382 and - 300, the
Shih Chi says that the daylight was so darkened that the stars could be seen (chou hui
hsing chien 2 ). Han records have technical terms such as chi chin,3 nearly total, and
pu chin jo kOU,4 crescent-shaped; in addition to chi, I total. A partial eclipse of three-
tenths (san jenS) is also once mentioned. The degree of partiality is recorded in all
subsequent dynasties, and the Thang records have a phrase ta hsing chieh chien 6_
all the great stars could be seen. The Han records sometimes mention the duration of
eclipses and the times of their onset and ending, correct to a quarter of an hour.
Records of the Thang and Sung frequently have very exact details, though not always.
The celestial positions of eclipses (number of degrees in what hsiu, etc.) are generally
recorded in the Han and always in the Thang. Chu Wen-Hsin's (2) laborious check
of all these eclipses with the Oppolzer Canon shows that the great majority of them
were faithfully recorded.
(iii) Eclipse prediction
Chinese astronomers naturally devoted much attention throughout the centuries to
the prediction of eclipses, though like all such efforts before the Renaissance, this
could only be empirical. As is well known, the Babylonians had identified a period
generally known as the saros C (18 years I I days, i.e. 223 synodic), at the end of which
eclipses recur in the same relative positions of sun and moon. We see now that this
depends simply on the periods of revolution of the moon and its nodes relative to the
a (2), vol. 2, p. 141, vol. 3, p . 557.
b (2), vol. 2, p . 420. I think more probably the equivalent of smoked glass, i.e. a piece of almost
transparent jade, mica or rock-crystal (cf. below, p. 436).
C The idea that the Babylonians used this term in this sense has been shown by Neugebauer (9),

p . 135, to be a pure historical myth. For Berossos, the saros meant 3600 years. The association of the
term with the eclipse period seems to have arisen from an injudicious emendation of Suidas by Halley.
 20. ASTRONOMY 421
sun. One of the difficulties in the empirical prediction of eclipses was that those of the
sun are hard to observe from anyone centre, each solar eclipse being visible over only
a small path on the earth's surface. Yet there are more solar than lunar eclipses; in
each saros about forty-one of the former and twenty-nine of the latter. a For solar
eclipses to recur in approximately the same place three saroi (one exeligmos of Ptolemy)
are necessary. It does not seem that the Han people recognised either of these periods,
but they developed one of their own, the shuo wang chih hui 1 (later called chiao shih
chou 2 ) of 135 months,b during which twenty-three eclipses took place. This was much
used by Liu Hsin 3 in the San Thung 4 (Three Sequences) calendarc of -7 (cf. Eber-
hard & Henseling, I); and must have been developed during the - 1st century. Some
scholars have believed that Liu Hsin adjusted the dates of eclipses in the Chhun Chhiu
to correspond with this cycle (Eberhard, Muller & Henseling).
By the early years of the + 3rd century the path of the moon was analysed more
clearly. Liu Hung'sS methods of eclipse prediction recognised the nodes (the points
where the moon's path crosses the ecliptic), terming them kuo chou jen,6 and assessed
the angle of the path with the ecliptic (chien shu 7 ) as 6° approximately.d This was in
the Chhien Hsiang calendar e of + 206. In the same century Yang Wei 8 was able to
predict the directions of first and last contact (khuei chhi chio 9 and chhu chiao hsien IO )
for solar eclipses.f This was much refined by Chiang Chi II (c. + 390), who could
apparently predict the extent of partiality.g Early in the + 7th century Liu Chhuo 12
and Chang Chou-Yuan 13 gave the times of first and last contact (chhi chhiI4), the posi-
tion in the heavens (so tsai IS ), and the probable extent of partiality (shih jen I6 ). Terms
used in the Thang by I-Hsing 17 and other astronomers in their predictions were chhu
khuei 18 for time of onset, shih shen I9 for time of greatest immersion, and fu yuan 20 for
time of last contact. Annular eclipses were called huan shih.2' At this time attempts
were also made to predict the geographical path along which solar eclipses would be
visible.
In the Sung the prediction of eclipses was sometimes assigned to one bureau,h the
Thai Shih Chii,22 and their observation to another, the Ssu Thien Chien.23 Shen Kua's
a Cf. Spencer-lones (I), p. 177; Berry (I), pp. 19,56; Dubs (2), vol. I, p. 163.
b The most accurate period is the 19th century one of Simon Newcomb-3s8 months.
C Chhien Han Shu, ch. 2ID, p . Ib; Hou Han Shu, ch. 12, p. I8a.

~ Liu Hung's figure in Chinese degrees is equivalent to 5° 54'. Hipparchus ( - 2nd century) had fixed
it at 5°. The actual value is 5° 8'.
e Chin Shu, ch. 17, pp. I b ff., esp. 7 a ff. Cf. his treatise Lun Yiieh Shih (On Lunar Eclipses) preserved
in Hou Han Shu, ch. 12, pp. naff.
f Chin Shu, ch. 18, pp. 6a, b.
g In the middle of the + 6th century there was a famous dispute about the prediction of an eclipse.
Five leading astronomers of the Northern Chhi named four different hours on the same day, but none
of them was exactly ri ght. ' And so their disputing continued, without reaching any conclusion, till
before long the dynasty was extinguished' (Sui Shu, ch. 17, p. 4b; Chill Thang Shu, ch. 32, p. la).
h See p. 191 above, concerning the system of two parallel observatories at the capital.

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422 20. ASTRONOMY

Meng Chhi Pi Than of the + 11th century contains a an interesting passage about eclipse
computation in his time, including a tribute to the work of his friend Wei Pho, I whose
canon of eclipses accounted for nearly all those in the Tso Chuan, thus excelling even
that of I-Hsing. The following passage (from the Feng Chhuang Hsiao Tu 2 (Maple-
Tree Window Memories) written in the early + 13th century) shows that at that time
there must have been widespread interest in eclipse calculations, and that the official
astronomers apparently had no monopoly of accuracy in prediction.
In the 4th year of the Chhing-Yuan reign period (+ 1198) the Astronomer-Royal predicted
a solar eclipse for the first night of the ninth month, but persons who were not in office said
that it would occur during the day time, and they proved to be right. In the 2nd year of the
Chi a-Thai reign period (+ 1202) the Astronomer-Royal predicted an eclipse for the second
half of the noon double-hour on the first day of the fifth month, but Chao Ta-Hsien,3 who
had no official position, said that it would occur in the first half after three quarters, and would
be only partial to the extent of three jen. The emperor ordered the Staff Writer Chang Ssu-
Ku 4, Chu Chhin-Tse 5 and others to supervise the checking of the matter by the Assistant
Armillary Observer and Chao proved to be right. The astronomical officials were found
guilty of negligence and severely punished. Since the capital moved to the south of the river,
the calendar has been full of mistakes. b

Although the methods of eclipse prediction were maintained at a high, though still
empirical, level in the time of Kuo Shou-Ching C (the last two decades of the + 13th
century), there was a steady decline in the Ming dynasty, and the earlier methods were
forgotten. It will be remembered that the prediction of eclipses was one of the most
important reasons for the credit which the Jesuits were able to obtain at the imperial
court.
(iv) Earth-shine and corona
Among celestial phenomena allied to this subject, mention may be made of the
effect known as 'earth-shine', seen when the sunlit earth illuminates by reflection the
unlighted part of the moon. As the' Ballad of Sir Patrick Spens' puts it:

I saw the new moon yestereen

Wi' the old moon in her arms,
And if we gang to sea, Master,
I fear we'll come to harm.

Kiihnert (5), in an elaborate paper, has shown that this phenomenon was recognised
by the Chinese under the terms Te-hsing 6 or Ching-hsing. 7 Ssuma Chhien says:
When the sky is serene, then the Ching-hsing (Resplendent orb) appears. It is also called

a Ch. 18, para. 11; cf. Hu Tao-Ching (1), vo!. 2, pp. 604ff.
b Ch. 2 , p. 18b, tr. auct. Later on, as in the clockwork part of Section 27, we shall have further
evidence of the damage done to Chinese science and technology by the fall of the Northern Sung and
the retirement of the capital to Hangchow.
C His Ku Chin Chiao Shih Khao 8 (Studies of Eclipses Old and New) unfortunately failed to survive.

5 * tit Jl.1]
 20. ASTRONOMY
Te-hsing (Orb of virtue). It has no constant fonn, but it appears (to the people of) countries
which follow the Tao. a

This was the tradition which caused premature rejoicings in the Peking Astronomical
Observatory in + 1340, as reported by Yang Yi.i in the passage quoted on p. 419 above.
It is strange that the European interpretation was quite contrary in character.
Liu Chao-Yang (1) has suggested that the oracle-bones of the -2nd millennium
may contain the first recorded observation of the solar corona during an eclipse. This
is quite visible to the naked eye, and was discussed by Plutarch (contemporary of
Wang Chhung and Chang Heng) in the + 1st century,b as also by Kepler later. The
date of the bone fragment studied by Liu must be either - 1353, - 1307, - 1302 or
- 1281. The eclipse concerned was therefore not one of those established by Tung
Tso-Pin (I).C The bone bears characters which have been deciphered as san yen shih
jih, ta hsing I-three flames ate up the sun, and a great star was visible. d It seems not
unreasonable, therefore, to suppose that this was a record of especially striking solar
prominences or coronal streamers.
Another which may be relevant is that in the Tso Chuan for -490, where it is said e
that 'a cloud like a flock of red crows was seen flying round the sun' (yu yun jo chung
chhih wu chia jih i fei 2). The term jih erh,3 which means a kind of solar halo, f may also
have been used to refer to the corona. Loewenstein suggests that corona observations
may have been at the origin of the' winged sun' symbol, so characteristic of Assyria
and Persia, but not unknown in ancient China.

(2) NOVAE, SUPERNOVAE, AND VARIABLE STARS

Eclipses are not the only celestial phenomena for which a wealth of records is avail-
able to us in Chinese texts. The total number of stars in the heavens visible to the
naked eye is not constant; we know now that from time to time stars rise into visibility
while others disappear and that the magnitude or brightness of stars often changes.
Stars which before were but faintly visible may undergo suddenly an increase in
brightness of a million-fold. Such stellar explosions give rise to what are called
'novae', or, if the cataclysm is exceptionally great, 'supernovae'. Other stars may
show regular periodical variations of brightness, hence the term' variables'. All these
phenomena are of the highest importance for current cosmological theories, as may
be seen from many excellent expositions. g

a Shih Chi, ch. 27, p. 33a, tr. auct. Chavannes (1), vo1. 3, p. 392, noted that the word Ching was
that used many centuries later for designating Nestorian Christianity; he wondered whether this had
any connection with the story of the star of the Magi. Later histories report occurrences of the
phenomenon, e.g. Chin Shu, ch. 12, p. 4a; Sung Shih, ch. 56, p. 2Ia.
b Berry (1), p. 390. C See above, p. 410.

d Presumably a planet, perhaps one of the brighter fixed stars (cf. Chhen Tsun-Kuei (5), p. 59).
e Duke Ai, 6th year; Couvreur (1), vo1. 3, p. 631.
f See p. 475 below.
g Such as that of Spencer-Jones (1), pp. 323ff.

3 8 ~
 20. ASTRONOMY

Fig. I82. The oldest record of a nova. The inscription on this oracle-bone, dating from about - I300,
reads (in the two central columns of characters) : • On the 7th day of the month, a chi-sw day, a great new
star appeared in company with Antares.'

What must certainly be the most ancient extant record of a nova is contained in one
of the oracle-bones, dating from about - 1300, studied by Tung Tso-Pin (1) (Fig. 182).
The inscription says, on the 7th day of the month, a chi-ssu day, a great new star
C

appeared in company with Antares (hsin ta hsing ping HuoI)'.a Another bone-inscrip-
tion of the same period says: C On the hsin-wei day the new star dwindled (or disap-
peared) (hsin-wei yu hui hsin hsing2).' That this refers to the same phenomenon seems
probable, for the second date is only two days after the first, and some such rise and

a Yin Li Phu, Pt. H, ch. 3, p. 2a. The exact year is not given, but it must have been between - I339
and - 1281. C Fire-star' here cannot refer to the planet Jupiter, for the planets did not receive their
element names until the elaboration of Five-Element theory in the -4th century. This supernova
position agrees closely with the radio-star 2C. 1406 (private communication from Dr A. Beer).
 20. ASTRONOMY

fall of brightness would be expected. This term hsin hsing was used for novae until the
middle of the Han period, when it was replaced by the better known technical term
kho hsing, I guest-star. a
At the end of the + 13th century Ma Tuan-Lin devoted the 294th chapter of his
Wen Hsien Thung Khao to· a list of the extraordinary stars which had appeared since
the beginning of the Han,b and this was translated and annotated in 1846 by E. Biot (8).
Some of these got into the comet register ofWilliams (6), and all were brought together
in the important paper of Lundmark (I), though the new catalogue of Hsi Tse-
Tsung (1) now supersedes previous listings. Another old Chinese collection is that in
the Thu Shu Chi Chheng encyclopaedia, c under the heading Hsing pien pu 2 or ' Records
of Unusual Occurrences in the Heavens'. The venerable records extracted by Ma
Tuan-Lin from the dynastic histories do not always make a clear distinction between
novae and comets, but generally the description given is sufficient to identify the
phenomenon. The texts usually state the time and duration of appearance, the position
in the heavens,d and the brightness and colour of the star.e For example, in + 185:

In the 2nd year of the Chung-Phing reign-period, in the tenth month, on a kuei-hai day,
a guest-star (kho hsing I) appeared in the midst of the constellation Nan Men 3 (n, f3 Centauri);
it was as big as the half of a bamboo mat and showed the five colours in turn, now beaming
now lowering. It diminished in brightness little by little and finally disappeared about July
of the following year. f

It is interesting to find that Ma Tuan-Lin's list begins with that same star of - 134
which stimulated Hipparchus to embark upon his general stellar catalogue; g he
recorded it in Scorpio, and the Chinese duly noted it in their equivalent, the hsiu
Fang. 4 But this star was more probably a comet, not a nova,h for Pliny (our only
source for the story) distinctly says that it moved. 1 The Chinese data will also accept
this interpretation. Ma was copying the Chhien Han Shu,j which uses the term
'guest-star ' , but the longer account in the Shih Chi k refers to an appearance at this

a Cf. Chou Kuang-Ti (1 ). An early form, pin hsing,' occurs in La Shih Chhun Chhiu, ch. 30
(vo!. I, p. 61) (- 3rd century) ; cf. R. Wilhelm (3), p. 78, who explains it wrongly.
b For the novae, - 134 to + 1203.
C Shu cheng tien, chs. 27- 59. Here the records are all intermingled (novae, comets, meteors, con-

junctions, etc.).
d We believe that the astronomers, probably from the Han onwards, measured positions in degrees.
But in the official histories they are generally given only roughly in relation with this or that constella-
tion; presumably the historiographers simplified the information they received.
e Cf. Chu Wen-Hsin (4).
f Hou Han Shu, ch. 22, p. 6a; Wen Hsien Thung Khao, ch. 294, p. 2326'3, tr. auct., adjuv. Biot (8).
g Berry ( I), p. SI.
h The question has been especially studied by Fotheringham (4), cf. Merton (2). There is also an
association with the birth of Mithridates Eupator, king of Pontus. His biographer, Reinach (I), not
knowing of the Chinese observations, dismissed all the statements about a comet at his birth as legendary.
This was the same Mithridates whose water-mills, the first recorded in the occident, fell into the hands
of the Romans at his death in - 63 (see Sect. 27 fin Vo!. 4).
i Hist . Nat. n, 26 (24), 95.
j Ch. 26, p. 27b ; tr. Fotheringham (4).
k Ch. 27, p. 42a ; tr. Chavannes (I), vo!. 3, p. 408.
 20. ASTRONOMY

time of the' Standard of Chhih-Yu ' (Chhih-Yu chhi I) which is always defined as a
particular kind of comet. a In any case it was carefully watched at both ends of the
Old World.
Lundmark (I) made a very interesting observation. When the suspected novae
are plotted according to galactic coordinates, they show a spatial distributi0n quite
similar to known novae observed in modern times. The' guest-stars' were therefore
true novae, appearing, as they should have done, within our own galaxy, and not only
in the brightest regions but sometimes where the star density is quite low. This result
has a bearing on the arguments about the reliability of Chinese records, for if 'guest-
stars' had been invented to criticise the government, it is highly unlikely that they
would all have been placed in the right part of the sky.
It was natural and inevitable that the appearances of novae should be interpreted
astrologically. An example of this may be seen in the Thang book Thai Pai Yin Ching z
(Manual of the White and Gloomy Planet of War, i.e. Venus), an important treatise on
military affairs by Li Chhiian 3 written in +759. Here the appearance of a' guest-star'
is regarded as a portent of great military significance. b And of course the Khai-Yuan
Chan Ching has a learned disquisition c on such prognostications.
The giant stellar explosions which give rise to supernovae are now thought to occur
about once in every one or two centuries in our own galaxy, and the frequency of the
phenomenon in other galaxies is about the same. d Gamow has recently told the story
of the only three supernovae of which there is historical record. e One was the 'New
Star' of Tycho Brahe observed in + 1572/ a second was that seen by his pupil Kepler
in +1604,g and the third, that of +1054, was recorded only by the Chinese. h This
was the origin of the so-called Crab Nebula, which appears today as a somewhat shape-
less and diffuse bright cloud (Fig. 183) and which is still expanding. Measurements
of the rate of expansion show that it must have started from a central point some eight
centuries ago. Since the Chinese records say that at its maximum apparent brightness
the guest-star was as bright as Venus, it can easily be calculated that at the time of the
explosion the star was several hundred million times as bright as our sun.
The value of the Chinese records for modern astronomy has been underlined by
Baade. i Sinologists and astronomers have collaborated in the careful examination of

a Shih Chi, ch. 207, p. 32ob, tr. Chavannes (1), vol. 3, p. 3920, and more elaborately in Chin Shu, ch. 12,
p. 4b, tr. Ho Ping-Yti (1). Nevertheless Hsi Tse-Tsung (1) still admits the apparition of - 134 as a nova
in his catalogue. b Ch. 8, p. 13 b. Cf. Chin Shu, ch. IZ, p. 6 b.
c Ch. 77, pp. I a fr. d Cf. Stratton (I), P.2oS9.
e Cf. also Wattenberg (I).
f In Cassiopeia. Hsi Tse-Tsung (1), no. 820, gives the Chinese record.
g In Ophiuchus. This nova was also recorded in China (E. Biot (9); Williams (6), p. 93; H si Tse-
Tsung (I), no. 85) and Korea (Iba).
h And the Japanese.
I They have all kinds of applications. Thus attempts have been made from time to time to identify
the 'star in the East' of the Magi of Christian tradition. Lundmark (20) suggests that it was a nova
recorded in China in - S. He also suggests that the rebellion of Simon bar Kochba (' son of the Star';
a pun on his real name, ben Koseba) may have had some connection with the nova which was recorded
in China in + IZ3.
 20. ASTRONOMY

texts and computations so that little or no doubt now remains a that the Crab supernova
was in fact the' guest-star' of + 1054. Five texts have been assembled which describe
the phenomenon,b but only one need be quoted:
In the fifth month of the 1st year of the Chih-Ho reign-period,c Yang Wei-Te I (Chief
Calendrical Computer) said, 'Prostrating myself, I have observed the appearance of a guest-
star; on the star there was a slightly iridescent yellow colour. Respectfully, according to the
disposition for emperors, d I have prognosticated, and the result said, "The guest-star does
not infringe upon Aldebaran; this shows that a Plentiful One is Lord, and that the country has
a Great Worthy." I request that this prognostication be given to the Bureau of Historio-
graphy to be preserved.' e
This was done, and the emperor was congratulated. In the month of April + 1056, it
was reported that the guest-star had become invisible, which was an omen of the
departure of guests.
Originally this star had become visible in June ( + 1054) in the eastern heavens in Thien-
kuan z (' Tauri). It was visible by day, like Venus; pointed rays shone out from it on all
sides. The colour was reddish-white. Altogether it was visible for twenty-three days.!
These observations were made at Khaifeng, the Sung capital, but the Liao astronomers
at Peking did not lag behind Yang Wei-Te; they also reported the phenomenon.g Nor
did it escape the perspicacity of the Japanese, two of whose chronicles contain a
virtually identical passage on the subject (Iba).h Indeed, the date of first observation
given in these texts is some ten days earlier than that of the Chinese records.
Attention has been directed by several authors to the great historical importance of
Tycho Brahe's new star. i It was one of the events which shook to its foundations the
Aristotelian theory of the 'perfection' of the heavens and prepared the way for the
acceptance of the cosmology of Copernicus. In his acute analysis of trends of 17th-
century thought, Willey (I) has quoted Galileo's words:
Comets have been observed which have been generated and dissolved in parts higher than
the Lunar Orb, besides the two New Stars, Anno 1572 and Anno 1604-without con-
tradiction much higher than all the Planets. And in the face of the Sun itself, by help of the
Telescope, certain dense and obscure substances, in substance very like to the foggs about
the Earth, are seen to be produced and dissolved.j
As Willey says, these demonstrations of change and imperfection in the heavens
a Hubble (I); Oordt (I); Duyvendak (17); Duyvendak, Mayall & Oordt (I).
b Including Sung Shih, ch. 56, p . 25 a, and ch. 12, p. lOb.
e The exact date corresponded to 27 August + 1054.
d Because of the imperial yellow colour, suggests Duyvendak.
e Sung Hili Yao, ch. 52, p. 2b, tr. Duyvendak (17). One of the most interesting features of the
Chinese descriptions of this supernova is that their accounts of its diminution in brightness closely
agree with the rate of decay which, as we now know, it must have followed. The significance of this
was pointed out to us by Professor Fred Hoyle.
t Tr. Duyvendak (17). g Chhi-Tan Kuo Chih, ch. 8, p. 6b.
h Meigetsuki, entry under the eighth day of the eleventh month, + 1230; and Ichidai Yliki.
i His De Nova Ste/la of + 1573 was reprinted in facsimile by the Royal Danish Science Society
in 1901. j Mathematical Collections and Translations, ed. T. Salusbury (1661), p . 25.
 20. ASTRONOMY

powerfully contributed to the general overthrow of medieval scholasticism. a Sarton

has said, in another connection, that the failure of medieval Europeans and Arabs to
recognise such phenomena was due, not to any difficulty in seeing them, but to pre-
judice and spiritual inertia connected with the groundless belief in celestial perfection.
By this the Chinese were not handicapped.
The extent to which the Chinese records of 'guest-stars' remain of living interest
to current astronomical research may be seen in the field of radio-astronomy, where
during the past few years great additions to knowledge have been made. b In 1932
studies of the' noise' in radio-wave receivers showed that it followed regular variations,
the period of which was the sidereal day, hence that it must be originating beyond the
solar system. Since that time radio aerials of interferometer type have been developed
and employed in systematic surveys of the sky, with the result that a great number of
radio-wave sources of great intensity (' radio-stars') are now known. The nature and
origin of these, and how far they may be identified either with faintly luminous bodies
now visible, or possibly with novae which have ceased to be visible, are among the
questions which are the subject of intensive research at the present time. In this
context the relevance of the Chinese novae observations (the only ones we have for
more than a millennium before the Middle Ages) is obvious. c By 1950, when the
positions of some fifty radio-stars had been determined, only seven of them were found
to coincide with visual objects, but one of these was the Crab nebula in Taurus (the
Chinese supernova of + 1054), and the others were nebulosities which might once
have been novae, some in other galaxies. More recently, a search with the 200-inch
telescope in California has permitted the visual identification of some fifteen radio-
stars, but these are extremely few in relation to all the radio-stars now known. It is
interesting that other supernovae, that of Kepler ( + 1604) and perhaps that of Tycho
Brahe (+ 1572), find their place among them as radio-wave emitters, though now
practically invisible.
The rapid upsurge of this new and powerful d method of study of the birth and
death of stars in the remoter parts of the universe, with all that it implies for our
understanding of cosmology, makes urgently necessary the reduction of the information
contained in the ancient and medieval Chinese texts to a form utilisable by modern
astronomers in all lands. For this purpose, however, collaboration between competent
sinologists and practical astronomers and radio-astronomers is indispensable. The
most important radio source in the sky, that in Cassiopeia, is in our own galaxy,
probably not farther away than 1000 light-years, and seems to be a nebulous bundle
a The words of Tycho ring like its death knell: 'Concludo igitur hanc stellam, non esse ullam
Cometarum speciem, vel aliquod igneum Metheoron sive infra Lunam sive supra generentur: sed
lucentem in ipso firmamento esse stellam, nulla aetate a mundi exordio ante nostra tempora prius
conspectam.' Cf. M . H. Nicolson (1), p. 23.
b See, e.g., Shakeshaft (1); Ryle & Ratcliffe (1).
C There is however the technical difficulty that the Chinese n ovae observations have come down

to us, through the hands of the official historians, without precise positions in degrees. On the other
hand, the radio-stars are now extremely numerous. Many possibilities of misinterpretation are thus
open.
d It may well be that some of the radio-stars at present being mapped are farther away from the
earth than man will ever be able to see by visible light.
 20. ASTRONOMY
of hot filaments of a type previously unknown deriving from a supernova. a A tentative
identification of it with a nova recorded in China in + 369 has recently been made, but
unfortunately this seems to rest upon a misunderstanding. b However, it seems likely
that a powerful radio source near Antares may be identifiable with the supernova which
the Chinese recorded on their oracle-bones about - 1300.
Search should be made in Chinese and Japanese records for mentions of variable
stars.C Bobrovnikov has pointed out that the variations of at least two of them (Algol
in Perseus and Mira in Cetus) are readily visible to the naked eye,d and one was
indeed discovered e before the use of the telescope.
a Thought by some to have exploded about 280 years ago.
b The circumstances of this case, and the lessons they teach regarding what is meant by adequate
sinological-astronomical colIaboration, are so interesting that details must be given. The nova of
+ 369 was duly included in the list of Biot (8), p. 21, who of course obtained his notice of it from Ma
Tuan-Lin's Wen Hsien Thung Khao (+ 1319), ch. 294. But the basic source is easy to find. The Chin
Shu (ch. 13, p. 20b) says: ' In the fourth year of the Thai-Ho reign-period (+369), in the second
month, a guest-star was seen in the Western WalI of the Purple Palace (tzu kung, hsi y uan I). In the
seventh month it disappeared.' The text goes on to say how the diviners interpreted its significance.
Biot translated correctly and added only the remark that the Western WalI w as about equivalent to
the circle of perpetual apparition, which is true enough for terrestrial latitude 34° ., i.e. that of
Yang-chheng, the traditional central observatory of China (cf. p . 297). The nova was next incorporated
in the list of Williams (6), p. 29 (no. 132), who seems to have thought that Tzu Kung meant the circle
of perpetual apparition, and whose sinology we may estimate (without undervaluing his great services)
by the fact that he gave the name' She Ke' (i.e. Shih Chi) to the entire set of dynastic histories. Now
the Tzu Kung (Purple Palace) is a synonym (Shih Chi, ch. 27, p. I b) for the northern circumpolar
region (more correctly the Tzu Wei Yuan 2); and its Western Wall extends from 70° to 210° R.A.,
following approximately 70° decl. N. It runs through the constelIation fields of Camelopardalis, Ursa
Major, and Draco. The position of the nova was thus described very vaguely in the official history,
though the Chin astronomers themselves may have been more precise. But when we look in the most
modern novae lists of Lundmark (I) and Hsi Tse-Tsung (2), we find the position for that of +369
tabulated as 0 ° R.A. and 60° decl. N. How could so great a difference have come about? As his chief
authority Lundmark relied upon Zinner (3), who must have made some effort, perhaps without si no-
logical help, to get back to the sources. Most probably he was misled by the fact that in the index
of Chinese stars and constellations drawn up by Schlegel (5) no 'Tzu Kung' appears, except in the
combination Tzu Kung Chhi 3 (the Flag(staff) of the Purple Palace; no. 693) which is, in fact, a smalI
constellation in Cassiopeia also known as Ko Tao' (the Approach to the HalI). It runs along the
meridian of R.A. 10° between 45 ° and 57 ° decl. N. Tzu Kung Chhi is not a modern name for Ko Tao,
as Schlegel (5), p. 327, thought, for one finds it in the Khai-Yuan Chan Citing (+ 718), ch. 66, p. la.
Zinner presumably did not realise that Tzu Kung is an alternative name for the wholt' circumpolar
region, and simply had to disregard the words 'Western '"valI'. Tzu Kung Chhi also satisfied him,
because, as he said, it is approximately on the circle of perpetual apparition (for a mid-European
latitude). Then, in 1952, this confusion, preserved by Lundmark, led Shklo\"sky & Parenago to
suggest that the Cassiopeia radio source, the position of which is about 352° R.A. and 58° decl. N.,
should be identified with the nova of + 369. And the irony of the situation reached its height when the
doyen of Chinese meteorologists, Chu Kho- Chen, in an article (6) on the value of researches in the
history of science in China (1954), cited en passant this identification. But he went on to record that
in the previous year the Moscow Academy of Sciences had requested the Chinese astronomers to
carry out the task, in the interests of alI, which we have referred to above . The firstfruits of this most
desirable work are now available in a paper by Hsi Tse-Tsung (2). H e accepts four out of six of
Shklovsky's identifications of' Chinese' novae with radio sources and suggests alternatives for the others,
adding eleven further novae which were recorded in positions quite cl0 ~ e to those of radio-stars under
study today. C See the preliminary remarks of Iba (I) who indicates relevant texts.
d The only evidence of an ancient observation of this kind is a Baby lonian cuneiform text of very
doubtful significance (Kugler (2), Schaumberger's Ergiinzungshejt, p. 350). It deals with a constelIation
the stars of which are said to be sometimes close together and sometimes wide apart. Several statements
of this kind occur in the astrological treatise in the Chin Shu (ch. 12). A special investigation might
decide whether observations of variable stars lie behind them. e By Fabritius in + 1596.
43 0 20. ASTRONOMY

(3) COMETS, METEORS, AND METEORITES

While there exist a few Babylonian cuneiform records of comets as far back as - 1140 , a
and observations of them were quite frequent in ancient and medieval Europe, b the
Chinese records are by far the most complete-as Olivier points out at the beginning
of his excellent monograph on cometary phenomena. The computation of approxi-
mate orbits for some forty comets which made appearances earlier than about + 1500
has been based almost entirely on the Chinese observations. As in the case of novae,
the first compilation of these events, as noted in the dynastic histories, was made by
the Chinese themselves. Ma Tuan-Lin (ft. + 1240 to + 1280) incorporated them in
his Wen Hsien Thung Khao. The 286th chapter of this work, which dealt with comets
down to + 1222, was translated by Gaubil (10) in a manuscript still kept at the Paris
Observatory, and he added to it the 212th chapter of the supplement, which carried
the record down to the end of the Ming (+ 1644). Another translation of Ma Tuan-
Lin's record was made in 1782 by C. L. J . de Guignes (2), and E. Biot (9) completed it
by a list drawn from the official histories of the Sung, Yuan and Ming (+ 1222 to
+ 1644). All these catalogues of comets, however, were found to be incomplete by
Williams, who in 1871 published (6) what remains the fullest list, giving abundant
details of no less than 372 comets, from - 613 to + 1621.
To give an idea of the care with which the Chinese astronomers described their
comets, we may select the record of the comet of + 1472, studied also in Europe by
Johannes Muller of Konigsberg (Regiomontanus).c
In the 7th year of the Chheng-Hua reign period ( + 1472), in the twelfth month, on a
chia-hsii. day (of the sexagenary cycle), a comet was seen in the star-group Thien thien I
(0', 'T Virginis). It pointed towards the west. Suddenly it went to the north, touched the
star (Right conductor' (Yu she-thi 2; 7), " 'T Bootis), and swept through the Thai Wei Yuan 3
(the 'Enclosure' of stars in Virgo, Coma Berenices and Leo), touching Shang chiang 4
(v Comae Berenices), Hsin chhen s (2629 Comae Berenices), Thai tzu 6 (ELeonis), and Tshung
kuan 7 (2567 Leonis). Its tail now pointed directly towards the west. It swept transversely
across the Lang wei 8 (a-k Comae Berenices) of the Thai Wei Yuan. On a chi-mao day its
tail had greatly lengthened. It extended from east to west across the heavens. The comet
then proceeded northwards, covering about 28°, touched Thien chhiang 9 (" 8, X Bootis),
swept through the Great Bear (Pei tou 10), and passed near the San Kung II (three small
stars at the north of Canes Venatici) and Thai Yangl2 (X Ursae Majoris), finally entering the
Tzu Wei Yuan l 3 (Circumpolar Enclosure).d It was now perfectly visible in full daylight.
At various times it was seen in the Khuei l4 (the 'box' or ' body' of the Great Bear), and
near Thien ti hsing'S (f3 Ursae Minoris), Shu tzu l6 (5 Ursae Minoris), Hou fei l7 (b3162

a Sayce (2), p. 52, referring to Brit. Mus. Western Asiatic Inscriptions, vol. 3, p . 52, no. I.
b For the astrological significance attributed to them, see Bouche-Leclercq (I ), p. 357.
C Thorndike (I), vol. 4, pp. 359, 422, 442. The following passage is in Ming Shih, ch. 27. p. lob.
d See p . 259 above.

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 PLATE LXI

Fig. 183. The Crab Nebula in Taurus, remains of

the supernova of + 1054 observed only by Chinese
and Japanese astronomers. Photograph on red-
sensitive plate showing the central small but dense
hot star illuminating the nebulosity still expandin g
around it (photo. Gamow).
 (a) Cb)
Fig. 184. (a) MS. drawing of a comet passing between the hsiu rand Chen, on the night of 28 October J 664, from the records of the Korean Astronomical Bureau
(photo. Rufus, 2). The annotation at the side says that the shape and colour of the comet and its ta il were the same as the previous night (lit hsing se chi
wei chi yii Iso i yang) . The notes below refer to previous observation and the last lin e on the left signs for the Bureau (Hung Wen Kuan).
(b) Comet Arend-Roland 1956 h photographed at Cambridge in yellow-red light about midnight, 28 April 1957. The notable' spike' pointing away
from the tail is clearly shown (photo. Argue & Wolf). Though' spiked' comets are rare, references to them exist in ancient and medieval Chinese sources
(see Needham, Beer & H o Ping- VU).
 20. ASTRONOMY 43 1
Ursae Minoris), Kou ch hen I (~, E, 8 and other stars in Ursa Minor),a San shih2 (p 2006,
(T 2027 and 2031 Ursae Majoris), Thien la0 3 (Xh 80, 101, 133, 163, 177 and 170 Piazzi,
Ursae Majoris), Thien huang ta ti 4 (a Ursae Minoris, our pole-star), Shang wei s (X Cephei),
Ko ta0 6 (g, 0, 'TT, 8, C/>, v Cassiopeiae), Wen chhang 7 (8, v, c/> and other stars in Ursa
Major), Shang thai 8 (v, £ Ursae Majoris), etc. On an i-yu day it moved to the south,
touched the hsiu Lou 9 (a, {J, y Arietis), and passed through Thien a 'O (e602 Arietis), Thien
yinII (8, ~, T etc. Arietis), Wai phing 12 (a, 8, E, ~, /1-, v and g Piscis), and Thien yuan I3
(y, 8, E, ~, T'j, 'TT, T etc. Eridani). In the first month of the 8th year, on a ping-wu day, it
was going towards Wai phingl2 in the hsiu Khuei. I 4 Gradually it faded, and it was a long
time before it finally disappeared. b

From such a description the path of the comet is easily traceable. First seen in Virgo,
it goes northwards, becomes circumpolar and almost polar, then descends to the south
through Cassiopeia and Cepheus, and ends beyond Aries. The use of the expression
'swept through' was particularly appropriate, since the technical term for comets
from very early times in China was hui hsing lS or sao hsing l6 , 'brush-stars'.c Chhen
Tsun-Kuei (4), discussing Han comets, gives a number of synonyms, such as thien
chhan,'7 'edging-in stars'; pheng hsing,I8 'sailing stars'; d chhang hsing,'9 'long stars';
chu hsing,20 'candle-flame stars', etc. Confusion with novae is of course always to be
checked, for comets do not necessarily have tails. When a comet comes into line with
the earth and the sun its tail is no longer visible and its light may appear nebulous.
The Chinese had a special term for a comet in opposition, po hsing2I, clearly distin-
guishing it, at least theoretically, from a nova. e Whether any manuscript drawings of
comets still exist in the records of the Astronomical Bureau at Peking we do not know,
but Fig. 184 shows a late one from Korean records. The comet is seen passing between
the hsiu 122 and Chen. 23 The Thien Wen Ta Chheng Kuan Khuei Chi Yao, a compila-
tion first made at the end of the + 14th century, illustrates many different kinds of
comets and novae, still according with the definitions in the + 7th-century Chin Shu. f
'Of all comets', says Olivier, 'there is no doubt that Halley's Comet has had the
most important influence on astronomy. This comes not only from the fact that its
periodicity was established before that of any other, but also because its history can
be traced accurately for over two thousand years. ' That this is so is due to the careful
way in which the Chinese observations were recorded. Halley's own observations
were made in 1682. He recognised his comet as the same which Apianus had seen in
1531 and Kepler in 1607, and predicted that it would return, as it did, in 1758. The

a See p. 26, above.

Tr. Biot (9), eng. auct. Identifications ours.
b
e Cf. the expression' stellae comatae', hairy stars.
d Or perhaps' withy-stars' if pMng H is correct.
e The definition is in Chin Shu, ch. 12, p. 4b (tr. Ho Ping-YU). Ch. 13, p. '7a describes a case of a po
changing into a hui in November and December, +236.
f Chhen Tsun-Kuei (5), pp. 63, 69, 71, reproduces these illustrations, though poorly.

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43 2 20. ASTRONOMY

importance of this return can, as Olivier says, hardly be over-estimated; it proved that
some comets at least are definitely members of the solar system, and that Newton's
laws fitted their motions as well as those of the planets.a After the next reappearance,
in 1835, astronomers and sinologists set to work together to produce a complete
recomputation of all the recurrences of the comet. b The earliest Chinese observation
which may have been Halley's comet C is that of - 467, but the data are insufficient for
certainty; there can, however, be no doubt that the comet of - 240 (the 7th year of
Chhin Shih Huang Ti) was Halley's. T he reappearance in - 163 is doubtfully identifi-
able, but those of - 87 and - I I are quite definite, and from the details for the latter,
which the Chinese observed minutely for 9 weeks, Hind (2) was able to calculate the
approximate orbit, the elements of which approach those of Halley's comet so closely
as to leave no doubt. He was able to do the same for the data ofWang Chhung's time
( + 66). After this, every reappearance in the 76-year cycle is found in the Chinese
texts,d including that of + 1066, so familiar in Anglo-N orman history.
The Chinese were also the first to observe that the tails of comets always point away
from the sun. E. Biot (12) reported an interesting statement.e concerning a comet
observed on 22 March and following days in + 837 : ' In general, when a comet appears
in the morning, its tail points towards the west, and when it appears in the-evening, its
tail points towards the east. This is a constant rule '.f But it was left for Apianus in
153 2 to state, not only that the tail points away from the sun, but that its direction
coincides with the radius vector.g
Few elaborate theories about comets seem to have been produced in China; naturally
some early writers ascribed them to derangements of the Yin and Yang (e.g. Huai Nan
Tzu h ). But as if in premonition of a modern theory,i others associated different kinds
a For a good general account, see Plum mer ( r).
b The results may be seen in the work of Cowell & C rommelin (r ); E . Biot (ro); Hind (2, 3);
Hirayama (r) and others, summarised conveniently by Wen Hsien-Tzu ( r) and Chu W en -Hsin (4).
Cf. Schove (8, 9, ro) ; Kamienski (r). C S hih Chi, ch. rs , pp. 4b, sa.

d There is some confusion in the + 7th and + 8th centuries .

e As so often, he gave no reference, but from Biot (ro) it is almost certain that he read it in Wen Hsien
Thung Khao, ch. 286, p. 2270 .3. When was the generalisation first m ade? M a Tuan-Lin was verbally
cop ying Hsin Thang Shu, ch. 32, p. 7 a, bu t it is interestin g to find that the statement is absent from Chiu
Thang Shu, ch. 36, p . r3b, which gives a much longer descrip tion of th e same comet, though differing
con siderably in detail. This might suggest that the rule was known about + roso when Ouyang Hsiu &
Sung C hhi were writing the Hsin Thang Shu, but n ot about + 950, the time of composition of the Chiu
Thang Shu by Liu Hsu. Such an inferen ce, however, is quite precluded by the fact that the same
statement occurs in the Chin. Shu, ch. r 2, p. 4 b, finis hed by Fan g H suan-Ling in + 635. Here indeed
we find it in its fullest fo rm, for the text adds that ' if the comet is sou th or north of the sun its tail
always points following the sar.le direction as the light (radiating) from the sun'. In this source, the
statem ent is attributed to the official astronomers in gen eral, wh o, we are told , explain it by saying that
comets shine by reflected light like the moon. Besides, the circumstances of the + 837 comet (almost
certainly Halley's; cf. Schove (8, ro) and Kamienski) show that th e rule must by then have been well
known. The d irector of the Bureau of Astronomy at the time was Chu Tzu-lung, l a man whose name
only survived because the emperor appealed to him for advice on this occasion ; the comet was particu-
larly distu rbing because it seemed to violate this very rule. The fi rst statement of the generalisation must
go back at least to the +7th century and probably to the +6th.
f Fan hui hsing chhen chhu tse hsi chih, hsi chhu tse tung chih; nai chhang yeh .>
g Sarton (r), vol. 3, p. 1122. h C h . 3, p. 2a.
i O livier (r), p . 2rr .
 20. ASTRONOMY 433
of comets with the different planets. This system was worked out in the Feng Chio
Shu I of Ching Fang a about - 50 and, though his text is lost, a parallel in one of the
apocryphal treatises of the same period remains. b Each comet was thought to originate
from a particular planet. c
Between comets and meteor streams there is a close connection. It is known that the
August Perseid meteors move in the same orbit as Tuttle's Comet, while the November
Leonids (which used to give such great showers every thirty-three years) follow that
of Tempel's Comet (1866, I), and the May Aquarids that of Halley's. They are almost
certainly remains of disintegrated comets. In the Chinese literature there is a vast
mass of information about meteors, known as liu hsing Z, (gliding' or (shooting' stars,
or pen hsing 3 , (energetic' stars, and meteor showers (liu hsing yii4), as well as the actual
fall of meteorites upon the earth's surface (hsing yiin 5).d Ma Tuan-Lin summarised it
in the + 13th century, and chapters 291 and 292 of his Wen Hsien Thung Khao were
translated, first by Remusat (4, 5) and then by E. Biot (II). Many of the observations
are highly detailed, and the whole list fills over 200 quarto pages. The material would
bulk even larger if the records in the local histories were drawn upon, as has been done
by Chu Wen-Hsin (4) for one province in a preliminary way, as also by Hsieh Chia-
Jung (1). The earliest date from -687 and -644 (subject to the usual reservations
about the adjustment of Chou texts by Han scholars).e A very great Leonid shower
was reported in + 93 1. So complete were the records that Biot was able to make a
statistical account of frequencies for the Sung period + 960 to + 1275, including the
directions towards the cardinal points, and the colours of the displays.! At this time
the maximum frequencies were in July and October.g Before the Sung there are
149 records of meteor showers, during it 272, and in the Yuan and Ming 74. Th('
period of recurrence mentioned above (33'II years, actually 33'25) is clearly shown by
the Chinese records. h
Here is an example of careful description of the fall of a meteorite, from Shen Kua's
Meng Chhi Pi Than :
In the 1St year of the Chih-Phing reign period ( + 1064), there was a tremendous noise
like thunder at Chhang-chou 6 about noon. A fiery star as big as the moon appeared in the
a Summarised in Chin Shu, ch. 12, p. 6a, b.
b This is the Ho Thll Wei Chi Yao Kou 7 (Apocryphal Treatise on the River Chart; Investigation of
the FuH Circle of the (Celestial) Brightnesses), in Ku Wei Shll, ch. 33, pp. 1 a ff.; cf. Chin Shu, ch. 12,
pp. Sb, 6a.
C Cf. BoH (S), pp. 46ff. on Babylonian and Greek ideas about the associations of the fixed stars with

different planets.
d Cf. Chin Shu, ch. 12, p. 7a, b; Khai- Yuan Chan Ching, ch. 2, p. 9b.
e There was a rationalisation of the old meteor records in the Confucian editing of the Chhun Chhiu;
see Wu Khang (I), p. 174.
f Note the remarks made elsewhere about the Sung as the flowering-period of Chinese science (VoJ. 2,
P.493). Note also that the very complete description of the comet of + 1472, given above, was made
during the Ming, when the physical sciences were at a low ebb. On meteor frequency throughout the
ages see Paneth (I).
g The difference in the months is purely calendrical; these must have been the Perseids and Leonids.
h Cf. T. Fu.

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434 20 . ASTRONOMY

south-east. In a moment there was a further thunderclap while the star moved to the
south-west, and then with more thunder it fell in the garden of the Hsii family in the
I-hsing district. Fire was seen reflected in the sky far and near, and fences in the garden
round about were all burnt. When they had been extinguished, a bowl-shaped hole was seen
in the ground, with the meteorite glowing within it for a long time. Even when the glow
ceased it was too hot to be approached. Finally the earth was dug up, and a round stone as
big as a fist , still hot, was found, with one side elongated (i.e. pear-shaped). Its colour and
weight were like iron. The governor, Cheng Shen,' sent it to the Chin Shan temple> at
Jun-chou,3 where it is still kept in a box and shown to visitors."

Meteorites had many other names in' Chinese books besides the yiin 4 already
mentioned, or yiin shih.5 Further information is contained in a valuable chapter by
Chang Hung-Chao,b who points out that one of the oldest names must be that con-
tained in the Shan Hai Ching (ch. 16), namely, thien chhuan,6 'hounds of heaven'.
He also notes that meteorites were often confused (as in other civilisations) with stone
axes of the Neolithic period. c There is a reference to this in the Chiu Thang Shu (Old
History of the Thang Dynasty), where, about + 660, a meteorite presented to the
emperor was called' the stone axe of the thunder-god' (Lei Kung shih tu 7).d Other
names were' the thunder-god's ink-block' (lei mo 8) or 'thunder-lumps' (phi li chen 9),
and it is these which formed the headings under which Li Shih-Chen in the + 16th
century treated of meteorites in his Pen Tshao Kang Mu. e

(4) SOLAR PHENOMENA; SUN-SPOTS

The outstanding example of a celestial phenomenon which in general escaped

the attention of Europeans because of their preconceived idea of the perfection of the
heavens, is that of the spots on the sun.f In Europe their discovery was one of the
advances made by Galileo in his use of the telescope. According to his own statement,g
he first saw them towards the end of + 1610, but he did not publish his results till
+ 1613,h by which time the same discovery had been independently made by Hariot
in England, Fabricius in Germany, and Scheiner in Holland. i Previously, dark spots
on the sun seen with the naked eye had been ascribed to the passage of planets across
it. Scheiner thought that the spots might be small satellites of the sun. But Galileo
was able to refute all such views; he demonstrated that the spots must be on or close

a MCPT, ch. 20, para. 3, tr. auct. Attention was drawn to this by Vacca (2) . Cf. Hu Tao-Ching (1),
vol. 2, p. 649. Other good descriptions will be found in Kuei Hsin Tsa Chih, Hsii Chi, ch. " p . 3Sb;
Pieh Chi, ch. I, p . 7b. Perhaps the oldest record is for -662; Kuo Yii (Chou Vu), ch. I, p. 22a;
cf. Feng Yu-Lan (I), vol. I, p. 24.
b (1), pp. 372 ff. C See further de Mely (5); Belpaire (2).
d Cf. Ennin's + 9th-century diary ; Reischauer (2) , p. 128.
e Ch. 10, pp. 4Sbff. ; Read & Pak (I), nos . "3, "4.
f Cf. Pelseneer (2). g Berry (I), p . 154.
h Istoria e Dimonstrazioni intorno aUe Macchie Solan e loro Accidenti (Mascardi, Rome, 1613).
i See details in W . M. Mitchell; Wohlwill.
 20. ASTRONOMY 435
to the surface of the sun, as if they were clouds, and that their motion was such as to
indicate that the sun revolved on its axis with a period of about a month. a
Sarton (3) has shown that observations of sun-spots in the occident go back rather
further than has usually been thought, but they were very fragmentary and rare. The
earliest mention seems to be in Einhard's Life of Charlemagne, referring to about + 807
and this was interpreted as a transit of Mercury. Another observation, by Abil al-
Fa<;ll Ja'far ibn al-MuqtafI in + 840, was explained as a transit of Venus. Other
references date from about + 1196 (Ibn Rushd) and + 1457 (the Carraras) .
In the 19th century a cyclical recurrence of sun-spot activity was established by
Schwabe, with a period of about I I years, but fluctuating between 7'3 and 17 years. b
There are also superposed irregular variabilities of much greater period. It was then
realised by Sabine and others that the I I -year sun-spot period corresponded with a
similar period found in terrestrial magnetism (magnetic 'storms', etc.).c Today the
connection between sun-spot activity and the conditions of the ionosphere, which
profoundly affect the transmission of radio messages, is fully accepted, and there may
be an effect on the meteorological situation too (Napier Shaw). The International
Astronomical Union has a permanent commission at work on solar-terrestrial
phenomena.
But the Chinese records are by a long way the most complete which we have. They
start nearly a thousand years before the first reference in the west, that is, in the time
of Liu Hsiang, - z8. d Between that time and + 1638 there are IIZ descriptions of
outstanding sun-spots in the official histories, but there are also numerous mentions
in local topographical records, volumes of memoirs, and other kinds of publications,
which have not so far been fully collected. e The black spots are referred to as hei chhi,l
hei tzu 2 or WU,3 and their size is often described 'as big as a coin', 'as big as a hen's
egg', a peach, a plum, etc. Extensive lists of observations are in the + 13th-century
Wen Hsien Thung Khao and the Thu Shu Chi Chheng encyclopaedia,! but the most
convenient one is in the book of Chu Wen-Hsin.g In the western-language literature,
after an early mention by Kirkwood, lists were published by Williams (5), Lovisato (I),
Hosie (I) and de Moidrey. The last-named author, who enjoyed the collaboration of
P. Huang, was able to find a fair approximation to the I I -year cycle from these ancient
observations. h This has been confirmed by S. Kanda (I), who found a period of
10'38 to II'z8 years, and could also detect a superimposed fluctuation of much longer
period (97 5 years). Probably the most complete list so far is in Japanese, that of
S. Kanda (2).i
a The true nature of the spots was of course not known until quite modern times, but Chu Hsi in
the + 12th century had refuted the idea that they were earth-shadows (Chu Tzu Yii Lei, ch. I, p . loa).
b Spencer-Jones (2); Oppenheim (I) . C Berry (I), p . 385; Spencer-Jones (I), p. 153.
d loth May; Dubs (2), vol. 2, p . 384, tr. Chhien Han Shu, ch. 27, p . 17b.
e For example there is abundant material in the Chin Shu, ch. 12, pp. I a, IS b ff. (finished in + 635),
and the Thullg Chih Liieh of + 1150 also discusses sun-spots (ch. 50, p. 7b).
r Shu eking lien, ch. 24. g (4), p. 80.
h See also Schove (2, 3, 6, 7, I I), who finds the mean period of the rhythm to be I 1'1 years, with a
longer cycle of 78 years.
i For Korean records, starting early in the + 11th century, see Rufus (2), p. 19.

'm,jt zm,:r 3.~

 20. ASTRONOMY

The use of the term wu, I which means' crow' as well as 'black', raises the question
whether some references long before - 28 might be based on sun-spot observations.
As Chhen Wen-Thao has pointed out, the existence of a crow in the sun (the colleague
of the rabbit in the moon) was part of traditional Chinese mythology in Chou and
early Han times. a This we find in the Lun RIng, where Wang Chhung says, 'The
scholars hold that there is a three-legged crow in the sun ... ' (Ju yiieh jih chung yu san
tsou wu 2 ),b after which he goes on to argue, in his sceptical way, that the thing is
impossible. But it may mean that the black spots had been observed, perhaps as early
as the time of Tsou Yen. Again, Dubs notes medieval traditions that in - 165 the
character wang 3 appeared in the sun; c Schove (6) inclines to take this as the earliest
dated sun-spot.
As in the case of eclipses, it seems likely that from an early date the sun must have
been observed through smoky rock-crystal or semi-transparent jade. d Indeed, this
technique is specifically referred to by Li Shih-Chen, e who says that the 'books on
jade' mention certain kinds which were used for looking at the sun (kuan jih yU).4
A large piece of this was brought, according to one account, as tribute by an embassy
from Fu-Sang about + 520; we shall examine the passage, which may refer to
observations of sun-spots, in Sect. 26g below. But haze due to dust-storms from the
Gobi would also have permitted the observation of sun-spots.
As Ionides & Ionides have said,! Chinese astrological conclusions were for once
perhaps right in maintaining a connection between celestial and terrestial phenomena.
Though not at present generally admitted, it is not impossible that the sun-spot
period may be connected, through meteorological effects, with events of social
importance, such as good and bad harvests. Such a correlation is indeed maintained
for Japanese rice crop famines since + 1750 by Arakawa (I). Conceivably the basis
of the association made in the Chi Ni Tzu book (p. 402 above) between the 12-year
Jupiter cycle and an agricultural production cycle, may really have been, as Chatley (1)
suggests, the II-year sun-spot period. Correlations between the periodicity of sun-
spot maxima and other phenomena such as aurorae, using in part Chinese data, have
been attempted by several workers.g

a Cf. Granet (I).

b Ch. 32, tr. Forke (4), vol. I, p. 268. Cf. Fu Hou Ku Chin Chu, cit. TPYL, ch. 764, p. 4b.
c (2), vol. I, p. 258; Yii Hai, ch. 195, p. 2a.
d There is no reason why sun-spot observations could not have been made very early. Many sun-
spots are easily visible with the naked eye at sunrise or sunset, or reflected on the surface of still waters.
They can be seen well through thin haze. A spot about 30,000 miles, or four earth-diameters, across,
is large enough to be seen without telescopic aid, and many spots are much larger, even as large as
twenty earth-diameters (Sarton (I), vol. 3, p. 1856).
e Pen Tshao Kang Mu, ch. 8, p. 48b. f P. 79.
g See Fritz (I), Schove (I), etc.

3:£
 20. ASTRONOMY 437

(j) THE TIME OF THE JESUITS

In the history of intercourse between civilisations there seems no parallel to the arrival
in China in the 17th century of a group of Europeans so inspired by religious fervour
as were the Jesuits, and at the same time so expert in most of those sciences which had
developed with the Renaissance and the rise of capitalism. Although for our present plan
the year 1600 is the turning-point, after which time there ceases to be any essential
distinction between world science and specifically Chinese science, yet the part played
by the Jesuits in Chinese astronomy has so many links with the Asian astronomy
of former centuries, and so much to teach us about the mutual impact of Chinese and
Western thought, that it is impossible to avoid a brief account of what happened during
the 17th century. a
From hints which have already been dropped on the way, it will have been suspected
that the coming of the Jesuits was by no means (as it has often been made to appear)
an unmixed blessing for Chinese science. Let us make a provisional balance-sheet of
the merits and demerits of their contribution, before illustrating some of its items from
contemporary documents. In the first place, the European methods for the prediction
of eclipses were greatly superior to the traditional empirical Chinese methods. b This
was first demonstrated for the solar eclipse of 15 December 1610, when Sabbathin
de U rsis was acting as the principal Jesuit astronomer after the death of Matteo Ricci. c
Secondly, the Jesuits brought a clear exposition of the geometrical analysis of
planetary motions, and of course the Euclidean geometry necessary for applying it.d
This had many other uses, as (thirdly) in gnomonics and the stereographic projections e
of the astrolabe, and in surveying. f A fourth contribution was the doctrine of the

a The literature on the Jesuit period is voluminous but diffuse. We have already cited the works of
Bemard-Maitre (1,5) on Ricci's own contribution, and the encyclopaedia of Pfister (I). Among general
summaries may be mentioned those of Yabuuchi (17) and Bernard-Maitre (16).
b But Trigault's pretension (Gallagher ed. p . 3Z5) that the true nature of eclipses was unknown in
China before the time of the Jesuits, was, as we have seen, quite baseless.
C Comedy sometimes attended Jesuit predictions. In 1636 they stated that Jupiter would pass between

two stars in Cancer and then begin a phase of retrogradation. Some of the Chinese officials thought this
presaged a calamity by fire so they falsified the observations, but the explosion of a large powdermill
near Peking confirmed strikingly the exactness of the Jesuits (Bernard-Maitre (7), p. 457).
d Trigault informed his readers (Gallagher ed. p. 3z6) that Chinese astronomers knew nothing of
the two celestial poles. How far this deviated from the truth will be apparent from the whole history
of Chinese astronomical instruments, which we have outlined in the foregoing pages. Moreover, the
Jesuits brought the full Ptolemaic theory of epicycles, but the victory of Copernicus was so near that
Chinese astronomers could surely well have done without them.
e Cf. the Hun Kai Thung Hsien Thu Shuo I (On Plotting the Coordinates of the Celestial Sphere and
Vault) by Li Chih-Tsao' of + 1607. He was a collaborator of the Jesuits.
f In some cases, the Jesuits were really only reminding the Chinese of things which they themselves
had developed long before, but which the degenerate science of the Ming had forgotten. Thus the
Euclidean definition of a geometrical point caused much admiration (Bernard-Maitre (I), p . SI),
neither the Jesuits nor their Chinese friends being aware that the Mohists had discussed such matters
before the Han (cf. Vol. z, p. 194 above). Similarly, Ricci's demonstrations of the use of geometrical
quadrants and other means of measuring heights, distances and depths, were attended with enthusiasm
(Bemard-Maitre (I), p . 57), no one apparently being aware of the survey techniques already explained
in the + 3rd-century Hai Tao Suan Ching (p. 31 above). Trigault least of all (cf. Gallagher ed. p. 3z6).
 20. ASTRONOMY

spherical earth a and its division into spaces separated by meridians and parallels.
Fifthly, the new 16th-century algebra of the time of Vieta was made available to the
Chinese, with many new computing methods, and ultimately mechanical devices such
as the slide-rule. Sixthly, by no means the least valuable transmission was the most
up-to-date European technique of instrument-making, graduating of scales, micro-
meter screws, and the like. The spread of the telescope was the climax of this.b

(I) CHINA AND THE DISSOLUTION OF THE CRYSTALLINE SPHERES

On the other hand, the world-picture which the Jesuits brought was that of the
closed Ptolemaic-Aristotelian geocentric universe of solid concentric crystalline
spheres. c Hence they opposed the indigenous Hsiian Yeh doctrine of the floating of
the heavenly bodies in infinite space, and the irony was that they did so just at a time
when the best minds in Europe were breaking away from the closed Aristotelian
system. Hence also (second) they obstructed the spread of the Copernican heliocentric
doctrine in China, for after all they could not but be sensitive to the condemnation of
Galileo by the Church. It followed, thirdly, that they substituted an erroneous theory
of the precession of the equinoxes for the cautious Chinese refusal to form any theory
at all about it.d Fourthly, they completely failed to appreciate the equatorial and polar
character of traditional Chinese astronomy, and therefore, confusing the hsiu divisions
with the zodiac, equalised the duodenary equatorial divisions when there was no need
to do so.e Fifthly, in spite of the advance to equatorial coordinates which was just
being made by Tycho Brahe, the Jesuits imposed the less satisfactory Greek ecliptic
coordinates upon Chinese astronomy, which had always been primarily equatorial, and
actually constructed in Peking, as we have seen, an ecliptic armillary sphere (cf.
pp. 379, 45 1 ).
A fascinating glimpse of this paradoxical situation is seen in letters which Ricci
wrote on 28th October and 4th November 1595, enumerating the 'absurdities', as he
called them, of the Chinese. f They say, he wrote, that
(1) The earth is flat and square, and that the sky is a round canopy; they did not succeed
in conceiving the possibility of the antipodes. g
a This again was not new to China, as the Jesuits thought (cf. Trigault, Gallagher ed. p. 325) for it
had been part of the ancient Hun Thien theory (cf. p. 217 above). It is strange that Chinese cosmology
had so little affected Chinese cartography. The Chinese may perhaps be pardoned for a certain reluctance
in accepting Ricci's presentation of terrestrial sphericity, since he reserved the centre of the earth for
the hell of the damned.
b Between 1634 and 1638 the Jesuits made many gifts of astronomical apparatus to the last Ming
emperor (details in Bernard-Maitre (7), p. 450). The monarch himself observed the eclipse of 20 Dec.
16 38 .
C See especially Aristotle, De Caelo, Bk. 2. There is a charming story of one of the friends of the

Jesuits, Chhli Thai-Su,' accepting a prism of rock-crystal and decorating its case with an inscription to
the effect that this was a piece of the very material of which the sky is composed (Trigault, Gallagher ed.
p. 318). On the dissolution of the closed cosmos in Europe see Koyre (5); Dingle (2).
d Bernard-Maitre (1), p. 88. The true explanation was reserved for Newton (Berry (I), p. 235).
e De Saussure (16d); Bernard-Maitre (I), pp. 49, 76, 86, etc.
f Venturi (I), vol. 2, pp. 175, 184, 185, 207; arranged by Bernard-Maitre (I), p. 48.
g Ricci had certainly met with a survival of the Kai Thien theory (p. 210 above).

'u,:k*
 20. ASTRONOMY 439
(2) There is only one sky (and not ten skies). It is empty (and not solid). The stars move
in the void (instead of being attached to the firmament).a
(3) As they do not know what the air is, where we say that there is air (between the spheres)
they affirm that there is a void.
(4) By adding metal and wood, and omitting air, they count five elements (instead of
four)-metal, wood, fire, water and earth. Still worse, they make out that these elements
are engendered the one by the other; and it may be imagined with how little foundation they
teach it, but as it is a doctrine handed down from their ancient sages, no one dares to attack
it.b
(5) For eclipses of the sun, they give a very good reason, namely that the moon, when it
is near the sun, diminishes its light. c
(6) During the night, the sun hides under a mountain which is situated near the earth.d

Here we see the elements of superiority in European science at the turn of the 16th and
17th centuries imposing a fundamentally wrong world-picture, that of the solid
spheres, on the fundamentally right one which had come down from the Hsuan Yeh
school, of stars floating in infinite empty space. e
The point is worth looking at a little more closely. Five years after these words had
been written by Ricci in his letter home, William Gilbert was saying in his De Magnete:
Who has ever made out that the stars which we call fixed are in one and the same sphere,
or has established by reasoning that there are any real, and, as it were, adamantine spheres?
No one has ever proved this, nor is there a doubt but that just as the planets are at unequal
distances from the earth, so are these vast and multitudinous lights separated from the Earth
by varying and very remote altitudes-they are not set in any sphaerick frame or firmament.
The intervals of some are from their unfathomable distance matter of opinion rather than of
verification; others less than they are yet very remote, and at varying distances, either in that
most subtile quintessence, the thinnest aether, or in the void .... It is evident then that all
the heavenly bodies set as if in destined places are there formed into spheres, that they tend
to their own centres, and that round them there is a confluence of all their parts. And if they
have motion, that motion will rather be that of each round its own centre, as that of the Earth
is, or a forward movement of the centre in an orbit, as that of the Moon is .... But there can
be no movement of infinity and of an infinite body, and therefore no diurnal revolution of
that vastest Primum Mobile. f
a As has already been mentioned (p. 198 above), an echo of the Greek spheres may have penetrated
to China about - 300, but it played no part in Chinese astronomical thought. See also p. 603 below.
'The Chinese had never heard', wrote Trigault later, 'that the skies are composed of solid substance,
that the stars are fixed and not wandering round aimlessly, and that there are ten celestial orbs, en-
veloping one another, and moved by contrary forces' (Gallagher ed. p . 326). Indeed, Kho Chung-
Chiung wrote against these ideas in his Rsiian- Yeh ehing of + 1628.
b The arguments in favour of the Aristotelian elements were not a whit better. Trigault, however,
related with pride the triumph of the Four elements over the Five in the lectures and pamphlets of
the Jesuits (Gallagher ed . p . 327) . Yet this was almost contemporary with the epoch-making work of
Jean Rey and John Mayow in Europe, and within half a century the whole edifice of element-theory
was finally exploded by Robert Boyle.
C Ironical. It will be remembered that this is the ancient Yin-Yang influence theory (p . 412 above),
which one or other of Ricci's interlocutors must have fished out of the Lun Ring.
d A relic of the legendary cosmology which Ricci must have obtained from some uneducated
acquaintance rather than from anyone skilled in astronomy.
e It is unfortunate that Cronin (I), in a widely-read and moving book published in 1955, still seeks to
perpetuate the Jesuit legend of the backwardness of Chinese cosmology and astronomy (cL e.g. p. 138).
f Thompson tr., p. 215.
440 20. ASTRONOMY
Twenty years earlier, Giordano Bruno, in his De Infinito Universo, had been pointing
the same moral, in his usual more violent way:
The difficulty proceedeth from a false method and a wrong hypothesis-namely of the
weight and immovability of the Earth, and the position of the Primurn Mobile, with the
other seven, eight, nine, or more, spheres, on which stars are implanted, impressed, plastered,
nailed, knotted, glued, sculptured or painted-and that these stars do not reside in the same
space as our own star, named by us Earth.a
Thus was the 'false method' and 'wrong hypothesis' in cosmology introduced to
China. But did any stimulus come back in exchange? '
Most of the scholastics, following Aristotle, had held that a plurality of worlds was
an impossibility.b But in the 17th century the doctrine rapidly gained ground,c and it
was accompanied by a great proliferation of 'scientific' romances of interplanetary
travel, which have been reviewed in an excellent book by M. H. Nicolson (I ).d Among
the literary works in which these themes were set forth there are certain coincidences
which hint that the scepticism of the Chinese as to the solid spheres had not been
without influence. Thus, for example, Francis Godwin,e in The Man in the Moone; or,
A Discourse of a Voyage Thither, by Domingo Gonsales, the Speedy Messenger (1638),
one of the earliest scientific romances, makes his narrator fly to the moon in a machine
propelled by wild geese. From there the earth looks like any other planet, and after
some time the narrator, 'free of that tyrannous lodestone, the Earth', and acquiring
another sort of lodestone as antidote to the earth's attraction,! floats down safely,
arriving precisely in China, where he meets both mandarins and missionaries. g Both
the Chinese and the lunar people speak a tonal language. In less romantic form, the
same idea was urged by John Wilkins, h in his Discovery of a World in the Moon, tending
to prove that 'tis probable that there may be another habitable World in that Planet (also
1638), and Christian Huygens (1698). But the Chinese theme occurs again in the
a Gentile, Op. Ital., vo!. I, p. 402; Lagarde, Op. Ital., vo!. I, p. 388; D. Singer (I), p. 71.
b De Caelo, especially Bk. I. See Duhem (I), vo!. 2, pp. 55 fr. Pietro d'Abano, however, had
suggested in + 1310 that the heavenly bodies might not be borne on spheres, but rather move freely in
space (Duhem (3), vo!. 4, pp. 241 fr.; Crombie (I), p. 202). On him see especially Thorndike (I), vo!. 2,
pp. 874 fr.; Sarton (I), vo!. 3, pp. 439 fr. c See McColley (I) and D. Singer (I).
d This trend began with the first English translation (by Francis Hicks) of the works of Lucian of
Samosata (b. + 120) which had dealt with voyages to the moon. There were other ancient works, such
as Cicero's (- 106 to -43) Somnium Scipionis (Keyes, 2), and Plutarch's (+48 to + 123) De Facie in
Orbe Lunae, which had contained similar ideas, but which had lain dormant through the long period of
dominance of 'solid sphere' conceptions. It will hardly be believed that Lucian's contemporary,
Chang Heng the great astronomer, mathematician and engineer, also wrote an imaginary journey
beyond the sun-his Ssu Hsiian Fu,' an essay contained in the Wen Hsiion collection (ch. 15): cf.
Hughes (7), pp. 79, 87, 117, 118; (8).
e + 15 62 to + 1633. He had known Bruno at Oxford, and later became Bishop of Llandaff and
Chester. Cf. M. H. Nicolson (I), p. 71, for a fuller account.
f It will be recalled that just such a device was imagined by H. G. Wells in his First Men in the
Moon.
g McColley (2) conjectures that' Domingo Gonsales' partly conceals Matteo Ricci-both were born
in 1552 and reach Peking in 1601; both have a subordinate called Diego (in Ricci's case, Didace de
Pantoja) and use Macao as their depot for dispatches to Europe. It is certain that Godwin borrowed
much from Trigault's De Christian a Expeditione apud Sinas.
h + 1614 to + 1672, Bishop of Chester. For a fuller account see M. H. Nicolson (I), p. 93.
1 ,I!.\ 14Jit
 20. ASTRONOMY

amusing political satire of Daniel Defoe, The Consolidator; or Memoirs of Sundry

Transactions from the World in the Moon (1705), who mentions both Godwin and
Wilkins. So far as China is concerned the satire is double-edged, for while many
exaggerated stories are told of Chinese inventions and discoveries,a the Chinese
devotion to natural law and good custom is used to contrast the political absolutism
of European governments. b The Consolidator, or 'Apezolanthukanistes', is a real
anticipation of the aeroplane; it has wings and carries enough fuel to last out the
voyage to the moon. As Chhien Chung-Shu (2) has pointed out, the ambivalent atti-
tude of European to Chinese science is well seen, for while Defoe speaks of the' gross
and absurd ignorance of the Chinese of the motions of the heavenly bodies', the inter-
planetary aeroplane could only be supposed to have been made and used by people
well versed in astronomy and mechanics. Yet a third recurrence of the Chinese theme
is found in Miles Wilson's History of Israel Jobson, the Wandering Jew, who visited
all the planets and allegedly wrote the account of his travels in Chinese (1757).c
Indeed, it is hardly possible to take up any seventeenth-century book dealing with the
idea that there are other peopled solar systems besides our own, without finding some
reference to China. For example, in the Entretiens sur la Pluralite des Mondes written
by B. de Fontenelle in 1686, the subject is discussed in the guise of evening con-
versations with a great lady at a country house. After many passing mentions of China, d
the narrator says: e
Je viens de vous dire, repondis-je, toutes les nouvelles que je s~ay du Ciel, & je ne croy
pas qu'il y en ait de plus fraiches. Je suis bien fache qu'elles ne soient pas aussi surprenantes
et aussi merveilleuses que quelques Observations que je lisois l'autre jour dans un Abrege
des Annales de la Chine, ecrit en Latin, & imprime depuis peu. On y voit des mille Etoiles
a la fois qui tombent du Ciel dans la Mer avec un grand fracas, ou qui se dissolvent, et s'en
vont en pluye, & eel a n'a pas este veu pour une fois a la Chine. ray trouve cette Observation
en deux temps assez eloignez, sans compter une Etoile qui s'en va crever vers l'Orient,
comme une fusee, toujours avec grand bruit. Il est fa.cheux que ces spectacles-la soient
reservez pour la Chine, & que ces Pays-cy n'en ayent jamais eu leur part. Il n'y a pas long-
terns que tous nos Philosophes se croyoient fondez en experience pour soutenir que les
Cieux et tous les corps Celestes estoient incorruptibles & incapables de changement, &
pendant ce temps-la d'autres hommes a l'autre bout de la Terre voyoient des Etoiles se
dissoudre par milliers; cela est assez different.
Mais, dit-elle (Mme la Marquise), n'ay-je pas toujours ouy dire que les Chinois estoient
de si grands Astronomes?
Il est vrai, repris-je, mais les Chinois y ont gagne a estre separez de nous par un long
espace de Terre, comme les Grecs et les Romains a en estre separez par une longue suite de
siecles; tout eloignement est en droit de nous imposer ....
a Printing and gunpowder are of course referred to, and the construccion of very large ships, but
there is also mention of storm and tide prediction, and imaginary inventions such as typewriters and
dictaphones are described.
b The Chinese polity is said to be based on the belief that' Natural Right is superior to Temporal
Power', a heretical doctrine for the West, 'long since exploded by our learned doctors, who have
proved that kings and emperors came down from heaven with crowns on their h eads, and that all
their subjects were born with saddles on their backs.' On Defoe's book in general see M. H. Nicolson(l),
p. 183. c M . H. Nicolson (1), p. 177.
d Pp . 46, 95, 165, 182, 236 ff. e P. 294.
442 20. ASTRONOMY

So here again, with bantering tone, a European expositor of post-Renaissance

cosmology, while gently making fun of the Chinese reputation for wisdom in such
matters, hints that indeed they had long known of the birth and death of stars (novae,
meteors, etc.) which European tradition had made immutable; and of the almost
infinite distance and diversity of those lights which European tradition had supposed
truly fixed to a revolving crystal sphere. In a word, specific investigations might be
worth making to ascertain whether the complete disbelief of the Chinese in the solid
celestial spheres of the Ptolemaic-Aristotelian world-picture, which became evident to
the Jesuits as soon as they began to discuss cosmology in China, was not one of the
elements which combined in breaking up medieval views in Europe, and contributed
to the birth of modern astronomy. For such a suggestion there is contemporary
evidence in the words of Christopher Scheiner, seeking about 1625 to show that the
realm of the stars had a fluid nature.
The peoples of China [he said] have never taught in any of their innumerable and flourishing
academies that the heavens are solid; or so we may conclude from their printed books, dating
from all times during the past two millennia. Hence one can see that the theory of a liquid
heavens is really very ancient, and could be easily demonstrated; moreover one must not
despise the fact that it seems to have been given as a natural enlightenment to all peoples.
The Chinese are so attached to it that they consider the contrary opinion (a multiplicity of
solid celestial spheres) perfectly absurd, as those inform us who have returned from among
them."
And we may take as another example the words of Nieuwhoff (1665) who found the
idea of a plurality of worlds very Chinese. b
In any case, the height of irony is reached when we find Wells Williams, in 1848,
reproaching late Chhing popular writers for their belief in solid celestial spheres,
under the impression that this was a primitive Chinese doctrine still persisting. c

(2) THE IMPERFECT TRANSMISSION

The sincere (and well-justified) admiration of Ricci himself for the instruments of
Kuo Shou-Ching has already been noted. d But such was the decadence of the late
Ming period, and so convinced were the Europeans of their scientific superiority, that
the accounts of Chinese astronomy which got through to 17th-century Europe were
mainly unfavourable. One or two relevant passages are worth looking at. Thus Trigault
wrote:
They have some Knowledge also of Astrologie and the Mathematikes: In Arithmetike
and Geometry antiently more excellent, but in learning and teaching confused. They reckon
a Rosa Ursina (1630), p. 765 (Bk. 4, Pt. 2, ch. 29, Pro Caelo Liquido Auctoritates Astronomorurn),
tr. Bernard-Maltre (7), p. 57, eng. auct. Scheiner's informant must have been Trigault.
b Nieuwhoff had accompanied the Dutch ambassadors to Peking in + 1656 (Cordier (1), vol. 3,
p. 262). In the second part of the book which he wrote about this embassy and about China he said:
'Et les opinions qu'ont quelques-uns (des Chinois) dans la physique, conformes a celles de Democrite
et de Pythagore touch ant la pluralite des Mondes, monstrent asses combien ceux de cette Nation se
plaisent a l'etude des choses naturelles' (p. 14).
c (1), vel. 2, p. 73 . d P. 367 above.
 20. ASTRONOMY 443
four hundred Starres more than our Astrologers have mentioned, numb ring certaine smaller
which do not always appeare. Of the heavenly Appearances they have no rules: they are
much busied about foretelling Eclipses, and the courses of Planets, but therein very erroneous;
and all their Skill of Starres is in a manner that which we call Judiciall Astrology, imagining
these things below to depend on the Starres. Somewhat they have received of the Westerne
Saracens, but they confirme nothing by Demonstration, only have left to them Tables, by
which they reckon the Eclipses and Motions.
The first of this Royal Family (the Ming) forbad any to learne this Judiciall Astrology but
those which by Hereditary right are thereto designed, to prevent Innovations. But he
'which now reigneth mayntayneth divers Mathematicians, both Eunuches within the Palace
and Magistrates without, of which there are in Pequin two Tribunals, one of Chinois, which
follow their owne Authors, another of Saracens which reforme the same by their rules, and
by conference together. Both have in a small Hill a Plaine for contemplation where are the
huge Mathematicall Instruments of Brasse before mentioned: One of the Colledge nightly
watcheth thereon as is before observed. That of Nanquin exceeds this of Pequin, as being
then the Seat Royall. When the Pequin astrologers foretell Eclipses, the Magistrates and
Idoll Ministers are commanded to assemble in their Officiary Habits to helpe the labouring
Planets, which they think they do with beating brazen Bels, and often kneelings, all the time
that they thinke the Eclipse lasteth, lest they should then be devoured (as I have heard) by
I know not what Serpent. a
Another passage, from Lecomte, is of much interest as giving an eye-witness account
of that nightly observation which had been going on for perhaps three millennia.
They still continue their Observations. Five Mathematicians spend every Night on the
Tower in watching what passes over head; one is gazing towards the Zenith, another to the
East, a third to the West, the fourth turns his eyes Southwards, and a fifth Northwards, that
nothing of what happens in the four Corners of the World may scape their diligent Obser-
vation. They take notice of the Winds, the Rain, the Air, of unusual Phenomena's, such as
are Eclipses, the Conjunction or Opposition of Planets, Fires, Meteors, and all that may be
useful. This they keep a strict Accompt of, which they bring in every Morning to the
Surveyor of the Mathematicks, to be registered in his Office. If this had always been practised
by able and careful Mathematicians, we should have a great number of curious Remarks; b
but besides that these Astronomers are very unskilful, they take little care to improve that
Science; and provided their Salary be paid as usual, and their Income constant, they are in
no great trouble about the Alterations and Changes which happen in the Sky. But if these
Phenomena's are very apparent, as when there happens an Eclipse, or a Comet appears,
they dare not be altogether so negligent. c
Now the two most important features in European astronomy at the time the
Jesuits began their work in China were (a) the invention and use of the telescope, and
(b) the acceptance of the heliocentric theory of Copernicus. The former they trans-
mitted, but the latter, after some hesitations, they held back. The reform of the Chinese
calendar, which usually looms so large, and of which some criticisms have already been
made (pp. 258, 404 above), has been exhaustively described by Bernard-Maitre (7); in
a The passage is taken from the recension of his De Christiana Expeditione (+ 1615) englished in
Purchas his Pilgrimes, vo!. 3, p . 384. Also Gallagher ed. p . 3I.
b Lecomte evidently had no idea as to the relative value of ancient and medieval records of celestial
phenomena in China and Europe.
C Memoirs and Observations, etc., p. 71.
 20. ASTRONOMY

reality, it was much less significant than the two developments just mentioned. Owing
to the researches of d'Elia (I, 3) we are now fairly well informed about what really
happened. Szczesniak (2) has said that the Copernican conflict had an even more tragic
history in China than in Europe, since it lasted down to the end of the 18th century.
Duyvendak (6) has underlined the importance of the failure of the Jesuits to transmit
the heliocentric system of the universe.
Ricci died in Peking in 1610, the same year in which Galileo published his Sidereus
Nuntius. In the following winter, Christopher Clavius and other Jesuits of the Roman
College repeated his telescopic observations a and confirmed them. But this made the
Jesuits anti-Aristotelian rather than anti-Ptolemaic. Clavius, the teacher and friend of
Ricci, died in 1612. The two condemnations of Galileo's Copernican views b were in
1616 and 1632, and must have had considerable effect on the China Mission. The first
reference to the telescope in Chinese is in the Thien Wen Liieh I (Explicatio Sphaerae
Coelestis)c by Emanuel Diaz (Yang Ma-No2) of 1615, where Galileo is said to have
devised it because he 'lamented the weakness of the unaided eye' (ai chhi mu li 3). Venus
was seen as big as the moon, and Saturn looked as if it had a hen's egg on each side
(Fig. 185), while Jupiter's satellites were clearly visible (Fig. 187). In 1618 Johannes
Terrentius (Johann Schreck; Teng Yii-Han 4) arrived in China; he had been the seventh
member of the Cesi Academy, having been elected next after Galileo, and was an
astronomer and physicist of great gifts. He brought with him a telescope, which was
eventually given to the emperor in 1634, and remained in touch with Galileo, who was
not very helpful, and with Kepler, who took more interest. d Kepler sent out with the
Polish Jesuit Michael Boym (Pu Mi-Ko 5) e a set of the (Copernican) Rudolphine Tables
in 1627, and Boym, who stayed at Macao, passed them on with enthusiastic praise to
Peking.! In the previous year, Adam Schall von Bell (Thang Jo-Wang 6 )g had pub-
a Especially on the lunar mountains, the sun-spots, the phases of Venus, the shape of Saturn, the
moons of Jupiter, the nebula in Orion, the Praesepe cluster in Cancer, and many stars not before
visible. John Adam Schall von Bell, later to be the first European Director of the Chinese Bureau of
Astronomy, was present as a young man in the hall of the Roman College in May x6x I when Galileo
received a triumphant welcome from Clavius and his 'mathematicians' after their confirmation of his
discoveries.
b See Banfi (I) and de Santillana (x), two recent valuable contributions to this long discussed subject.
c Cordier (8), p. 18. On the coming of the telescope to Japan see Mikami (17).
d 'Father Terrentius', says Gaubil (5), p. 285, 'wrote to the celebrated Kepler, telling him what the
Yao Tien (chapter of the Shu Ching) reports about the stars. Undoubtedly it was on this occasion that
he sent him the Chinese method for computing solar eclipses. Kepler was also informed of the eclipses
in the Shu Ching and the Shih Ching, as well as of others taken from the Chhun Chhiu and the (dynastic)
histories. But now we have not been able to find here the copies of the letters, nor of the replies which
Kepler doubtless made to them.' Actually the letters and the answers were printed in 1630 in Silesia
(Pfister (I), p. 157), and reprinted in the Frisch edition of Kepler's works, vol. 7. pp. 667 ff. Cf.
Bernard-Maitre (7). On the general question of the relations of Terrentius (Schreck) and other Jesuit
scientists with Galileo and Kepler, see Gabrieli (I, 2) and Bernard-Maitre (12). Schreck knew them
both personally.
e See Szczesniak (6). f See Szczesniak (3).
g See his biography by Viith (x). Though Terrentius and then Rho had been in charge of calendar
reform from 1629 onwards, Schall von Bell was the first to receive official rank as Director (Chien Cheng7)
of the Bureau of Astronomy (Chhin Thien Chien 8). No Jesuit was ever President of it. The succession
 PLATE LXIII

Fig. 185. Two pages from the Thien Wen Lueh (Explicatio Sphaerae Coelestis) of Emanuel Diaz (+ 1615)
relating for the first time in Chinese the discoveries made with Galileo's telescopes.
The right-hand page relds: 'Most of the above observations (on lengths of days and nights, eclipses,
etc.) were made with the naked eye. But such vision is short; how could it attain to even one ten-
thousandth part of the mysterious principles of the vast Heavens? Quite recently, however, a famous
scholar of the West, particularly learned in calendrical science and himself an observer of the sun,
moon and planets, deploring the weakness of his eyes, has made an ingenious instrument which helps
them. With this device an object one foot in size can be seen at a distance of 60 li as clearly as if it was
in front of one's eyes. The moon, seen through (this telescope) seems a thousand times larger than usual.'
The left-hand page reads : 'Venus appears as large as the moon; its light increases and decreases just
like the moon's. Saturn, as shown in the above diagram, seems to have a rounded shape like that of an
egg, with two small stars on each side, but whether or not they are attached to it we do not know.
Jupiter can be seen always surrounded by four small stars, continually revolving around it at great
speed, one at the west and one at the east, or vice versa, and sometimes all on the west side or all on
the east side-(in any case) their movement differs greatly from that of the 28 hsiu. For these stars
must remain in the regions of (each of) the seven planets, and form (indeed) a special sort of star.
Then, when one looks (with the telescope) at the great constellations in the firmament one sees an
immense multitude of small stars closely crowded together, hence the light from their bodies seems to
form a white stream, which we call the Milky Way. As soon as one of these instruments arrives in China
we shall give more details on its marvellous uses' (tr. d'Elia (3), mod. auct.).
The 'triple' appearance of Saturn was first seen by Galileo in + 1610 but he could never interpret it;
the disposition of the rings and satellites was not clarified until Huygens' Systema Saturnium of 1659.
 PLATE LXIV

Fig. 186. The first Chinese picture of the telescope, the' far-seeing optick
glass', from Adam Schall von Bell's Yuan Ching Shuo of + 1626.
 20. ASTRONOMY 445
lished a Chinese treatise on the telescope, Yuan Ching Shuo 1 (The Far-Seeing Optick
Glass) (cf. Fig. 186).a But not until + 1640, in Schall's history of Western astronomy
in Chinese, were the names of Galileo (Chia-Li-Lueh 2), Tycho Brahe (Ti-Ku 3),
Copernicus (Ko-Pai-Ni 4) and K.epler (Kho-Pai-Erh 5) actually mentioned. b
It is clear that in this early period, especially before the condemnation of Galileo,
the missionaries were not at one on Copernicanism. It was favoured by Boym, and
taught by Nicholas Smogul~cki (Mu Ni-K 06), another Pole, at Nanking, while
\Venceslaus Kirwitzer, who went out with Terrentius, was definitely a Copernican, but

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died young in 1626. In general it may be said that Chinese books between 1615 and
1635 described the telescopic discoveries, but did not mention Copernican ism, then
for a short time the heliocentric theory was described, but after news of the condemna-
tion had reached China a curtain descended and a return to the Ptolemaic view took
was as follows: Schall (1645-66), Verbiest (1669-88), P. M. Grimaldi (1688-1706 an d 1710-12),
A. Thomas (Acting, 1686-94), C. Kastner (1707-<), B. Kilian Stumpf (1712-20), I. Kogler (1720-46),
A. von Hallerstein (1746-74), Felix da Rocha (1774-81), J. d'Espinha (1781-3), and J. B. d'Almeida
(1783-1805). Pfister (I), p . 886, says that d'Almeida closed the line, but from Huc (I), himself a Lazarist,
we learn that the last missionary to be employed in the Bureau of Astronomy, perhaps not as Director,
was the Lazarist Gaetan Pires-Pereira (d . 1838).
a Cordier (8), p. 37. This book included a rough picture of the Crab Nebula, though neither Schall
nor his readers knew what its later importance for cosmology would be, nor that it had come from the
+1054 supernova observed only in China and Japan.
b Li Fa Hsi Chrlan;' see Pfister (I), p. 180. Such transliterations were long in use, cf. Chhou Jen
Chuan, chs. 43-6.

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6.n;.1IIl
 20. ASTRONOMY

place. a This had long before been clearly expounded in the Chien Phing I Shuo l
(Elementary Explanations of Astronomical Instruments)b of 1611 by Sabbathin
de Ursis (Hsiung San-Pa 2 ).
Humanistic colleagues have sometimes expressed surprise that the Jesuits could have
been so successful at preparing for the Chinese court a calendar of ' Renaissance' type
while at the same time adhering to the Ptolemaic world-system and rejecting the
Copernican. c The first answer is that on the purely calendricallevel there is nothing to
choose between them. The geocentric and the heliocentric hypotheses were in strict
mathematical equivalence; whether the earth or the sun was at rest, the lengths and
angles were identical, and similar triangles had to be solved.d Decision lay far beyond
the frame of reference of the calendar-computer; it needed the relatively accurate

Fig. 188. Diagram of the Tychonic theory of the solar system

(from the Thu Shu Chi Chheng).

observational data of the age of Cassini and Flamsteed. Secondly, the Chinese them-
selves had produced very good calendars for centuries before the time of the Jesuits
without employing any geometrical model of the solar system at all. A calendar is
only a method of reconciling terrestrial-celestial periodicities observed as carefully as
possible, predicting their recurrences, and adjusting conventional human time units
a In the Thu Shu Chi Chheng encyclopaedia there is a diagram of the Tychonic theory of the solar
system (Fig. 188 from Lifa tien, ch. 65, p. 3b); cf. Berry (I), p. 137. We have not found a diagram of
the Copernican.
b Pfister (I), p . 105.
e I am much indebted to Dr Victor Purcell for raising this point in challenging form.
d See the discussion of Price (2), p. 94.
 20. ASTRONOMY 447
(months, days, etc.) to the best fit.a 'Nhere the Jesuits scored was in the more advanced
character of their instruments and the superiority of their mathematics (old geometry
indeed but quite new algebra). But it took them nearly a century to learn to profit by
the great wealth of recorded Chinese celestial observations.
A curious result of the Jesuit failure to make use of the Chinese records until the
time of Gaubil was that when Terrentius in 1628 expounded the telescopic discovery of
sun-spots in his Tshe Thien Yo Shuo I (Brief Description of the Measurement of the
Heavens),b there was no mention of the fact that they had been known for a dozen
centuries before the Europeans discovered them.
Szczesniak (I) has contrasted the situation of China with that of Japan. The effect
of the closure of Japan between 1616 and 1720 was to emphasise the contribution of
Dutch traders rather than that of Roman Catholic missionaries. When the first
modern observatory in Japan was founded about 1725 under the direction of Nakane
Genkei,2 Copernican ideas were fully admitted there. c But in China it was not until
the early 19th century, with the contributions of the Protestant missionaries, such as
Joseph Edkins, Alex. Wylie and John Fryer, that Copernican views really spread.
Some detail of their work will be found in Szczesniak (2). But it is impossible to accept
his contention that the main reason of the Jesuits for not propagating Copernicanism
was the resistance of the Chinese to any abandonment of the geocentric world-view;
this can have been only a part of the story. On the whole, one concludes that the Jesuit
contribution was not an unmixed blessing.

(3) 'WESTERN' SCIENCE OR 'NEW' SCIENCE?

Nevertheless, the later work of the Society was indeed impressive. Between 1629 and
1635 the second generation of missionaries, including, besides Terrentius and Schall
von Bell, James Rho (Lo Ya-Ku 3 ), and, to a minor extent, Nicholas Longobardi
(Lung Hua-Min 4),d collaborating with Hsii Kuang-Chhi, Li Chih-Tsao and Li
Thien-Ching,5 produced a monumental compendium of the scientific knowledge of
the time. This was entitled, upon its presentation in the latter year, the Chhung-Chen
Li Shu 6 (Chhung-Chen Reign-Period Treatise on (Astronomy and) Calendrical
a A great deal of nonsense has been written about the calendar reform of the Jesuits in China.
Cronin (I), pp. 142,230, 231, writes as if the Gregorian Calendar (partly the work of Matteo Ricci's
teacher Christopher Clavius) adopted in Europe in 1582 was a corollary of the Ptolemaic theory. This,
he suggests, had been introduced to China by the Arabs, but rejected there, so that its absence caused
calendrical disorder. On the contrary, the Gregorian Calendar was simply another system of inter-
calation, more ingenious than its forerunners, but still arbitrary, as any such system of reconciling
incommensurables must be. Cf. Fotheringham (I), p. 743; Phi lip (I), p . 20.
b Pfister (I), p. 157.
C The growth of modern science in Japan lies outside our field. But attention may be drawn to an
interesting series of papers by Mikami (8, 9, 10,11, 14). A Japanese physician (Petrus Hartsingiu s
Japonensis, perhaps identical with Hatono Soha) studied in 17th-century Leiden, and managed to return
to his own country. An Italian missionary (Giuseppe Chiara) abandoned his mission, took a Japanese
name (Sawano ChUan 7 ) and settled down to spend his life translating Dutch scientific books, especially
on astronomy. On Nakane Genkei see Hayashi (2), pp. 354ff.
d We have met with him before in connection with Leibniz (Sect. 161, in Vol. 2, p. 501 above).

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 20. ASTRONOMY

Science).a After the Manchus came in, ten years later, in 1645, Schall von Bell
attained greater favour, and the encyclopaedia was reissued as the Hsi- Yang Hsin Fa
Li Shu I (Treatise on (Astronomy and) Calendrical Science according to the New
Western Methods).b Eventually it formed the basis for the Yii.-Ting Li Hsiang Khao
Chheng 2 (Complete Studies on Astronomy and Calendar),C edited by Ho Kuo-
Tsung 3 and Mei Ku-Chheng 4 and printed in 1723. Later on, in 1738, after much
of it had been incorporated in the Thu Shu Chi Chheng encyclopaedia,d it was improved
by the addition of astronomical tables embodying the new observations of Cassini and
Flamsteed. These were the work of Ignatius Kogler (Tai Chin-Hsien 5) and Andrew
Pereira (Hsii Mou-Te 6).e
Here we must halt a moment. The reader will probably have noticed nothing
especially significant in the preceding paragraph, seemingly concerned only with the
recitation of fact. But actually it raises certain points of extreme importance in these
culture-contacts of the two great civilisations, and we must look at the facts more
closely. It is vital today that the world should recognise that 17th-century Europe did
not give rise to essentially 'European' or 'Western' science, but to universally valid
world science, that is to say, 'modern' science as opposed to the ancient and medieval
sciences. Now these last bore indelibly an ethnic image and superscription. Their
theories, more or less primitive in type, were culture-rooted, and could find no common
medium of expression. But when once the basic technique of discovery had itself been
discovered, once the full method of scientific investigation of Nature had been under-
stood, the sciences assumed the absolute universality of mathematics, and in their
modern form are at home under any meridian, the common light and inheritance of
every race and people. Of argument about elements and humours, Yin and Yang, or
, philosophical sulphur', there could be no end, the disputants could reach no common
ground. But the mathematisation of hypotheses led to a universal language, an
oecumenical medium of exchange, a reincarnation of the merchants' single-value
standard on a plane transcending merchandise. And what this language communicates
is a body of incontestable scientific truth acceptable to all men everywhere. Without it
a It has 100. 110 or 137 chapters (not of course 'volumes' as so often said). according to different
editions and sources. Cf. Pfister (I). p. 156; Bernard-Maitre (7). p. 452; Li Nien (4). vo!. I. p. 167.
(21). vo!. 3. p . 37.
b It now contained an appendix entitled Hsin Fa Piao 17 (Differences between the Old and the New
Astronomical Systems). and later on, in 1656, Schall von Bell added his Li Fa Hsi Chuan (History of
Western Astronomy). already mentioned, as another.
C This formed . with the treatise on acoustics and music. Lii Lii Cheng 1. and the companion one on
mathematics. Shu Li Ching Yiin. the three parts of the Lii Li Yuan Yuan (Ocean of Calendrical and
Acoustic Calculations). an official and imperial publication. There is room for some doubt about the
true authorship of the Li Hsiang Khao Chheng. though it was certainly Chinese and not Jesuit ; cf.
Hummel (2). pp. 93. 285. 922. Elaborate description by Bernard-Maitre (7). Cf. p. 53 above.
d Li fa tien. chs. 51--78.
e Andrew Pereira is of particular interest to us as he was the only Englishman among all the Jesuits
of the China Mission. He came of a family of the name of Jackson. settled in Oporto. doubtless con·
nected with the wine trade and naturalised Portuguese. He seems to have been a very sympathetic
character. and was a particular friend of the Yung-Cheng emperor, not otherwise an amateur of
missionaries. Cf. Pfister (I). p. 652.
 20. ASTRONOMY 449
plagues are not checked, and aircraft will not fly. The physically unified world of our
own time has indeed been brought into being by something that happened historically
in Europe, but no man can be restrained from following the path of Galileo and
Vesalius, and the period of political dominance which modern technology granted to
Europeans is now demonstrably ending.
In their gentle way, the Jesuits were among the first to exercise this dominance,
spiritual though in their case it was meant to be. To seek to accomplish their religious
mission by bringing to China the best of Renaissance science was a highly enlightened
proceeding, yet this science was for them only a means to an end. Their aim was
naturally to support and commend the ' Western' religion by the prestige of the science
from the West which accompanied it. This new science might be true, but for the
missionaries what mattered just as much was that it had originated in Christendom.
The implicit logic was that only Christendom could have produced it. Every correct
eclipse prediction was thus an indirect demonstration of the truth of Christian theology.
The non sequitur was that a unique historical circumstance (the rise of modern science
in a civilisation with a particular religion) cannot prove a necessary concomitance.
Religion was not the only feature in which Europe differed from Asia. But the
Chinese were acute enough to see through all this from the very beginning. The
Jesuits might insist that Renaissance natural science was primarily ' Western', but the
Chinese understood clearly that it was primarily ' new' .
Thus the' Chhung-Chen treatise ' of 1635 reappeared ten years later as the' Western
treatise according to New Methods'. Schall von Bell had been wanting to use the word
' Western' a long time previously. In a letter to Francis Furtado (Fu Fan-Chi I) of
November 1640, he said he was aiming at a Hsi Kho z (Western Bureau) within the
Li Kho 3 (Department of the Calendar), but that the disadvantage of this was that it put
it only on a level with the Muslim Bureau (Hui-Hui Kho 4) already existing. He wrote :
' The word Hsi (Western) is very unpopular (with the Chinese), and the emperor in
his edicts never uses any word other than Hsin (New); in fact the former word is
employed only by those who wish to depreciate us.' a But after the change of dynasty
Schall evidently felt that he could freely use the term ' Western' ; after all, the Manchus
were foreign too. So for many years printed calendars bore the title ' ... i Hsi-Yang
Hsin Fa' (according to the New Western Methods). For this he was taken to task in
1661 by Yang Kuang-Hsien,s and three years later formally condemned by the
President of the Ministry of Rites for having used a formula' injurious for the dignity
of the empire'.b However, before long, Schall having died in 1666, his Belgian

• Bernard-Maitre (7), p . 463.

b Yan g Kuan g-Hsien was a scholar, amateu r astron om er, an d pertinaciou s anti-Jesu it con trover-
sialist. Associated with him was the M uslim astron omer W u Ming-HsUan.6 Schall could not remember
who had ori ginally authorised the phrase' Western ', but it seems to have been agreed u pon in the first
year of th e M anchu regime , when Rho was still in charge of the calendar reform, having inherited this
position from T errentius. These early d ays of th e scien tific activity of the mission are referred to in t h e
Ming S hih, ch . 326, pp . 17b ff. (tr. Bretschneider , 7). On the p rosecu tion and imprisonment of Schall,
see Bernard-Maitre (7), p . 477.
 20. ASTRONOMY

successor Ferdinand Verbiest (Nan Huai-Jen 1)a was called to the Khang-Hsi
emperor (who had succeeded in 1662) and spent no less than five months daily with
him teaching and explaining the new mathematics and astronomy.b It was then about
1669 that the encyclopaedia was reissued with again a new title, theHsin Fa Suan Shu 2
(Treatise on Mathematics (and Astronomy) according to the New Methods).c The
emperor's insistence united him unknowingly with that group of men at the other end
of the world who exactly at the same time were meeting in the Royal Society to work
out the implications of the' new, or experimental, philosophy'-just as new for Europe
as for China. d
Down to the very end of the mission the Jesuits were the prisoners of their limited
motive and the Chinese sought persistently to emphasise the continuity of the new
science with the old. For example, in 1710 Jean-Fran~ois Foucquet (Fu Sheng-Tse 3 )
and others of the Society wished to make use of the new planetary tables of P. de la
Hire, e but the Father-Visitor would not permit it, for fear of 'giving the impression of
a censure on what our predecessors had so much trouble to establish, and occasioning
new accusations against our religion'. f Any acceptance of Copernican ism would
equally have raised doubts about all Ricci's teachings. In fact the penalty of enlisting
live science in the service of fixed doctrine was to inhibit its development-Urania's
feet were bound. Only in certain cases could the Jesuits move forward; for instance,
the armillary sphere of 1744 was a Chinese (and therefore 'modern') equatorial, not a
Greek ecliptic, instrument; the old European coordinates were quietly given up.
Meanwhile the Chinese were much concerned to show that the study of Nature had a
continuous history. This is transparent from passages such as the following: g
In the Wan-Li reign-period (+ 1573 to + 1619) the western foreigner Li Ma-Tou (Matteo
Ricci) made designs for an armillary sphere, a celestial and a terrestrial globe, etc. Li Chih-
Tsao of Jen-ho wrote a discussion on the discovery, construction and use of the armillary
sphere, which, though of some length, did not include diagrams. For (the new design) was
not essentially different from the (long-known) apparatus constituted by the' component of
the six cardinal points', the 'component of the three arrangers of time' and the ' com-
ponent of the four displacements'.h The main improvement was that whereas formerly the
polar altitude was fixed in the casting, the new model was so arranged as to be adjustable for
different latitudes-a very convenient thing . ...
The design and construction of astronomical instruments, and the making of observations
have always been the first duty of astronomers. Those who are technically skilful can devise
a See Bemard-Maitre (II), and de Burbure (1) from whom we reproduce Fig. 189.
b Large scrolls and wall-diagrams of planispheres, planetary motions, and astronomical instruments,
wdl printed in Chinese, both by Schall von Bell in the thirties and by Verbiest in the sixties, are still
extant, though very mre. I had the opportunity of examining a number of them in the possession of
Messrs P. R. Robinson, Ltd., in London in 1956. All published bibliographies are inadequate regarding
these charts. C Cf. Bemard-Maitre (7), p . 481 .

d Mr Jean Chesneaux was the first to see the importance of the successive changes in the titles of
the Jesuit b"oks, and I owe to him an appreciation of it. We have emphasised it together elsewhere
(ChesneauJ< & Needham, 1).
e Tabulae Astronomicae, Paris, 1702 (R. Wolf (3), vol. 2, p. 288).
t Pfister (1), p. 551. g Ming Shih, ch. 25, pp. 17a, 19b; tr. auet.
h Cf. pp. 343 if. above.
 PLATE LXV

Fig. 189. Ferdinand Verbiest, habited as a Chinese official, with his sextant and his celestial globe.
The picture is a Japanese print by Utagawa Kuniyoshi (1797 to 1861), one of a series of 108 entitled
Tsugoku Suikoden Koketsu hy aju hachinin ikko (The Hundred and Eight Heroes of the Popular Novel
Shui Hu Chuan). The legend reads : 'Cbioku Seigoyo [Chih-To-Hsing, Wu Yung], a man from the
village of Tokei, having the cog nomen Gagaku-kyudo, and the literary name Karyu-sensei. In military
science he was not inferior to Komei [i.e. Chuko Liang] and Taikoho [i.e. Chiang Tzu-Ya], and for
wiles and stratagems he equalled Hanrei [i.e. Fan Li]. He was a general at Ryosanhaku [i.e. Liang Shan
Po, the headquarters of the rebellion described in All Men are Brothers].' None of these names resembles
in the least Verbiest's real Chinese name, N an Huai-Jen, but the allusion must be to his casting of cannon
for the Chh:ng government in + 1675 against Wu San-Kuei. His conflation with one of the heroes of
popular literature in this way is remarkable (photo. Michel, reproduced by de Burbure).
 PLATE LXVI

Fig. 190. The Peking Observatory refitted by Ferdinand Verbiest (+ 1674), according to
the engraving made by Melchior Haffner fo r Verbiest's Astronomia Europaea of + 1687
and often copied elsewhere both in Chinese and Western books (e.g. Thu Shu Chi Chheng).
The view is taken from the south. The instruments shown are as follows, proceeding from
the north-east corner of the platform (background, right): sextant, q uadrant, horizon circle,
ecliptic armillary sphere, celestial globe, equatorial armillary sphere . The eastern wall of
the city, not shown, runs along the right-hand side of the picture.
Fig. 191. The Peking Observatory, photographed about 1925 from the north-east corner of the platform. On the right the armillary sphere of
Kogler & von Hal1erstein (+ 1744) and Verbiest 's quadrant. In the centre, Verbiest's celestial globe. At the back, in the southern row, from right
to left, Verbiest's ecliptic armillary sphere and horizon circle, then Stumpf's quadrant altazimuth (+ 1714) (photo. Whipple Museum Collection).
The background is formed by the roofs and trees of the city of Peking.
 PLATE LXVIII

Fig. 192. The sextant of + 1673 at the Peking Observatory

(photo. Whipple Museum Collection).
 20. ASTRONOMY 45 1
ingenious improvements. Thus the Westerners have many instruments with various names
of which we cannot speak here, but among them the two instruments hun kai 1 and chien
phing Z are the most refined. a Reference must be made to the complete accounts for all
cannot be recorded herein.
And as a pendant to this consider the air-pump and its name. When Michel Benoist
(Chiang Yu-Jen 3 ) demonstrated this to the Chhien-Lung emperor in 1773 he termed
it the yen ehhi thung 4 (' air-testing pipe '), but the monarch decided next day that its
name should be changed to hou ehhi thung 5 (' air-observing pipe '), 'this word being
more elegant, having served in classical writings for natural observations on the
celestial bodies as well as on agricultural matters'.b He was of course thinking of the
antique names of the weather-vane and the seismograph,C and of one of the terms for
the armillary sphere. d

(4) THE INTEGRATION OF CH.INESE ASTRONOMY INTO MODERN SCIENCE

In 1669 there began the great refitting of the Peking observatory (Figs. 190, 191)e
under the care of Ferdinand Verbiest (Fig. 189). The instruments of Yuan or Ming
time were taken down from the astronomical platform on the eastern wall of the city,!
and a new set installed in their place, where they have remained until the present time.g
The Jesuit and later instruments are as follows: h
(I) Simple ecliptic armillary sphere, huang tao ehing wei i, 6 supported on four
dragon heads. Verbiest, 1673.
a These are not standard names but probably refer to instruments of quadrant altazimuth type.
b Pfister (I), p. 8z3, from Lettres Ed. IS! Curieuses, vo!. 4, p. zZ4.
C Cf. pp. 469, 478, 6z7 below. d Cf. p . 383 above.
e The literature on the instruments and their arrangement on the observatory platform is scattered
but copious. The best drawings of them in a Western work are those in Lecomte (French edition only).
Starting from the general view given by Verbiest himself (Fig. 190), which appears also in TSCC,
Lifa tien, ch. 93, pp. zb, 3 a, and was often copied (as by du Halde), the observatory can be studied in
the descriptions and illustrations of many successive authors from the middle of the last century-
J. Thomson (I), Mouchez (I), Bosmans (z), Damry (I), Planchet (I), Kao Lu (I), F . B. Robinson (I).
Very recently Chhen Tsun-Kuei (6) has produced a standard account of the instruments.
Intensive study has been devoted to the observatory's history by Mr P. A. Jehl of Paris, to whom
I am indebted for much interesting information.
f They long remained in and among the buildings belonging to the Bureau of Astronomy below the
platform, but in recent times two at least were kept at the Purple Mountain Observatory at Nanking
(cf. p. 367 above).
I have had the good fortune to be able to visit the Peking Observatory twice (1946 and 195z). Since
on the latter occasion the site was in a military area, I take this opportunity of thanking Captain Chou Li-
Kung for the very warm welcome which he accorded to our party. The instruments were in good
condition.
g Unless they have already been removed to indoor positions at the National Planetarium and
Museum of Astronomy first opened in Peking in May 1956. Dr Chu Kho-Chen has informed us that
some such better protection for them is planned. Apart from this, four of the Jesuit instruments
(nos. 3, 4, 6 and 8), together with the armillary sphere of Kuo Shou-Ching (see p . 369 above), were
carried away in 1901 by the Germans as part of their Boxer Rebellion indemnity, but returned to their
original places after the First World War, in 19zo. Their interim location had been the Sans Souci
Palace at Pots dam. Photographs of them taken there were published by R. Muller (I).
h Most of the best known enumerations are confused and erroneous, e.g. Couling (I), p . 40Z;
Fabre (I), pp. 76ff.; Arlington & Lewisohn (I), pp. 155ff.
'lI:If 'I!fi~ 3J{f;ti({:: .~j\,f;iJ 5~itf;iJ
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452 20. ASTRONOMY

(2) Simple equatorial armillary sphere, chhih tao ching wei i, I supported on the
arched back of a dragon. Verbiest, 1673.
(3) Large celestial globe, thien thi i,2 encased in a horizon framework with four
pedestals. Verbiest, 1673.
(4) Horizon circle for azimuth measurements, ti phing ching i,3 table supported on
four pedestals, pointers slung from an overhead bearing. Verbiest, 1673.
(5) Quadrant, ti phing wei i,4 or hsiang hsien i,S supported on a vertical shaft with
upper and lower bearings. Verbiest, 1673.
(6) Sextant, chi hsien i,6 on a single pedestal (Fig. 192). Verbiest, 1673.
(7) Quadrant altazimuth,a ti phing ching wei i.7 Stumpf, 1713-15.
(8) Elaborate equatorial armillary sphere,b chi heng tu chhen i. 8 Kogler, 1744,
assisted by von Hallerstein and Gogeisl, perhaps also by Gaubil and de la
Charme (Sun Chang 9).
(9) Smaller celestial globe,C hun hsiang lO •

Illustrations of the first six of these were published by Verbiest under the title of
I Hsiang Thu I I (Designs of Astronomical Instruments) with their description I Hsiang
Chih I2 (1673), d and finally incorporated into the Y u- Ting I H siang Khao Chheng I3
(Complete Studies of Astronomical Instruments) edited by Kogler & von Hallerstein
in 1744. A great deal of this, ric~ly illustrated, had appeared in the Thu Shu Chi
Chheng, e but the most beautiful drawings are those published by Tung Kao I4 in the
Huang Chhao Li Chhi Thu Shih IS (ch. 3) of 1759 and 1766. We have reproduced from
it the drawing of Verbiest's globe and other pictures (Figs. 136, 176, 177). We now add
two showing the preparation of other instruments (Figs. 193 and 194). The western

a This instrument is of a rather clumsy design, differing from all the others in having graduations
inlaid in brass, figures in Arabic numerals, but no founder's inscription and no dragon decorations
(cf. Chhen Tsun-Kuei (6), p. 45).
It has commonly been supposed that King Louis XIV of France presented it in these years to the
Khang-Hsiemperor, but no record of this remains in Chinese sources, as far as we know, and MrP. A. Jehl
informs me that no evidence of manufacture in Paris, or shipment, can be found. On the other hand,
Bemard Kilian Stumpf (Chi Li-AnI6), who was Director of the Astronomical Bureau from 171Z to 1720,
was afterwards said by his Chinese colleagues to have melted down some old bronze instruments to make
new ones (Pfister (I), p. 645). If this was so, the quadrant altazimuth must be a work of Stumpf's, and
its bronze must stem from instruments of the Yuan or Ming-which we would much rather have had
today than his.
b For the constructional details of this see p. 35Z and Table 31 above.
C There is considerable mystery about this instrument. Its casing and pedestal, though apparently of
18th-century style, differ from those of the Verbiest globe. It appears in photographs of the observatory
taken during the Potsdam interregnum and sometimes earlier, but disappears after 19ZO. One wonders
whether it could be the globe of Kuo Shou-Ching described in Yuan Shih , ch. 48, p. 5 b, presumably
seen both by Ricci and Lecomte (cf. Needham, Wang & Price), and eventually given an 18th-century
housing?
d Pfister (I), p. 354.
e Li fa tim, chs. 85 ff. Most of the illustrations of apparatus are in chs. 93-5, with explanations in
chs. 89--9Z.

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 20. ASTRONOMY 453

-*

Fig. 193. Making the Jesuit astronomical instruments for the Peking Observatory in + 1673; a page
from the Thu Shu Chi Chheng showing the grinding of a bronze armillary ring.

Fig. 194. Testing the trueness of a bronze armillary ring (from the Thu Shu Chi Chhengj.
454 20. ASTRONOMY

counterpart to these publications was the Astronomia Europaea sub Imperatore Tartaro-
Synico Cam Hy (Khang-Hsi) appellato, ex Umbra in Lucem Revocata, of 1687, from
which we have already seen the illustration of the whole observatory. a In the same
period comes the book by another Jesuit, Francis Noel (Wei Fang-Chi I), published
at Prague in 1710, in which he gave for European readers much information on the
stems, branches, hsiu, etc., with a rough correlation of Chinese and European star-
catalogues, and a discussion of Chinese metrology.b During the 18th century many
observations on eclipses were made, largely by Jacques-Philippe Simonelli (Hsii Ta-
Sheng2) and published jointly by him with Kogler and Melchior dell a Briga between
1744 and 1747. A great deal of positional work was done with the new instruments,
and a catalogue of 3083 stars was included in the I Hsiang Khao Chheng edition of 1757,
under a preface written by the emperor himself. The astronomers responsible were
Kogler and Felix da Rocha (Fu Tso-Lin 3) with Augustin von Hallerstein (Liu
Sung-Ling 4 ) and Anton Gogeisl (Pao Yu-Kuan s). These observations have all been
reduced to modern expression and published in translated form by Tsuchihashi
& Chevalier. Another event of importance in this period was the Huang Tao Tsung
Hsing Thu 6 (Star-Maps on Ecliptic Co-ordinates)C by Kogler, published a few years
after his death in 1746.
The transmissions of the Jesuits seem to have affected a number of Chinese scholars
who were more or less outside their circle. The works ofWang Hsi-Shan,7 for instance,
deserve a special investigation. d His Wu H sing Hsing Tu Chieh 8 (Analysis of the Motions
of the Five Planets), published in 1640, proposed essentially what had been the system
of Tycho Brahe, namely, that the sun moves round the earth but all the other planets
move round the sun (+ 1583).e One of his diagrams is reproduced in Fig. 195. There
is no evidence that this was not independently thought out, perhaps from a bare hint
that someone in the West had conceived this idea. He followed it up three years later
with a larger work, the Hsiao-An Hsin Fa 9 (Wang Hsi-Shan's New (Astronomical)
Methods), which was an attempt to synthesise Western and Chinese ideas. So far as
I can see, this astronomer was a capable man; at least he understood the Chinese
system, and knew that the hsiu were equatorial divisions, which was more than the
Jesuits did.
His contemporary Hsiieh Feng-Tsu 10 was more closely connected with the Jesuits,
since he was a collaborator of Smogult;cki at Nanking,! and therefore probably a
a A work with a very similar title, the Liber Organicus Astronomiae etc., had been printed by Verbiest
in Peking as early as 1668. It has u5 plates of astronomical instruments (see Cordier (8), p. 46;
Pfister (I), p. 358).
b Cf. Slouka (I). Noel was also an accomplished linguist, sinologist and philosopher whose other
books (2, 3, 4) played a part in the Rites Controversy. He was strongly on the sinophile side.
C Pfister (I), p . 647.\
d So also does the rare bookHan Yu Thung l l (General Survey of the Universe) of + 1648 by Hsiung
Ming-Yii l2 and his son Hsiung ]en-Lin ll on general astronomy (see Hummel, 6).
e Berry (I), p. 137. Cf. Fig. 188. f Cf. p. 52 above.

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 20. ASTRONOMY 455
Copernican. His Thien Hsueh Hui Thung of + 1650 was again a conciliation of
l

Chinese and Western astronomy, and his treatise on eclipses Thien Pu Chen Yuan z
(True Origins of the Celestial Movements) was the first book in Chinese to make use
of logarithms. Other scholars followed tradition in being more interested in chrono-
logy, e.g. Hsu Fa3, who in +1682 supported the unorthodox 'Bamboo Books' datings

Fig. 195. A geometrical construction from Wang Hsi-Shan's Wu Hsing Hsing Tu Chieh (1' 1640) to
explain the Tychonic theory of the solar system.

in his Thien Yuan Li Li Chhuan Shu 4 (Complete Treatise on the Thien Yuan
Calendar).a About this time also was Shao Ang-Hsiao's 5 Wan Chhing Lou Thu Pien 6
(Study of Star-Maps from the Myriad Bamboo Tablet Studio).
As the 18th century went on, Chinese astronomers and mathematicians emancipated
themselves more and more from the spell which the Jesuit apparition had woven during
the decadent Ming and early Chhing times. The Li Suan Chhuan Shu (Complete
Works on Calendar and Mathematics) of Mei Wen-Ting 7 (1723), of which we have
• Cf. Pinot (2), p. 63; Puini (I). This was the book to which Schlegel was principally indebted.
 20. ASTRONOMY

before spoken, included much astronomy. a His work stimulated a younger man,b
Chiang Yung,1 whose Shu Hsueh 2 (Mathematical Astronomy) and Thui Pu Fa Chieh 3
(Analysis of Celestial Motions) both appeared about the middle of the century. This
was contemporary with Sheng Pai-Erh's4 defence of the Tychonic against the
Ptolemaic system in his Shang Shu Shih Thien 5 (Discussion of the Astronomy in the
Historical Classic). c
At the end of the century, among several important works, mention may be made
of the treatise on celestial cartography, Kao Hou Meng Chhiu o (Investigation of the
Dimensions of the Universe), by Hsii Chhao-Chiin7 (1800).d Half a century later,
when Feng Kuei-Fen 8 gave tables of right ascensions and declinations of 100 stars
in his Hsien-Feng Yuan Nien Chung Hsing Piao,9 Chinese astronomical science might
be said to have merged at last with that of the world as a whole.
It was not to be expected that the over-emphasised, and in many respects erroneous,
claims of the Jesuits for the superiority of the European science of their time would
escape a strong reaction. Though this often took political and social forms, as may be
read in many accounts of the period, some Chinese astronomers of the old school were
actively in opposition. Thus in 1631 Wei.Wen-Khuei IO and his son Wei Hsiang-
Chhien II published two books on calendrical science (Li Yuan 12 and Li Tshe l3 ) which
were so important e that Schall von Bell had to write a refutation, the Hsiieh Li Hsiao
Pien. 14 On the other hand, the Chinese were generally open to conviction, for the
following statement was signed by ten officials of the Bureau of Astronomy:

At first we also had our doubts about the astronomy from Europe when it was used in the
chi-ssu year (1629), but after having read many clear explanations our doubts diminished by
half, and finally by participating in precise observations of the stars, and of the positions of
the sun and moon, our hesitations were altogether overcome. Recently we received the
imperial order to study these sciences, and every day we have been discussing them with the
Europeans. Truth must be sought not only in books, but in making actual experiments with
instruments; it is not enough to listen with one's ears, one must also carry out manipulations
with one's hands. All (the new astronomy) is then found to be exact.f

Unexpectedly, the Jesuit intervention led in due course to a rediscovery on the part of
the Chinese of the achievements of their own civilisation before the Ming decadence.

a Wylie (I), p. 90, gives a list of the component parts of this collection . Cf. p . 48 above .
b Who was destined to be the teacher of Tai Chen, see above, Sect. I7d, in Vol. 2, p . 513.
c It is to be regretted that the otherwise excellent biographical encyclopaedia of Hummel (2) is
distinctly weak on the scientific men of the Chhing, and recourse must be had to special studies, such
as that of Chhang Fu-Yuan (2) on H sU Po-Cheng 'S and Than YUn,I6 which, h owever, are as yet
insufficient.
d This contains the Ching Thien Kai '7 (Comprehensive Rhymed Catalogue of Stars) by Ricci
himself, with Li Wo-Tshun. '8
e It would be interesting to re-investigate these controversies in the light of modem knowledge.
f Tr. Bemard-Ma"itre (7), p. 445; eng. auct.

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 20. ASTRONOMY 457
For mathematics this story has already been briefly described (p. 53 above); Mei
Wen-Ting and his grandson Mei Ku-Chheng were prominently associated with it.
In astronomy there was the book of Sheng Pai-Erhjust mentioned; and in + 1819 the
treatise of the Taoist Li Ming-Chhe I Yuan Thien Thu Shuo 2 (Illustrated Discussion
of the Fields of Heaven), while also still Tychonic, referred to the achievements of the
ancients in China. In Japan a similar movement was connected with Buddhism, as
in the Bukkoku RekishO-hen (The Astronomy of Buddha's Country) by Entsu (1810)
described by Mikami (12).a Mention was made at the beginning of our book b of the
works composed by late Chhing scholars in order to prove that all important inventions
and discoveries had originally been made in China, for example, the Ko Chih Ku Wei
of Wang Jen-Chun, and sometimes this was taken to considerable lengths. For
instance, in his I Shu Pien 3 (The Antheap of Knowledge; miscellaneous essays),
Wang Ming-Sheng 4 (+1722 to +1798) maintained c that much occidental calendrical
science and astronomy had originated from the work of Tsu Chhung-Chih in the
+ 5th century, which had been preserved under the Liao dynasty, and, upon its
break-up in II25, taken to Arabia (Thien-Fang s) by the academicians (fin ya 6 ) of the
West Liao State (Ta-Shih 7)d whence it passed to Europe.
All in all, the contribution of the Jesuits, chequered though it was, had qualities of
noble adventure. If the bringing of the science and mathematics of Europe was for
them a means to an end, it stands for all time nevertheless as an example of cultural
relations at the highest level between two civilisations theretofore sundered. Truly the
Jesuits, with all their brilliance, were a strange mixture, for side by side with their
science went a vivid faith in devils and exorcisms. e Though some superstitions wilted
in their presence,! philosophers might opine that they brought as many with them. As
for their judgment of the sciences of China, we know now that it was vitiated for two
reasons; the Ming dynasty was a period of decline which had few exponents of indi-
genous tradition, and such men the Jesuits rarely met. Nor must the linguistic diffi-
culties and the scarcity of old books be forgotten. Secondly, since the Jesuits desired
to convince the Chinese of the superiority of Western religion by demonstrating the
superiority of Western science in their day and age, they were hardly tempted to think
like historians when they came upon Chinese achievements in science or technology.
Nevertheless many of the Jesuits conceived a warm enthusiasm for Chinese culture,

a EntsU was remarkably learned in the history of Chinese astronomy from Lohsia Hung through
I-Hsing and Chhi.ithan Hsi-Ta to Kuo Shou-Ching. But the discoveries of modern science temporarily
overshadowed all earlier contributions.
b Vol. I, p. 48.
c Ch. 72. Cit. in Ko Chih Ku W ei, ch. 2, p. lob.
d The name of the first ruler of the West Liao (Qara-Khitai) State, a short-lived colony of Chhi-tan
exiles in Turkestan (+ I125 to + UII) was Yehli.i Ta-Shih. The second part of his name was later
used to designate the State itself (Eberhard (9), p . 230; Wittfogel, Feng Chia-Sheng et al. pp. 619ff. ).
Cf. Vol. I, p. 133.
e Cf. Trigault (Gallagher ed. p . 552).
f Such as the reliance upon lucky and unlucky days (Trigault, Gallagher ed. p . 548).
 20. ASTRONOMY

and with the Renaissance behind them they successfully achieved a task which had
proved beyond the powers of their Indian forerunners in the Thang, namely, to open
communications with that world-wide universal science of Nature into which the
Chinese achievements would also be built.

(k) SUMMARY
An epilogue to a long Section should have the grace of being short. It will by now be
abundantly evident that the Chinese contribution to the development of astronomical
science was a very remarkable one (see Table 37).a Without running over again all the
specific points to which attention has been drawn, we may mention: (a) the elaboration
of a polar and equatorial system strikingly different from that of the Hellenistic peoples,
though equally logical; (b) the early conception of an infinite universe, with the stars
as bodies floating in empty space; (c) the development of quantitative positional
astronomy and star-catalogues two centuries before any other civilisation of which
comparable works have come down to us; (d) the use in these catalogues of equatorial
(i.e. essentially modern) coordinates, and a faithfulness to them extending over two
millennia; (e) the elaboration, in steadily increasing complexity, of astronomical instru-
ments, culminating in the + 13th-century invention of the equatorial mounting, as an
'adapted torquetum' or 'dissected' armillary sphere; (f) the invention of the clock
drive for that forerunner of the telescope, the sighting-tube; and of a number of
ingenious mechanical devices ancillary to astronomical instruments; b and (g) the main-
tenance, for longer continuous periods than any other civilisation, of accurate records
of celestial phenomena, such as eclipses, novae, comets, sun-spots, etc.
The most obvious absences from such a list are just those elements in which occi-
dental astronomy was strongest, the Greek geometrical formulations of the motions
of the celestial bodies, the Arabic use of geometry in stereographic projections, and
the physical astronomy of the Renaissance. We often hear of 'the Greek genius for
inquiry-the desire to know not only the facts, but the reasons for the facts . . . " but
this is surely a false antithesis. It was not necessary that the reasons should be con-
ceived either geometrically or mechanically. The Chinese did not feel the need for
these forms of explanation-the component organisms in the universal organism
followed their Tao each according to its own nature, and their motions could be dealt
with c in the essentially' non-representational' 'form of algebra. The Chinese were thus
a Cf. the judgment of Lecomte in 1685 : • As for Astronomy, it must be confest that never did People
in the World addict themselves so constantly to it. This Science is beholding to them for abundance of
Observations; tho' the History that reports them in general, hath not been careful to descend to
particulars, which would be necessary for the reaping all the benefit such Elucubrations seem to
promise. However, it hath not been unprofitable to Posterity. We have above Four hundred Obser-
vations, as well of the Eclipses and Comets, as Conjunctions, that make good their Chronology, and
may conduce to the perfecting of ours' (p. 222).
b Outstandingly, the application of water-power to such apparatus for the rotation of celestial globes
and demonstrational armillary spheres from the + 2nd century onwards, and then the invention of the
first mechanical clock escapement at the beginning of the +8th (cf. Needham. Wang & Price). These
achievements will be fully described in Vol. 4 (Sect. 27).
C As the Babylonians, too, had dealt with them.
 Table 37. Chart to show the comparative development of astronomy tn East and West

I BABYLONIA IOLD BABYLONIANS

,..-- -1400 10 -1000
r.cords of c.I ... i.1 Ea-Anu-Enlil tablets
events and algebraic tables of
I I
EUROPE .od lac ( -420 ) / c . lestial motions!
'-.;;;..;;.;;.;,..;.;;...;..;., / /
i. gnomon,clepsydra.
..>, {
} I CHINAI f
~
polar lighting-tube '- - 14th, begmning of eclipse records,
-6th to _ 3rd:, pre-Socratic Berossos, Kidinnu. Naburiannu <;.~ ~........... determmation of quadrantal constellation.,
I speculations / SELEUCID BABYLONIANS - 900 to -700. 60-day cycl.
- 280. Ari.tarchu. (h.lioc.ntric th.ory) Mul-Apln tablets . . 6th. beginning of comet records, _____
- 230. Eratollh.n.. / \ . anClcnt calendan .nd annuaries ______
-135 . H ipparchus (pr.cession - 5th. Cho" P,,~. - 35 0 • Sh,h Shcn. -1 04. first of th. hundr.d
.t.r;c:at~.:lo~gu:e~) ~I::.N.:.:D=r=-IA:.:.J1 earhest star catalogues official calendars
and .ar1ijSl

+ 2nd. Ptol.my
_..!I!::A:::R=:A=B;:S::I!..--!-_.J:1
man40il I Han discussions on
cosmology (+ JSt)
Ka; Thim /H,uan y.h/ HuN Thi..
(Chhi Meng) I
- I So, completion of
the system of the hSlu
I
+ 310 •• tar map of Chh.n Cho
•
- 28, beginning of
sun-~pot record.
+ 1St. 6a-y..r cycle

I I I
NaJuhatra annillary

ecliptic co-ordinates
iystem
- 10
spheres + 44 0 first celestial globe
4. Loh.ia Hung Chhi.n, Lo- Chih
+ 125. Chang H~ng
I
Co + 35 0 , Vu l-isi (precession)

and armiUary .pher •• Buddhist (with clock- driv.) + 672. star map
influence
(I-Hsing.
and many others I + 723 , Chhiithan Hs1· Ta's compilation
in following ~
c. + 940 , oldest existing

,
c· 73o).
,centuries MS. st:lr map
+ loth to + 14th, equatonal, I
giant instruments period
ar~il~~s~~e~ _~,,,, + 1086, Su Sun g's
,--- -
h~--
Copernicu ~
(heliocentric th.ory)
r--1~~------~~~----~--~--4---------_"------
'lit. - - .
+119~.Suchow
pl,nisph.r.
t . + I S8o, Tycho's adoption oC ~ + 1279. Kuo Shou-Ching and th.
inve ntion of the equatorial mount ing
equatorial co-ordinates
(giant instruments period)
I I J.suits
I
G;.~r:~;·I·rp·) r---.::.;;:.;.;;;;.:;:....::~ unification with world science

l
K.pl.r. I:.:.:.;;:::-....--+-,-S::lth'".-gt-..an-t--in-.-tr-u-m-.-n-t-s
. -p-.'riod

mechanic, + , t
 20. ASTRONOMY
free from that obsession of European astronomers for the circle as the most perfect
figure, an obsession from which it took a Kepler to escape. Nor did they experience
the medieval prison of the crystalline spheres, those unexpectedly adamantine
materialisations of the spirit of Greek geometry. If, like all Chinese science, Chinese
astronomy was fundamentally empi rical and observational, it was spared the excesses
and aberrations, as well as the triumphs, of occidental theorising. But clearly it requires
a much more important place in the history of science as a whole than historians have
been wont to give it. a
Hardly any other subject known to me has been so much distracted by the difficulty
of disentangling facts from a maze of arguments often at cross-purposes and based on
insecure foundations. b The Jesuits, followed by the scholars of the 19th century, began
by accepting all the astronomical content of the Chinese legendary material. Their
successors, sinologically better informed, scrapped it wholesale, and Maspero (15) c
summarised the situation by denying that anything could be known of Chinese astro-
nomy before the - 6th century at best. But the ink was hardly dry on his paper before
it became evident from the profound studies of Tung Tso-Pin and others on the
oracle-bones that it would be possible to say a good deal about Chinese astronomy in
the middle of the - 2nd millennium, not from uncertain legend, but from very con-
crete inscriptions. d The study of this material is only now beginning,e and more finds
must be expected. Possibly they will throw light on the eastward radiation of primitive
astronomy from the lands of the Fertile Crescent.
All in all, it seems that de Saussure has been justified, by evidence of which he never
a At an earlier point we had occasion to note the presumption of a Master of Trinity who dismissed
all Chinese contributions to astronomy without being able to read a word of any. We owe a comparable
and entertaining statement to a Parisian scholar contemporary with him, L. P. Sedillot. 'C'est assez nous
occuper de ces aberrations d'un peuple qui n'a jamais su s'elever de lui-meme a la moindre speculation
scientifique; esclave de pratiques superstitieuses ou astrologiques, dont il ne s'est jamais entierement
degage, il n 'a tenu aucun compte des anciennes observations eparses dans ses annales, si tant est
qu 'elles soient reelles; et, au lieu d'examiner les apparences de la voute etoilee avec cette vive curiosite
qui s'attache aux phenomimes, jusqu'a ce que les lois et la cause en soient parfaitement connues, les
Chinois n'ont applique cette perseverance caracteristique dont on leur fait honneur, qu'a des reveries
sans portee en astronomie, triste fruit d'une routine barbare', (2), p. 603. Sedillot knew no more
Chinese than Whewell, but conceived that the substantial services which he rendered as an Arabist to
the history of Arabic astronomy authorised him to deny all credit to peoples further East. The only
value of these old comedies is to warn us of the necessity of modesty and open-mindedness.
b Hence some strange echoes. In the light of all that this Section has reported it is astonishing to read
the following statement in an authoritative history of astronomy published in 1954. 'It seems that
around - 1100 the Chinese had accurately established the obliquity of the ecliptic and the position of the
winter solstice in the sky, but after the - 5th century the study of astronomy was abandoned in China
and many of its findings even destroyed. All the later conceptions were imported afterwards by the
Arabs and Europeans' (Abetti (I), p. 24).
C I opened this Section by mentioning his summary as perhaps the best available today. But so
many advances have been made since 1930 that it is nevertheless very unsatisfactory. If we compare
the conclusions of this Section with what Maspero wrote, we could say that (a) Chinese astronomy may
be studied in its earliest forms in the -13th, not the -6th century; (b) it was not independent of
Babylonian; (c) Chinese mathematics was not so inadequate as he supposed; (d) the solar dates were not
first known in the -7th century; (e) the gnomon was probably not the oldest instrument; (f) the
sundial was not unknown; (g) Chang Heng's sphere was not the earliest Chinese armillary; etc.
d Even the names of many scapulimantic diviners of the - 14th century are known (see the Bio-
graphical Glossary in the concluding volume). It is very probable that they were star-clerks also.
e Of the 10,000 bone fragments in the possession of Academia Sinica, not more than 600 have yet
been studied, as by Tung Tso-Pin (1), from the point of view of the history of astronomy.
 20. ASTRONOMY
knew, de Saussure, that practical navigator, who, though in the service of alien arms,
warmed to the genius of the Chinese people, perhaps precisely because his trade gave
him the necessary understanding. Allowing for a certain exaggeration of time, we can
still read with appreciation the words with which he closed one of his early papers (4)
forty years ago:

Amidst the darkness which veils the mysterious antiquity of China, the text of the Yao
Tien opens a scene before us. One of the terraces of the imperial palace distinctly appears;
it is the Tower of the Mathematics. A flickering rushlight reveals what is going forward,
and by the light it casts on the graduations of the clepsydras, we can discern the astronomers
choosing four stars, at that time equally located at the four quarters of the celestial equator,
but destined by their movements to reveal to later ages the extent of a history saecular by
more than forty times.
 21. METEOROLOGY
(a) INTRODUCTION
Meteorology is a word which has undergone much change of meaning since the time
when it was born in ancient Greece. For Aristotle (as in his MeteoTologica a) it
included the study of many phenomena which are now known to be celestial, such as
meteors and meteorites b (from which it took its name), comets, and the Milky Way,
though at that time they were classed as belonging to the' sublunary' world. Ancient
meteorology also included much which would now be called physical geography, such
as the origin and nature of rivers, the distribution of land and sea, etc., and also
mineralogical matters such as the fonnation of metals and rocks. In the modern sense,
meteorology has become essentially the study of climate, weather and all the events
which go on within the earth's atmosphere, together with tidal phenomena.
There is no work in Chinese literature similar in scope to Aristotle's MeteoTologica,
but that does not mean that the Chinese were not deeply interested in weather matters.
In this Section we must glance at some of their contributions; for example, they were
long in advance of the West in certain methods of meteorological measurements, and
kept records of a more complete nature over a much longer time. c As regards the
understanding of the tides they were also sometimes considerably in advance of
Europeans. Nevertheless, the principal works on the history of meteorologyd make
hardly any use of Chinese material.

(b) CLIMATE IN GENERAL

This is a subject to which we shall have to return in the concluding part of the book.
In considering the differences between Chinese and Occidental civilisation, it will be
necessary to compare the climatic conditions in which they developed. Here it need
only be said that an excellent short account of the Chinese climate will be found in the
books of Sion (I) and Cressey (I), whose words are the basis of the following brief
description. e
China's succession of passing weather is the product of the seasonal monsoon

a Tr. E. W. Webster. On Greek meteorological theory in general see O . Gilbert (I).

b Already dealt with in the astronomical Section (p. 433 above).
C These are now serving in current statistical investigations, as we shall see.

d Napier Shaw & Austin (I); Hellmann (I). I know of nothing in any Western language on the
history of meteorology in China except the paper of Chu Kho-Chen (2), which is very brief. Nor is
there any monograph in Chinese specifically devoted to the subject. Kimble (I), pp. 151-60, gives a
good description of medieval European meteorology.
e Cf. also Roxby (2, 3, 4). Unfortunately, Roxby's best work, done for the British Government,
remains unpublished, though printed, and cannot be cited; nor has it been available for the present
study, though a request for access to it was directed to the proper official quarter. I am now informed
that the book may be consulted, under restricted conditions, in certain British libraries.
 21. METEOROLOGY
circulation, a the occasional tropical cyclones, and the procession of continental cyclonic
storms, all modified by the relief of the subcontinent. Though China's weather is
conditioned more by influences from the land-mass to the west than from the Pacific
Ocean to the east, yet the aridity of central Asia contends with the moisture of
the south-east Asian seas over a perennial Chinese battlefield. During the summer
the air masses over inner Asia become heated, expand, rise and overflow towards the
encircling oceans. The consequent reduced pressure causes warm moist oceanic air
to be drawn in along the surface, thus setting up a very large-scale convectional
circulation. Winter reverses the process. The resulting winds are the monsoon winds,
less regular in China than India, but equally the basic background of the climate.
Hence the fact, familiar to everyone who has lived in China, that the rainfall occurs
mainly in a distinct rainy season, occupying usually the three summer months.
The prevailing tendency for monsoonal indraught in summer and outflow in winter
is complicated by the eastward movement of high- and low-pressure systems migrating
from time to time. The low-pressure areas, or depressions, are most common in the
transition season (spring and early summer), and give rise to the characteristic
unsettled spells of cloudy and showery weather in central and north China associated
with changes in the air mass prevailing over this area. b The third element in the Chinese
climate is the tropical typhoon, a small but very intense disturbance with extremely
low pressure at the centre, steep barometric gradients, and wind velocities up to
165 miles an hour. Though the typhoon as a whole moves fast (often several hundred
miles a day), the total area under the sway of its damaging winds is frequently not
more than 100 miles in diameter. The typhoon originates in the Pacific, and after
travelling westward tends northward as it strikes the China coast, eventually dying
out in the interior provinces.
A climatic zonation of the provinces has been devised by Chu Kho-Chen (5).
To what extent has there been a saecular change in the Chinese climate? The
question has received a good deal of discussion, and the consensus of opinion has been
that China (or at least north China) was formerly both warmer and moister than at
present. This conclusion has been drawn mainly from phenological data contained in
ancient texts. Information about climate may be deduced from statements concerning
the recurrences of the annual phenomena of plant and animal life. One of the first
modern efforts in this directionC was that of E. Biot (13), who noted, for instance, the
references in the Shih Ching (Book of Odes) to rice culture and the growing of mul-
berry, jujube-tree and chestnut in the Yellow River area and north of it. His con-
clusion was that if there had been any change it had not been a great one. Chu
Kho-Chen (4), however, compared the phenological observations contained in books
• Mahdihassan (I) derives our word monsoon from the characters maa-chan.' regular soaking rains,
but the phrase is so uncommon, if it ever existed at all, that the argument is unconvincing. The usual
terms in Chinese are shih ling jeng' (old), hai jeng,' chi chieh jeng,4 and chi hau jblg S (more modem).
b Chu Kho-Chen (6).
C A gradual cooling of the Chinese climate had long been suspected by Chinese historians, e.g. Chin
Lii-Hsiang 6 (+ 1232 to + 1303) in his discussion of the Yiieh Ling, on which see p. 195 above.
'9P1ot '*1;-)1. 'mJJ. 4*ifiJJ. S*~/I.
6 ~RI~
 2I. METEOROLOGY

of the Warring States period a with the contemporary observations summarised by

Gauthier, and found that such annual events as the blooming of the peach-tree (Prunus
persica), the commencement of song by the cuckoo (Cuculus micropterus), and the first
appearance of the house-swallow (Hirundo rustica) , were all placed by these ancient
books from a week to a month earlier than the records of the present day. The weather
must have been warmer. Many other writers have supported this view. Meng Wen-
Thung (1) collected references to bamboos and mulberry-trees during the Han to
demonstrate it. Hsu Chung-Shu (2) and Yao Pao-Hsien (1) pointed out that elephants
existed at the Yellow River latitude in the Shang and Chou periods, but are not men-
tioned thereafter, and that down to the Sung, but not since, crocodiles were indigenous
in south China. b The richness of the Shang landscape in bamboos is indicated by the
bones of the bamboo rat (Rhizomys sinensis), as de Chardin & Phei Wen-Chung noted.
Very laborious efforts were made, independently, by Wittfogel (3) and by Hu Hou-
Hsuan (1), to deduce something conclusive about the climate of the Shang dynasty
( - 14th century) by a study of oracle-bone inscriptions. Their results supported the
above views. But apart from the obvious difficulties of the assumptions which it was
necessary to make as to why questions about rain or snow should have occurred at
certain seasons more than others, Tung Tso-Pin (4) strongly criticised their statistical
methods, and the subject must be regarded as still unsettled. The general impression
among archaeologists, however, seems to be that China in Shang times was moister and
warmer than now (Cheng Te-Khun, 4).
As for the growth of weather-lore in China, one can only agree with Chu Kho-
Chen (2), that prediction never advanced beyond the stage of peasant proverbs. c Of
course it did not do so in Europe either before the Renaissance. d Such proverbs form
a part of the' omen-text' which was one of the main components of the I Ching (Book
of Changes),e and are often met with in ancient books, for example Tao Te Ching,
ch. 23: 'A hurricane never lasts a whole morning, and a sudden rainstorm will not go
on for the whole day.' In the I Ching, haloes foretell storms, and eastward-travelling
clouds (the opposite direction to the monsoon rains) bode well for travellers. Weather
observation and prediction must have played a large part in the study of Nature by the
Taoists; one quotation from a + 12th-century source showing this has already been
given. f The supposed influence of climate on human beings in health and disease was
also discussed, as in Kuan Tzu,g in passages quite reminiscent of the Hippocratic
book, Airs, Waters and Places. h
a Yiieh Ling in Li Chi ; Huai Nan T z u ; Lu S hih Chhun Chhiu, and I Chou Shu .
b Cf. Read (4), nos. 104, 105. Crocodilus porosus (chiao lungI) is p erhaps not yet quite extinct in
C antonese rivers. Alligator sinensis (tho lung» is still found in the L ower Yangtze and its lakes, so
much so, indeed, as to constitute a nuisance by d am aging dams and dykes (N CNA , 4th April 1954).
All evidence indicates that form erly these sp ecies, and probably others, were commoner, and had a
much more northerly and westerly range.
C A mass of m eteorological material is contained in ch s. 65-94 of the C hhien hsiang tien in the

Thu S hu Chi Chheng en cyclopaedia. This has n ot yet b een digested on the basis of modern knowledge.
d Cf. Inwards ' book (I ).
e See above, Vol. 2 , p . 308. t See above, Vol. 2 , p. 86.
It Ch. 39; see above, Vol. 2, p . 4 4, and also p. 650 b elow. h Cf. B & M, pp. 160 , 173 , 177 .

I i~ It
 21. METEOROLOGY

(c) TEMPERATURE
It has already been noted that excessive seasonal cold and heat (han shu il) were among
the happenings which the Han 'phenomenalists' interpreted as 'heavenly reprimands'
for deficiencies on the part of the emperor or his administration. a It was thus for
essentially' astrological' purposes that records were kept of summers especially hot or
winters especially severe, and these found their way into the official histories. We also
noted b that temperature was important for the ancient Chinese on account of diffi-
culties in making the clepsydra keep accurate time. Records of excessive cold and heat
occupy four chapters in the Thu Shu Chi Chheng encyclopaedia,c and from these

Table 38. Correlation of severe winters with sun-spot frequency

No. of severe winters

per century Sun-spot
frequency
Century China
Europe (Chinese
(Brlickner, 2) (Chu Kho- records)
Chen)
+ 6th - 19 7
+ 7th - 1I 0
+ 8th - 9 0
+ 9th 1I 19 8
+ loth 11 1I I
+ lIth 16 16 3
+ 12th 25 24 16
+ 13 th 26 25 6
+ 14th 24 35 9
+ 15 th 20 10 0
+ 16th 24 14 2

dynastic history data Chu Kho-Chen (3, 4) has inferred the existence of long-period
climatic pulsations (Table 38). A rough correlation with the sun-spot frequency can
also be seen. Chu Kho-Chen was able to illustrate these figures by the witness of
contemporary diarists, such as Kuo Thien-Hsi,2 who kept a weather journal from
+1308 to + 1310, which was one of the coldest periods. d In China from the
+ 11th century at least there was a custom of keeping weather records for nine nine-
day periods following the winter solstice; this was called shu chiu han thien.3 In Ming

a See above. Vol. 2. pp . 379. 381. b Above. p . 321.

C Shu ching tien. chs. 103-6.
d By another of those numerous coincidences of simultaneity. it was just about the same time that
the first continuous meteorological observations were made in Europe- by the English parish priest
William Merle. between 1337 and 1344 (Sarton (I). vol. 3. pp. II7. 674). Cf. Thomdike (5); Hell-
mann (3. 4) ; Kimble (I). p . 160.
 21. METEOROLOGY

Fig. 196. Ferdinand Verbiest's air thermometer, c. + 1670 (from the Thu Shu Chi Chheng).

and Chhing times people often used to record the daily weather during this period on
special charts which were made for the purpose and filled in according to well-known
conventions. a
Renaissance quantitative thermometry was introduced to China by Verbiest, whose
instrument, similar to the air thermometer of Galileo and affected by barometric
pressure, is figured in the Thu Shu Chi Chheng b (Fig. 196).

• Details and references in Yang Lien-Sh~ng (6).

b Li fa tien, ch. 95, p. 40b, explained in ch. 92, pp. 1a ff.
 21. METEOROLOGY

(d) PRECIPITATION
The study of the Anyang oracle-bones has shown that as far back as the - 13th century
rather systematic meteorological records were being kept. Tung Tso-Pin has analysed a
a series of bone inscriptions from - 1216 in which rain, sleet, snow, wind and direction
of rain and wind are all mentioned for many ten-day periods. Many successful pre-
dictions are recorded because of the habit of the scribes of writing an additional note
on the bone that, in fact, for example, it did snow, after the divination process had
said that it would. As in other ancient civilisations, early meteorology was closely
connected with divination. In the Tso Chuan under date - 654, it is stated b that
particularly careful observations of cloud forms and other atmospheric phenomena
were made at the times of the solstices and equinoxes. We have already seen c that in
the Chou Li there is mention of a special official whose duty it was to observe pheno-
mena such as clouds and wind and to make prognostication from them. The Chhien
Han Shu bibliography lists several books on clouds, rain and the rainbow, one by a
certain Thai 1. 1 This continued throughout Chinese history; in the + 12th century,
for example, the Wei Liieh z of Kao Ssu-Sun3 has a section on divination by clouds,d
and the Thung Chih Lueh bibliography of about + 1150, which has often before been
quoted, lists no less than twenty-three books on meteorological forecasting. There was
also of course the desire to control as well as to foresee, hence much 'rain magic' in
ancient and medieval China. Ma Kuo-Han reconstructed e a fragmentary Han Chhing
Yu Chih Yu Shu 4 (Prayers for and against Rain).!
Of greater scientific interest is the recognition of the meteorological water-cycle in
China. Perhaps the oldest indication that this was understood occurs in the Chi Ni Tzu
book, a naturalist work probably of the late -4th century. There it is said that

the wind is the chhi of heaven, and the rain is the chhi of earth. Wind blows according to the
seasons and rain falls in response to wind. We can say that the chhi of the heavens comes down
and the chhi of the earth goes upwards. g

In the following century the Lu Shih Chhun Chhiu speaks similarly:

The waters flow eastwards from their sources, resting neither by day nor by night. Down
they come inexhaustibly, yet the deeps are never full. The small (streams) become large and
the heavy (waters in the sea) become light (and mount to the clouds). This is (part of) the
Rotation of the Tao. h
• (1), Pt. n, ch. 9, pp. 44a ff.; (5). b Duke Hsi, 5th year; Couvreur (I), vo!. I, p. 248.
C Above, p. 190. Cf. pp. 284, 476. d Ch. 8, p. I4b.
• YHSF, ch. 78, p. 46a.
r Cf. Sect. Ioh above, and Schafer (I).
g See above, Sect. 18/, Vo!. 2, p. 554. The words quoted are found in ch. 2, p . 3b in the text as
given in the Ma Kuo-Han collection, YHSF, ch. 69, p. 19a; cited also Thai-Phing Ya Lan, ch. 10,
p· 9a, tr. auct. Parallel statements, perhaps equally ancient, in Yo Chi, para. 3 (in Shih Chi, ch. 24,
p. 14a, tr. Chav!tJUles (I), vo!. 3, p. 253), and in Nei Ching, ch. 5, p . 2a (tr. Veith (I), p. 115).
h Ch. IS, tr. R. Wilhelm (3), p . 38, eng. auct.; vo!. I, p. 31.
 21. METEOROLOGY

So also the Han book Ho Thu Wei Kua Ti Hsiang,1 one of the 'weft classics',a
says that the clouds are water from the Khun-Iun mountains evaporating and rising b
(Khun-Iun shan yu shui, shui chhi shang cheng C wei hsia 2 ). This statement would be
about - 50. In the + 1st century, however, the clear distinction between the circula-
tion in the atmosphere and the vast distances of the starry firmament had still not
become fully accepted, since Wang Chhung, in his Lun Heng, has an interesting passage
on the subject. As already mentioned, the Greeks were subject to similar confusions. d
Wang Chhung says:

The Confucians also maintain that the expression that the rain comes down from heaven
means that it actually does fall from the heavens (where the stars are). ·However, considera-
tion of the subject shows us that rain comes from above the earth, but not down from
heaven.
Seeing the rain gathering from above, people say that it comes from the heavens-
admittedly it comes from above the earth. How can we demonstrate that the rain originates
in the earth and rises from the mountains? Kungyang Kao's commentary on the Spring
and Autumn Annals says; e 'It evaporates upwards through stones one or two inches thick,
and gathers. In one day's time it can spread over the whole empire, but this is only so if it
comes from Thai Shan.' What he means is that from Mount Thai rain-clouds can spread
all over the empire, but from small mountains only over a single province-the distance
depends on the height. As to this coming of rain from the mountains, some hold that the
clouds carry the rain with them, dispersing as it is precipitated (and they are right). Clouds
and rain are really the same thing. Water evaporating upwards becomes clouds, which
condense into rain, or still further into dew. When the garments (of those travelling on high
mountain passes) are moistened, it is not the effect of the clouds and mists (through which
they are passing), but of the suspended rain water.
Some persons cite the Shu Ch£ng which says, 'When the moon follows the stars, there
will be wind and rain'f---or the Sh£h Ch£ng, which says, 'The approach of the moon to Pi
hS£u will bring heavy rain showers'.g They believe that according to these two passages of the
classics it is heaven itself which causes the rain. What are we to say to this?
When the rain comes from the mountains, the moon passes the (other) stars and approaches
Pi hs£u. When it approaches Pi hsiu there must be rain. As long as it does not rain, the moon
has not approached, and the mountains have no clouds. Heaven and Earth, above and below,
act in mutual resonance. When the moon approaches above, the mountains steam below, and
the embodied chhi meet and unite. This is (part of the) spontaneous Tao of Nature. Clouds
and fog show that rain is coming. In summer it turns to dew, in winter to frost. Warm, it is
rain, cold, it is snow. Rain, dew, and frost, all proceed from the earth, and do not descend
from the heavens.h

a 'Apocryphal Treatise on the River Chart ; Examination of the Signs of the Earth.'
b Ku Wei Shu, ch. 32, p . 4a.
C Note that this is the word which was afterwards applied to distillation.

d For their views of the relations of clouds and mountains, cf. the monograph of Capelle.
e Kungyang Chuan, ch. 12, p. Isa, Duke Hsi, 31st year .
f Ch. 24 (Hung Fan); Karigren (12), p. 35.
g Pt. 11, hk. 8, no. 8; Karigren (14), p. 184, no. 232; Waley (I), p. 120. Pi hsiu is of course the
Hyades.
h Lun Heng, ch. 32, tr. auct., adjuv. Forke (4), vol. I, p . 276.
 21. METEOROLOGY

The passage is interesting not only on account of its clear understanding of the water-
cycle, but also because of the appreciation of mountain ranges in the precipitation
process. As to the seasonal lunar and stellar connections, the thought ofWang Chhung
(about + 83) is that in some way or other the cyclical behaviour of the chhi on earth ,
where water is distilled into mountain clouds, is correlated with the behaviour of the
chlli in the heavens, which brings the moon near to the Hyades at certain times. a
In later times the water circulation was well understood. The Shuo Wen, completed
soon after Wang Chhung's time, defines clouds as the ' moisture evaporated from
marshes and lakes' (jun chhi I). In the + 3rd century the cycle was discussed by Yang
Chhiian in his Wu Li Lun already mentioned.b Many statements of it can be found in
the Sung C and Ming,d where the views of a Yeh Meng-Te 2 and a Wang Khuei cor-
respond closely with those of the Arabic encyclopaedists such as Abo Yai:J.ya al-
QazwlnI, c. + 127o.e
In Europe the recognition of the water-cycle goes back to the - 6th century, with
Anaximander of Miletus.f Aristotle built his iV1eteorologica round the idea of two
terrestrial emanations (anathumiasis, a.vu8UfLiums), one aqueous (atmidodestera
a.TfLLOWOEaT€PU) and the other gaseous (pneumatodestera, 7rVEUfLUTWOEaT€PU).g The
former corresponds rather closely to the Chinese conception of the ascending aqueous
chhi of the earth; the latter may have originated from observations of such things as
the sulphur-depositing gases of fumaroles, and was called upon to explain the forma-
tion of minerals and metals in the rocks. We shall meet with its close analogue in what
the Huai Nan Tzu book has to say on the same subject. h One can only leave open the
possibility of some transmission in either direction, but the very early date at which
these ideas were developing seems to make it most unlikely. The general similarity
between chhi,3 pneuma (7rVEUfLU) andprtina, need not imply that there was anything but
a community of Mesopotamian origin and later independent developments. The word
chhi was from the beginning applied to the weather,i for which the oldest combined
phrase was chhi hou. 4 H ou has the general meaning of waiting, hence of some particular
time or duration, j and was also used for prediction of rain or wind, hou yu,5 hou Jeng. o
Chhi still persists in the modern term for meteorology, chhi hsiang hsueh. 7

a As usual with Wang Chhung, these ideas exemplify well the organic naturalist view of the universe ;
cf. Sect. 13/ above, in Vol: 2.
b Cf. p . 218 above. Quoted in the mid-12th century Hsii Po Wu Chih 8 (Supplement to the Record
of the Investigation of Things), ch. I, p. 4b.
C E\g. Yeh Meng-Te's Pi Shu Lu Hua 9 (Summer Holiday Discussions), ch. I, p. 23b, of about

+II50-or Chhen Chhang-Fang'sIO Pu Li Kho Than" (Discussions with Guests at Pu-li), ch. 2, p. 4b,
of about + I I 10.
d Li Hai Chi (probably late + 14th), p. sob; also in Chhi Hsiu Lei Kao.
e Mieli (I), p. IS0. f K . Freeman (1), p . 62.
g B & M, p. 242.
h Below, p . 640.
i And hence to the fortnightly calendrical periods, already mentioned, p . 405 above.
j Cf. the expression referred to above, Sect. I3g in Vol. 2, p . 330, concerning the correct times in
alchemy for the application of heat to reactions.

1 ~ ~ ~s. 3 ~ 'ff.\~ 5 ~m
8 if'! t8- 41iJ ;m 9 il. '-1ft t'i 10 ~ ~ 11
 21. METEOROLOGY
In different ages individuals naturally acquired particular fame in rain forecasting.
One such was the magician Ching Fang I of the - 1st century; his lore was -recorded
to some extent in his I Chang Chu 2 (Commentary on the Book of Changes).a Another
was Lou Yuan-Shan 3 of the Sung. The + loth-century Thai-Phing Yu Lan encyclo-
paedia,b the Wei LUeh,c etc., quote an otherwise mysterious lost book by one ?uang
Tzu-Fa 4 of uncertain date, probably Han, on rain prediction, the Hsiang Yu Shu. s
Lacking our cloud classification (cirrus, cumulus, etc. d) the medieval Chinese devised
many technical terms which have not yet been properly analysed in the light of modern
knowledge. e Scudding black clouds, yellow clouds like covered chariots (fu chhe 6),f
shuttle-shaped (shu chu,71enticular) clouds, fish-scale (yii /in,s cho yU 9 ) clouds,g grass-
shaped (tshao mang 10) h clouds, etc. are mentioned. Thunderstorm alto-cumulus may
be meant by 'cap' (kuan II) clouds, and by clouds like flocks of sheep, or pigs or water
buffaloes. The ' anvil' shape of typical thunderclouds appears in Ching Fang's
description of clouds like drums and raised drumsticks. Alternatively, it seems to have
been designated by the term' catapult-carriage cloud' I (phao chhe yun 12), the shape
being that of a truncated triangle seen upside down. Another weather sign to which
much attention was paid was the lunar halo (yUeh yiin 13), caused by cirro-nebula at
great heights, and regarded by the Chinese as a sure sign of wind) Lunar haloes
showing rainbow colours were termed chu mu,I4 'typhoon-mothers'. Solar haloes
were closely studied. k In the Sung period a great weather expert was Liu Shih-Yen,Is
whose successes are described l in the Hou Ching LU I6 of Chao Te-Lin. I7 Rhyming
weather-lore of sailors is preserved in the Tung Hsi Yang Khao m and the Kuang Yu
Thu n of + 1579. Sung material of this kind is to be found in the Meng Liang Lu. O
Records of the phenomenon of red rain are preserved in the Thu Shu Chi Chheng
encyclopaedia.P
Even Chu Kho-Chen (2) thought that the first hygrometer in China was the deer-
gut instrument of Verbiest (Fig. 197).q But in fact the Chinese had taken advantage
of the hygroscopic properties of such things as feathers and charcoal from quite early
-times. In the Huai Nan Tzu book there are at least two mentions of a practice of
a And often quoted, for example, by the Thai-Phing Yu Lan, ch. 8, p. 2.b; Hsii Po Wu Chih, ch. I,
pp. 6a, 8b.
b Ch. 8, p. 7b. c Ch. 8, p. ISb.
d Due to Luke Howard, cf. Napier Shaw (I).
e Cf. Chin Shu, ch. I2., pp. loa ff.; tr. Ho Ping-Yii (I).
f Perhaps the conical tops of cumulo-nimbus.
g Presumably dappled cirro-cumulus.
b Presumably cirrus striae.
i Kung Chhi Shih Hua, ch. 5, p. 3a; Piao I Lu, ch. I, p. 6b ; Thang Yu Lin, ch. 8, p. 2.4a.
j TPYL, ch. 4, p. I2.b. k Cf. p. 474 below.
I Ch. 4, p. sa. m Ch. 9, p. lIb.
n Ch. 2., p . 74b. 0 Ch. 12., p. ISb.
P Shu cheng tien, ch. 143.
q TSCC, Lifa tien, ch. 95, p . 4Ia, explained in ch. 92., pp. 3a ff.

6
• J? YJ
s: if:
niSiI!!t
8 f,t.
J~Jt;*

•• III iIJ:
5
.0

.6 ~U
Wiii1f
1;i ~
&l
11 a
17 S • •
Fig. 197. Ferdinand Verbiest's deer-gut hygrometer, Fig. [98. A Chinese rain gauge of + [770 preserved
c. + 1670 (from the Thu Shu Chi Chheng). in Korea (photo. Wada).
 21. METEOROLOGY 47 I
weighing elm charcoal a against a tared pan of earth with a view to rain prediction by
testing the moisture in the atmosphere. The first b simply says that when there is
dryness the charcoal will be light, and when there is damp it will be heavy (sao ku
than chhing, shih ku than chung I). The second c says that by suspending (hsuan 2 ) a
feather or some charcoal one can detect the chhi of dryness or damp, adding' Thus by
small things one can observe great ones, and know what is far away from what is near'
(i hsiao chien ta, i chin yu yuan 3). We meet with the same test in the Shih Chi d in
but three words hsuan thu than,4 to which the + 5th-century commentator (Phei Yin)
adds that it was performed especially at the solstices, perhaps with the object of fore-
telling the coming weather for the whole season. This is elaborated in the Kan Ying
Lei Tshung Chih s (Record of the Mutual Resonances of Things) by Chang Hua 6
(+232 to +300),e where the fullest details are given.! It is interesting that in the
15th century in Europe, Nicholas of Cusa used exactly the same method, weighing
wool against stones (Cajori, 5). The technique is often mentioned in later Chinese
texts.g
So much for the forecasting of rain. Since it had its inevitable sequel in the rising
of rivers and canals, with the danger of floods, always so serious in China, it would not
be surprising to find that the Chinese made use of rain gauges from an early period. In
Europe the very simple idea of catching rain in some kind of container so as to permit
measurement dates only from + 1639, when it was introduced by Benedetto Castelli
(a friend of Galileo) at Perugia. In recent years, meteorologists have become familiar
with Korean rain gauges of the + 15th century, through the work of Wad a (1, 1) and
Lyons. Among the earliest of these, known as tshe yu chhi 7 (rain-measuring instru-
ments), were several in bronze set up in + 1442, and concerning which the relevant
imperial decrees are preserved in Korean historical texts. They stood on Cloud-
Watching Platforms (yun kuan thai 8). In + 1770 meteorological observatories with
these rain gauges were set up in all the chief cities of Korea; one of them is here
reproduced (Fig. 198).
What has hitherto been less generally realised, however, is that the rain gauge was
not a Korean invention, but goes back a good deal earlier in China. h The chief

• If it really was charcoal. Peek has described a particularly hygroscopic kind of graphite (chhing
hui9 or hei hui IO ) which might have been what was used . Chang Hung-Chao (1), p. 202, agrees.
b Ch. 3, p. 6a. c Ch. 17, p. sa.
d Ch. 27 (Thien Kuan), p . 37a; Chavannes (I), vol. 3, p . 400.
e In Shuo Fu, ch. 24, p. 19a. Cf. Li Shun-Feng's Kan Ying Ching, in Shuo Fu, ch. 9, p. 2a.
f What may have been an ancient form of hygrometer is seen in the story of the skin of some kind
of sea-animal the hairs of which rose and fell in accordance with the tides. The reference is in the
+ 12th-century record of an embassy to Korea referred to below (pp. 492, 5 II); see Moule (3), p. 152.
Cf. Shan Chii Hsin Hua, p. 53a (H. Franke (2), no. 146).
g E .g. Piao I Lu," ch. I, p . I4a . Iron counterweights in TPYL, ch. 871, pp. 4aff.
h It may even be of Babylonian origin. Passages which seem to show the use of rain gauges have
been noted by Sammadar in the Arthasiistra (Shamasastry ed. p. 127), and in +2nd-century Hebrew
texts by Vogelstein (cf. Hellmann, 2).

I ~ lit Yi U, ~ lit J9i: .. • ~ for ~ J~+ Jt-lc~ilrPilil

• ~ ± Yi ' l'12dlOlH~;it 6 Yt ~ 7 tlHti ~

9 11' '* 10 FP., '* " if< ~ ""

472 21. METEOROLOGY

evidence for this is that the mathematical book Shu Shu Chiu Chang by Chhin Chiu-
Shao, of + 1247, contains a problems on the shape of rain gauges,b here called thien
chhih tshe yu. 1 At that time there would seem to have been one in each provincial and
district capital. Chhin discusses the determination of the rain falling on a given area
of ground from the depth of rain-water which is collected in vessels of conical or barrel
shape.
Still more remarkable, the same book shows us that snow gauges were also in use,
chu chhi yen hsueh. 2 These were large cages made of bamboo, and Chhin gives sample
problems concerning them. c They were doubtless placed beside mountain passes and
on uplands. If local magistrates in the Sung really transmitted to the capital readings
on rain and snow fall, the high officials must have been greatly assisted in making their
calculations concerning the maintenance and repairs likely to be required for dykes and
other public works.
Needless to say, Chinese records have a very long and abundant list of floods and
droughts. The data are in all the chief pistorical compendia as well as the official
histories and encyclopaedias. d A great digest has been made of this information by
Chhen Kao-Yung et al. (1). In Western languages the pioneer work of Hosie (2, 3)
has been superseded by elaborate studies. e While keeping in mind certain insecurities
in the recording, such as failure to keep records in periods of chaos and struggle, some
periodicities can be made out. Table 39 is from Chu Kho-Chen (3). Chhen Ta (I)
has made the correlation that the migration to Malaysia took place in the very dry
+ 15th century, and that the migration to the Pescadores and Formosa accompanied
the very dry + 7th. The formation of Chinese colonies in Hawaii, North America and
South Africa was a 19th-century phenomenon. One can hardly overlook the fact that
the extremely dry centuries from + 300 to + 600 correspond with the long period of
political fragmentation terminated only by stable unification under the Sui and Thang.
Conversely the centuries of Thang and Sung stability were characterised by relatively
abundant rainfall.f
Naturally the Chinese records of bad weather contain references to damaging
storms of hail (pao 3). Horwitz (8) was moved to investigate the history of the practice
of firing mortar shells at hailstorm clouds in order to start the precipitation or deflect
it from the crops under protection. This is widely current today among vineyard
cultivators in the south of France, who use rockets. Horwitz found the first European
mention in the autobiography of Benvenuto Cellini, written at the end of the
a Ch. 4, pp. I07ff.
b This fact was first brought to my attention by my friend Dr Yeh Chhi-Sun.
c Ch. 4, p. 110. Remarkable work on the forms of snowflakes was published by a Japanese daimyo,
Doi Toshitsuru (+ 1789 to 1848), early in the nineteenth century (Sekka Zuselsu).
d E.g. TSCC, Shu cheng lien, chs. 76-80, 86-94, 124-32, etc. But no attempt has been made to
conflate them for world use.
e Those of Chu Kho-Chen (3), Yao Shan-Yu (I, 2, 3), Ting Wen-Chiang (2), K. Y. Cheng (I),
Schove (4) and others. For a general background to their work see Brooks (I).
f Cf. above, Vol. I, pp. I84ff. Li Chi (2) has also made correlations between climatic pulsations and
political disturbances.
 21. METEOROLOGY 473
16th century, a but also noted, from the travel account of Bastian,b that during the
Khang-Hsi period (+ 1662 to + 1722) it was the practice of Lamas to have guns fired
off at rain clouds in Kansu. The civil officials were asked to take steps to obtain the
pardon of the gods of mountains and rivers on these occasions. Horwitz questioned,
therefore, whether the idea might not have originated on purely animistic grounds in
China and have been transmitted to the West-but we do not know the answer, and
the subject should be further investigated.

Table 39. Ratio of droughts to floods by centuries

Raininess ratio
Century droughts per century
floods per century
+ 2nd 1'98
+3 rd 1·60
+ 4th 8'20
+5 th 2'06
+6th ,po
+7 th 3'3 0
+ 8th 1.32
+ 9th 1·80
+ loth 1·80
+ 11th 1"70
+ 12th 1'04
+13 th 1·80
+ 14th 1'05
+ 15 th 2·25
+ 16th 1'95

(e) RAINBOWS, PARHELIA AND SPECTRES

There are references to the rainbow c in the Anyang oracle-bone inscriptions. d The
modern term for it, hung,1 perpetuates, because of the 'insect' radical which it con-
tains, the idea of the Shang people that it was a visible rain-dragon. In a special ~
paper Hopkins (26) has discussed the ancient form of the pictogram e (see ...J:1 ~
drawing). Other terms, i or ni2.·3 use either the 'insect' or the 'weather' radical.
In the Sung period, Shen Kua described a double rainbow which he saw when on
a diplomatic mission about + 1070 to the Chhi-tan Tartars in Kansu. f Both he and
• Ed. Bettoni, vo!. 2, p. 56. b (I), p. 410.
c Cf. TSCC, Chhien hsiang tien, ch. 76; Shu cMng tien, ch. 73.
d Tung Tso-Pin (I), Pt. I, ch. I, p . 6a.
e One frequently sees such a double-headed animal (amphisbaena) sculptured over niches in the
Buddhist cave-temples of Northern Wei date at Tunhuang (cf. Fig. 19 in Vo!. 1). Cf. Bosch (1).
f MCPT, ch. 21, para. 1; cf. Hu Tao-Ching (I), vo!. 2, p. 670.

III , ill
474 21. METEOROLOGY

Sun Yen-Hsien [ considered that the rainbow was due to the reflection of the sunlight
from suspended water-drops. Two centuries had yet to elapse before Qutb aI-DIn
al-ShIrazI (+ 1236 to + 1311) gave in Persia the first satisfactory explanation of the
rainbow (essentially that of Descartes) in which the ray is refracted twice and reflected
once, through a transparent sphere. a
But the rainbow in all its beauty is far outdone by the strange complex of phenomena
which includes concentric haloes and (mock suns' or parhelia. Under certain atmo-
spheric conditions, when clouds of hexagonal or pyramidal ice-crystals, columnar or

b----------~+-+_+-~--_+--~~=_~--_4--~~~~---------b

az az
Fig. 199. Halo-components; cylindrical azimuth projection.
Key: a, sun; az, horizon ; b, parhelic circle; c, parhelia (mock suns); d, supra-solar column; e, infra-
solar column; j, Hall's halo; g, zz o halo; g' , upper tangent arc of zz o halo; 1', lower tangent arc of zzo
halo; h, 46° halo; i, upper arcs of circumscribing oval halo; j, lower arcs of circumscribing oval halo;
k, oblique arcs of Lowitz ; l, Parry's arc ; rn, extensions of g' enclosing zenith; n , upper tangent arc of
46° halo (circurnzenithal arc); p, infra-lateral tangent arcs of 46° halo (the supra-lateral counterparts
are predicted by theory but have never been seen).

plate-like, are falling slowly through the air at considerable heights, the sun is seen
surrounded by haloes, and flanked by as many as four centres of bright light (' mock
suns', Fig. 199c, c) at the same altitude. These are located at or near the junctions of
a Sarton (I), vol. z, pp. Z3, 1018; vol. 3, p . 141; Pledge (I), p . 67; Mieli (I), p . ISI ; Wiedemann (z);
Crombie (I). A few years later the same explanation was given by Theodoric of Freiburg in far-away
Europe, and by al Shlrazl's pupil, Kamal aI-Din al-Farisl. Cf. p. 16z above. See also Boyer (3) .
 2I. METEOROLOGY 475
a bright horizontal line (the parhelic circle, Fig. 199b, b) with an inner and an outer
halo (Fig. 1999, h).a In addition, there may be a fifth suri image (the anthelion) at
r800 on the horizontal line, i.e. due opposite to the true sun, two more (the paranthelia)
at about 120°, and (very rarely) two at 90°. The haloes may be brightly coloured (with
red to the inside), but the parhelic circle is white. A vertical column or pillar may
cross it at the sun. b Haloes and mock suns are observable in all latitudes, but though
not commoner in northern and polar regions they are there more splendid and various
in form . The first European description was that of Christopher Scheiner in + 1630,
who saw a display at Rome, the second that of Hevelius at Danzig in + 1661, but the
most complex effect ever seen was probably that described by Tobias Lowitz at
St Petersburg in + 1794.
In China, however, astrologically minded star-clerks had been devoting meticulous
observation to halo phenomena centuries earlier, and so impressive they found them
that an emperor himself did not disdain to write an illustrated book which dealt, inter
alia, with such phenomena. c This is the Thien Yuan Yu Li Hsiang I FU,I by Chu
Kao-Chih,2 who reigned (for one year only) as Jen Tsung,3 in + 1425. We reproduce
here two of its pictures (Fig. 200a and b).
Even more surprising perhaps is the recent discovery of Ho Ping-Yu (I) that the
pages which the Chin Shu 4 (History of the Chin Dynasty) devotes d to the 'Ten
Haloes' (Shih Y un S) yield technical terms for almost every component of the solar
halo system. Complete haloes were known as yiin,6 and the multiple suns (shu jih 7)
were strung along the mi 8 (' complete' or parhelic circle). Partial lateral arcs of the
46° halo were termed erh 9 (' ear-rings '), those of the 22° halo pao 10 (' embracements '),
and of Hall's halo chiieh II (,thumb-rings', Fig. 199./). Partial upper arcs of the 46°
halo were hsii 12 (' arrays '), of the 22° halo kuan 13 (' bonnets '), while the jih tai 14 (sun
crown) can clearly be identified as Parry's arc (Fig. 199, I). Even the curious triangular
effects known as oblique Lowitz arcs (Fig. 199, k) are described as thi IS (' supporting
brackets '). The lower tangent arc of the 22° halo (Fig. 199, g") was called ying 16 (the
' tassels'), and the infra-lateral tangent arcs of the 46° halo (Fig. 199,P) had the very
appropriate name of chi 17 (' leaning lances '). Of course all kinds of presages were

• The inner halo is at 22° from the sun, the outer at 46°. Both have inverted tangent arcs (Fig. 199, g',
g", n) touching them at their highest and lowest points, though naturally the lower tangent arc of the
outer halo can rarely be seen .
b The most elaborate description of the phenomena will be found in the treatise of Pernter &
Exner (I), pp. 242 ff. The descriptions in standard works such as those of R. W. Wood (I), 2nd ed.
p. 437, 3rd ed. p. 394, or R. S. Heath (I), pp. 339ff., are often too brief to be fully comprehensible, and
indeed the accounts in some of the best-known reference books are wrong. The classical geometrical
explanation was given b y Bravais in 1847. There is an abridged account in Mascart (I), vol. 3, pp. 472 ff.
The most recent work on the subject is that of Liljequist in 1956, who illustrates many displays and
relates particular halo-system components to particular types of ice-crystal.
C It was never printed, but a manuscript copy, with coloured illustrations , is preserved in the

Cambridge University Library.

d Ch. 12, pp. 8a to 9b; tr. Ho Ping-Vii (I).

I ;R jG :E Iff iW ~ \lit '1:1~

6 'la: 7 ~ B 10:j@
13 iCi .. El iii~ 17 n
 21. METEOROLOGY

inferred from these appearances,a but the precision of the observations is astonishing.
We thus have in hand some twenty-six technical terms current in the +7th century
(the text dates from about + 635), and cannot but conclude that the Europeans of the
17th century were long anticipated in the close study of solar halo phenomena.
Indeed, some of these terms go much further back. In Section 20C, when discussing
the 'official' character of Chinese astronomy, we had occasion to mention the Shih
Chin, one of the prognosticatory officials mentioned in the Chou Li. According to the
description of his duties there given: b

The 8hih Chin I is concerned with the method of studying the Ten Haloes (shih yUnZ) in
order to observe extraordinary phenomena (in the heavens) and thence to prognosticate good
fortune or bad. The first is called chin l (' invasive' haloes), c the second is called hsiang 4
(the 'image'),d the third hsi 5 (or hui,5 'metal ornaments'),e the fourth chien 6 (,over-
shadowings '),c and the fifth an 7 (' darkenings', solar or lunar eclipses). The sixth is called
ming8 (gloom of fog, etc.), the seventh is called mi9 (the 'complete' parhelic circle), the
eighth hsU 10 (' ordered arrays '),g the ninth chi 11 (lit. rainbow, but explained as a synonym for
yUn,12 full haloes), and lastly the tenth hsiang ll (,suggestive' cloud-forms).h
The 8hih Chin is charged with tranquillising the people, and explaining to them what
heaven sends down upon earth.i At the beginning of the year he starts his observations, and
at the end of the year he analyses them.

This clearly shows that the star-clerks of the Chhin and Han were interested in halo
phenomena and carefully recorded them. We would in any case know this from the
short description of Ssuma Chhien, j which contains half a dozen of the technical
terms used in the Chin Shu and later writings. k
One cannot but wonder whether haloes and parhelia were not the basis of the
Chinese mythological story, to which there are many references in ancient works,. of
the appearance of ten suns in the sky simultaneously in the time of the emperor Yao. m

• A list of some 28 such displays, between the years + 249 and + 420, is given later on in the same
chapter, pp. 15a-17b, together with the political events which followed, and which they were thought
to have portended. For further details see Ho & Needham (I).
b Ch. 6, p. 29b (ch. 24, p. 30), tr. auct., adjuv. Biot (I), vo!. 2 , p. 84. For his staff see ch. 5, p. 7b
(ch. 17, p. 24), tr. Biot (I), vo!. I, p. 411.
c The Chin Shu defines these as the erh, the pao and the chiieh already mentioned, together with the
pei,'4 the upper tangent arc of the 22° halo and the circumscribing oval halo (Fig. 199, g', i) forming a
band convex to the sun.
d The same as the pei just described, but with the Parry arc (Fig. 199, I), looking like a great flying
bird with the sun in its claws.
e Vertical columns (Fig. 199, d, e).
f Probably partial upper arcs of Hall's halo (Fig. 199, f).
11 Partial upper arcs of all the haloes.
h For example, says the Chin Shu, a red cloud which takes the shape of a hunter. Cf. pp. 190, 284.
I By this time the seasonal occurrence of meteor showers, for example, was certainly known.
J Shih Chi, ch. 27, p. 29a, b, tr. Chavannes (I), vo!. 3, p. 385.
k So also some of the apocryphal treatises, e.g. the Ho Thu Wei Chi Yao Kou, in Ku Wei Shu, ch. 33,
p. lb.
1 E.g. Tso Chuan, Chu Shu Chi Nien, Li Sao, Chuang Tzu, etc. Cf. Granet (I).
m As Schlegel (7a) suggested long ago.

Jif s~
'0£t 12 • . IJ~
 21. METEOROLOGY 477
This was discussed more than once by Wang Chhung in the Lun about + 80.Heng a
The suggestion seems at any rate more probable than that which would refer the
legend to the days of the ten-day week, all the suns of which would thus have been
brought upon the stage by the story-tellers at one and the same time. b
Fully circular coloured haloes are sometimes seen today from aircraft. Similar
phenomena have long been observed on mountains, notably in China the famous
'Buddha Light' (Fo kuang l ) nimbus on Omei Shan in Szechuan. c In +1177 Fan
Chheng-Ta recognised this as being a perfectly natural kind of rainbow; the same, he
thought, was also true of iridescent colours seen in certain waterfalls. d

(f) WIND AND THE ATMOSPHERE

Observations on wind, more or less fragmentary, were being made throughout Chinese
history.e The Huai Nan Tzu book (c. - 120) contains f a list of eight wind' seasons'
during the year. Later, the classification of winds was much elaborated; for example,
the Thang Yu Ling (collected in + 1107) and the Ming Shu Ssu Shuo Ling2 (Dis-
cussions of a Bookseller) by Yeh Ping-Ching 3 list twenty-four seasonal winds. The
monsoon winds from the south-east were of course early namedh-hsin jeng4 or hua
hsinjeng. 5 A special wind preceding the hurricane or typhoon (chu 6 ) was called the
'preparatory' wind (lien jeng 7), i and so on.
In the Ming book Li Hai Chi, Wang Khuei mentionsj experiments with kites to
test the behaviour of winds. This raises the question of the antiquity of the weather
cock or vane in China-not as unimportant a matter as it might seem, since this simple

• Chs. 84 and 3'1., tr. Forke (4), vo!. I, pp. 89, '1.71. It is interesting that Wang Chhung came to the
conclusion that the supernumerary suns were not true suns, but his arguments were not very
meritorious.
b It is curious that the total number of suns in a great display will amount to ten (four near the true
sun, two at 90. , the two paranthelia, and the anthelion). If the true sun be excluded, a parhelion at the
lowest point of Hall's halo will make up the number.
These paragraphs were first drafted in March 1954, at a time when minor but interesting displays of
parhelia had just been visible in Cambridge. We happened to have been consulting Wang Chhung's
chapter on the sun.
C Cf. for example, Franck (I), p . 579, for a description. The phenomenon is analogous to the
' Brocken Spectre' of Europe (Pernter & Exner (I), pp. 446ff.). See a recent case described by D. M.
Black (I).
d Wu Chhuan Lu, ch. I, pp. 13 b, 17b, 18a.
• Cf. TSCC, Chhien hsiang tien, chs. 65-<); Shu cheng tien, chs. 60-4.
f Ch. 3, p. 4a. g Ch. 8, p. :Z4a.
h E .g. in Lil Shih Chhun Chhiu, ch. 6'1. (vo!. I, p . 1'1.1), tr. R. Wilhelm (3), p . 159; and discussed in
the Yen Fan Lu 8 of Chh@ng Ta-Chhang 9 of + 1 175 .
I See the early + 9th-century Ling Nan I Wu Chih 10 (Record of Strange Things South of the Passes)
by Meng Kuan." 'Wind' had many proto-scientific significances, as in the ' hard wind' of the Taoists,
already mentioned (Vo!. '1., pp. 455, 483 above), which had a part to pby in the prehistory of aeronautics
(Sect. '1.7 below). In parallel with priina, and like chhi, other 'winds' were extremely important in
medical theory (Sect. 44) and in Buddhist embryology (Sect. 43).
J P.4b.
 21. METEOROLOGY
instrument is perhaps the oldest of all pointer-reading devices, the importance of
which in the philosophy of the natural sciences requires no emphasis. In Europe it
does not seem possible to trace it back beyond the Tower of the Winds at Athens
(c. - 150) which Andronicus of Cyrrha fitted with a weather vane. a In China it must
be of about the same date, since the Huai Nan Tzu book speaks b of a thread or
streamer (wan 1), which a Han commentator explains as 'a wind-observing fan' (hou
jeng shan Z). c Military treatises from the San Kuo onwards call it wu liang 3 (' five
ounces '), alluding to the weight of feathers to be used in it. Later books bring out the
bird-like form which it was given, for example the mid + 4th-century Ku Chin Chu
(Commentary on Things Old and New), which calls it by its usual name (hsiang jeng
wu 4 ). Another term is hsien. s Its invention is variously ascribed to legendary person-
ages such as Huang Ti.d
Chu Kho-Chen (2) conjectures that some attempt was made in the Han to construct
an anemometer. This view is based e on passages in the San Fu Huang Thu 6 (Descrip-
tion of the Palaces at Chhang-an), a late + 3rd-century book attributed to Miao
Chhang-Yen.7 Discussing towers and pavilions, he writes: f
The Han 'Ling Thai' H (Observatory Platform) was eight li north-west of Chhang-an. It
was called 'Ling Thai' because it was originally intended for observations of the Yin and
the Yang and the changes occurring in the celestial bodies, but in the Han it began to be
called Chhing Thai. 9 Kuo Yuan-Seng,IO in his Shu Cheng Chill (Records of Military Ex-
peditions),g says that south of the palaces there was a Ling Thai, fifteenjen (=120 feet) high,
upon the top of which was the armillary sphere made by Chang Heng. Also there was a
wind-indicating bronze bird (hsiang jeng thung wu 12), which was moved by the wind; and it
was said that the bird moved (only, or faster?) when a 10oo-li (very strong?) wind was
blowing. There was also a bronze gnomon 8 feet high, with a (horizontal scale) 13 feet long
and 1 foot 2 inches broad. According to an inscription, this was set up in the 4th year of the
Thai-Chhu l3 reign-period (i.e. - 101).h

The evidence of this passage does not seem very clear, though unless the movements
of the bird had something to do with the strength of the wind there would hardly be
any point in referring to them at all. Apart from gusts and turbulence, the stronger
the wind the more fixed an ordinary weathercock would be. Moreover, elsewhere in

a See the discussions of Beckmann (1), vot. z, p. Z81, and Hellmann (z) . The subject is closely
related to the development of the compass-card, on which see S. P . Thompson (I). All these writers
discuss the Hellenistic and medieval names of the winds. Cf. below, Sect. z6h, i .
b Ch. 11, p. I7b.
C Cf. Lun Heng, ch. 43 (Forke (4), vot. I, p . I I I).
d As in Shih Wu Chi Yuan, ch. z, p . 46b.
e Personal communication from Dr Chu Kho-Chen.
f Ch. 4, tr. auct.
g This seems to be another name for Kuo Hsiang,14 the Taoist commentator, elsewhere referred to
(d. +3IZ). The book is apparently a lost one.
h This was just after the date of the astronomical work and calendar reform with which the names of
Lohsia Hung and Teng Phing are associated (cf. p . 30Z above).

1 *~ 5 .HI. 63 ~.1I
7 iYi~ ~ 11 i1t hl: ~I'.
12 *11 )I. SIAl .\'il;
 21. METEOROLOGY 479
the same book (Chapter 2, on the Ran palaces), there is mention of a bronze phoenix
set on a tower roof' which faced the wind on a turning axle above and below, as if
flying'; this suggests the continuation of the axis to a lower floor where it could have
been fitted with a device to indicate, if not to record, the speed of rotation by the wind.
It is not out of place to reflect that the cup anemometer is a version of the paddle-
wheel theme, and that it was in the Ran (as we shall later see a) that the first water-
wheels appeared. Besides, the bronze phoenix is stated to have been 5 ft. high, which
seems rather excessive for a weather-cock, but not for a device where wind resistance
was sought. If this interpretation is justified, the Ran anemometer may have been an
anticipation of the modern four-cup type, for the early Renaissance instruments of
Egnatio Danti (1570) and Robert Rooke (1667) were of the pendulum pattern not
used today.b
A good description of a whirlwind with waterspouts is given by Yang Yii in his
Shan Chit Hsin Hua (New Discourses from the Mountain Cabin) of + 1360.

On the 15th day of the twelfth month, in the 8th year of the Chih-Cheng reign-period
(+ 1348), at about 3 o'clock in the afternoon, there appeared in the south four black
' dragons' coming down from the clouds, and taking up water. Shortly afterwards another
one appeared in the south-east, and lasted a considerable time before it disappeared. This
was seen at Chia-hsing city.c

As to effects of the earth's atmosphere, we have already seen an example of an

appreciation of their importance (p. 226 above). About + 400 the astronomer Chiang
Chi I undertook to explain why the sun rises and sets as a large red globe but appears
small and white at noon: d

The terrestrial vapours (ti chhiz) do not go up very high into the sky. This is the reason
why the sun appears red in the morning and evening, while it looks white at midday. If the
terrestrial vapours rose high into the sky, it would still look red then. e

He thus understood that when at a low altitude, the sun was seen through a thicker
layer of the earth's atmosphere than when it was high in the heavens. A century
earlier Kuo Pho had spoken f of the dawn and sunset mists as jen chin; 3 and in the
+ IIth century Shen Kua and othersg used expressions such as ChO,4 cho jens and
yen chhi chhen jen, 6 referring to misty atmospheres caused by small suspended particles.
As for mirages, an explanation substantially correct was given by Chhen Thing
in the Ming period. h

a Sect. z7/, in Vol. 4 below. b Cajori (5), p. 47 .

c P . Z7b, tr. H. Franke (z) , no. 71.
d According to the Sui Shu, ch. 19, p. II b ; cf. Chu Wen-Hsin (1), p. 108.
e Tr. auct. Cf. Vol. z, p. 81. f TPYL, ch. 771, p . 6b.
g Sung Shih, ch. 56, p. ZI a, for example. h Liang Shan M o Than, ch. I I, p . 4b.
 21. METEOROLOGY

(g) THUNDER AND LIGHTNING

It was natural that the ancient Chinese should have conceived of thunder (lei l ) and
lightning (tien 2) a as the result of a clash between the two deepest physical forces which
they could imagine, the Yin and the Yang. In the broadest sense, when one bears in
mind what this theory contributed to the conception of the positive and negative in
Nature, including ultimately the phenomena of electricity and chemical combination,
there was a great element of truth in the old Chinese ideas. b The Huai Nan Tzu book
(c. - 120) says:
The Yin and Yang hurl themselves upon one another and this is the cause of thunder.
Their forcing their way through each other produces lightning. c

But such naturalistic theories did not still the superstitious fears of the Han people,
who, in accordance with the theory of phenomenalism, viewed the electrical discharges
of the heavens as 'heavenly reprimands' for improper governmental or private pro-
ceedings. Hence the firmly naturalistic statement of Wang Chhung in his Lun Heng
( + 83). We see him at his best in this passage, part of a special chapter on the subject.
At the height of summer, thunder and lightning come with tremendous force, splitting
trees, demolishing houses, and from time to time killing people. The common idea is that
this splitting of trees and demolishing of houses is due to Heaven setting a dragon to work.
And when the lightning strikes a person and kills him, this is attributed to some secret faults
which he must have committed, such as eating unclean things. The roar and roll of thunder,
they say, is the voice of Heaven's anger, like men gasping with rage. Ignorant and learned
alike talk thus, making inferences from the ways of men (to those of Heaven) in order to
make sense of what happens.
But this is all nonsense. The genesis of thunder is one particular kind of energy (chhi), and
one particular kind of sound. Its splitting of trees and demolishing of houses is one with the
rushing on men and the killing of them. All these effects happen at the same time. Are we
then to ascribe to a dragon the effects on trees and houses, calling in the supposed hidden
faults as an additional explanation where a person is concerned? A dragon at work would
be auspicious, and could not give rise to an inauspicious event. This would not be in accord
with its Tao. For the two things (the non-ethical and the ethical) to happen instantaneously
and with the same sound, is unreasonable ... .
The Li Chi speaks of goblets with thunder patterns carved on them. One thunder rushes
forth, the other reverts, one is coiled up and the other stretched out. They make a noise
when they rub against one another. Their crossing and colliding causes the deep rumbling
sound. (This representation is quite correct.) The crashing noise is the shooting forth of the
chhi. If this chhi hits a man, he dies.

a Cf. TSCC, Chhien hsiang tien, chs. 77-<;); Shu cheng tien, chs. 74-5.
b In this connection, the role played by thunder and other meteorological phenomena as symbols
in the I Ching (Book of Changes) may be recalled (above, Sect. 13g, in Vol. 2, pp. 312ff.).
c Ch. 4, p. 12b, tr. auct. Parallel words in the - 1st-century text, Chhun Chhiu Wei Yuan Ming Pao
(in Ku Wei Shu, ch. 6, p. 3b). We find the same idea in Chuang Tzu, ch. 26 (Wai Wu), and in the
Kuliang Chuan (cit. TPYL, ch. 13, p . 2a), so it was certainly current in the late Chou period.
 21. METEOROLOGY

To speak truly, thunder is the explosion (chi!) of the chhi of the solar Yang principle.
This may be understood by the fact that in January, when the Yang begins to grow, we
hear the first thunders, while in May, when it is predominant, the thunder is continuous
and severe. In autumn and winter, when the Yang is dying away, thunderstorms decline.
In the summer, when the Yang is reigning, the Yin disputes its supremacy, so that there is
collision, friction, explosions and shootings. What happens to be struck will be harmed. By
pure chance a person sheltering under a tree or in a house may be hit and killed.
How can we test this? Throw a ladle of water into a smelting-furnace. The chhi will be
stirred and will explode like thunder. Those who are near may well be burned. You may
consider heaven and earth as like a furnace, the Yang chhi as the fire, and clouds and rain as
abundant water. Hence violent disturbances must arise. How could people who are hit not
be harmed and die?
When founders melt iron, they make moulds (hsing2) of earth and when these are dry the
metal is allowed to run down into them. If they are not, it will skip up, overflow and spurt
about. If it hits a man's body it burns his skin. Now the fiery Yang chhi is hotter than molten
iron, and the exploding Yin is damper than earth or clay. When the Yang chhi hits a man it
does more than cause a pain of burning.a
Lightning is essentially fire. Such chhi, burning a man, leaves a mark. If the mark looks
like some writing, people, seeing it, are tempted to regard it as a statement concerning his
guilt written by Heaven. This again is empty nonsense. If Heaven struck men dead with
lightning (of set purpose) it would take care to write its characters clearly in order, instead of
indistinctly and unclearly. Marks made by lightning are certainly not characters written by
Heaven .... b
The parallel with Lucretius springs to the mind:
Hoc est igniferi naturam fulminis ipsam
perspicere et qua vi faciat rem quam que videre,
non Tyrrhena retro volventem carmina frustra
indicia occultae divum perquirere mentis,
unde volans ignis pervenerit aut in utram se
verterit hinc partem, quo pacto per loca saepta
insinuarit, et hinc dominatus ut extulerit se,
quidve nocere queat de caelo fulminis ictus. c
Other Han scholars, such as Huan Than (before + 30), had urged the same point of
view. d
• In passing we may note the metallurgical significance of this paragraph as an indication of the
knowledge of cast iron technique in the + 1st century, antedating European practice by twelve centuries;
see below, Sects. 30 and 36.
b Ch. 23, tr. auct., adjuv. Forke (4), vo!. I, p. 285; Hughes (I), p. 324.
C De Rer. Nat. VI, 379 ff. Leonard's translation runs:
This, this it is, 0 Memmius, to see through '
The nature of the fire-fraught thunderbolt;
o this it is to mark by what blind force
It maketh each effect, and not, 0 not,
To unwind Etrurian scrolls oracular,
Inquiring as to the occult will of gods ...
Or what the thunderstroke portends of ill ... (p. 265).
On the fulgural divination of the Etruscans see Bouche-Leclercq (2) and R. Berthelot (I).
d TPYL, ch. 13, p. 8a .

I ~k 2 ff~
 21. METEOROLOGY

In later centuries the denial of prognosticatory significance in lightning and thunder

became a commonplace of Confucian sceptical rationalism. In the early + 11th century
Su Hsiin,I the father of the famous poet Su Tung-Pho, alluding to a popular belief
that death by lightning was a punishment for lack of filial piety, remarked that it would
have its work cut out to punish all those who deserved it, and evidently it did not do
so.a In the same century, about + 1078, Shen Kua recorded a description, so carefully
written that it might have been destined for the columns of Nature, of certain lightning
effects.
A house belonging to Li Shun-Chii was struck by lightning. Brilliant sparkling light was
seen under the eaves. Everyone thought that the hall would be burnt, and those who were
inside rushed out. After the thunder had abated, the house was found to be all right, though
its walls and the paper on the windows were blackened. On certain wooden shelves, certain
lacquered vessels with silver mouths had been struck by the lightning, so that the silver
had melted and dropped to the ground, but the lacquer was not even scorched. Also a
valuable sword made of strong steel had been melted to liquid, without the parts of the house
nearby being affected. One would have thought that the thatch and wood would have been
burnt up first, yet here were metals melted and no injury to thatch and wood. This is beyond
the understanding of ordinary people. There are Buddhist books which speak of 'dragon
fire' which burns more fiercely when it meets with water b instead of being extinguished by
water like' human' fire. Most people can only judge of things by the experiences of ordinary
life, but phenomena outside the scope of this are really quite numerous. How insecure it is
to investigate natural principles using only the light of common knowledge, and subjective
ideas. c

Similar precise and objective descriptions were given in later centuries, as by Yang Yii
about +1360.d But the explanation of the true nature of thundere and lightning had to
await the full flood of post-Renaissance science.

(h) THE AURORA BOREALIS

In the Chinese historical records there are a number of descriptions of ' strange lights'
(kuang iZ)', 'coloured emanations', etc.,! which can only refer to aurora observations.
E. Biot (14) collected forty of these from the Wen Hsien Thung Khao and its supplement,
and about sixty are contained in the Thu Shu Chi Chheng encyclopaedia. g The earliest
dates from -208 and the latest from +1639. The Khai-Yuan Chan Ching (+718)
quotes h lost books, such as the Yao Chan 3 (Divination by Weird Wonders) of the Han
a See Forke (9), p . 139.
b Could this have been an echo of one of the conventional descriptions of Byzantine' Greek fire'?
In Sect. 30 we shall show that' Greek fire' or something very like it was widely used in China in the
+ loth and + 11th centuries.
C MCPT, ch. zo, para. 10, tr. auct. Cf. Hu Tao-Ching (1), vo!. z, p. 656.

d Shan CM Hsin Hua, p. sob (tr. H. Franke (z), no. 137).

e On the confusion of Neolithic axes (,thunder-axes') with meteorites, a few words have been said
above (p. 434).
f Cf. above, pp. 190, z84, 476, on the duties of observers given in the Tso Chuan and the Chou Li.
B Shu chbrg tien, ch. 101.. h Ch. z, p. 3a.
 PLATE LXX

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114

(a) (b)

Fig. 200. Two pages from the MS. Thien Yuan Yu Li Hsiang I Fu by Chu Kao-Chih, emperor of the
Ming, c. + 1425 (Cambridge University Library), showing parhelic phenomena.

Translation :
(a) •Haloes (Yun) having straight Erh and threading the sun. Chu Wen Kung says that when there is
a yii11 with vertical erh an army will be defeated. The Sung History Memoirs also say that it means this,
adding that if the sun is threaded through, a commander will be killed.'
(b) • A solar halo (Yun) with four Erh, four Pei and four Chueh. Chu Wen Kung says that this
signifies conspiracies on the part of ministers ; let the gates be shut and (the emperor) not stir forth. The
Khai- Yuan Chan Ching says exactly the same, further advising the issue of (emergency) orders through-
out the empire. If within three days there is rain, the orders are to be cancelled.'
Thus although the motive was often astrological, the observations of the haloes were precise. In the
above drawings one can recognise the parhelic circle, the 22° and 46° haloes, and a variety of tangent
arcs.
 PLATE LXXI

Fig. 20 I. The bore on the Chhien-Thang River near Hangchow (photo. Beer).

Fig. 202. Lin Chhing's picture of the bore on the Chhien-Thang River
(from Hung Hsueh Yin Yuan Thu Chi, 1849).
 2I. METEOROLOGY

prognosticator Ching Fang,I mentioning great displays in - 193 and - 154, which
were attributed, like earthquakes, to excessive Yin. No complete listing of the Chinese
observations has yet been made, a since the phenomenon was not recognised very
clearly as an entity, and went by many names, e.g. chhih chhi2 (red vapour), pei chi
kuang 3 (north polar light), etc. A vast literature would thus have to be searched by
a sinologist and a meteorologist in collaboration. We noticed, for instance, a description
of a purple aurora in one of the Five Element chapters of the Hsin Thang Shu (New
History of the Thang) for + 882, but this particular one does not seem to occur in the
encyclopaedia's list. b An earlier aurora, covering the whole northern sky with shim-
mering red light in +763, was also recorded in Irish and Anglo-Saxon chronicles. c
One of the oldest Chinese descriptions d is that for - 30, when 'at night there were
seen in the sky luminous vapours, yellow and white, with (streamers) more than
100 feet long, which brightly lit up the ground. Some said that these were cracks in
the heavens (thien lieh 4); others said that they were the "swords of heaven" (thien
chien 5). ' This terminology is strangely reminiscent of the xaop.aTa (chasms) of Aristotle,
who thus refers to aurorae in the Meteorologica, e but any connection between the terms
is hard to believe. f Of course no explanation of the phenomena was possible until
modern times. Their close association with sun-spots has been realised since 1859.

(i) SEA TIDES

Until modern times there was, on the whole, more knowledge of, and interest in, the
phenomena of tides in China than in Europe. As has often been pointed out, this was
probably due to the fact that the tides in the Mediterranean are slight and did not
attract much notice by the ancient naturalists. The coasts of China, however, have
tides of considerable range, for example, about twelve feet in spring off the mouth of
the Yangtze. Moreover, China possessed one of the only two great tidal bores or eagres
in the world, that on the Chhien-Thang 6 River near Hangchow (Fig. 201), the other
being in the northern mouth of the Amazon, far away from any ancient civilisation.
The bore on the Severn is much smaller. From very early times, therefore, a natural
phenomenon of great impressiveness, obviously closely allied to coastal tides in general,

a But see Kanda (I, 2), whose reference to, and translation of, the Fu Hou passage are, however,
both wrong.
b 'In the seventh month of the 2nd year of the Chung-Ho reign-period, on a ping-wll day, at night
the whole of the north-western sky was red; the vapour was like purple or deep crimson borders or
boundaries in the heavens', ch. 34, p. II b. Cf. the translations of these chapters by Pfizmaier (67).
C See Hsin Thang Shll, ch. 34, p. I I a, which however makes it late in + 762. A beginning has been
made by Schove (I, 6) at correlating the Chinese and European data. Cf. St0nner (I).
d Fu Hou Ku Chin Chu, in YHSF, ch. 73, p. sob; cit. TpYL, ch. 2, p. 6b. Compiled about + 140.
There is nothing exactly corresponding in the annals of the Chhien Han Shu, but in the previous year
(- 29) 'divine lights' had been seen in the first month' in all three districts' (ch. 10, p. 3 b). Perhaps
Fu Hou was one year out in his reckoning. The term thien lieh goes back to the - 1st century at least,
for the Chin Shu (ch. II, p. 7a) quotes a passage from Liu Hsiang which uses it.
e I, 5, 342 b. Cf. Seneca (Clarke & Geikie tr. p . 38).
f We are indebted to Mr Francis Celoria for drawing our attention to this similarity.
 21. METEOROLOGY

invited explanation by Chinese thinkers.a We owe to A. C. Moule (3) an exhaustive

monograph on the Hangchow bore and the history of tidal theory in China; this
includes a bibliography of descriptions of the bore,b the most recent being that of
Chatley (22). No medieval Chinese drawing of the bore is known to exist, but I repro-
duce here a picture from Lin Chhing's 1 Hung Hsiieh Yin Yuan Thu Chi 2 of 1849
(Fig. 202).c
The normal behaviour of tides is of course a rise, slow at first, fastest at mid-sea-
level, and diminishing to high water; then a fall returning to the original low level.
The total cycle occupies about 12 hr. 25 min., this being the interval between suc-
cessive meridian transits of the moon. The rise is greatest at the beginning of each
lunation, and least about two weeks after it. The range of the tides, the intervals
between transits and high waters, and the difference between syzygy and spring tide,
however, greatly depend upon local conditions, such as the coastal topography, the
configuration of the littoral sea-bottom, etc. Places in north China may have but one
tide in each twenty-five hours, while Southampton may have four in a day. As one
proceeds up a tidal estuary, such as that of the Yangtze or the Thames, the period of
rise shortens and the period of fall increases. A bore is simply an extreme example of
this in which the first half of the rise is almost instantaneous. d In the Chhien-Thang
River the bore usually has a front of about twelve feet followed by a further rise of
six feet in the first hour, and a total range of some twenty feet. Out at sea, where the
bore commences, the speed of the waves is as much as seven knots; in the river, after
the passage of the bore, a flood current of ten knots occurs. A standing wave of perhaps
thirty feet high is generated at the point where two wave fronts intersect, and if this
happens near the shore, it may flood over the very massive sea walls. e A thunderous
noise is heard long before the bore arrives, and after it has passed junks proceed
upstream in the strong current hardly under contro1.
Elaborate discussions have been entered upon by Moule (3) and Gillis (himself a
sailor) on the usual words for tides, chhao 3 and hsi,4 the former meaning morning,
flood, or spring tide, and the latter evening, ebb, or neap tide. The terms are, it will
be seen, somewhat vague. Moreover, their etymology is very obscure. Giles (8) drew
attention to a phrase common in ancient writings, chhao tsung yii hai,5 meaning that
rivers do homage to the sea, as if at an imperial court. Moule thinks, therefore, that

a The far more terrifying and destructive tidal waves of the Sea of Japan were naturally not so
familiar to the Chinese, but Schlegel (7 r), p. 50, noted what is quite probably a reference to them in the
+4th- or + 5th-century Hai Nei Shih Chou Chi (entry under Pheng Lai). Waves rising to a hundred
feet in height, with no wind, need by no means be purely imaginary (cf. the description of Bemstein).
Tidal waves, of course, have nothing to do with tides, but are caused by underwater earthquakes or
volcanic explosions. At a distance, tidal regularities may be affected, as in the occurrence of + 1347
reported in Shan Chit Hsin Hua, p. z6a (H. Franke (z), no . 64).
b E .g. McGowan (3). Its first modern scientific analysis was that of Commander W. U. Moore in
1888. Cf. Moule (IS), pp. 19ff.
C Lin Chhing was a great expert in water conservancy and hydraulic works; we shall meet with him

again in connection with that subject (Sect. z81).

d For the theory of bores, see Doodson & Warburg (I); Alien (I).
e Chatley (zz). Perhaps' shock wave' would be ~ better term.
 21. METEOROLOGY

the word chhao 1 was derived not directly from 'sunrise ' but indirectly from this
analogy, since the court assembled at dawn. The word hsi z is connected more directly
with the evening, since the phonetic is an ancient pictogram of the crescent moon.
Already in the early - 2nd century a good bore was expected at full moon, as appears
from the poetical composition Chhi Fa 3 (The Seven Beguiling Tales) a by Mei Sheng 4
(d. - 140):b
The guest said: ' At full moon in the eighth month I hope to go to Kuang-Ling 5 with the
feudal lords and with companions from far away, and with my brothers, to see the bore on
the River Chhii. 6 When we reach the spot, before we see the bore itself, but only the places
where the strength of the water has come, it will be alarming enough to make us tremble at
what it has over-ridden, uprooted, thrown into confusion, and swept away. . . . 'c
But a causal connection with the moon is not stated, and when the sick prince asks the
guest what the force is which drives the wave, he replies that, though not supernatural,
it is not recorded. In the + 1st century, however, the dependence of the tides on the
moon was clearly indicated, and by none other than Wang Chhung in his Lun Heng.
The whole passage affords so remarkable an example of how that great sceptic would
take a popular belief and tear it limb from limb, that I shall hope to be excused for
citing it in full. d Wu Tzu-Hsii,7 a virtuous minister e of the State of Wu in the feudal
period, had been unjustly killed or driven to death by his prince f Fu Chhai,8 and
thrown into the river about - 484. The popular belief was that the vengeful spirit of
the minister regularly thereafter roused the waves to their periodical wrath and havoc:
The story. (I) It has been recorded that the King of Wu, Fu Chhai, put
Wu Tzu-Hsii to death, and had (his body) cooked in a
cauldron, sewn into a leather sack, and thrown into the
River. Wu Tzu-Hsii, incensed, lashed up the waters, so
that they rose in great waves and drowned people. In
later times temples were erected to him on the Yangtze at
Tan-thu 9 in Kuei-Chi 10 as well as on the Che I I river of
Chhien-Thang,12 for the purpose of appeasing his anger and
stopping the wildness of the waves. Now the statement that
the King of Wu put Wu Tzu-Hsii to death and had him
thrown into the river, is reliable enough, but the idea that
out of spite Wu Tzu-Hsii lashes up the waters, is absurd.
Contradictory negative (2) Chhii Yuan,13 full of disgust, threw himself into the
examples. Hsiang l4 River, but (boisterous) waves did not arise on it.
Shen Thu-Ti 15 jumped into the Yellow River and died, but
waves did not appear in that case either.
a CSHK (Chhien Han sect.), ch. 20, p . 6b ; Wen Hsuan, ch. 34. b See Nagasawa (I), p. 148 .
C Tr. Moule (3). The Chhii seems to have been a river in Northern Chiangsu north of the Yangtze.

d The division of the argument into sections is ours.

e G2358. Biography in Shih Chi, ch. 66.
f G 576. This king was one of the pioneer canal-builders, cf. Sect. 281 below.
486 21. METEOROLOGY
Objection (3) People will certainly say that as to violence and wrath
Chhii Yuan and Shen Thu-Ti did not equal Wu Tzu-Hsii.
refuted, (4) But in the State of Wei, (Chung) Tzu-Lu'sI body was
leading to a new argument. salted in pickle. And in the Han time the body of Pheng
Yiieh 2 was boiled. The valour of Wu Tzu-Hsii certainly did
not exceed that of Tzu-Lu and Phl:ng Yiieh. Yet these two
men could not vent their anger when their bodies were being
cooked in the cauldrons, and raise a disturbance to bespatter
the bystanders.
Why wait to show annoyance (5) Moreover, Wu Tzu-Hsii was first put into the cauldron
till thrown in the river? and only afterwards thrown into the river. What was his
spirit doing when his body was in the cauldron? Why was
it so meek in the cauldron and so bold in the river? Why was
its indignation not the same in both places?
And what river was it, (6) Furthermore, when he was thrown into the river, what
anyway? river was it? There is the Yangtze at Tan-thu, the ChI:
river of Chhien-Thang, and the Ling 3 river at Wu-thung. 4
If you say he was thrown into the Yangtze at Tan-thu (you
have to explain why) it never rises in boisterous waves. If
you say he was thrown into the Che river at Chhien-Thang
(then you have to admit that) not only the Che river but also
the Shan-Yin S and the Shang-Yii 6 rivers have waves.
Perhaps you will maintain that the body was taken out of the
sack and cut up into three pieces, one piece being cast into
each of these three rivers?
A pointless story, in Wang (7) For human hatred there is still some justification as long
Chhung's opinion. as the deadly enemy is alive, or some of his descendants still
left. But now the Wu State has long ceased to exist, and Fu
Chhai had no sons. What was once Wu is now the Pre-
fecture of Kuei-Chi. Why should the spirit of Wu Tzu-Hsii
still resent the wrong once done him, and continue to excite
the waves? What is he still after?
Geographical objection. (8) When the States of Wu and Yiieh existed, the present
Kuei-Chi circuit was divided, so that Yiieh governed Shan-
Yin and Wu had the present Wu city as its capital. South
of Yii-Chi all the land belonged to Yiieh, and north of it to
Wu, the Chhien-Thang river thus forming the frontier be-
tween the two kingdoms. The Shan-Yin and Shang-Yii
rivers both come out of Yiieh territory. So if Wu Tzu-Hsii's
anger causes the violence of the waves they ought to do their
damage on the Wu side only-why should they affect the
Yiieh side? To harbour a grudge against the King of Wu
and yet to wreak malice also on Yiieh is contrary to reason
(wei shih tao Li 7) and does not show the distinction which a
spirit is (surely) capable of making.
31ii

Objection comparing
mental and physical
action.
Return to argument of (2).
Parallel legends.a
A scientific view.
a Cr. Mo Tzu, ch. 31, tr. Mei (I), p . 16r.
b This is a microcosm-macrocosm theory (cf. above, Sect. 13f, in Vol. 2, p. 294). Respiratory
theories of tides were also held in Europe; see below, p. 494.
21. METEOROLOGY
(9) Besides it is difficult to excite waves, but easy to move
men. The living rely on the strength of their nerves, the
dead must use their essence and soul (ching hunt). Alive,
Wu Tzu-Hsii could not move the living, or preserve his
body, and himself caused its death (by suicide when the
King presented him with a sword). When the strength of his
nerves was lost, and his essence and soul evaporated and
dispersed (iei san 2 ), how could he excite waves?
(10) Hundreds and thousands of people have found them-
selves in the predicament of Wu Tzu-Hsii-crossing rivers
in boats, they have not reached the other shore. But Wu
Tzu-Hsii was the only one who had his body boiled in a
cauldron first. After such treatment what harm could he do?
(He was not even drowned in the water directly.)
(11) King Hsiian J of Chou killed his minister, the Lord of
Tu. ~ Lord Chien 5 of Chao killed his officer Chuang Tzu -1. 6
Years later (the ghost of) Tu shot and killed King Hsiian,
and (the ghost of) Chuang felled the Lord Chien. Although
these stories seem (at first sight) true, they are really all
empty nonsense. But even supposing them true, Wu Tzu-
Hsii, whose body was no longer intact, having been broken
down by the boiling, was not in a position to have acted in the
same way against King Fu Chhai. So why consider the
beating of the waves a revenge? Or even as proof of Wu
Tzu-Hsii's retaining his consciousness?
(12) (The trouble is that) popular stories, though not true,
are represented in paintings, so that even scholars and wise
men are deceived by them.
(13) Now the rivers in the earth are like the pulsating blood-
vessels of a man. As the blood flows through them they
throb or are still in accordance with their own times and
measures. So it is with the rivers. Their rise and fall, their
going and coming are like human respiration, like breath
coming in and out. b
The natural processes of Heaven and Earth have remained
the same from the most ancient times (shang ku7 ). When the
Shu Ching says, •The Yangtze and the Han pursue their
common course to the sea', that was in the time before Yao
and Shun (the legendary emperors). When the rivers fall
into the sea, there is nothing but rapid motion (as a rule),
but when the sea enters the three rivers (i.e. the Chhien-
Thang, the Shan-Yin and the Shang-Yii already mentioned),
the waters begin to roar and foam, doubtless because their
channels are small, shallow, and narrow.
3~ 5111\

Another example of a river
with a tidal wave; cf. (6).
And what about rapids in
general?
And ordinary storms?
Localisation of the effects.
The moon is the answer to
the problem; cf. (13).
21. METEOROLOGY
(14) The River Chhiil in Kuang-Ling 2 also has such great
waves. As the poet says: 'Vast is the expanse of the
Yangtze, and great the waves of Chhi.i.' This is certainly due
to the passage being narrow and impeded. If after having
been done to death in Wu, Wu Tzu-Hsi.i's spirit were to go
and produce boisterous waves at Kuang-Ling, that would
certainly not be a sign of its intelligence. (No harm had
been done to it there.)
(IS) When streams are deep they are still and broad, but
when they are shallow, with much sand and many rocks,
they boil up into rapids. A tidal bore and a rapid are much
the same thing. IfWu Tzu-Hsi.i is to be held responsible for
the tidal waves, who is it that lives in the rivers and makes
falls and rapids?a
(16) Besides, sometimes a storm excites the waters of the
three rivers, so that they drown people. Wu Tzu-Hsi.i's
spirit would have to be made responsible for the wind too .
(17) Moreover, I remark that when the wave enters the three
rivers (of the Chhien-Thang estuary) it foams and rages
along the banks, but in the middle of the stream there is no
noise. So if Wu Tzu-Hsi.i is responsible, his body must (in
some way) be concentrated along each of the banks.
(18) Finally the rise of the wave follows the waxing and
waning moon, smaller and larger, fuller or lesser, never the
same. If Wu Tzu-Hsi.i makes the waves, his wrath must be
governed by the phases of the moon! (ju Tzu-Hsu wei thao,
Tzu-Hsii. chih nu i yueh wei chieh yell 3). b

Thus does Wang Ch hung prowl round the traditional animistic belief, attacking it
from a variety of angles before giving it the knock-out blow based on the correlation
of the tides with the moon.
The earliest reference to the sea walls built along the Chhien-Thang river to with-
stand the tides and the bore comes from Wang Chhung's time. His contemporary,
Hua Hsin,4 who was governor of the district from + 84 to + 87, seems to have been
the first to organise the construction of dykes of sufficient strength. c
In Wang Chhung's mind, the influence of the moon on the tides must have been
combined with a microcosm-macrocosm respiration theory, as we have seen. But
these naturalistic views had to contend in his time with others more primitive. The
Shan Hai Ching (Classic of the Mountains and Rivers)d stated that the tides were the

a Note again Wang Chhung's appreciation of the role played by the topography of the sea and
estuary bottom.
b Lun Heng, ch. 16, tr. auct., adjuv. Forke (4), vol. 2, pp. 247 ff. ; Moule (3), p. 149.
C Hou Han Shu, ch. 101 , p. lob; Thai-Phing Huan Yu Chi, ch. 93; Thung Tien, ch . 182, p. 966'2.
d This is generally regarded as a Former Han book built round material from Warring States times,
and perhaps going back te the school of Tsou Yen.

'iIII
 21. METEOROLOGY

result of a sea-serpent or whale (hai chhiu I or chhing ni2) coming out from and going
into its cave. a The Buddhist books, with their stories of niigas, encouraged this idea.
However, in the + 3rd century, Yang Chhiian, in his Wu Li Lun (Discourse on the
Principles of Things),b reaffirmed that the moon, being itself of the purest aqueous
principle, influenced the tides, which were great or small according to her waxing and
waning.c His older contemporary Yen Chiin 3 had written the first monograph
specially devoted to tidal theory. Yang Chhiian's view was supported early in the
+ 4th century by Ko Hung, whose Pao Phu TZll says:
The waves of the sea heave up and down with the waning and waxing of the moon. The
chhao 4 is that which comes in the morning, the hsis is that which arrives in the evening.
The influence of the moon produces water, so when the moon is full the ch/zao is large.d

And Ko Hung goes on to correlate, not very successfully, the positions of the sun (and
hence the moon) in the four seaSOI1S with the behaviour of the tides at those times.e
He also offers a strange alternative theory that the tides are due to the' overflowing'
of the Milky Way, which passes under the sea in the diurnal revolution of the heavens.
It seems that what he had in mind was the noria or water-wheel which raises water in
buckets attached to its rim.f In a third passage he emphasises the importance of the
topography and configuration of estuaries and rivers with regard to the Chhien-Thang
bore, and scoffs at the story of Wu Tzu-Hsii, saying that the phenomenon had existed
since the foundation of heaven and earth, long before the quarrel between the King of
Wu and his minister.
The next advances were made in the Thang. Tou Shu-Meng,6 about +770, who
wrote the Hai Thao Chih7 (or Hai Chiao Chih 8 ) (On the Tides), seems to have been
one of the first to deal with the lunar theory of the tides with any scientific detail.
When the moon is passing through hsi-mu 9 and ta-liang, IQ he said, the water rises
higher. These two terms, it will be remembered, are two of the twelvefold divisions
of the equator and its hsiu, corresponding to the autumn and spring equinoxes
respectively.g Apparently Tou Shu-Meng thought that the moon actually caused the

a It seems impossible to find this passage in the text of the book as we now have it (cf. the relevant
Sino-French index), but it was quoted early, as in the Feng Thu Chi" (Record of Airs and Places) by
Chou Chhu 12 in the Chin (+ 3rd century), see Pelliot's note in Moule (3), p. 148 ; and TP YL, ch. 68,
P. 4b. b Already referred to, p. 218 above.
C Klaproth (I) seems to be the only sinologist who has noticed this passage, which he took from a
quotation given in the Thang encyclopaedia Thang Lei Ran " by YU An-Chhi.14
d We have not found the exact location of these remarks; as yet there is no index to Pao Phu Tzu, but
they are quoted in TP YL, ch. 68, p . 5 b, tr. Moule (3).
e He says that the tid es are higher in summer than in winter, which is true only for the day tides.
Natural, therefore, is his statement that they slowly increase during spring and diminish during autumn.
In his seasonal correlation he introduces the old erroneous calculations about the distance of the sun
from the earth (cf. pp. 21, 225, 257 above).
f See below, Sect. 27e. The passage might well be taken as evidence of the existence of this machine
in Ko Hung's time . g Cf. T able 34 above. See also de Sau ssure (16a) .

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 21. METEOROLOGY

water to swell and contract. He was clear, however, on the monthly springs and neaps,
saying, ' In one night and day there are two chhao and two hsi, in one new and full
moon two springs and two neaps (i hui i ming tsai chhao tsai hsi I)'.a
In the following decades Feng Yen,2 in his Chien Wen Chi 3 (Records of Things
Seen and Heard) (+800), accurately described daily changes in the time of high
water. Li Chi-Fu,4 in his Yuan-Ho ChunHsien Thu Chih s (General Geography of the
Yuan-Ho reign-period) of + 814, was equally precise, saying that the tide is smallest
on the tenth and twenty-fifth days of the lunar month, and largest on the third and
eighteenth days. This was in particular reference to the Chhien-Thang bore, which he
graphically described. In + 850 came a short tractate which was to be famous, Lu
Chao's6 Hai Chhao Fu 7 (Essay on the Tides).b From this we know that regular tide
tables (thao chih 8) were already in use, and that the association of neaps with the
moon's quarters was fully accepted. At the same time, he retained some attachment
to the respiration theory, if this term may be applied to the somewhat vague concep-
tion of the original chhi puffing out and drawing in (yuan chhi i yueh 9). But he intro-
duced a new theme,c namely, that the sun had a part to play in the matter d (hai chhao
chih seng hsi tzu jih, erh thai yin tshai chhi hsiao ta yeh 10); the sun produced tides, but
the moon determined their dimensions. His essay was often afterwards quoted e and
criticised, as we shall see.
Of course, he did not think in terms of the gravitational attraction of the sun on the
mass of water, but supposed a kind of periodical explosion and consequent tidal wave
to occur each time that the white-hot sun entered the water. With such basically
erroneous theories in mind, it was not surprising that Lu Chao considered that the
farther away the moon (the Yin force) was from the sun (the Yang force) the larger
the tide would be-a conclusion exactly opposite to what we know now to be the
truth.f
Another point of view was taken by Chhiu Kuang-Thing 11 about + 900, in his
Hai Chhao Lun 12 (Discourse on the Tides), which took the form of a dialogue between
two characters, the Old Fisherman of the Eastern Sea (Tung Hai Yli Ong 13) and the
Recluse of the Western Hill (Hsi Shan Yin Che I4 ). He thought it was absurd to

a Tou Shu-Meng was frequently afterwards quoted, in Sung books, such as the Yiin Lu }I,fan
Chhao 15 (Random Jottings at Ylin-lu) by Chao Yen-Wei,16 and other books shortly to be mentioned.
b To be found in TSCC, Shan chhuan tien, ch. 315, p. 6b.
C Or perhaps built further on views which Ko Hung had held.
d Today of course we know that this is true, the attractive force of the sun being comparable with
that of the moon by the ratio 3 to 7 roughly.
e As in the Chiu Jih Lu 17 (Daily Journal), a Sung book by a Mr Chao 18 who adopted the pseudonym
Kuan Yuan Nai Te Ong l9 -The Old Gentleman of the Water-Garden who attained Success through
Forbearance. There is much on the tides in this book, which is abridged in Shuo Fu, ch. 14, p. 3a.
r The largest tides occur when the gravitational forces of the moon and the sun pull in the same
direction.

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 21. METEOROLOGY 49 1
suppose that the sea could expand and contract, as the land would do so too, and there
would be no difference of water-level; what happened was that the land periodically
rose and sank in accordance with cosmic respiration.
Notable advance was made with Yli Ching's I Hai Chhao Thu Hsii 2 (Preface to
Diagrams of the Tides) of + 1025. This work a was perhaps intended to introduce
the Hai Chhao ThuLun 3 (Illustrated Discourse on the Tides) by a celebrated engineer b
Yen SU,4 who had been studying the tides for the previous ten years. Yli Ching
established that the day tide was larger in spring and summer, while the night tide
was larger in autumn and winter. He also knew the association of the tidal bore with
new and full moon. The most important passages of Yen Su's book were afterwards
repeatedly quoted. c Here is one of them:

The original forces (yuan chhi s) breathe in and out, and the sky following the forces
expands 'and contracts,d while the tide going and coming in the seas follows the sky and
flows and ebbs. Since the sun is the mother of the double Yang, and Yin is born of Yang,
the tide is subject to the sun; and since the moon is the essence of the Yin, and water is Yin,
the tide follows the motions of the moon. For this reason, following the sun and responding
to the moon, copying the motions of the Yin and yet subject to the Yang, the tide is at its
highest at new and full moon, contracts as the moon waxes or wanes, is at its lowest at the
first and last quarter, and grows just before full and new moon. That is the reason why
there are large and small tides.
Now beginning at new moon at the tzu double-hour (II p.m. to 1 a.m.) in the middle of
the night, the tide is high at the earth's tzu position, 4'165 kho.e When the moon is removed
from the sun at the earth's chhen point by the daily movement of 3'72 kho, which tallies with
the positions which the moon has reached in relation to the position of the sun, the tide is
bound to respond. After the moon has passed the full, it still travels eastward, and the tide
is governed by the sun and again responds to it westward, until, on reaching 4'165 kho of
tzu at the next new moon, sun, moon, and tide all meet again at the tzu position. Thus we
know that the tide is bound to be governed by the sun and turn to the west, so that when
the moon approaches (the meridian at) tzu (about midnight) or wu (noon), the spring tide is
certain to be at its highest, and when the moon reaches (the meridian at) maD (about 6 a.m.)
or yu (about 6 p.m.) the neap tide is certain to be at its lowest. There may be small differences
of lateness or earliness, but on the whole the flow and ebb, the springs (ying 6 ) and neaps
(hsii7), do not miss their proper times. f
a Another work of about the same time was the Chhao Shuo 8 (Discussion of the Tides), interesting
because its author, an official of Hangchow, was the distinguished Taoist who edited the Yiln Chi
Chhi Chhien collection-namely Chang Chiin-Fang' (Mo Chi!O (Things Silently Recorded), p. 59a).
b Cf. above, p. 324, and below, Sect. 27c.
C Especially in the Hsi Chhi Tshung Hua" (Western Pool Collected Remarks) of Yao Khuan" later

in the same century. This in its turn was drawn on for the Hsien-Shun Lin-An Chih!3 (Hsien-Shun
reign-period Records of the Hangchow District) by Chhien Yiieh-Yu 14 of + 1274. This was the source
translated by Moule (3).
d One cannot escape being reminded here of the ancient theories of expansion and contraction,
dissipation and congelation (above, Sects. 10 and 16).
e A kho (quarter) was rather less than IS minutes because there were generally 100 in the day-and-
night of 12 double-hours, not 96. f Tr. Moule (3), mod.

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49 2 2I. METEOROLOGY

From this passage, though somewhat obscurely expressed, it is clear that attempts were
being made at quite accurate observation early in the + 11th century. It is also clear
that a distinct notion of 'influence' on the part of the celestial bodies was in mind.
Exactly how near this came to a formulation in terms of 'gravitational' attraction or
force depends on the interpretation of the terms used. For example, Chang Tsai (the
Neo-Confucian), about the same time, spoke of the ching I of the moon, a radiating
, seminal virtue', and of the hsiang kan 2 of the water, i.e. its response. a It is not clear
why the time of two minutes past midnight in the above passage is given with such
refinement, but the moon's transit at new and full would be approximately midnight.
The average daily change of fifty-six minutes in the time of the transit is also not far
wrong. b Part of Yen Su's work consisted of a detailed tide-table for Ningpo.
Other tide-tables of this date were those of Lu Chhang-Ming 3 in + 1056, which are
contained in the Shun-Yu Lin-An Chih 4 (Shun-Yu reign-period Records of the
Hangchow District)C by Shih Rs The Cho Keng Lu of + 1368 saysd that these tables
were inscribed by Hsuan Cha0 6 on the walls of the Che-chiang Thing7 pavilion
which stood on the banks of the Chhien-Thang river. e Compare with these facts the
+ 13th-century tide-table giving the time of 'filod at london brigge' which exists in
a British Museum manuscript. f This is the earliest in Europe.
In the latter half of the century Shen Kua took Lu Chao to task for his theory that
the sun was involved in the causation of the tides. In the Meng Clzhi Pi Than we read:

Lu Chao says that the tide of the sea is formed because it is stirred up by the rising and
setting of the sun. This has not the slightest basis. If the tide were due to this cause it would
have a diurnal regularity. How could it happen that it sometimes comes in the morning
and sometimes in the evening?
I have myself given much study to its periodical motion, and found that the tide comes to
high water whenever the moon makes its meridian transit. If you wait for this moment you
will never miss the tides. Here I am referring to the tide on the coast itself; the farther you
are away from the sea (i.e. up an estuary or the like) there will be a delay varying according
to the place .. . . g

Thus in + 1086 Shen Kua clearly defined what we now call the' establishment of the
port', i.e. the constant interval between the theoretical time of high tide and the time
when it occurs at the place in question, or in other words the degree of continental
retardation. h
In September + 1124, Hsu Ching 8 wrote the preface to his Hsuan-Ho Feng Shih
Kao-Li Thu Ching 9 (Illustrated Record of an Embassy to Korea in the Hsi.ian-Ho
a Cheng Meng, ch. 4, p . 6b. On stimulus and response see Vo!. 2, p . 304, and of course Sect. 39
below.
b It should be 51.
c Ch. 10, p. sa. d Ch. 12, p . ua.
e His exact date is obscure. f Cotton MSS., Julius D, 7.
g Pu appendix, ch. 2, para. 3, tr. auct. Cf. Hu Tao-Ching (1), Vo!. 2, pp. 93 I fI.
h Cf., for example, Barlow & Bryan (I), p. 347.

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 21. METEOROLOGY 493
reign-period), though the book was not printed till 1167. Hsi.i had accompanied
a Chinese ambassador to that country upon the accession of a new Korean king, and
we shall meet with his book again in connection with the history of the magnetic
compass. a The relevant parts on the tides have been translated by Moule (3), and will
not here be given as they only set forth at greater length what had already been said
by Yen Su and Shen Kua.
Such the position remained until the coming of modern science in the 18th century.
In the Yuan, Liu Chi 1 band Cheng Ssu-Hsiao zc supported the respiratory theory.
During the Ming decadence there had been little save the discussion in Wang Khuei's
Li Hai Chi, d which made no advance on the Sung. In 1781 Yi.i Ssu-Chhien 3 made
a collection of the medieval writers on tidal theory, the Hai Chhao Chi Shuo. 4 It now
only remains to glance at the comparable development in Europe.
Although, as has been said, the weak or imperceptible tides of the Mediterranean
did not invite study by the Greek and Hellenistic scientists, it cannot be said that they
were unknown. Indeed, the first formulations of lunar influence in Europe anticipated
those of the Chinese. e One of the earliest mentions of tides refers to that at Suez on
the Red Sea, where there is a variation of some six feet; it was made by Herodotus f
(almost the contemporary of Wu Tzu-Hsi.i). When Tsou Yen was telling of the en-
circling seas, Pytheas of Marseilles at the other extreme bound of the Old World was
experiencing the tides of the English Channel (c. - 320). Just at this time, too, the
sailors of Alexander the Great, upon reaching the mouth of the Indus near Karachi,
were much surprised not only by the tides but by some kind of tidal bore.g And
Aristotle's pupil, Dicaearchos of Messina, conjectured (like Ko Hung later) that the
sun was responsible in some way for the tides.
It seems that Antigonus of Carystos (c. - 200) was the first of the Greeks to suggest
that the moon was the primary influence. His position was thus similar to that of the
poet Mei Sheng, but advance was more rapid since Seleucos the Chaldean of
Seleuceia on the Persian Gulfh correlated the tides with the moon's motions about
- 140, and half a century later Poseidonius of Apameia i (contemporary of Lohsia
Hung) stated the meridian rule, the quarter rule of springs and neaps, and the com-
bined actions of moon and sun. j This level was not reached in China until the Thang
and Sung, as we have seen, but while the Chinese were advancing, Europe (apart from
a few repetitions in Latin authors, often incorrect) forgot the progress which had been
made. With the exception of Bede the Venerable (ft. +700, just before Tou Shu-

a Sect. 26i. b See Forke (9), p. 307.

C See Huang Chieh (1). d Pp. 5 b, SIb.
e Brunet & Mieli (I) devote a special chapter to tidal theory in antiquity. Cf. also the monograph
of Almagia. r 11, 11.
g Bunbury (I), voL I, p . 447.
h Sarton (I), voL I, p. 183; Tarn (I), p. 43.
i Bunbury (I), voL 2, p . 97. The relation of his thought to Stoic organism is well pointed out by
Sambursky (I), pp. 142 If.
J The speculation that some breath of these discoveries might have reached Wang Chhung has
already been touched upon (VoL I, p. 233).

J 11£
494 2I. METEOROLOGY

Meng), there was nothing done between - 100 and + 15oo.a Bede, stimulated, like
the Chinese, by the close presence of striking tidal phenomena, noted local differences
and gave a good account of the tides in general in his De Temporum Ratione. Curiously,
he made the same mistake as Tou about the tides at the equinoxes.
Meanwhile other theories had been competing with the moon in Europe as in China.
The microcosmic-macrocosmic respiration idea, first found perhaps in Strabo,b had
great success throughout the Middle Ages, and captivated as remarkable a mind as
Leonardo da Vinci, who actually tried to calculate the size of the world lung. There is
also a parallel to the sea-cavern story of the Shan Hai Ching; it seems to originate in
Wang Chhung's older contemporary, the geographer Pomponius Mela (ft. +43), and
found supporters such as another geographer in the same century as Tou Shu-Meng-
Paul Warnefrid (d. + 797).c There is no clue here as to any transmission of ideas.
The conception of the 'establishment of the port', adumbrated by Bede, came to
full expression in Giraldus Cambrensis' Topographia Hibernica d of + I I 88. We met
with it in China in + 1086. But the Chinese had a clear priority as to the systematic
preparation of tide-tables, which, as we have seen, go back to the + 9th century at
least. In the + 11th they were much more enlightened on the theory of the subject
than the Europeans until the Renaissance. The crowning irony was that Galileo
rejected Kepler's lunar theory of tides on the ground that it was astrological. e It was
not until the time of Newton that the true gravitational explanations of tidal pheno-
mena were worked out and accepted. Yet it would never have occurred to any Chinese
observer that the moon could not have an effect on terrestrial events-such a separation
would have been contrary to the whole world view of organic naturalism.f
a For the ideas on the tides current in medieval Europe see Kimble (I), pp. 161-8.
b Geogr. lII, 8. C Sarton (I), vol. I, p. 539.

d Sarton (I), vol. 2, p. 418.

e Berry (I), p. 167; Pledge (I), p. 62. f See above, Sect. 13/, in Vol. 2, pp. 287, 293 .
THE SCIENCES OF THE EARTH
 497

22 GEOGRAPHY AND CARTOGRAPHY

(a) INTRODUCTION
After the expanses of the stars and the deeps of sky and sea, it is quite natural to turn
to the homelier features of the mundane world, to the realm of the explorers and
geographers. But geography is a subject which lies on the borderline between the
natural sciences and the humanities. Any systematic treatment of the cumulative
growth of geographical knowledge in China would far exceed the limits of our plan.
On this subject there is a vast literature, both in Chinese and Western languages, but
it belongs rather to history itself than to the history of science. So does the identifica-
tion of ancient place-names which has generated untold erudition both in China and
the West. Sinologists have always been especially intrigued by the knowledge of
foreign countries possessed by the Chinese in various periods; this field, therefore, has
been a favourite one. All such detail will have to be omitted. a What does seem really
relevant to the present book is the development of scientific cartography in China,
and here there is a tale to unfold, the neglect of which has greatly vitiated all the
standard works on the history of geography in general which we have seen.
A summary of it has nevertheless been available for Western scholars for nearly
half a century in the fundamental paper of Chavannes (10). What approximates to
a monograph on the history of Chinese cartography has also been contributed by
Herrmann (8), though it was buried in the reports of an expedition. In the Chinese
language we owe a valuable introduction, mainly bibliographical in character, to Wang
Yung (1), and besides this one may occasionally find shorter articles on the history
of geography in China, such as that by Huang Ping-Wei.
Whoever sets out to write on the history of geography in China faces a quandary,
however, for while it is indispensable to give the reader some appreciation of the
immense mass of literature which Chinese scholars have produced on the subject, it
is necessary to avoid the tedium of listing names of authors and books, some of which
indeed have long been lost. Only a few examples can be given, but it should be under-
stood, even when it is not expressly said, that they must often stand simply as repre-
sentative of a whole class of works.
Many geographical symbols of great antiquity are embedded in
the Chinese language. The character for river (chhuan l ) is an K 929 K 193
ancient graph of flowing water, the character for mountain (shan 2 ) (@) ® 00
was once an actual drawing of a mountain with three peaks
(KI93), and that for fields (thien 3 ) shows enclosed and divided spaces. Political
a There is no Western-language treatise doing for geography what the book of Schlegel (5) did
for Chinese astronomy in cataloguing the names and synonyms of individual stars and constellations.

l H1 3 Ell
 22. GEOGRAPHY AND CARTOGRAPHY

boundaries are seen in the character for country (kuo I) where the frontier encloses
the symbols for' mouths' and' dagger-axes', the eaters and the defenders (K929c).a
Bone and bronze forms of the character which came to mean 'map' (thu 2) actually
show a map. Unfortunately, this word acquired a general signification covering any
kind of diagram or drawing, so that in cases where a book disappeared at an early
time it is not possible to be sure whether the thu which it was said to have had were
really maps.b In any case it would not be far off the mark to guess that the picto-
graphic character of Chinese encouraged the idea of mapping. c
As for the ideas about the shape of the earth current in ancient Chinese thought,
mention has already often been made d of a prevailing belief that the heavens were
round and the earth square (cf. Forke, 6). But there was always much scepticism about
this. Thus in the Ta Tai Li Chi Tseng Shen, replying to the questions of Shanchii Li,
admits e that it was very hard to see how, on the orthodox view, the four corners of the
earth could be properly covered (ssu chio chih pu yen yeh 3). We saw also, in the astro-
nomy Section,! that it was repeatedly stated (as by Yii Sung and Chang Heng) in the
+ I st and + 2nd centuries that the universe was like a hen's egg, and the earth was
like the yolk in the midst of it. g Chinese thinkers of all ages joined Yii Hsi (c. + 330)h
in expressing scepticism about the square and flat earth: if it was square, said Li Yeh, i
the movements of the heavens would be hindered (chih ai4). In his view, it was
spherical, like the heavens, but smaller; and all supporters of the Hun Thien theoryi
must have tended to believe this. k The influence .of these views on Chinese carto-
graphy, however, remained slight, for, as we shall see, it revolved around the basic
plan of a quantitative rectangular grid, taking no account of the curvature of the earth's
surface'! At the same time Chinese geography was always thoroughly naturalistic, as
witness the passage about rivers and mountains already quoted from the Lii Shih
Chhun Chhiu. m
a Cf. ' wapentake '.
b Cf. pp. 206 above, and 518, 536 below.
C Mention should be made somewhere here of the forgotten glossary of Chinese geographical

technical terms by Stanley. A glossary of topographical terms such as are met with on Chinese maps
was prepared by L. Giles (12).
d Pp. 21 I, 213, 220, 383 above.
e Ch. 58, tr. R. Wilhelm (6), p. 126, and given in full above, Vo!. 2, p. 269.
f Pp. 21 I and 217 above.
g Cf. Ko Hung: 'According to the commentary on (Chang Heng's) Hun Thien I (Manual of the
Armillary Sphere), the heavens resemble an egg, while the earth is like the yolk within the egg, and is
situated alone in the heavens. The heavens are vast and the earth small' (Chin Shu, ch. 11, p. 3 a). He
would have been speaking about + 300.
h See p. 220 above.
I Ching-Chai Ku Chin Chu (+ 13th century) cited in Ko Chih Ku Wei, ch. 4, p . 12a.
J Above, pp. 216 if.
k In the + I Ith century one of the Chheng brothers (I-Chhuan or Ming-Tao) wrote' Below the earth
there must be heaven (also). What we call earth is nothing but an object inside heaven. It has assembled
like a mist, and just because over a long period it has not dispersed, it is considered the counterpart of
heaven' (Honan Chheng shih I Shu, ch. 2B, p. sa). Cf. Yao Ming-Hui (1).
I We noted above how slow the Chinese were to take account of this in connection with the differing
lengths of the gnomon's shadow (p. 225).
m Sect. IOC above in Vo!. 2, p . 55 (R. Wilhelm (3), p. 112).

'11 2 III
 22. GEOGRAPHY AND CARTOGRAPHY 499

Fig. Z03. A page from the Ko Chih Tshao of Hsiung Ming-Yti ( + 1648), with a diagram to explain the
sphericity of the earth. He speaks of it in the classical phrase of Han astronomers-' as round as a
crossbow-bullet'. But Western influence is seen in the graduation ef the sphere into 360° rather than
3651°. Moreover, while one continent bears pagodas, and the circumnavigating ships are of Chinese rig,
the antipodes are equipped with a large European building like a cathedral (photo. Hummel).

In a rare 17th-century treatise on astronomy and geography, the Ko Chih Tshao 1

of Hsiung Ming-Yiiz (+ 16+8), which has been discussed by Hummel (6), there is
a picture (Fig. 203) showing that, as the accompanying text says, 'The Round Earth
certainly has no Square Corners', and explaining that a ship could return to its port
of origin after circumnavigating the earth. This could well be taken as evidence of
how strange the idea of a spherical earth was to the decadent scholars of the Ming, if
significantly Hsiung Ming-Yii had not taken care to use, in his explanation, the very
same words which had been employed in ancient times by the Hun Thien theorists-
'as round as a crossbow bullet' (yuan ju tan wan 3). a

a See p. ZI7 above. The antiquity of this conception in China was emphasised by the Khang-Hsi
emperor in his studies of + 1711.
500 22. GEOGRAPHY AND CARTOGRAPHY
In this connection it would be interesting to make a study of the steps by which the
expression ti lil (lit. 'earth pattern') came to have its present meaning of geography.
This was certainly being used in the + 1st and + 2nd centuries as we use it now. Earlier
there was no doubt a close connection with geomancy,a but the significance of the
term li, about which so much has already been said,b and which fundamentally
implied pattern and organisation as well as rational principle, will not escape us.
In what follows we shall have to compare rather carefully the parallel march of
scientific geography in the West and in China. It may be said at the outset that both
in East and West there seem to have been two separate traditions, one which we may
call 'scientific, or quantitative, cartography', and one which we may call 'religious,
or symbolic, cosmography'. The European tradition of scientific map-making was
completely interrupted for centuries by a dominance of the latter, though originally
it was older than the Chinese, but the parallel Chinese tradition, once it had begun,
was not so interrupted. Before taking up these interesting comparisons, however, it
is necessary to say something about the geographical classics and treatises of China
through the centuries.

(b) GEOGRAPHICAL CLASSICS AND TREATISES

(I) ANCIENT WRITINGS AND OFFICIAL HISTORIES

Presumably the oldest Chinese geographical document which has come down to us is
the Yu Kung 2 (Tribute of Yu) chapter of the Shu Ching (Historical Classic), which
after having been granted any date back to the end of the - 3rd millennium, is now
considered to be probably - 5th century, approximately contemporary with the prc-
Socratic philosophers in Greece. c It will be remembered that Yu the Great was the
legendary hero-emperor who 'mastered the waters' and became the patron of
hydraulic engineers, irrigation experts and water-conservancy workers in after ages.
The chapter is of great interest for many reasons; it lists the traditional nine provinces,
their kinds of soils, their characteristic products, and the waterways running through
them. It is thus important for the early history of soil science and hydraulic engi-
neering, and constitutes a primitive economic geography.d The accepted view is that
the part of China covered by the Yu Kung chapter included the lower valleys of the
Yangtze and the Yellow Rivers, with the plain between them and the Shantung
peninsula; e to the west the upper reaches of the Wei and Han rivers were known,
together with the southern parts of the provinces of Shansi and Shensi. This was
hardly the half of the region which Chinese civilisation was ultimately to occupy.
To give an idea of the text, we may read the account of the first two provinces.

a See Sect. 14a in Vol. z, pp. 359ff. b See Sect. 18J. in Vol. z, pp . 557ff.
C That is to say, ch. 6 is not one of the sixteen chapters which are regarded as certainly pre-Confucian

nor is it a mong the seven more which are probably so.

d It has often been translated, as by Legge (I), Medhurst (I), Karlgren (12) .
e Cf. Herrmann (8, 10).
 22. GEOGRAPHY AND CARTOGRAPHY 501
Yii disposed the lands (in order). Going along the mountains, he put the forests to use,
felling the trees. He determined the high mountains and the great rivers.
In Chi 1 (the first province)a he started work at Hu-khou, regulated the Liang and Chih
(defiles), adjusted Thai-yuan and came to Yo-yang. At Than-huai he effected achievements
and came to the Heng and Chang rivers. The soil of this province is white and loose.b Its
revenues are of the upper class, first grade; with an admixture (of lower class grades). Its
fields are of the middle class, second grade. The Heng and Wei rivers were made to follow
their courses. Ta-Iu (the Great Plain) was cultivated. The Niao-I barbarians had garments
of skin (presumably as tribute). Yii closely followed to the right the Chieh-shih rocks, and
arrived at the Ho (the Yellow River).
Between the Chi river and the Yellow River is the province of Yen 2 (the second province).c
The nine branches of the Yellow River were led into their proper channels. The Lei-hsia
district was made into a marsh, and the Yung and Chii rivers joined it. The mulberry grounds
were stocked with silkworms, and the people descended from the hills and dwelt in the plains.
The soil of this province is black and fat,b its grass is luxuriant and its trees are tall. Its
fields are of the middle class, third grade. Its revenues were proportionate, after thirteen
years' work on improvements had been done. Its tribute is lacquer and silk, and in the
baskets presented there are textiles of various colours and patterns. Sailing on the Chi and
the Tha rivers, Yii returned to the Ho (the Yellow River) .. . . d

As has often been pointed out, this ancient inventory of the Chou 'empire' is
essentially in terms of physical geography; the boundaries of the 'provinces' (chiu
chou 3 ) are natural, not political. It is also completely devoid of magic, and even of
fantasy or legend, apart from the appearance of Yu himself. The majority of details
concern the three' inner' provinces (Chi, 1 Yu 4 and Yung 5), while the six outer ones
are less fully described. The words taG shan, 6 'tracing out the mountains', seem to
show that the idea of mountain-ranges, called shan mo 7 (' veins of mountains') by later
scholars, was present in the mind of the writer. e
It is usual to hold f that the Yu Kung implies a naIve map of concentric squares
(Fig. 204). This is based on the concluding sentences of the chapter, where it is said
that throughout a zone 500 li (presumably in all directions) from the capital there are
the' royal domains' (tienfu 8 ), within the next concentric zone of 500 li are the' princes'
domains' (hou fU 9 ), then come the 'pacification zone' (sui fU 10 ), the zone of allied
barbarians (yao fu 11), and lastly the zone of cultureless savagery (huang fu 12). There is
nothing in the text, however, to justify the traditional view that these zones were
concentric squares; this was probably just assumed on the basis of the cosmological
doctrine of the square earth. The point is more important than it may seem, for if the
zones were thought of as concentric circles, this ancient gradient system might have
a Approximately the North China plain north of the Yellow River (Herrmann, I).
b We m u st defer till Section 41 on agriculture the exact interpretation of the pedological terms
used here.
c North-western Shantung (Herrmann, I).
d Tr. Karlgren (12), p. 12; mod. e Cf. Ong Wen-Hao (1).
f De Saussure (16e); Rey (I), vol. I, p. 402; copied by J. O . Thomson (I), p. 43 . Medhurst (I),

'.
p. II8, gives such a diagram.

3 :Jt. 9ii <fl 5* 6~1l1

8 iU nil '0 fj! nil 11 ~ nil '2 Yrt nil
502 22. GEOGRAPHY AND CARTOGRAPHY

~ JIf~

~ ~'\
.1L
-t
-of RIl
l1!flf{l III
~ ! ~ltf~
--"

~ l~lIt(l
-
:-
!-
~
! ~r~t({
{ ~lItl ~~,

.,.
:ft
~

9 ...
L
,~

~
]i:.'l1! ~.;.
~?11 ~ ..,. ~
~T; ...
....,..c 0<\"'; .o(~ 0<\1"'1 ~

~ ~ ~~
"t" ~ ~ ~

~~ ~ ~ ~ ~
~\>- \4o\jto i'4 • .,.
~jto
.e
~.,..
~f ~
~

r~~
i I~ ~ ~
", ..lji
~
~
"'fI.~ ."..~

Ht Jllliil i
t J1Jl1~1
t llllt: i
r..." ::~t
-
== t }}!t._~ ~

Fig. 204. The traditional conception of the radiation of ancient Chinese culture from its imperial centre.
From SeTS, ch. 6, YU Kung (Karlgren (12), p. 18). Proceeding outwards from the metropolitan area,
we have , in concentric rectangles, (a) the royal domains, (b) the lands of the tributary fe udal princes
and lords, (c) the ' zone of pacification', i.e. the marches, where Chinese civilisation was in course of
adoption, (d ) the zone of allied barbarians, (e) the zone of cultureless savagery. The systematisation can
n eve r have been more than schematic but Egypt and Rome might have used a similar image, all
unconsciou s of the equally civilised empire at the eastern end of the Old World.

been one of the sources of the East Asian discoidal tradition of ' religious cosmography'
which we shall study in its place. a On the other hand concentric squares would fore-
shadow a rectangular grid.
In general, it may be said that the Yii Kung, the first naturalistic geographical
survey in Chinese history, is approximately contemporary with the first map-making
a See p. 565 below.
 22. GEOGRAPHY AND CARTOGRAPHY 50 3
in Europe. This is associated with Anaximander (ft. -6th century).a But the Chinese
document is much more detailed and elaborate than anything which has come down
to us from Anaximander's time. Throughout Chinese history the influence of the
Yii Kung was enormous; all Chinese geographers worked under its aegis,b drew the
titles of their books from it, and tried unceasingly to reconstruct the topography which
it contained. c
Brief consideration must now be given to the curious subject of the Nine Cauldrons
of the Hsia (Hsia ting I) and the book known as the Classic of the Mountains and
Rivers (Shan Hai Ching2). The cauldrons were supposed to have been cast with
pictures or maps of some kind illustrating the various places or regions of the country
and the strange things found in them. d The book has generally been regarded as the
text relating to these pictures. The locus classicus concerning them is in the Tso Chuan,
and purports to relate to the year - 605.

The prince of Chhu (State) attacked the barbarians of Lu-hun. In the course of this, he
arrived at Lo and held a review of his troops on the (royal) territory of Chou. The High
King (of Chou), Ting, sent Wangsun Man 3 to present his compliments to the prince. The
latter (who had already conceived the design of usurping the overlordship) questioned the
envoy as to the size and weight of the Nine Cauldrons (symbols of the sovereign authority).
Wangsun Man replied' The sovereignty depends upon the virtue of the king, not upon the
cauldrons. Formerly, when the dynasty of the Hsia had attained the height of its greatness,
the distant regions made pictures of the (material and spiritual) things natural to them (yuan
fang thu wu 4 ), and the governors of the nine provinces made tribute offerings of metal. With
this (Yii the Great) caused cauldrons to be cast on which these pictures were represented
(chu ting hsiang wu s). In this way the people were instructed so that they could recognise
all things and spirits both good and evil (shen chien 6 ). And thus when they travelled over
the rivers and marshes, and through the mountains and forests, they did not meet with any
adversities. (They did not go in fear of the weird spirits and genii of mountains and waters).
Moreover, spirits such as the Chhih,7 the Mei 8 and the Wang-liang 9 did not come to meet
them (were not offended at their intrusions). Thus concord reigned between men and spirits,
and the people received the favour of Heaven. But Chieh (the last High King of the Hsia)
having fallen into viciousness, the cauldrons passed to the dynasty of the Shang, which kept
them six hundred years. Chou 10 (the last High King of the Shang) having reached the
bounds of cruel despotism, they passed to the dynasty of the ChouY Whatever size the
cauldrons may be, they are heavy if the High King has great virtue, and light if he is unjust
and perverse. True virtue is protected by Heaven with constancy. When the High King
Chheng installed the cauldrons at Chia-ju, the oracle predicted that his House would reign
for thirty generations and seven centuries. Such is the will of Heaven. It is true that the

a Bunbury (I), vol. I, p . IZZ; K. Freeman (I), p. 63.

b Cf. below, pp. 514. 538, 540, 547 and 577.
C Inscribed steles dealing with the geographical and hydraulic work of Yu the Great, and dating
from many different times, were set up (and still exist) on many famous mountains in China (cf. C. T.
Gardner, z).
d The European parallel here would appear to be the' maps' which Aristagoras of Miletus caused to
be cast on bronze tablets about - 500 (Bunbury (I), vol. I, p. IZZ).
 22. GEOGRAPHY AND CARTOGRAPHY

virtue of the Chou is not what it was, but the mandate of Heaven has not changed, and
the time has therefore not yet come to make enquiries about the weight of the cauldrons.' a

We are certainly here in the presence of an ancient tradition, perhaps magical and
ritualistic rather than geographical. In an interesting and learned monograph Chiang
Shao-Yuan has developed the view that the pictures on the urns or cauldrons were
primarily those of spirits, analogous to the fauns, nymphs and nereids of Greek
mythology, but more terrifying, which the ancient Chinese believed to haunt the wilds.
These numina of localities would be what the text refers to as the pai wu, I the 'hundred
beings ' , though the less familiar wild animals would also be included. Travelling
officials or envoys would know what god should be honoured with sacrifice in what
place. b
A similar atmosphere pervades the Shan Hai Ching, which, however, bears also a
resemblance to the Yii Kung in that it often mentions the existence of quite reasonable
minerals, plants and animals. c An elaborate table of these, together with the fabulous
animals, plants and semi-human races and peoples, has been drawn up by Ho Kuan-
Chou & ChengTe-Khun(l). These authors, with Maenchen-Helfen, also discuss the very
difficult problem of the date of the book. It was certainly current in some form in the
Former Han period (Ssuma Chhien refers to it),d and a good deal of the material, on
internal evidence, goes back to the time (and probably the school) of Tsou Yen e (late
-4th century). Some of the contents are likely to be much older even than that, for
Wang Kuo-Wei (2) pointed out that one of the personages mentioned in the Shan Hai
Ching, Wang Hai,2 was already a god of some kind in the Shang period (- 13th century)
and appears as such on the oracle-bones. f On the other hand, the later chapters (6-18)
may be of Later Han or even Chin date. As Wang Yung says, many of the topographic
features mentioned in the book can be approximately identified, and it forms a veritable
mine of information concerning ancient beliefs about natural things such as minerals
and drugs. g
The chief discussion has centred round the fabulous beings and peoples described.
Taking the view that the Shan Hai Ching is the oldest 'traveller's guide' in the world,h
Schlegel attempted a number of naturalistic identifications-thus (7 b) the wen shen

a Duke Hsiian, 3rd year, tr. Couvreur (I), vo!. I, p. 575; Chiang Shao-Yuan (I), p. 130; eng. auct.,
adjuv. Chavannes (10).
b Wang Chhung, in his usual manner, scoffs at the whole story (Forke (4), vo!. I, p. SOS). But it
had great veneration throughout Chinese history, and in + 697, for example, urns were cast with
representations of the provinces on them in imitation of those of Yii the Great (see Chavannes, 10).
Again, in + 1104 Wei Han-Chin,' a thaumaturgist from Szechuan, was entrusted with the casting of
nine new urns by the tottering government of the Northern Sung (Sung Shih, ch. 462, p. lob; for the
context see Needham, Wang & Price).
C There is a translation, now old, of the first (mountain) section by de Rosny (I). A brief account

of the contents of the whole book is given by Maspero (2), p. 611. Finsterbusch (I) has recently studied
it with relation to Han art motifs.
d Shih Chi, ch. 123, p. 2Ib. e Cf. above, Sect. I3C in Vo!. 2, pp. 232ff.
f Cf. Chiang Shao-Yuan, p. 42 n.
g Tokarev (I) has identified the minerals mentioned in it.
h With which Chiang Shao-Yuan concurs, p. 273.
 22. GEOGRAPHY AND CARTOGRAPHY 505
kuo I were probably barbarian tribes of the Kuriles which practised tattooing, the pai
min kuo 2 and maD jen 3 (hairy white people) were probably the Ainu (7 h), the yii i kuo 4
must have been the 'malodorous barbarians' of the Siberian coast from whom the
Chinese imported fish glue for bows in very early times (70), and so on. He fortified
his identifications, which are still of interest, by passages from many other ancient and
medieval Chinese books. But a large proportion of the peoples mentioned are clearly
fabulous-heads that fly about alone, winged men, dog-faced men, bodies with no
heads, and the like. Since a great many of these appear also in Greek mythology, the
problem of transmission at once presents itself. De M ely (2) collected from late encyclo-
paedias some seventy kinds of these fabulous beings (nearly all of which appear in
the Shan Hai Ching),a and in all but very few cases could point to their analogues in
Greek and Latin authors. Herodotus (- 5th century) is one of the earliest sources, but
there is much similar material in Strabo b and Pliny. It was assembled and concen-
trated by Gaius Julius Solinus in the + 3rd century in his Collectanea Rerum Memora-
bilium, which was essentially a compilation of the' nonsense' in Pliny, and which, with
its title changed to Polyhistor in a + 6th century revision, supplied abundant' marvels'
for geographers throughout the European Middle Ages. c It is interesting to compare
a couple of illustrations from the Shan Hai Ching with parallels from Solinus
(Fig. 205 a, b, c, d).
The transmission question has been discussed by Wang I-Chung (1); Maspero (2);
de Mely (2) and Laufer (9) among others. Occidental scholars have been strongly
inclined to regard this Chinese body of mythical teratology as of Greek origin. In
certain cases they may be right. The story of the battles of the pygmies with the cranes,
which occurs in many ancient Greek authors, is first found in the Wei Liieh 5 of
Yii Huan,6 a + 3rd-century book (the time of Solinus).d But it is going too far to
derive all the fabulous beings of the Shan Hai Ching from Greek sources; some of
them may well go back in China beyond the time of Herodotus. Attempts, such as
that of Wei Chii-Hsien (3), to trace them to Indian mythology, are not convincing
either, yet it may well be that some primary Indian or Iranian (or even Mesopotamian)
source may have radiated them in both directions (cf. Kennedy, I). That Babylonian

a Among them may be mentioned : (a) fiying h eads; (b) acephali; (c) cynocephali; (d) winged men
(cf. the winged genii often seen in Han tomb-reliefs); (e) men with holes through their chests; (f) sirens
or unipeds (also frequent in Han tomb-reliefs; cf. Fig. 28 in Vol. I, p . 164); (g) men with interlaced
legs; (h) long legs; (i) long anns; (j) giants; (k) men with no bellies; (I) long ears; (m) pygmies at war
with cranes; (n) steganopods or sciopods which use their feet to shade themselves from" the sun;
(0) tailed men; (p) centaurs; (q) one-anned men; (r) cyclops or monoculi; (s) beings with eyes or whole
faces in their chests; (t) three-headed men; (u) three-bodied men; (v) worms with human heads;
(w) shapeless golem with wings; (x) tiger-headed centaurs; (y) lions with human heads; (z) men with
bifurcated tongues or limbs. Somewhere in the network of legends a place has to be found for the
three-legged crow supposed to reside in the sun (p. 436 above); for the one-legged Khuei, the thunder-
drum musician (Granet (I), p . 507) ; and other specialists.
b Who himself was very sceptical (11, i, 9).
C Lloyd Brown (I), p. 86; Bunbury (I), vol. 2, p . 675. Solinus mentions the Seres, but only repeats
Pliny respecting them . If there was transmission it would have been long before his time.
d Cf. TPYL, ch. 796, p. 7a.

3 'f: A
506 22. GEOGRAPHY AND CARTOGRAPHY

*~
:X,
. ii.~

1\~
fiN
liH
5fiif\
J.i) rflf
S~:
~

(a) (c)

(b) (d)

Fig. 205. Comparative representations of fabulous beings from the Shan Hai Ching (- 6th to + 1St
centuries) and from the Collectanea Rerum Memorabilium of Solinus (+ 3rd century). a, b, acephali;
c, d, long-eared men.
 22. GEOGRAPHY AND CARTOGRAPHY

diviners were extremely interested in terata we know from the special works of
Oppert (I), Lenormant (I , 2) and R. C. Thompson (I).a Maenchen-Helfen shows
fairly convincingly that the passages of the book which describe paradise-like places b
derive from earlier Indian legends. Wittkower identifies Ctesias ( - 4th century) and
Megasthenes ( - 3rd) as the chief sources of transmission westwards.
What is curious is that the material has not yet been examined from the point of
view of the history of biology. To an embryologist it seems obvious that most of the
different abnormalities which form the basis of the corpus of legend could have been
derived from human and animal monstrosities naturally occurring. Reference may be
made to the book of C. J. S. Thompson on the history of teratology, and the classical
experimental work of Dareste. So Cordier (4) traced the Eastern and Western legends
of cynocephali to hirsute-faced human beings, citing living Burmese examples, as well
as to cynocephalic monkeys. If this point of view should prevail, there would be no
reason to assume any transmission at all, at any rate to account for origins. Such an
interpretation would, however, not be inconsistent with the more social appraisal
suggested by Sinor (I), in which the existence of these myths would be related to a
kind of xenophobia present in all ancient peoples.
Another book of semi-legendary type which has some geographical interest is the
Mu Thien Tzu Chuan 1 (Account of the Travels of the Emperor Mu). This was trans-
lated long ago by Eitel (I) and more recently by Cheng Te-Khun (2). It was one of
the documents discovered in + 28 I in the tomb of a ruler of the Wei Z State, Hsiang
Wang3.or An Li Wang,4 who had died in -245. There has thus always been some
doubt about the authenticity of the book, but the modern view is that although it has
nothing to do with the period in which this High King of the Chou is supposed to have
lived ( - loth century) it is doubtless a Warring States composition. c The book gives
an account of three peregrinations of the king, including all kinds of festivities, hunts
and side-trips. Rough identifications of the mountains visited and deserts and rivers
crossed are possible (de Saussure, 26, 26 a). But there is much legendary material in
the book, especially the visit of the king to the fabulous imperial goddess of the west,
Hsi Wang Mu. s
While a considerable legendary element still persists in the books of the Chhin and
early Han time, such as the Lit Shih Chhun Chhiu and the Huai Nan Tzu, concrete
geographical information is more and more taking its place. d Especially chapter 4 of
the latter book (tr. Erkes, I), which concerns the earth's surface, is of geographical
interest. In this connection it is interesting that we are told that one of the accusations
against Liu An, Prince of Huai Nan, was that he and his group of Taoist magician-
a Our very word 'monsters ' comes from monstrare, to show ' because', as St Augustine said, 'they
betoken somewhat' (City of God, II, 303).
b Cf. the Taoist versions (Sect. 10i in Vo!. 2, p . 142).
c Cf. Chavannes (1), vo!. 2. pp. 6 if.; vo!. 5, pp. 446 if.
d The views of Tsou Yen in the late - 4th century on the nine continents of the world, of which
China formed only one, have already been the subject of discussion in Vo!. 2 (Sect. 13c, pp. 233, 236).
They remained well known in the Han, for Wang Chhung criticises them favourably towards the end
of ch. 31 of the Lun Heng (tr. Forke (4), vo!. 1, p. 256).
3 Jl:£
508 22. GEOGRAPHY AND CARTOGRAPHY

scientists had made use of maps (ti thu l).a In this his chief associate seems to have
been the otherwise unknown Tso Wu.2 But the story of Chinese cartography must be
postponed for a few pages.
From the + I st century onwards, each of the official histories contains a geographical
section (Ti Li Chih 3), the whole forming an immense compilation concerning
the changes in place-names and local administrative divisions controlled by the
dynasty, descriptions of mountain ranges, river systems, taxable products etc. The
first of these, that in the Chhien Han Shu,b is supposed to have been written by Liu
Hsiang about - 20 and incorporated later, c with additions by Chu Kan.4 There is an
index to it by Sargent (2). Very little of the geographical chapters in the official
histories has ever been translated. d
We may now consider the other main classes of Chinese geographical literature as
developed during the centuries. They may perhaps be summarised as follows:
(I) Anthropological geographies;
(2) Descriptions of the southern regions ;
(3) Descriptions of foreign countries;
(4) Accounts of travels ;
(5) Hydrographic books;
(6) Descriptions of the coast;
(7) Local topographies: (a) districts controlled from a walled city; (b) famous
mountains; (c) cities and palaces;
(8) Geographical encyclopaedias.

(2) ANTHROPOLOGICAL GEOGRAPHIES

The human geographies developed rather naturally from the descriptions of fabulous
peoples of the type of the Shan Hai Ching. The generic name for this literature, Chih
Kung Thu 5 (Illustrations of the Tribute-Bearing Peoples), does not, however, appear
until the Liang (about + 550), when it occurs as the title of a book e prepared by Chiang
Seng-Pa0 6 or Hsiao 1.7 But Chuko Liang is said to have written a Thu Phu 8 on the
southern tribes already in the San Kuo period ( + 3rd century).f In the Thang and
other dynasties it was customary for foreign tribute-bearers to attend at an office
known as the Hung LU,9 where the officials took notes of the geography and customs
of their countries, and committed these to writing as part of an ever-growing body of
government intelligence g (Fig. 206). In due course this gave rise to numerous books.

a Chhien Han Shu, ch. 44, p. r r a; Chih Lin Hsin Shu 10 (by Yu Hsi the astronomer), in YHSF, ch. 68,
P·3 8b .
b Ch. 28B. c Maspero (r6).
d But there are some partial translations of the separate chapters on foreign countries.
e Hsiieh Chai Chan Pi, ch. 2, p. 9b. The locations and customs of more than thirty peoples were
said to have been described and illustrated. Hsiao I was the personal name of the Emperor Liang
Yuan-Ti.
f Hua Yang Kuo Chih, ch. 4. g Thang Hui Yao, ch. 63 (pp. ro89fI.) .

S~RIIiI
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 22. GEOGRAPHY AND CARTOGRAPHY 50 9

Fig. 206. A late Chhing representation of the attendance of barbarian envoys presenting tribute at the
Hung Lu Department where details of their countries and products were recorded. From SeTS,
ch. 25, Li Ao (Medhurst (r), p. 209)·
510 22. GEOGRAPHY AND CARTOGRAPHY
Thus in +628 there was the Wang Hui Thu l (Illustrations of the Princely Assembly) a
by Yen Li-Pen,z who also produced a Hsi Yii Chu Kuo Feng Wu Thu 3 (Illustrated
Account of the Strange Customs and Products of the Western Countries). Another
famous work of the kind was the Ka-Hsia-Ssu Chhao Kung Thu Chuan 4 (Illustrated
Account of the Kirghiz) by Lu Shu s about +844. In the Sung the genre was con-
tinued in several notable books, for example, the Hua I Lieh Kuo Ju Kung Thu 6 (Illu-
strated Enumeration of the Tribute-Bearing Regions, both Chinese and Barbarian) by
Tshui Hsia. 7 Few of them now remain, but there is the Huang Chhing Chih Kung Thu S
(Chhing Dynasty Illustrated Records of Tributary Peoples) by Fu Heng,9 one of
Chhien-Lung's generals who campaigned in Sinkiang and Burma.

(3) DESCRIPTIONS OF SOUTHERN REGIONS AND FOREIGN COUNTRIES

There were no very sharp lines of distinction between this ethnological geography
and what might be described as ethnology and folklore proper, since there were in all
centuries, and still are, "large enclaves of territory occupied by tribal peoples only very
partially affected by Chinese culture-the Miao, the Yao, the Yi, the Chia-jung, etc.
Moreover, as Chinese civilisation expanded to the south, more and more descriptions
of the strange things, as well as the topography, of the southern regions, were written.
Works on folk customs and their geographical distribution were termed Feng Thu
Chi,IO and descriptions of unfamiliar regions I Wu Chih.1I Of the former, the oldest
are the Chi-chouFeng Thu ChilZ(Customs of the Province of Chi)b by Lu Chih 13 about
+ 150, and the Feng Su Thung I of Ying Shao about + 175, already mentioned. c
Chu Kan (whom we have just met) also wrote one, but it has not survived. The
customs of the tribal peoples aroused a continuing interest on the part of Chinese
scholars, and in the + 17th-century Chhen Ting 14 gave an account of them, with a
critical analysis of previous works on the same subject, in his Thung Chhi Hsien Chih IS
(Brief Notes from Thung-chhi).d Reference has already been made e to the important
early descriptive books about the southern regions-Yang Fu's + 2nd-century Nan I I
Wu Chih (Strange Things from the Southern Borders), and Wan Chen's + 4th-century
Nan Chou I Wu Chih (Strange Things of the South). Sometimes these works were
devoted entirely to the plants and animals; we shall therefore meet with them again
in the Sections on the biological sciences. In the Sung the distinguished scholar Fan
Chheng-Ta 16 wrote an important book on the topography and products of the southern
provinces, Kuei Hai Yii Heng Chih.17
a See Hsiieh Chai Chan Pi, ch. 2, p. 9b. Yen Li-Pen is better known as a painter.
b The first province mentioned in the YU Kung inventory, see above, p. 501.
c Vo\. 2, p. 152.
d Manuscripts with coloured illustrations of the tribal peoples dating from the 18th century and
later are not uncommon; there is one in the Wcellcome Medical Library. This literature has been
reviewed by Jager (3). e Vo!. I, p. 118.

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 22. GEOGRAPHY AND CARTOGRAPHY

An enormous literature still exists, after all losses, on the geography of foreign
countries. Among its earliest representatives was the thu shu I (illustrated account) of
the Huns mentioned as having been presented in - 35. a But it is unlikely that Chang
Chhien in the - 2nd century had failed to provide some kind of charts and illustrations
of the peoples whom he had visited in the West. In the + 2nd century Tsang Min 2-
produced an elaborate memorandum dealing with fifty-five countries. b Between the
Han and the Thang some twenty books of importance are listed by Hsiang Ta (1).
There was, for example, the Wu Shih Wai Kuo Chuan 3 (Account of Foreign Countries
in the time of the Wu Kingdom) by Khang Thai 4 about + 260. All this was greatly
intensified in the Thang period when intercourse with other countries, especially India,
was so widespread. In an earlier Section c the works of the Buddhist pilgrims, largely
geographical, have already been described, for example, the Fo Kuo Chi of Fa-Hsien
in the + 5th century, and the Ta Thang Hsi Yii Chi of Hsuan-Chuang in the + 7th.
But religious pilgrims were not the only men who wrote of foreign countries; as time
went on ambassadors and envoys made a great contribution to this literature. The
reader may remember Wang Hsuan-Tshe, the bold Chinese representative at the
court of Magadha in the + 7th century, who took back to China the Indian alchemist
apparently able to make mineral acids. d Now Wang Hsuan-Tshe himself wrote a book,
Chung Thien-Chu Kuo ThuS (Illustrated Account of Central India), which only remains
in the form of fragments. In the Sung this source of travel opportunities led to a
number of books of great importance. In + 1124 Hsu Ching, an official in the train of
a Chinese ambassador to Korea, wrote an account of the voyage and the country, the
Hsiian-Ho Feng Shih Kao-Li Thu Ching (Illustrated Record of an Embassy to Korea
in the Hsuan-Ho reign-period).e Similarly, in + 1297 a description of Cambodia, the
Chen-La Feng Thu Chi,6 was given by Chou Ta-Kuan,7 a counsellor of the Chinese
ambassador there. f This was in the Yuan, but interest was also directed towards the
North at the time, very naturally, and we find, for instance, a Mongol geographer,
Na-Hsin,8 producing an archaeological topography of all regions known to the Chinese
north of the Yellow River, the Ho Shuo Fang Ku Chi.9
The climax of this literature was reached in the Ming, with the + 15th-century
voyages of Cheng Ho, the famous admiral,g which gave rise to a number of books; but
a Chhien Han Shu, ch. 9, p . 12b (Dubs (2), vol. 2, p . 332). There is more in this than meets the eye,
and we shall shortly discuss it further (p. 536).
b Hou Han Shu, ch. 88, p. 16b. It dealt mostly with central and south Asia.
c That on Contacts, Sect. 7i in Vol. I, pp. 207ff.
d Vol. I, pp. 2IIff. Cf. Levi (I).
e We have met with this before (pp. 471, 492) and shall do so again (Sects. 26i, 29) in connection with
the history of the magnetic compass, navigation, etc. The book originally included maps, afterwards lost.
f Here may be mentioned the work of Pelliot (16) on the Chinese knowledge of Cambodia (Fu-
Nan lO ) as an example of the close investigations which sinologists have made of certain aspects of
Chinese geographical learning. The translations by Pelliot (9, 33) of the Chen-La Feng Thu Chi replace
the older one of Remusat (3). In Chinese there is a monograph by Feng Chheng-Chlin on the relations
of China with the South Seas.
g Cf. above, Vol. I, p. 143, and below, pp. 557ff.

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512 22. GEOGRAPHY AND CARTOGRAPHY

we shall defer mention of these until a little later on account of their close connection
with the history of cartography. Two earlier books, however, cannot be omitted. One
is the Ling Wai Tai Ta I (Information on what is Beyond the Passes), by Chou Chhii-
Fei,2 written in + 1178, and dealing with the geography of many Asian kingdoms,
even far to the west. The other is the Chu Fan Chih 3 (Records of Foreign Peoples),
by Chao J u-Kua 4 in + 1225, of which there is a famous translation by Hirth &
Rockhill. a Mention of it reminds us of yet another source of information about foreign
countries, namely, trade, for Chao's work was mainly inspired by contacts with Arab
merchants who came and went with their goods in the Chinese ports. Four centuries
later, the same stimulus was still effective, as we see from Chang Hsieh's S Tung Hsi
Yang Khao 6 (Studies on the Oceans East and West), in which the geography of thirty-
eight kingdoms, mostly islands in south-east Asia, is described (+ 1618). Military
expeditions also gave rise to geographical literature, as in the case of the Chiao Li Chiao
Phing Shih Liieh 7 (Materials on the Pacificatory Expedition to Annam during the
Li Dynasty) of + 1551. Finally, mention may be made of the I Yii Thu Chih 8 of
about + 1430, earlier in the same dynasty (Illustrated Record of Strange Countries),
to which sinologists have given much attention, partly on account of its rarity.b The
book is anonymous, but there are indications of authorship which point to the Ming
prince Ning Hsien Wang (Chu Chhiian 9) whom we often meet in other connections. c
Hummel (8) has sketched the state of Chinese geographical knowledge of foreign
countries at the time when the Jesuits arrived, referring to the Hsien Pin Lu 10 (Record
of All the Guests) compiled by Lo Yiieh-Chhiung 11 in + 1590.
How does this general picture compare with the development of descriptive
geography in the West? The Chinese had nothing of the quality of Herodotus or even
of Strabo at times contemporary with them, but during the gap between the + 3rd and
the + 13th centuries, when European learning sank so low, the Chinese were far more
advanced, and steadily progressing. The floor was held in Europe by Solinus and his
myths, almost as if the Shan Hai Ching had continued to dominate in China without
competition from diplomats like Khang Thai, pilgrims like Fa-Hsien, ethnographers
like Ying Shao, and trade superintendents like Chao Ju-Kua. In the Thang period,
almost the only reasonable representative that the West could produce was the Syrian
bishop J acob of Edessa ( + 633 to + 708).d As Sarton points out, however, e the Arabs
match up better. By the Sung, about + 950, they were laying the foundations of later
Western geography, with al-Ya'qubI, Ibn Khurdadhbih, al-Ma'sudI, Ibn al-Faqih,
a Others also tried their hand, e.g. de Rosny (.~).
b Moule (4); Hummel (7); see also Sarton (r), vol. 3, p. r627. The only copy known is in the Cam-
bridge University Library (see Fig. 207a,b). It was, however, reprinted in the Wan Yung ChCllg Tsullg
Pu-Chhiu-Jen Chhiian Pien 12 (The' Ask No Questions' Complete Handbook for General Use), an
encyclopaedia issued b y Yu Wen-Thai 13 in + 1609.
C Vol. r, p. 147.

d A pupil of our old friend Severus Sebokht (Vo!. I , p. 220). Cf. Sarton (I) , vol. I , p . 500.
e ( I ), vol. 2, p. 41.

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 22. GEOGRAPHY AND CARTOGRAPHY

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Fig. 207. Two pages from the I Yu Thu Chih (Illustrated Record of Strange Countries) of c. + 1430,
perhaps written by the alchemist, mineralogist and botanist Chu Chhiian, a prince of the Ming (Ning
Hsien Wang), and almost certainly profiting from the zoological and anthropological knowledge gained
in the expeditions of Cheng Ho.
(a) A zebra (fu lu).
(b) An inhabitant of the country of Black-clothed People, no doubt some outpost of Arab culture.
The description says that they hide their faces from Chinese visitors, and anyone who sees them is
killed. Bargainers in trade are separated by a curtain, but one has to be careful for if the native merchants
are dissatisfied with the deal one is likely to be pursued and slain.
Photographs from the unique copy in the Cambridge University Library.

al-I~takhri and Ibn I:Iauqal. Arabic geography reached its climax with al-Idrisi in the
+ 12th century but still yields many good names in the + 13th.a Of course, the West
had had its pilgrim literature, analogous to that of the Chinese Buddhists, beginning
with 'the first of the Christian guide-books', b the Itinerary from Bordeaux to Jerusalem
of + 333; and its records of trading voyages, such as the Christian Topography of Cosmas
• See Mieli (I), pp. 79,114,158,198,210,3 01 , and the collection of de Goeje (1).
b Beazley (I), vol. I, pp. 26, 57. This genre long continued, as in the itinerary to the Holy Land
written by the Irish monk Symon Simeonis just a thousand years later (Sarton (I), vol. 3, p. 787).
 22. GEOGRAPHY AND CARTOGRAPHY
Indicopleustes written about + 540, when the Liang were in power at Nanking. a But
when one reads the careful chronicles of the Renaissance, such as the True Story of the
Conquest of New Spain by Bernal Diaz del Castillo about 1520, or the Relaci6n de las
Cosas de Yucatdn of Diego de Landa (1566), one feels that the West was only now
beginning to follow a path of objective description which the Chinese had been
treading for the previous millennium and a half. Already once we have met with this
pattern, when examining the growth of knowledge of the tides,b and it will manifest
itself again throughout the present Section, with especial clarity in the cartographic
field.

(4) HYDROGRAPHIC BOOKS AND DESCRIPTIONS OF THE COAST

We may pass to the next class of writings. In view of the great importance of water-
ways for the Chinese social and economic system at all times, it was natural that close
attention should be paid to them. The first treatise of the kind was that of Sang Chhin I
of the -1st century, the Shui Ching2 (Waterways Classic), but the text as we now have
it is thought to be from the hand of some geographer of the San Kuo period, at any
rate before + 265. It gives a brief description of no less than 137 rivers. About the
beginning of the + 6th century it was enlarged to nearly forty times its original size by
a great geographer Li Tao-Yuan3 and given the title Shui Ching Chu 4 (The Water-
ways Classic Commented).c This constitutes a work of the first importance. d From
the titles of several other books (Chiang Thu 5), it would seem that rivers were being
mapped from the Chin onwards.
Among treatises of this kind in the Sung may be mentioned the Wu Chung Shui Li
Shu 6 (The Water-Conservancy ofthe Wu District) by Shan 0 7 (+ 1059). Shan spent
more than thirty years exploring the lakes, rivers and canals in the region of Suchow,
Chhangchow and Huchow. A hundred years later Fu Yin 8 wrote the Yu Kung Shuo
Tuan 9 (Discussions and Conclusions regarding the Geography of the Tribute of Yii),
in which he dealt mainly with the Yellow River valley. Some diagrammatic charts,
presumably of the + 12th century, are still included in his book (Fig. 208).
In the Chhing dynasty much larger works were produced. The Hsing Shui Chin
Chien lo (Golden Mirror of the Flowing Waters)e is owing to Fu Tse-Hung l l and
appeared in + 1725. It includes many panoramic maps showing the locations of
rivers and lakes (Fig. 209). Then there was the Shui Tao Thi Kang 12 (Complete

a Beazley (1), vo!. I, pp. 41, 273. b P. 493 above. Cf. p. 101.
c Hu Shih (5) has written on the involved later history of the text.
d It deals incidentally with certain foreign countries, e.g. northern India, but this is not its best
side (Petech, 1). One has to wait until + 1535 for anything like it in Europe, if indeed the book of
Corrozet & Champier may sustain a comparison.
e Its size was more than doubled by its continuation, the Hsii Hsing Shui Chin Chien, prepared by
Lei Shih-Hsii 13 and Yii Cheng-Hsieh" before 1832. All these men were high officials in charge of
river conservancy.

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 22. GEOGRAPHY AND CARTOGRAPHY

Fig. 208. A diagrammatic chart of the river systems of West China, from Fu Yin's Yii Kung Shuo Tuan
(Discussions and Conclusions regarding the Tribute of Yu) of c. + 1160. The great bend of the Yellow
River round the Ordos Desert and its passage through the Lung Men gorges will be seen at the top,
while lower down the old road and canal connecting the Wei River with the Han River (i.e. the Yellow
and Yangtze River systems) through the Chhinling mountains can be made out. In Szechuan, Chheng-
tu and Mt Omei are marked.
516 22. GEOGRAPHY AND CARTOGRAPHY

Fig. 209. A panoramic map from Fu Tse-Hung's Hsing Shui Chin Chien (Golden Mirror of the Flowing
Waters) of + 1725. The lake in the foreground is Lake Thaihu in Chiangsu and the round walled city
to the left is Wuchiang; the vista is thus looking east. The Grand Canal is shown crossing the panorama
towards Hangchow past the village of Wang-ching. Beside the city of Wuchiang the famous' Drooping
Rainbow Bridge' (Chhui Hung Chhiao) is marked, and two other bridges are shown. A reproduction
such as this cannot do justice to the delicacy of the original.

Description of Waterways)a by Chhi Shao-Nan l in + 1776. There seems to be no

class of geographical literature in Europe quite corresponding to this.
Allied to the group of books on the greater and lesser waterways is another on the
geography of the Chinese coast. But most books on this subject are late. In + 1562
Cheng J0- Tseng 2 published a large work on it, the Chhou H ai Thu Pien 3 (Illustrated

a There is no sharp line of distinction between these works on river geography and works on river
conservancy as a technique, which we shall study in Sect. 28J below.
 22. GEOGRAPHY AND CARTOGRAPHY

Seaboard Strategy), a with maps' in the rudest style of art'. b The stimulus had been the
marauding raids of Japanese pirates which were a great affiiction to all the maritime
provinces during this century. But coastal protection against encroachment of the sea
also gave rise to a special literature, as an example of which may be mentioned the
Chhih H siu Liang CM H ai- Thang Thung Chih I (Historical Account of the Coastal
Protection Works of Chekiang Province, prepared by Imperial Command) written
by Fang Kuan-Chheng 2 in + 1751.
One of the finest monuments of this period is a silk scroll which has been carefully
studied by Mills (8). It derives from the same origins as the series of maps of the
Chinese coast found in Chhen Lun-Chhiung's 3 Hai Kuo Wen Chien Lu 4 (Record of
Things Seen and Heard about the Coastal Regions) of + 1744. Wylie points out C that
Chhen's father was one of those concerned with the subjugation of Formosa at this
time, and that he collected his information among the sailors into whose company he
was consequently thrown. Scroll maps of this character continued to be produced for
well over a hundred years afterwards, and Mills (7) has recently described two more
which have been acquired by the British Museum.

(5) LOCAL TOPOGRAPHIES

The series of local topographical writings, wrote Wylie (I), are probably unrivalled by
any nation for extent and systematic comprehensiveness. Anyone at all acquainted
with Chinese literature is familiar with the host of 'gazetteers', as they came to be
called, which are really local geographies and histories (termed in general fang chih,5
if of provinces thung chih,6 and of smaller districts fu chih,7 chou chih 8 or hsien
chih 9). In other literatures there is little comparable to this forest of monuments which
the industry of provincial scholars erected over the centuries. d The earliest of the
genus, it might be considered, is the Yiieh Chiieh Shu 10 (Book of the Former State of
Ytieh), by an unknown author about + 52. But the work which is generally regarded
as the beginning of the story is the Hua Yang Kuo Chih II (Historical Geography of
Szechuan),e written by Chhang Chhti 12 in + 347. In this there is much about rivers,
trade-routes, and the various tribes. f Szechuan had also been subjected to mapping,
for in the book of Chhang we read of a Pa Chiin Thu Chingl3 (Map of Szechuan)
apparently made in the Later Han about + 150.

a This geographer left many valuable works in MSS., ten of which were published in 193Z with
the title Cheng Khai-Yang Tsa Chu. 14 In Fig. ZIO we reproduce a portion of a Ming map of the
Chekiang coast, the photograph of which we owe to the kindness of Mr R. Alley.
b Wylie (I); Hlimmel (IZ).
C (I), p. 48.
d Cf. Hummel (9).
e Literally 'Record of the Country south of Mt Hua'.
f There is a description by S. H. Feng (I), but the book merits translation in full.

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SI8 22. GEOGRAPHY AND CARTOGRAPHY
Such local map-making, however, was slow to spread, for this kind of title does not
appear much until the bibliography of the Sui Shu (late + 6th century) when suddenly
many are mentioned. a With the growth of a stable bureaucracy, in which men were
generally sent to serve in places far from their homes, the local topographies acquired
social importance. About + 610 the emperor ordered officials all over the country to
compose records of customs and products, illustrated by maps or diagrams, and to
present these to the imperial secretariat. Hence arose the Chu Chun Thu Su Wu Chhan
Chi I (Record of the Local Customs and Products of all the Provinces), which apparently
included maps, though not certainly, since all was later lost. The Sung dynasty con-
tinued energetically this compilation and collection of local records. Not long after it
had come to power, in +971, the emperor ordered Lu To-Sun2 to 're-write all the
Thu Ching in the world', and this official, pursuing his colossal task, travelled through
the proyinces collecting all the relevant available texts. They were then worked
together by Sung Chun,J and by + 1010 no less than 1566 chapters were finished.
Some kind of cartographic survey was clearly involved in these activities, for the
Sung Shih says:

Yuan Hsieh 4 (d. + IZ20) was Director-General of government grain stores. In pursuance
of his schemes for the relief of famines he issued orders that eachpao 5 (village) should prepare
a map which would show the fields and mountains, the rivers and the roads in fullest detaiL
The maps of all the pao were joined together to make a map of the tu 6 (larger district), and
these in turn were joined with others to make a map of the hsiang 7 and the hsien 8 (still larger
districts). If there was any trouble about the collection of taxes or the distribution of grain,
or if the question of chasing robbers and bandits arose, the provincial officials could readily
carry out their duties by the aid of the maps.b

Chu Shih-Chia (1) and other scholars have shown that less than 10 per cent of the
Sung local topographies date from the earlier or northern period of the dynasty. But,
on the other hand, though map-making was practised all through the Sung, after the
move to the south, geography apparently became less literary-descriptive and more
practical and cartographic. As to the kind of material which was collected by the
officials, one might mention the interesting Sha-Chou Thu Ching 9 and Tun-huang Lu 10
from the extreme north-west of the empire, dating from + 886, studied and trans-
lated by L. Giles (8, 9), while from the south-east there was Fan Chheng-Ta's Wu
Chun Chih II of about + 1185.c In another connection d we have already referred to two
famous Sung topographies of the Hangchow district in the + 12th and + 13th
centuries. A typical topography such as the Chiang-yin Hsien Chih 12 goes back to
+ 1194·
a Geographers of importance in this movement were Lang Wei-Chih,'J Yii Shih-Chi'4 and Hsii
Shan-Hsin. 15
b Ch. 400, p. Sa, tr. auct. C Not printed till + 1229.

d The discussion of the tides above, pp. 491, 492. Cf. Chu Shih-Chia (2) .

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 PLATE LXXII

Fig. 210. Part of a late Ming panoramic map of the Fukien coast, looking eastward s, about lat. 27° N.; one of a set of photographs
by Mr R. Alley. The first large walled city on the left is Fen Shui Kuan on the Chekiang border, then comes the Phu-men inlet and
the fort of Thung Shan Ying. The large walled city on the right is Fu-ning (mod. Hsia-phu); as this ranked as a chou only in the
late Ming period the scroll is approximately dated . Out to sea on the right is the island of T a Yu Shan with its profile correctly
drawn (unlike the two small islands on the left which ha\'e been turned at right angles). This is probably the kind of coastal map
which was made and used by the geographers of the late + 16th century, the time of Chen g Jo-Tseng (see Mills, 8).
 22. GEOGRAPHY AND CARTOGRAPHY

Wu Chhi-Chhang (2) estimates that even before the end of the Sung the number
of titles amounted to 220. The quantity of these books then increased from the
Ming onwards, till today there is hardly a town, however small, which does not
have its own historical geography. Than Chhi-Hsiang's catalogue of the local topo-
graphies in the Peking National Library lists 5514, and registers of other private and
public collections by Chu Shih-Chia (3, 4) give 8771. a In earlier times they were not
considered a very meritorious type of literature, but rather as 'perfunctory documents
the compilation of which supplemented the income of impecunious provincialliterati'
(Hummel,9). But in the + 17th century their value was officially recognised; eminent
scholars such as Tai Chen and Chang Hsueh-Chheng wrote some themselves, and
in due course these books became invaluable source-material. b
The fang chih were not only confined to cities and their administrative districts.
Similar books were devoted to famous mountains. c A special stimulus to this was the
location of Taoist and Buddhist monasteries in mountain regions. d Wylie (1) refers to
more than a dozen examples of these books, among which the + 11th-century Lu Shan
Chi! (about a famous mountain near the Poyang Lake), by Chhen Shun-Yu,2 and the
+ 18th-century Lo Fou Shan Chih 3 (the mountains north of Canton, where Ko Hung
had his alchemical laboratory), by Thao Ching-I,4 may be mentioned. But there must
be many dozens of them.
At the other extreme of urban interest come the books which dealt with cities alone. e
Here the type-specimen is perhaps the Lo-Yang Chhieh Lan Chi,s a description of
Buddhist establishments at the Northern Wei capital, by Yang Hsuan-Chih,6 about
+ 500. Of greater interest, however, are the two books Tu Chheng Chi Sheng7 (The
Wonder of the Capital) and Meng Liang Lu 8 (The Past seems a Dream), both about
Hangchow under the Sung.! There are others besides.
What is there in the West to compare with this vast mass of literature? Greek
and Hellenistic antiquity supplies no real parallel,g and there seems little to adduce
• Here there may be some duplication-the probable overall figure is some 6500.
b Aurel Stein (7) once had occasion to verify a point which had seemed most improbable to him
before he knew the locality. He wrote' This ... illustrates afresh the risk run in doubting the accuracy of
Chinese records without adequate local knowledge'.
C We have spoken already of the sacred mountains of China in Vol. 1, p. 55. Their numinous quality
goes back, no doubt, to the mountain worship of primitive times; see K . Kanda (1).
d Thus when I visited Chin-Ytin Shan in Szechuan the abbot kindly presented me with a copy of
the Chin- Yiill Shall Chih 9 (Cloud-Girdled Mountain Records), by Thai-Hsti and Chhen-Khung.
e They are among the earliest to develop. Chao Chhi's'o San Fu Chiieh Lu" (Verified Records of
Three Cities) was written about + 153 but it did not survive. The three cities were Chhang-an (Sian),
Feng-i (Ta-li) in Shensi, and Fu-feng (Hsiang-yang). We still possess, however, the San Fu Huang
Thu 12 (Description of the Three Districts in the Capital, Chhang-an), attributed to Miao Chhang-
Yen, IJ probably of the San Kuo period , late + 3rd century.
r These books preserve many fascinating details of the life of the city a short while before Marco
Polo visited it. Cf. below, p. 551. The former was by a Mr Chao (The Old Gentleman of the
Water-Garden who attained Success through Forbearance) in + 1235; the latter was by Wu Tzu-Mu"
in + 1275. Parts have been translated by Moule (5, 15). On the plans of the city see Moule (15), pp. 12ff.
g There was, of course, Pausanias' Description of Greece, about + 168.

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520 22. GEOGRAPHY AND CARTOGRAPHY
from the early Middle Ages. By the + 13th century we have the anonymous French
L'Estat de la Citez de Jherusalem (1222),8 which might offer a comparison with the
description of Loyang six hundred years before, and the works of Giraldus Cambrensis
(Topographia Hibernica, II88; Itinerarium Cambriae, II91), which it would be
interesting to contrast in detail with the Kuei Hai Yu Heng Chih of his exact con-
temporary Fan Chheng-Ta. But this kind of geography did not develop in Europe as
it did in China during the Sung, and one has to wait for the Ming, that is to say, for
Renaissance Europe, to find good parallels. The Historia de Gentium Septentrionalium
of Olaus Magnus the Swede (1567) is then comparable to the ethnological type of
Chinese geographies which we have noticed. And England produces at the opening of
the modern period the Itinerary of John Leland (1506 to 1552, curiously Chinese in
his appointment as Antiquary-Royal) and the Britannia of Wm. Cam den (1551 to
1623), though both these were as much archaeological as geographical. On the whole
there is, as regards detailed local topography, the same gap of a millennium in Europe
as we noted before and shall shortly see again, with the difference that the ancient
Western world had not made much progress in this field beforehand.

(6) GEOGRAPHICAL ENCYCLOPAEDIAS

It only remains to mention some of the great compendia of geographical information

which the Chinese produced from the Chin dynasty (+3rd and +4th century) onwards.
They were mainly descriptive, in the style of Strabo rather than Eratosthenes, though
during the Thang and Sung they certainly contained some maps, now long lost.
Perhaps one might name as the earliest of the kind the Shih San Chou Chi l (Record
of the Thirteen Provinces) by Khan Yin,2 written between + 300 and + 350. In the
Chhi period (+479 to +502) there was Lu Chheng's3 Ti Li Shu 4 (Book of Geography),
which was apparently based on no less than 160 geographical works of earlier date,
and enlarged later in the Liang (before + 557). At the same time a large Yu Ti Chih s
(Memoir on Geography) was produced by Ku Yeh-Wang. 6 We have just mentioned
the compilations of local topographies which were made fifty years later by imperial
order in the Sui. Throughout the Thang, new geographies were appearing, such as
the Kua Ti Chih 7 ofWei Wang-Thai 8 and others in +638, and the Ti Li Chih 9 of
Khung Shu-J ui 10 a little later; besides these there were the important books of the
great cartographer Chia Tan l l about +770 which will be mentioned below.
The oldest extant general work, however, is the Yuan-Ho Chun Hsien Thu Chih 12
(Yuan-Ho reign-period Illustrated Geography), by Li Chi-Fu,b written about + 814.
This was towards the end of the Thang. The period between Thang and Sung pro-
a Sarton (I), vol. 2, p. 672 ; Beazley (I), vol. 2, p . 208. The brief and anonymous Latin tract On the
Houses of God in Jerusalem (Beazley (I), vol. I, p. 36) of + 808, also invites comparison with the Lo-
Yang Chhieh Lan Chi.
b It will be remembered that Li Chi-Fu has a place in the hist.o ry of tidal theory (p. 490 above).

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 22. GEOGRAPHY AND CARTOGRAPHY 521
duced one important geographer, Hsii Chiai,1 but shortly after the beginning of the
Sung there appeared (between + 976 and + 983) a great compendium which is still
consulted, the Thai-Phing Huan Yu Chi 2 (General Description of the World in the
Thai-Phing reign-period), by Yiieh Shih,3 in 200 chapters. In the + 11th century
there were further books by Wang Chu 4 (+ 1051) and Li Te-Chhu s (+ 1080), and
in the + 12th by Chhen Khun-Chhen 6 (+IIII) and Ouyang Wen 7 (+III7). But
during this time the treatment was becoming more and more literary and historical-
biographical and less geographical in the scientific sense. The + 13th century, how-
ever, saw two valuable geographies, the Yu Ti Chi Sheng 8 (The Wonders of the World),
byWang Hsiang-Chih 9 (cf. Haenisch, I), and the Fang Yu Sheng Lan lo (Triumphant
Vision of the Great World), by Chu MU,II both about + 1240.
The succeeding centuries produced less of this description, and we need only notice
the three great comprehensive geographies of the Empire. a The first of these was
started about + 1310 but never printed, and now only some thirty-five chapters remain;
the second was published in + 1450; b while the third appeared in the + 18th century,
having been initiated under the direction of Hsii Chhien-Hsiieh 12 in +1687. This last
includes every conceivable kind of geographical detail for all the provinces, and also
a mass of information about dependencies and tributary states beyond the frontiers of
China proper.c Also early in the + 18th century appeared the Thu Shu Chi Chheng
encyclopaedia, in which a great quantity of geographical material is included. This is
found in the second division (Fang Yii Hui Pien 13) which includes four sections. The
first (khun yu 14), though dealing also with mineralogy and geology, has some ninety
chapters on historical topography and cartography. The second (chih fang 15) is by far
the longest of all the sections in the encyclopaedia, having no less than 1544 chapters,
and consists of a detailed description of all provinces, cities, towns and the areas con-
trolled by them. The third (shan chhuan 16) deals similarly with mountains and rivers.
The fourth (pien i17) is concerned with foreign peoples and countries.
By this time, of course, the Chinese work has to face what is in many ways a damaging
comparison with post-Renaissance Europe. Again we see that it was during the earlier
medieval time that China was more advanced. Between the Han and the Thang, the
West had nothing to set beside the Chinese geographers, and during the Sung there
was no competition except on the part of the Arabs. Only with the Ming decadence
and the rise of modern science in Europe did the West draw considerably ahead.
a Ta Yuan I Thung Chih,,8 Ta Ming I Thung Chih,'O Ta Chhing I Thung Chih.' o They did not
prevent the appearance of geographical encyclopaedias by private persons : e.g. the Huang Yu Khao 21
by Chang Thien-Fu 22 in + 1588. Cf. Goodrich (II).
b This Ming geography perhaps stimulated a parallel official Korean work of much merit, the
T ongguk Yeji Seungnam23 by So Ko-}ong," begun about +1470 and completed in +1530.
C Small parts of it have been translated or abstracted by Biot (IS, 16).

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(c) A NOTE ON CHINESE EXPLORERS

The immense mass of geographical knowledge represented by the literary works ·
which have just been described, as well as the achievements of scientific cartography
to which the following subsections will be devoted, was certainly not gained except by
the accumulated observations of countless travellers and explorers. Some were engaged
upon o.£ficial or diplomatic missions, others were travelling in the cause of religion, but
they all added their store of experience and their observations, more or less accurate
and complete, to the growth of knowledge about the terrestrial world. On account of
their great importance for contacts between China and Europe, we have already
described the exploits of Han officials such as Chang Chhien and Kan Ying in another
place,a as also the work of later pilgrims such as Hsuan-Chuang and Fa-Hsien. b
On account of their close connection with advanced cartography we shall examine later C
the voyages of the eunuch admiral Cheng HO.d But we may take advantage of the
present opportunity to pause for a moment and survey a few other outstanding aspects
of Chinese travel and exploration.
So great has been the fame of Marco Polo and the other European travellers of the
+ 13th centurye that their Chinese counterparts who also made important journeys
have generally been overlooked. f The most accessible account of them in a Western
language we owe to Bretschneider (2). Bretschneider translated parts of the Bsi Yu Lu I
(Record of a Journey to the West) by the statesman and patron of astronomers, Yehlu
Chhu-Tshai,2 who accompanied Chinghiz Khan on an expedition to Persia ( + 1219 to
+ 1224). Here we find also the Pei Sh£h Chi 3 (Notes on an Embassy to the North) by
Wukusun Chung-Tuan,4 a Chin Tartar who returned from a mission to Chinghiz
Khan in + 1222.
Another famous journey was that of the Taoist adept and alchemist Chhiu Ch hang-
Chhun s (+ 1148 to + 1227), who was summoned to the court of the Mongol emperor,
Chingiz Khan, then in Afghanistan, and made the journey there and back from Shan-
tung between + 1219 and + 1224. The record of it, the Chhang-Chhun Chen-Jen Bsi
Yu Chi 6 (Western Journey of the Taoist Chhang-Chhun),g by his secretary Li Chih-

a Sect. 7e, g, in Vol. I, pp. 173, 196. Mem. Hirth (2).

b Sect. 7 i in Vol. I, pp. 207 ff. The collection of Hennig (4) includes most of the Chinese voyages of
exploration. Cf. also the diaries of the Japanese monks Ennin (+838 to +847) and JOjin (+1 072 to + 1073).
c P. SS6 below.
d The Chinese sailors of the + I sth century who enlarged the geographical knowledge of their
countrymen had some interesting successors in the + 18th. Ch hen Kuan-Sheng (3) has made a study
of Hsieh Chhing-Kao ,7 who between 1783 and 1797 visited all the principal trading ports of Europe,
Asia, Africa and America. Himself illiterate, his Hai Lu 8 was written down for him by a Rusticianus,
Yang Ping-Nan;9 it is purely factual and objective.
e For a convenient resume see Sykes (I) or Komroff (r) .
f Indeed Europeans are accustomed to think that they themselves throughout the centuries discovered
the inhabitable globe. It would be just as true to say that Europe was first discovered by China, in the
days of Chang Chhien's visit to Bactria.
g TTI4IO.

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 22. GEOGRAPHY AND CARTOGRAPHY
Chhang, I has several times been translated, a the most recent version being that of
Waley (10). As the preface says, Li Chih-Chhang 'kept a record of their experiences
throughout the journey, noting with the greatest care the nature and degree of the
difficulties-such as mountain-passes, river-crossings, bad roads and the like-with
which they had to contend; also such differences and peculiarities of climate, clothing,
diet, vegetation, bird-life and insect-life as they were able to observe'. Indeed,
during the journey through Mongolia and Central Asia, Chhiu Chhang-Chhun's party
made observations of a solar eclipse and took gnomon solstice-shadow measurements
at a more northerly point than any Chinese astronomers had reached before them. b Then
in + 1259 Chhang Te 2 went on an embassy from Mangu Khan to his brother Hiilagu
and left a record of it in the Hsi Shih Chi 3 (Notes on an Embassy to the West).c The
last translation of Bretschneider d was the biography of the grandson of Yehlii Chhu-
Tshai, Yehlii Hsi-Liang,4 who travelled widely in Central Asia between + 1260 and
+ 1263. Moule (6) has analysed the long journey from south to north of Yen Kuang-
Ta 5 of + 1276. But though all these records are of great interest, their authors were
mostly official travellers whose notes were incidental. Of greater scientific interest
were journeys the main motives of which were geographical.
For example, there was the question of the source of the Yellow River. In the time
of Chang Chhien ( - 2nd century) it was supposed that the Khotan River, issuing from
the Khun-Lun Mountains (which form the northern escarpment of the Tibetan
plateau), and making its way round the north of the Tarim basin to fall into Lop Nor,
was the source of the Yellow River. Between Lop Nor and a pass near Lanchow the
river was supposed to flow underground. But by the time of the Thang the true
situation was clearly understood. In + 635 a general named Hou Chiin-Chi,6 in
charge of a punitive expedition against a Tibetan tribe, pushed west as far as Djaring
Nor and 'contemplated the sources of the Yellow River'.e The river does in fact take
its origin near this lake. f The identification was confirmed not long afterwards by
Liu Yuan-Ting,7 who was sent as ambassador to the Tibetans in + 822. Starting
from Sining above Lanchow, he took a south-westerly route to Lhassa which must
have led him to cross both the Yellow River below Ngaring Nor and the Yangtze
somewhere near Jyekundo. g Hou and Liu probably did not realise that the Yellow
River makes an enormous detour around the Amne Machin range before doubling

a As by Palladius into Russian in 1866, and by Bretschneider (2), pp. 35 ff. A recent appreciation is
due to Fedchina (I).
b Cf. pp. 416 and 293 above.
C Tr. Bretschneider (2), pp. 109 ff.

d (2), pp. 157 ff. It is ch. 180 of the Yuan Shih .

e Hsin Thang Shu, ch. 22IA, p. 7a.
f So remote are these parts of the world, however, that discoveries still remained to be made in
1953. Chou Hung-Shih(I) has given an account of current explorations which show that the Yellow
River rises neither from Djaring Nor nor from Ngaring (Oring) Nor, nor yet from Khotun Nor (Pools
of the Stars) still farther west, but from the Yoko-chung-lieh stream in the Yaho-Latahotzu mountains.
g Chiu Thang Shu, ch. I96B, p. I5a; Hsiu Thang Shu, ch. 2I6B, p. 6b. The itinerary is in the Hsin
Thang Shu, ch. 40; tr. Bushell (3).

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 22. GEOGRAPHY AND CARTOGRAPHY
back again, but otherwise they were perfectly correct. In + 1280 Khubilai Khan sent
out a scientific expedition under Tu Shih 1 to clear up this question, and the results
were embodied in a book Ho Yuan Chi z by the geographer Phan Ang-Hsiao. 3 Chu
Ssu-Pen a made use of Tibetan sources as well as this work, and there is a special
chapter on the upper course of the Yellow River in the Yuan Shih.b
Elsewhere c we touch upon the road guides which are extant in Chinese literature,
and were prepared primarily for practical purposes. Bretschneider (4) has translated
such an itinerary of the Ming period, from Chiaylikuan (Fig. 14 in Vol. I, facing p. 103),
the then 'gate of China' on the Old Silk Road north-west of Lanchow, to Istanbul.
It is, indeed, in the Ming that we come to the prince of all Chinese itinerary-makers,
the traveller Hsli Hsia-Kho 4 (+ 1586 to + 1641), a man whose interests were neither
official nor religious, but scientific and artistic. There is a good account of him by
Ting Wen-Chiang (3), and a collective work on him by several authors recently
appeared under the editorship of Chang Chhi-Ylin. For more than thirty years he
perambulated the most obscure and wildest parts of the empire, exposed to all kinds
of difficulties and sufferings, often dependent on the patronage of local scholars who
helped him after he had been robbed of all his belongings, or local abbots who were
willing to pay him for composing a history of their monastery. On sacred mountain
and snowy pass, beside the rice-terraces of Szechuan and in the semi-tropical jungles
of Kuangsi, there inevitably was to be seen Hsli Hsia-Kho with his notebook. His
biographers agree in saying that he thoroughly disbelieved in the theories of the geo-
mancers, and wished to go and see for himself the dispositions of the great mountain
regions radiating from the Tibetan massif. His notes, typical excerpts of which have
been translated by Ting Wen-Chiang, read more like those of a 20th-century field
surveyor than of a 17th-century scholar. He had a wonderful power of analysing
topographical detail, and made systematic use of special terms which enlarged the
ordinary nomenclature, such as staircase (thiS), basin (phing 6 ), etc. Everything was
noted carefully in feet or li, without vague stock phrases. d
Ting (himself an outstanding geologist, and one of the best scientific minds which
China has produced in the present century) gave an example of Hsli Hsia-Kho's
perspicacity. In Yunnan true crystalline schists are rare, and Ting while on a journey
in 1914 thought that he had discovered in the Yuan-Mo Valley a curious outcrop of
typical mica schists among the red sandstone of that province. But he found that Hsli
had noted it three centuries earlier. On 6th December 1639 he observed that at this
place 'the rocks shine like gold sand, brilliantly yellow in the sunlight like flakes of
mica pressed together'.
Hsli Hsia-Kho's chief scientific achievements were, first the discovery of the true
source in Kweichow of the West River (Hsi Chiang) of Kuangtung. Secondly, he

a See below, p. 551. b Ch. 63, p. 180.

c P. 5+4.
d It has been suggested that HSll Hsia-Kho was influenced by the Jesuits, but the evidence is against
this. Some of his findings were however incorporated in Martini's Atlas.
 22. GEOGRAPHY AND CARTOGRAPHY 52 5
established that the Mekong and the Salween were separate rivers. Thirdly, he showed
that the Chin Sha Chiang 1 river was none other than the upper waters of the Yangtze;
this had long been very confusing on account of the enormous bend which it makes to
detour the Lu Nan Shan l mountains south of Ningyuan. a
A curious factor which led to the increase of geographical knowledge in the Chhing
dynasty was the custom (of course not new) of banishing scholars to remote parts of
the empire for real or alleged misdemeanours. Thus in 1810, Hsli Sung,S a good
scholar, then Commissioner of Education for Hunan, was accused of using his office
to promote the sales of his own books, and of failing to assign topics for essays on the
classics by degree aspirants. Two years later he was banished to Sinkiang, where he
remained for seven years. But the result was that Chinese geographical literature was
enriched by four excellent books on the remote parts of that dominion,b notably the
Hsi Yu Shui Tao Chi" (Account of the River Systems of the Western Regions),c and
commentaries on the chapters in the Han dynastic histories on Central Asia.

(d) QUANTITATIVE CARTOGRAPHY IN EAST AND WEST

(I) INTRODUCTION

The history of scientific geography and cartography is usually presented as containing

an unaccountable gap between the time of Ptolemy ( + 2nd century) and about + 1400.
If we take up any standard work on the subject d we find what seem to be certain con-
ventions as to the participation of China-there are discussions of medieval European
knowledge of China, what the Arabs said about it, and the stimulus of the visits made
by the merchants and the religious-diplomatic envoys in the + 13th century-but
never by any chance the story of Chinese cartography itself.e Kimble, indeed, is so
good as to say that' fifty years of Cathay had wrought a bigger change in the outlook
of the Western world than a whole cycle of medieval Europe',f but he refers only to
the widening of Western horizons. Yet during the whole of the millennium when
scientific cartography was unknown to Europeans, the Chinese were steadily developing
a tradition of their own, not strictly astronomical, but as quantitative and exact as
they could make it.
Nor can it be claimed that the material has been unavailable to occidental historians
a According to Than Chhi-Hsiang's paper in the collective work already mentioned, Hsli Hsia-Kho
was not the first to suggest this latter identification; it had been mooted by Pan Ku in the Han and by
Li Tao-Yuan in the + 6th century. Chu Ssu-Pen seems also to have known the separateness of the
Mekong and the Salween in the Yuan dynasty.
b See Fuchs (3). C Analysed by Himly (8) .
d E .g. Beazley (1). Brown (I), Bunbury (1), Kimble (I), Nordenskiiild (I), Wright (1).
e Beazley, indeed, has a section on Chinese geography (I), vol. 1, pp. 468 ff., and gets wind, through
Gaubil, of Chia Tan's great map in the Thang, but adds: 'It is not worth our while to enter any further
into a subject which has so little relation with Western and Christian thought.' The recent book of
Tooley (1) deserves commendation for a short section on Chinese map-making (pp. 105 ff.), based on
Chavannes, but the romanisations are badly mauled.
f (I), p . 147.
526 22. GEOGRAPHY AND CARTOGRAPHY

of science. It is now nearly half a century since Chavannes (10) published his funda-
mental paper in which he sketched the growth of accurate mapping in China. a Before
that time the limitations of a Santarem b or a Huttmann, who thought that Chinese
cartography began in the Yuan period, or even that Chinese maps had never been
graduated at all, were perhaps pardonable, but now it is time that the picture was
appreciated as a whole. c We shall follow Chavannes, adding to his material as we go,
for there were certain aspects of which he did not treat. But first we must glance at
the vicissitudes of map-making in the West.

(2) SCIENTIFIC CARTOGRAPHY; THE INTERRUPTED

EUROPEAN TRADITION

The development of Greek cartography has so often been expounded that it is only
necessary here to remind ourselves of its essential features in very few words.d It
began with Eratosthenes ( - 276 to - 196),e the contemporary of Lii Pu-Wei, whose
application of a coordinate system to the earth's surface originated from his determina-
tion of the earth's curvature. The famous observations of the gnomon shadows at
summer solstice at Syene and Alexandria led to the approximately correct figure of
25,000 geographical miles for the earth's circumference.! It is to be noted that the
spherical earth was as much at the basis of Greek cartography as the flat earth was at
the basis of Chinese. But in practice it made less difference than would seem at first
sight, for the Greeks never developed satisfactory projections for describing the
spherical surface on a flat sheet of paper.
The oikoumene, or inhabited world, of Eratosthenes was oblong, 78,000 stadia (about
7800 geographical miles) in length, and 38,000 stadia from north to south. This was
crossed by a series of parallels (of latitude), chosen according to solstitial gnomon
shadow-lengths, and another series of meridians, chosen arbitrarily. The fundamental
parallel was that of Rhodes, which began at the Sacred Promontory in west Spain,
touched the Sicilian strait and the tip of Greece, and after passing through Rhodes ran
along the south edge of the Taurus mountains. The fundamental meridian was that
of Syene, Alexandria, Rhodes and Byzantium; Syene being supposed to lie exactly on
the tropic. This meridian was even more inaccurate than the parallel, both involving
considerable distortion of the true positions of the places named. Another meridian
passed through Carthage, Sicily and Rome. There was no way of determining the
distances between these meridians except dead reckoning, mostly by sea voyages, and
the length of the Mediterranean consequently came out about one-fifth too great. g
a Som e years after Chavannes, the same field was covered independently (in Japanese) by Ogawa (1, 2)
but the inAuence of this in the W est has been negligible. The papers of Soothill (4) and Cressey (2)
add little to Chavannes. b (r), p . 359.
C I fear that this has still not b een achieved even in the latest general history of cartography (Bagrow (r)
in r9<;r).
d The account of Bunbury, though old, still remains one of the fullest and best.
e B & M, p . 474. f Bunbury (r), vo!. r, pp . 6r5 ff.
g Among special studies on Greek parallels and meridians, those of Heidel (r) and Diller (r) may
be con sulted.
 22. GEOGRAPHY AND CARTOGRAPHY

Hipparchus (ft. - 162 to - 12S),a the contemporary of Liu An and his school,
criticised the work of Eratosthenes and introduced various rectifications, including the
term climata for the areas between parallels. The parallels of Eratosthenes had been
arbitrary, but Hipparchus made them equal and astronomically fixed. In the oikou-
mene there were eleven, the southernmost one being half-way between the equator
and the tropic, the next corresponding to a solstitial day of 13 hours, the next to one
of 13! hours , etc. The northernmost one, passing through north Britain, corresponded
to a solstitial day of 19 hours. For longitude he made no new advance.
With Ptolemy (ft. + 120 to + 17o),b who was working at the same time as Tshai
Yung, the accurate or scientific cartography of the ancient world reached its greatest
height. No less than six out of the eight books of his Geography are occupied with
tables of latitude and longitude of specific places, given to a precision of one-twelfth of
a degree. c But the longitudes were really only guesswork. Hipparchus, indeed, had
suggested a way of measuring them by observations at different stations of the onset
of lunar eclipses, but only one or two experiments of this kind were available to
Ptolemy. The ancient world was not able to organise scientific observations on the
scale required. However, Ptolemy greatly reduced the estimate of the length of Asia
which had been given by Marinus of Tyre (the distance from the 'Stone Tower'd to
Sera Metropolis), and in this he was fully justified. e On his largest map, which covered
180 0 of longitude and 80 0 of latitude, he made an attempt to show the meridians and
parallels as curved lines. f
Here, however, we have to take notice of a point which will prove of particular
interest to us, namely, that in his maps of smaller areas or individual countries,
Ptolemy used a simple rectangular grid. In this he followed the example of Marinus
of Tyre, whom we have just mentioned.g Marinus (ft. c. + 100) has perhaps had less
credit than is his due in the history of cartography, for like that of Eratosthenes, his
work is known to us only at second hand. h It will be worth remembering that he was
especially interested in the extension of geographical knowledge towards the East, and
made use of the data supplied by Maes Titianus, a Syrian engaged in the silk trade
with the Chinese (Seres).i It will also be worth while bearing in mind that Marinus
of Tyre was an exact contemporary of the astronomer Chang Heng. Marinus was
content, then, to draw his latitude parallels and longitude meridians at right angles to
each other.
None of the maps made in Ptolemy's time has come down to us. What the people of

a Bunbury (I), vo!. 2, pp. 2 ff.; B & M, p. 544.

b Bunbury (I), vo!. 2, pp. 546 ff.; B & M, pp. 769, 787 .
c B & M, pp. 802 ff.
d Cf. the map in Vo!. 1, p . 171 (Fig. 32).
e On Ptolemy's knowledge of East Asia there are monographs by Gerini and by A. Berthelot.
f Historians of geography (e.g. Bunbury (I), vo!. 2, p . 544) usually consider that, although Ptolemy
made great efforts to represent more accurately the curvature of the earth's surface, the accuracy of the
information available from the remoter regions was hardly worth it.
g Bunbury (I), vo!. 2, p. 543.
h Bunbury (I), vo!. 2, pp . 519 ff.; B & M, p. 634.
i Cf. above, Sect. 7 e in Vo!. 1, p. 172. The gross over-estimation of the length of Asia seems to have
been due to him . A date of -20 to - 1 is now thought likely for his travels; M. Cary (1).
 22. GEOGRAPHY AND CARTOGRAPHY
the Renaissance thought they must have looked like is seen in Fig. 21 I from Ruscelli's
+ 1561 edition of Ptolemy.a Many manuscript codices state that the maps were drawn
by Agathodaemon of Alexandria, who remains for us a somewhat mysterious character,
since he may have lived at any time between the +2nd and the + 13th centuries; the
latter period being that of the oldest known manuscripts. b The only other ancient map
which may be mentioned here is the very distorted road-map of the Roman world
(giving mileages) discovered by Conrad Peutinger in 1507 and now bearing his name. C
Though it had been copied from some unknown source by a monk of Colmar in
+ 1265, it is quite pre-christian in spirit, and must have been first made sometime
between about +20 and +370. Though in a sense quantitative, it is diagrammatic and
makes no attempt at coordinates.

i i
-t . t-
j

Fig. ZII. Ptolemy's world map as reconstructed by the Venetian Ruscelli (+1561). Longitude is
expressed in fractions of hours east of the Fortunate Islands, latitude designated by the number of
hours in the longest day of the year (from Lloyd Brown).

(3) RELIGIOUS COSMOGRAPHY IN EUROPE

After the time of Ptolemy, the Great Interruption sets in. European map-making
suffers a degeneration so extreme that it would hardly be believable if we were not so
familiar with it. Scientific cartography is drastically replaced by a tradition of religious
cosmography.d All attempt at coordinates is abandoned, and the world is represented
as a disc e divided by a few partitions into continents, across which rivers and mountain
ranges stray in wild disorder. There is no lack of these 'maps' or 'Mappaemundi', to
a Cf. B & M, pp. 79zfr.; Lloyd Brown (I), opp. p. 54.
b Lloyd Brown (I), p. 73.
e Beazley (I), vol. I, p . 381; B & M, p. 1038; K. Miller (2).
d On the comparative background of this, Eliade (2), pp. 3 15 fr., is worth reading.
o Or sphere, if Taylor (z) is right.
 PLATE LXXIII

Fig. 212. World map of Martianus Capella (fl. +470), from a MS. of the Lib" Floridus,
c. + 1150 (from Kimble). The northern hemisphere to the left is drawn in the T-pattem.
the southern has simply an unknown continent.
 PLATE LXXIV

Fig. 213. The 'Psalter Map' of the mid + 13th century, a T-O design centred
on Jerusalem. Note the 'Wall of Gog and Magog' to the left at the top, built
(according to legend) by Alexander the Great to keep out the' barbarians' of
East Asia, but probably a European echo or rumour of the real Great Wall. The
Indian Ocean appears as the dark wedge to the right at the top (from Beazley).
 PLATE LXXV

Fig. 214. A world map of the type due to Beatus Libaniensis (d. + 798), from a Turin
MS. of + 1150 (from Lloyd Brown). Here again the T -0 shape is seen. Paradise and
Eden are placed in the Far East at the top; below the Mediterranean with its many
islands separates Europe from Africa.
 22. GEOGRAPHY AND CARTOGRAPHY
use the medieval term, a which may be found in numerous collections. b Their classifica-
tion has been the subject of an interesting paper by M. C. Andrews. c The usual name
for them is 'wheel-maps' or 'T-0 maps'-the significance of the latter we shall see in
a moment.
These strange representations are divisible into various families among surviving
manuscripts. They are found as illustrations to the texts of numerous medieval
authors, among whom the following may be mentioned. First comes the In Somnium
Scipionis of Ambrosius Theodosius Macrobius ( + 395 to + 423),d who is accompanied
by Orosius(ft. +410) and his Historia adversus Paganos,e and followed by Martianus
Capella (ft. +470) and his Satyricon. f These men still show the influence of Ptolemy
(Fig. 212), but after the + 5th century Ptolemy is hardly ever mentioned. With Isidore
of Seville (ft. +600 to +636)g further degeneration has taken place, as we see from
the diagrams attached to his Etymologiae. At the end of the + 8th century, the work
of the Spanish priest Beatus Libaniensis (d. + 798) h in his Commentary on the Apo-
calypse set the style for a large number of medieval wheel-maps, the earliest extant
example dating from + 970 and the last from + 1250, approximately.! In the map
which Henry of Mainzj added in + I I 10 to the Imago Mundi of Honorius of Autun,
there is a certain improvement, but not much, and that of William of Conches
(d. + 1154) is also notable. k The so-called Psalter Map of the mid + 13th century
(Fig. 213) is important on account of the emphasis which it gives to the orbocentric
position of Jerusalem, but this is seen also extensively in other medieval wheel-maps.l
The significance of this we shall appreciate later. To illustrate another example, I give
a map of the Beatus type from a Turin MS. of + II50 (Fig. 214).m The degree of
schematisation which could be reached may be appreciated from Fig. 215, taken from
a Venetian edition of Isidore of Seville of + 1500.n
Let us look at the accompanying sketches (Fig. 216), which summarise the main
forms of European religious cosmography. The earliest of them, which has been
called Macrobian, still retains the Ptolemaic recognition of a southern sub-equatorial
half of the world, an unknown antipodean continent. But for the oikoumene the geo-
grapher is content with a T, the Mediterranean forming its vertical stroke, and the two
parts of the horizontal stroke being represented by the Rivers Tanais (Don) and Nile.
The position of Jerusalem, if marked, is always orbocentric. Later traditions, such as
that associated with the name of Beatus, dispense altogether with the antipodes or
southern hemisphere, and draw the oikoumene as occupying the whole of the world

a More than 600 are known, but few or none date from before the + loth century.
b Such as those of Santarem (1,2), K. Miller (I), Yusuf Kamal (I), Beazley (I), Lloyd Brown (I).
Kimble (I). Taylor (2), etc.
C Cf. also Taylor (I). d Kimble (I), p. 8; Beazley (I), vol. I, p . 343 .
e Kimble (I), p . 20; Beazley (I), vol. I, p. 353.
f Kimble (I), p. 9; Beazley (I), vol. I, p. 340.
~ Kimble (I), p . 23; Beazley (I), vol. 1, p. 366.
h Lloyd Brown (1). pp. 94,119.126; Kimble (I), p. 183; Beazley (I), vol. 2, pp. 549, 550, 554.
i Santa rem (2), pI. XII; Yusuf Kamal (1), vol. 3, pp. 871, 947.
j Beazley (1), vol. 2, p . 563 . k Yusuf Kamal (I), vol. 3, pp. 868, 921.
1 E.g. the Hereford Mappamundi (Moir & Letts). Cf. Beazley (I). vol. 3, p. 528.
m Beazley (I), vol. 2, p. 552. n Lloyd Brown (I), p . 103.
53 0 22. GEOGRAPHY AND CARTOGRAPHY

disc. A third tradition preserved a vague memory of the Hellenistic climata, showing
them simply as parallel lines without meridians and superimposed on no geographical
features. This is found, for example, in the + I I 10 map (Fig. 217) of Petrus Alphonsus
of Huesca, a Spanish Jew. a But it goes back to Macrobius.

Fig. 215. The extremely schematised world map of Isidore of Seville (+ 570 to +636) in a Venetian
edition of his Etymologiae of + 1500. Interpretation on the right (from Lloyd Brown).

The T-O maps received their classical explanation in a + 15th-century poem by

Leonardo Dati (+ 1365 to 1424), La Sfera (c. + 1420).b
Un T denttro adun 0 mostra ildisegno
chome inttre partti fu diviso ilmondo
elasuperiore emagor rengno
chequasi pigla lameta delmondo
asia chiamatta elgrenbo ritto segno
chepartte iltterzo no me dalsechondo
africho dicho daleuropia elmare
mediteraneo traese imezzo apare.
(A T in an 0 gives us the division of the world into three parts. The upper part and the
greatest empire take nearly the half of the world. It is Asia; the vertical bar is the limit
dividing the third from the second, Africa, I say, from Europe; between them appears the
Mediterranean Sea.)
The T-O map tradition did not die out till as late as the + 17th century, as may be
seen from a book such as the Variae Orbis Universi, by Petrus Bertius ( + 1628). c
Before leaving it, however, a word may be said about certain aberrant representations
in the occident. There was, for instance, the Christian Topographyd written by Cosmas
Indicopleustes between + 535 and + 547. This was essentially a controversial work,
intended to expose 'the wicked folly of the Greeks in Geography'. e It therefore has
a Beazley (I), vol. 2. p. 575 .
b Ill, 11; Yusuf Kamal (I), vol. 4. p. 1436. In the year of Dati's birth, Andrea di Bonaiuto painted
aT-map in the frescoes of the Chapter House (the' Spanish Chapel') of Sta Maria Novella at Florence.
There it can still be seen. Cf. Bargellini (I), pp. 30, 32.
C Lloyd Brown (I), pI. XV.
d Tr. McCrindle (7). Cf. p. 513 above.
e Beazley (I), vol. I, p . 297. Beazley gives a very full account of Cosmas. Cf. B & M, p . 1045.
 22. GEOGRAPHY AND CARTOGRAPHY 53 1
importance in connection with the exact reasons why Christian Europe, under the
influence of the Fathers, threw away all the Hellenistic achievements in quantitative
cartography.a The principal picture E
which Cosmas gives of the universe
has often been reproduced , but as we
are here comparing occidental with
oriental levels of attainment, we may
not omit it (Fig. 218). There is
Heaven with its walls and barrel-vault,
s
while below is the flat surface of Earth,
with some schematic sea and land hard
to interpret.b We are particularly to
note, however, the high mountain in
the north (or in the centre?) round
which the sun is pictured both rising
and setting, for this was an idea well
known and widespread in Asian
thought, and Cosmas himself, as his
cognomen indicated, had made the R. Tanais
voyage to India, and perhaps to or Don"
Ceylon.c We shall come back later to s
this mountain of Cosmas, as to a focal
point in the intercourse between
peoples. d Among other European
maps which deviated from the general
sort may be mentioned the + 8th-
century map preserved at Albi, which w
is perhaps the most degenerate of all, s
Unknown
showing merely a horseshoe-shaped Au stral
continent surrounding the Mediter- region

a This point is discussed at some length

by Kimble (I), pp. 14 ff., and by Beazley.
S t Augustine's vigorous attack on the idea of E W
the antipodes (Civ itas Dei, XVI, 9), for instance,
is welI known.
b From other diagrams it is fairly clear that Climates-~------------I
he meant the large inlet for the Mediterranean
and the two smalI er ones for the Red Sea and
the Persian Gulf.
C Beazley (I), vol. I, pp . 190 ff. Cf. the Uninhabitable
discussion in Chin Shu, ch. 11, p. 4b, where cold region N
Ko Hung is arguing (c. + 300) against Wang
Chhung's support of the Kai Thien theory, Fig. 216. Diagrams to ilIustrate the chief fonns of the
and says that it would invol ve a vertical not European tradition of religious cosmography.
a horizontal half-disc of the sun at rising and
settin g. Cf. p. 218 ahovc. The passage has been translated by Ho Ping-Yii (I).
d Cf. Thomson (I), p . 387. It must be, presumably, Mount Meru (see below, p. 568).
53 2 22. GEOGRAPHY AND CARTOGRAPHY

ranean gulf. a Conversely the late + loth-century' Cottoniana' map, which seems
to have been prepared in the household of an Archbishop of Canterbury by an
Irish monk, shows on a square plan the main contours of the European land-masses
better than any Western map before the portolans. b It is to the 'portolans', or handy
sea-charts, that we must now turn.

(4) THE ROLE OF THE N AVIGA TORS

About + 1300 there began to appear in the Mediterranean region, first slowly and
then in increasing numbers, sea-charts for essentially practical use. These showed
mainly the contours of the land-masses, along the edges of which the names of all
havens and coast towns were marked, often with the addition of flags to indicate their
political allegiance (a point which it might be very useful for a pilot to know). The
first of these which is dated (Fig. 219) is a Vesconte portolan of + 13II,c but some
extant specimens are thought to go back perhaps thirty years previously. All the
examples known are Italian, Spanish, Portuguese or Catalan-no Byzantine or Arabic
versions have yet been found. Many publications showing these portolan charts are
available. d Fig. 220 shows Spain on the portolan of Angelino Dulcerto ( + 1339).
The characteristic graduation of the portolans was not meridians and parallels, nor
even a rectangular grid, but an interlocking network of rhumb-lines or loxodromes
radiating from a series of compass wind-roses placed in positions arbitrarily chosen. e
The connection of the re-introduction of quantitative cartography with the use of the
mariner's compass is thus obvious; magnetic polarity had become known in Europe
just before + 1200, so that about a century later charts based on the compass were
becoming general. The manner of using the portolans is described in a work of + 1542,
written by Jan Rotz of Dieppe, the Boke of Y drography; the pilot selected a loxodrome
line in the neighbourhood of the ports or points of departure and arrival of the day's
run, such that it was as parallel as possible to the line directly joining them; hence the
bearings required could be read off.! But the fact that the coastal outlines were now
so well drawn shows that a great deal of dead-reckoning information had accumulated,
and it was therefore not long before the rhumb-lines or loxodromes were superimposed
on a rectangular grid. This is seen in the example taken from Dulcerto (Fig. 220), and
occurs even earlier.g Nevertheless, the earliest portolans are not without scales at the
edges of the maps graduated in 'portolan miles'.
The origins of the portolans have been much discussed, as by Uhden. Bunbury h
points out that the pilots of the Mediterranean had always had their written periploi,
and refers to such works as the treatise of Timosthenes of Rhodes i on ports, which
a Beazley (x), vol. x, p. 385 . b Beazley (x), vol. 2, p . 559.
C Beazley (x), vol. 3, p. 5x3.
t1 One may mention, apart from the vast collection of Yusuf Kamal (x), the works of Stevenson (2),
Cortesao (x), de Reparaz-Ruiz (x), Nordenskiold (x), Hinks (x), etc.
e L10yd Brown (x), p . X39; Kimble (x), p. X9X; Beazley (I), vol. 3, pp. 5x3 fI.
f Kimble (x), p. X92; Taylor (3), p. 70.
g Nordenskiold (x), pis. VII, VIII and IX. h (I), vol. x, p. 587.
I Admiral of the Egyptian fleet under Ptolemy Philadelphos, and apparently an authority much
followed by Eratosthenes.
 PLATE LXXVI

....,.....-.--
C~
I Olt/CNS
•

' - - ' ---"':"'-.-~---~

Fig. 217. The climate map of Petrus Alphonsus, c. + 1110 (from Beazley). Seven cli11latn are given
until at the bottom the cold and uninhabitable northern region is reached. Instead of a southern
continent in the upper hemisphere we are shown the towers of' Aren Civitas', i.e. Arin, the mythical
prime meridian city of the Arabic geographers, which has been identified as Ujjain in India, capital
of the + 5th-century Gupta kings (see p. 563 below).
 PLATE LXXVII

Fig. 218. The universe according to Cosmas Indicopleustes' Christian Topography, c. + 540.
The rising and setting suns move round the great mountain in the n orth; the inlets of the
Mediterranean, Red Sea and Persian Gulf are shown below, the heavens have the shape of
a barrel vault, and within them the Creator surveys his works (from Beazley) .

Fig. 219. One of the oldest extant portolan charts, the P. Vesconte map of + 13" (from Beazley).
Rhumb-lines, rectangular grid, and graduated edge can all be seen, and at the top is the cartographer's
signature and date. The part of the map shown portrays some coasts in the Levant.
 PLATE LXXVIII

Fig. 220. Spain on the portolan of Angelino Dulcerto, + 1339 (from de Reparaz-Ruiz).
Behind the rhumb-lines and grid the Straits of Gibraltar and the whole outline of the peninsula
clearly appear, with an abundance of names of ports and coastal features, marked by flags
to indicate territorial authorities.
 PLATE LXXIX

- --~

Fig. 221. Ceylon on a Byzantine grid -map in a Mt Athos MS. of c. + 1250 (from
Langlois). The name Taprobane can be seen in the second row of compartments
from the top. This grid system was presumably a survival of Ptolemaic coordinates
and existed only in limited parts of the Greek world during the Middle Ages.
 22. GEOGRAPHY AND CARTOGRAPHY 533
gave the distances separating them (between - 285 and - 2+7). But for the most part
this knowledge grew up in the technical patrimony of seafaring men through the
centuries and was not committed to writing by scholars. It was the coming of the
magnetic compass which liberated it from this obscurity. As for the immediate stimulus
of the portolans, Arabic influence has long been suspected,a and there is now a ten-
dency to look still further east. b
The developments following the portolan period, and the effect of the Renaissance
on cartography, are well known. c Prince Henry the Navigator, of Portugal (+ 139+ to
+ 1+60), was one of the greatest figures not only in the organisation of celebrated
expeditions, but also in the revival of the knowledge of Ptolemy's geographical ideas. d
During the previous centuries the Ptolemaic coordinates had been known and repro-
duced only in the Greek-speaking world. Greek manuscripts showing them are known,
for example, the Urbino MS. of about + 1200 (reproduced by J. Fischer) and the
Mount Athos MS. of about + 12S0 (reproduced by Langlois). Here Fig. 221 shows
the representation of Taprobane (Ceylon) e in the latter. The earliest Latin manuscripts
date from about + I+IS. By + 1+75 Ptolemy was firmly back again. Then came the
time of Gerard Mercator ( + 1512 to + 159+) and the great world map on his cylindrical
orthomorphic projection of + IS38.f With the Mariner's Mirror ofWaghenaer ( + IS8+)
and the contemporary maps of Ortelius we are fully in the modern period. g

(S) SCIENTIFIC CARTOGRAPHY; THE CONTINUOUS CHINESE

GRID TRADITION

The essential point which is now to be made is that just as the scientific cartography of
the Greeks was disappearing from the European scene, the same science in different
form began to be cultivated among the Chinese. A tradition which continued without
interruption down to the coming of the Jesuits was born in the work of Chang Heng
(+ 78 to + 139), the contemporary, as has been said, of that Marinus of Tyre who was
one of Ptolemy's principal sources. But before we can mention him it will be more
logical to glance at the evidence for Chinese map-making before his time.

a Vemet (I, 2). b Bagrow, Mazaheri & Yajima (I).

C See Santarem (I), Kimble (I), Taylor (3, 4), Yule (2), Lloyd Brown (I), and others. After the
time of Marco Polo there was a flourishing of world maps made in Europe which gave much more
information about East Asia than had been possible in earlier times. We shall come back to them again
in Section 29 on nautical technology because of the light they throw on medieval ship-building.
For identifications of the place-names given on them, see the lexicon of Hallberg (I).
d Lloyd Brown (I), pp. 108 ff.
• The name Ceylon itself comes to us from the Chinese transliteration of Sirilhala-dvlpa through
Arabic, according to Mahdihassan (4).
f Lloyd Brown (I), pp. 158 ff.
g Lloyd Brown (I), pp. 144 ff.
 534 22. GEOGRAPHY AND CARTOGRAPHY

(i) Origins in Chhin and Han

The Chou Li (Record of the Rites of Chou) can be taken as telling us something
about the ideas of the Former Han period, if not about the Chou. Its references to
maps are remarkably numerous. The Director-General of the Masses (Ta Ssu Thu I)
has the function of preparing the maps of the feudal principalities (chang chien pang
chih thu ti chih thu Z) and of registering their populations. a The Directors of Regions
(Chih Fang Shih 3) are placed in charge of the maps of the empire (chang thien hsia chih
thu 4 ) in accordance with which they supervise the lands in its different districts. b The
Geographer-Royal (Thu Hsiin 5) takes care ofthe maps of the provincial circuits (chang
tao ti thu 6), and when the emperor is making a tour of inspection he rides close to the
imperial vehicle in order to explain the characteristics of the country and its products. c
The Antiquary-Royal (Sung Hsiin 7) is likewise in close attendance on such occasions,
armed with notes on historical geography (fang chih 8 )d in order to explain points of
archaeological interesU Then there are Frontier Agents (Hsing Fang Shih 9) who
register the boundaries of principalities and domains.f Maps for special purposes are
also mentioned. Thus the Superintendents of Mining (Kung Jen 10) observe the occur-
rence of ores of metals, and make maps of the locations (tse wu chhi ti thu I I) which they
give to the miners.g Military maps are also spoken of.
That the Han people should have said so much about maps in their idealised picture
of the perfect imperial bureaucracy is not surprising, since the first historical reference
to a map in China goes back to the - 3rd century. In - 227 the crown prince of the
State of Yen (Yen Tan Tzu IZ) induced a certain Ching Kho 13 to make an attempt to
assassinate that king of Chhin who was afterwards to become the first emperor of the
Chhin dynasty.h This man came into the king's presence with a map of the district of
Tu-Khang (Tu-Khang chih ti thu 14) on the pretext that this domain would be offered to
him. The map was painted on silk, and contained in a case (hsia 15), but when it was
taken out a dagger appeared as well; this Ching tried to use, but failed. i The scene
was a favourite one with the decorators of Han tombs. j Fig. 222 shows a version of it
a Ch. 3, p. lob (ch. 9, p . I; Biot (I), vol. I, p . 19Z).
b Ch. 8, p . 24b (ch. 33, p . I; Biot (I), vol. 2, p. 263).
c Ch. 4, p . 34b (ch. 16, p. 21; Biot (I), vol. I, p. 368).
d This must be one of the earliest uses of this term, which, as noted above, came to be used for
local topographies. e Ch. 4, p. 34b (ch. 16, p . 22; Biot (I), vol. I, p . 369).
f Ch. 8, p. 30b (ch. 33, p. 64; Biot (I), vol. 2, p. 282).
g Ch. 4, p. 37a (ch. 16, p. 33; Biot (I), vol. I, p. 377).
h The story is told in Ching Kho's biography in Shih Chi, ch. 86, which has been translated by
Bodde (IS). A somewhat embroidered version (which, however, contains certain features confirmed by
epigraphic evidence) has come down to us as the Yen Tan Tzu,IZ reconstituted from quotations
(tr. Ch~ng Lin, I); this dates probably from the + 2nd century. Passages in the Chan Kuo Tshe
relating to the attentat of Ching Kho have been translated by Margoulies (3), p . 99.
i Shih Chi, ch. 86, pp. loa ff., 17b.
j Rudolph (I); Edwards (I).

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S±~1I 6 IJ:lli:lt!!1I 7 ~if! 1t1ll 9ff~1i~
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15 ~
 22. GEOGRAPHY AND CARTOGRAPHY 535
from the Wu Liang tomb-shrine reliefs of the + 2nd century. The term ti thu 1 also
occurs several times in the Chan Kuo Tshe (Records of the Warring States), i.e.
writings which are most probably of Chhin or very early Han time. In the Kuan Tzu
book, too, there is a chapter on military maps with these words as title (ch. 27), but this
may not be pre-Han.
When Chhin Shih Huang Ti became emperor, he assembled all available maps of
the empire. This is clear from the description which Ssuma Chhien gives of the taking
of Hsien-yang city by the leader who was later to become first emperor of the Han.

Fig. 222. Ching Kho's attempt to assassinate the King of Chhin, afterwards Chhin Shih Huang Ti, in
- 227, with a dagger hidden in a rolled silk m ap taken from a wooden case. The king is seen leaping
away on the left and in the centre the dagger with its tassel is deflected by a pillar at the foot of which is
the map-case. Beside it is another case containing the head of Fan Yi.i-Chhi which Ching Kho had also
presented to the King of Chhin. Above is Ching Kho's 13-year old assistant, Chhin Wu-Yang, too
frightened to do anything, and on the right the King's physician, Hsia Wu-Chi.i, has secured Ching Kho
with his medicine-bag. The relief is one of those in the Wu Liang tomb-shrines (+ 147). For the full
story see Bodde (15).

This was in - 207. While the other generals were engaging in pillage, Hsiao Ho 2
sought out the secretarial offices and took charge of all ordinances, reports and maps.
These were of inestimable advantage to the Han dynasty. a They must have lasted till
the end of the + 1st century, for Pan Ku, who died in + 92, refers to them at least
twice in the Chhien Han Shu. b But by Phei Hsiu's time (+ 3rd century) they had
disappeared- they were probably incised on wooden boards. All through the Han
there are references to maps. When Chang Chhien had returned from the West
( - 126), the emperor consulted, we are told,c ancient maps and books (ku thu shu 3 )
a Shih Chi, ch. 53, p. 1 h. b Ch. 28A, p . 15a, and ch. 28B, p . 4a.
C Chhien Han Shu, ch. 61 , p. 3h.
 22. GEOGRAPHY AND CARTOGRAPHY
and decided that the mountain from which the Yellow River took its source should be
called Khun-Lun. The first use of the expression yu ti thu ,I derived from the con-
ception of earth as a chariot and heaven as a chariot-roof, a comes in - I I7, when maps
of the whole empire were submitted to Han Wu Ti in connection with the investiture
of three of his sons as feudal princes. b There was a famous military map-making in
-99, when the general Li Ling2 was campaigning against the Huns. He made a
complete chart of the mountains and steppes as far as thirty days' journey north of the
frontier, and sent a copy of it back for presentation to the emperor. c As might be
expected, Wang Mang was aware of the importance of maps, and delegated a special
official, Khung Ping,3 to assemble and study them in connection with problems of
fiefs.d
Much discussion has centred upon the thu shu 4 (charts and documents)e which were
presented to the emperor in - 35. These have already been mentioned above
(p. 5 II). The incident is one which has numerous implications.! In the previous year
the Protector-General of Central Asia, Kan Yen-Shou,s and his assistant, Chhen
Thang,6 had made an unauthorised expedition as far west as the Talas River, where
their forces stormed the city of the Hun leader (Shanyu) Chih-Chih 7 and killed him.
This was in retaliation for his murder of a Chinese diplomatic envoy in - 43. When
they returned to China it was at first uncertain whether they would be punished for
having forged an imperial order, or honoured for their signal military success. What
concerns us is that after presentation 'his (or its) thu-shu were (or was) shown to the
honoured ladies of the imperial palace (i chhi thu shu shih hou kung kuri jen' 8). The
problem of what these documents were has considerable importance because this
battle was the one in which it is believed that the Chinese soldiers fought against some
I50 Roman legionaries who had taken mercenary service, after the famous defeat of
Crassus in Parthia ( - 54), with the Sogdians or the Huns.g The difficulty lies in the
ambiguity of the word thu which could mean either maps or pictures.
Duyvendak (I 6) formed the view that the account of the battle given in the bio-
graphy of Kan Yen-Shou in the ChhienHan Shu h constitutes in fact a series of captions
and explanations for a set of pictures afterwards lost. They could have been analogous
to the battle pictures found in some of the Later Han tomb-shrines. Dubs (30)
raised upon this a further hypothesis, that these pictures were similar to the repre-
sentations carried in Roman triumphal processions, and that their existence was
directly due to information about the practice provided by the Roman legionaries
captured by Kan Yen-Shou and Chhen Thang.

• See above, p . 214, in the sub-section on cosmological theories.

b Shih Chi, ch. 60, p. 5 b. The presentation of a map was part of the ceremonial.
C Chhien Han Shu, ch. 54, p . sa. d Chhien Han Shu, ch. 99B, p . 23a.
e The reference is Chhien Han Shu, ch. 9, p . 12b.
f Cf. above, Vo!. I , pp. 236 ft., and in Vo!. 6 below, Sect. 30 on military technology.
g The military aspects of this will be deferred till the appropriate Section.
h Ch. 70, pp. 9b ft.
 22. GEOGRAPHY AND CARTOGRAPHY 537
The foundations of this story seem rather weak. That Roman legionaries actually
were in mercenary service with the Shanyu (Dubs, 6, 29) may indeed be accepted;
that they were captured alive by the Chinese and settled in Kansu is possible, even
probable, though not proven. But really the only reason for thinking that 'battle-
pictures' were meant at all, is that 'maps and charts' would not have been shown to
'the ladies of the imperial harem', as Duyvendak calls iu I cannot help feeling that
both these scholars underrated the intelligence of the empress, the concubines and the
court beauties. No one would hesitate to discuss important and interesting matters
with some of the women depicted on the Han frescoes which the reproductions of
Fischer (2) have made familiar. b Besides, if the decorations of medieval Western maps
(cf. Bagrow, I) could be so exciting, why should those of the Han have been less so for
their time? Modern mathematical cartography is not in question. And the only
authority who can be quoted for the view that the documents were definitely pictures
and not charts, lived more than a thousand years after the event. C Maps, doubtless
much embellished with drawings, still seem the preferable interpretation.
Cartography continued to interest the people of the Later Han. In + 26, when
Kuang Wu Ti was fighting to establish the new dynasty, he opened a large map,
probably painted on silk, on one of the gate-towers of a city which his forces had just
taken, and said to Teng Yu, lone of his generals: 'Here are all the commanderies and
feudal domains of the empire; what we have just taken is only a very small part. How
could you have thought it easy to conquer the whole of it?' d After Kuang Wu Ti had
become securely established on the throne, a special ceremony was held annually from
+ 39 at which the Minister of Works (Ta Ssu Khung 2 ) presented a map of the empire.e
Again, in +69, when Wang ChingJ was charged with repairing the breaches in the
Yellow River dykes at Khaifeng, he was given f a set of maps illustrating the treatise of
Ssuma Chhien's on the Rivers and Canals (Ho Chhii. Shu 4 ).g

(ii) Establishment in Han and Chin

This brings us to the time of Chang Heng. s Much has already been said of his work
in astronomy (pp. 216ff., 343, 359ff.), and we shall soon meet with him again in the
field of seismology. None of the fragments of his writings which survive deals with
cartography, but that it was he who originated the rectangular grid system seems very
probable from the pregnant phrase used about him by Tshai Yung. h He is said to have
a He even says' Documents of that sort were much too precious for the administrators of the Han
empire to be toyed with by women'.
b And as if to strengthen the interpretation here preferred, there was the girl map-maker of the first
emperor of the Wu State in the San Kuo period; whom we shall meet a page or two hence. The
Lady Feng (Feng La0 6 ) may also be remembered (Chhien Han Shu, ch. 96B, p. 6a). Having' gained
a reputation as a historian, calligrapher, and manager of business' (neng shih, shu, hsi shih 7 ) (Wylie (I I),
p. 90), she was entrusted, just before - 51, with important diplomatic functions in Sinkiang.
C Liu Tzu-Hui 8 (ft. + I 127). Commentators of much earlier date said that they were charts.
d Hotl Han Shu, ch. 46, p. lb. e Hotl Han Shtl, ch. I B, p. I I b.
f Hou Han Shu, ch. 106, p . 7b. g Now ch. 29 of the Shih Chi.
h Hou Han Shu, ch. 89, p. 2a.

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 22. GEOGRAPHY AND CARTOGRAPHY
' cast a network (of coordinates) about heaven and earth, and reckoned on the basis of it'
(wang 10 thien ti erh suan chih I). The celestial coordinates must have been the hsiu; a
unfortunately, we cannot tell exactly what the terrestrial ones were. The title of one
of his books was: 'Discourse on Net Calculations' (Suan Wang Lun Z ), and there was
also a ' Flying Bird Calendar' (Fei Niao Li 3 ), but if the word li were a mistake for thu,4
as seems possible (Sun Wen-Chhing),b the title may have referred to a ' Bird's-Eye
Map' . c That Chang Heng occupied himself with map-making is sure, for a Ti Hsing
Thu 5 (physical geography map) was presented by him in + I 16. At a later point the
question of possible connections with the Greek cartographers will be raised.
But the San Kuo and early Chin periods were even more important than the Han
for the attainment of the definitive style of Chinese cartography. The following story
is reported in the Shih I Chi 6 (Memoirs on Neglected Matters) by Wang Chia 7 (late
+ 3rd century).d
Sun Chhlian 8 (reigned + 222 to + 248 as first emperor of the Wu State) searched for an
expert painter to draw a map with mountains, rivers, and all physical features, for military
purposes. The younger sister of the prime minister was presented to him (as a suitable
person), and he asked her to limn the mountains, rivers and lakes of the nine continents.
She suggested that as the colours of a drawing would fade it would be better to make the
map in embroidery, and this was accordingly done ....

Perhaps it may be doubted whether the result was very scientific. But there was living
at the time a young man who was destined to be, as Chavannes ( IQ) calls him, the
father of scientific cartography in China. This was Phei Hsiu 9 ( + 224 to + 27 I).
In + 267 Phei Hsiu was appointed Minister of Works (Ssu Khung 10) by the first
emperor of the unifying dynasty of the Chin. The 35th chapter of the Chin Shu pre-
serves e particulars of the map-making in which he then engaged, together with the
text of his preface to the maps. It is of great interest.

Considering that his office concerned the land and the earth; and finding that the names of
mountains, rivers and places, as given in the Yli Kung, had suffered numerous changes
since ancient times, so that those who discussed their identifications had often proposed
rather forced ideas, with the result that obscurity had gradually prevailed; Phei Hsiu made
a critical study of ancient texts, rejected what was dubious, and classified, whenever he
could, the ancient names which had disappeared; finally composing a geographical map of the
Tribute of Yli in 18 sheets, with the title Yu Kung Ti Yu Thu. I I He presented it to the
emperor, who kept it in the secret archives.

a See p. 266 above. b (4), pp . 12+, 126, 130, 133 .

C At any rate, Shen Kua s eems so to have interpreted it (lVlCPT, Pu appendix, ch. 3, para. 6), in the

+ 11th century. Cf. Hu Tao-ching (1), VD!. 2, pp. 991 fr.

d Ch. 8, p. I b, tr. au ct. This was certai nly the lady ChaD, sister of ChaD Ta; 12 she was a most talented
person and we shall meet with her again (Sect. 31).
e Pp. 3a fr.

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 22. GEOGRAPHY AND CARTOGRAPHY 539
The preface said:
'The origin of maps and geographical treatises goes far back into former ages. Under
the three dynasties (Hsia, Shang and Chou) there were special officials for this (Kuo Shih I).
Then, when the Han people sacked Hsien-yang, Hsiao Ho collected all the maps and docu-
ments of the Chhin. Now it is no longer possible to find the old maps in the secret archives,
and even those which Hsiao Ho found are missing; we only have maps, both general and
local, from the (Later) Han time. None of these employs a graduated scale (fen LUz)a and none
of them is arranged on a rectangular grid (chun wang 3 ). Moreover, none of them gives
anything like a complete representation of the celebrated mountains and the great rivers;
their arrangement is very rough and imperfect, and one cannot rely on them. Indeed some
of them contain absurdities, irrelevancies, and exaggerations, which are not in accord with
reality, and which should be banished by good sense.
'The assumption of power by the great Chin dynasty has unified space in all the six
directions. To purify its territory, it began with Yung and Shu (Hupei and Szechuan), and
penetrated deeply into their regions, though full of obstacles. The emperor Wen then
ordered the appropriate officials to draw up maps of Wu 4 and Shu. s After Shu had been
conquered and the maps were examined, with regard to the distances from one another of
mountains, rivers and places, the positions of plains and declivities, and the lines of the roads,
whether straight or curved, which the six armies had followed; it was found that there was
not the slightest error. b Now, referring back to antiquity, I have examined according to the
Yli Kung the mountains and lakes, the courses of the rivers, the plateaus and plains, the
slopes and marshes, the limits of the nine ancient provinces and the sixteen modern ones,
taking account of commanderies and fiefs, prefectures and cities, and not forgetting the
names of places where the ancient kingdoms concluded treaties or held meetings; and lastly,
inserting the roads, paths, and navigable waters, I have made this map in eighteen sheets.
'In making a map there are six principles observable:
(1) 'The graduated divisions (fen lilz), which are the means of determining the scale to
which the map is to be drawn (so i pien kuang lun chih tu yeh 6 ).c
(2) 'The rectangular grid (chun wang 3 ) (of parallel lines in two dimensions), which is the
way of depicting the correct relations between the various parts of the map (so i cheng pi
tzhu chih thi yeh 7).d
(3) 'Pacing out the sides of right-angled triangles (tao liS), which is the way of fixing the

a It is interesting that Phei Hsiu should have employed this term (LU), for its most ancient form
(K498) was a pictogram of a net for catching birds. It has already b een encountered as a technical term
for ratio in the mathematics Section, p. 99 above.
b Chavannes (10) suggests that Phei Hsiu himself had begun by being cartographer to the Chin
general staff, as one might say.
C Note the use of an expression here which compares the distance between the parallel lines with the

ruts made according to the gauge of chariot wheels.

d Our interpretation here differs from that of Chavannes, who translated chun wang 3 by' exact
orientation'. Chun is surely the horizontal lines. Its basic meaning is 'water-level' (cf. Meng Tzu, IV
(I), i, 5). Wang surely carries an undertone of verticality, and means the vertical lines. As an astrono-
mical technical term, it means the opposition of moon and sun at full moon; when the full moon is
making its transit, the sun is directly below it. The term wang thung, as we saw above (p. 332), means
the polar sighting-tube, for use in the (vertical) meridian. And in the Tso Chuan there is a character with
a deformed neck which made him always look upwards (wang shih 9 ) (Duke Ai, 14th year; Couvreur (I),
p. 694)·

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 22. GEOGRAPHY AND CARTOGRAPHY
lengths of derived distances (i.e. the third side of the triangle which cannot be walked over)
(so i ting so yu chih shu yeh I).a
(4) '(Measuring) the high and the low (kao hsia Z ).
(5) '(Measuring) right angles and acute angles (fang hsieh 3 ).
(6) '(Measuring) curves and straight lines (yii chih4). These three principles are used
according to the nature of the terrain, and are the means by which one reduces what are
really plains and hills (lit. cliffs) to distances on a plane surface (so i chiao i hsien chih i yeh 5).
'If one draws a map without having graduated divisions, there is no means of distin-
guishing between what is near and what is far. If one has graduated divisions, but no
rectangular grid or network of lines, then while one may attain accuracy in one corner of the
map (i yu 6),b one will certainly lose it elsewhere (i.e. in the middle, far from guiding marks).
If one has a rectangular grid, but has not worked upon the tao li principle, then when it is
a case of places in difficult country, among mountains, lakes or seas (which cannot be
traversed directly by the surveyor), one cannot ascertain how they are related to one another.
If one has adopted the fao li principle, but has not taken account of the high and the low,
the right angles and acute angles, and the curves and straight lines, then the figures for
distances indicated on the paths and roads will be far from the truth, and one will lose the
accuracy of the rectangular grid (shih chun wang chih cheng i7). C
'But if we examine a map which has been prepared by the combination of all these
principles, we find that a true scale representation of the distances is fixed by the graduated
divisions. So also the reality of the relative positions is attained by the use of paced sides of
right-angled triangles; and the true scale of degrees and figures (tu shu 8 ) is reproduced by
the determinations of high and low, angular dimensions, and curved or straight lines. Thus
even if there are great obstacles in the shape of high mountains or vast lakes, huge distances
or strange places, necessitating climbs and descents, retracing of steps or detours-everything
can be taken into account and determined. When the principle of the rectangular grid is
properly applied, then the straight and the curved, the near and the far, can conceal nothing
of their form from us.' d

Although Phei Hsiu left us so clear an account of his methods, his actual maps did
not survive in any form, though modern scholars have made attempts at reconstructing
them-Herrmann (8, 9), for instance, who considers Phei Hsiu quite worthy to be
compared with Ptolemy. In +J697 Hu Wei 9 had already made such a reconstruction
in his Yii Kung Chui Chih 10 (A few Points in the Vast Subject of the Yti Kung).e There
was a tradition among later scholars f that the map of Phei Hsiu had been constructed
a Again the interpretation differs from Chavannes, who took taG fi" to mean simply distances
measured out on roads. He was therefore unable to make sense of the sentence about the third principle
in the succeeding paragraph. In connection with this and the three following principles, we may recall
that Phei Hsiu was a contemporary of Liu Hui, whose work on surveying by the use of similar right-
angled triangles was discussed in the mathematics Section (p. 31 above).
b Note the use of a technical term in geometry, related to the extraction of roots, discussed above
(p . 66) in the mathematics Section.
C Chavannes confessed his inability to translate this phrase. It was because he had misinterpreted
the second principle. Note the sorites form of the whole paragraph.
d Tr. auct., adjuv. Chavannes (10), Vacca (6).
e Huang Chhing Ching Chieh, ch. 27, p. 53b .
f So Chhiian Tsu-Wang in Huang Chhao Ching Shih Wen Pien, ch. 79. p. J2b (c. + 1750).

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 22. GEOGRAPHY AND CARTOGRAPHY 54!
on a scale of two inches to the 1000 li, but this is uncertain. They fully recognised a that
the rectangular grid was at least as old as Phei Hsiu. b
There is room for some speculation as to the source which may have suggested the
coordinate system to Phei Hsiu and Chang Heng. The characters combined in the
ancient phrase ching thien I (well-field system), which had been the subject of social
and economic debate since feudal times, both plainly betray an ancient manner of
thinking of land-allotment in coordinate terms. Then there was the system of con-
centric squares (Fig. 204) described in the Shu Ching (Yii Kung chapter) and already
mentioned (p. 502 above). Nor should the origins of the abacus be forgotten; it may be
significant that the first name in Chinese history to be associated with this device was
that of the Taoist mathematician Hsii Yo, whose floruit was just between the time of
Chang Heng and that of Phei Hsiu. c At what time the terms ching2 and wei 3 were
first used for the chun-wang coordinates (as Phei Hsiu called them) is hard to say, but
they certainly meant textile warp and weft before they were employed by map-
makers.d The very fact of drawing maps on silk, from the Chhin onwards, would
invite the suggestive idea that the position of a place could be fixed by following a
warp and a weft thread to their meeting-place. This was perhaps the significance of
Sun Chhiian's girl cartographer, and we know that both Phei Hsiu and Chia Tan (the
great Thang map-maker shortly to be mentioned) used silk for their maps; the former
used as much as eighty rolls of fine silk (chien 4 ), and the latter had his maps drawn on
very smooth white silk (hsien kaos).e Shen Kua in the Sung used thin lustrous silk
(chuan 6 ) for the same purpose.
Another set of related ideas and techniques was that of the diviner's board (shih 7 ),
the magnetic compass and chess. Evidence that these things belong together will be
offered below in Section 26i on physics. Here I would only like to refer to the
compass indications given on the diviner's board (cf. Fig. 223), and the similar
markings on Han 'cosmic mirrors' (cf. Yetts, 5). Describing these mirrors, the Sung
archaeologist, Wang Fu,8 saysf that they had, at the various compass points, names of

a For instance, Liu Hsien-Thing 9 in his Kuang Yatlg Tsa Chi'o (c . +1695).
b Chhen Phan (2) has recently drawn attention to another version of Phei Hsiu's complaint against
the maps of earlier times and their inaccuracy. It is a fragment quoted in the Chiu Chia Chin Shu Chi
Pen It (Collected Texts of Nine Versions of the History of the Chin Dynasty) by Thang Chhiu U (ch. 5).
Phei Hsiu specifically names the maps (thu) attached to the Ho Thu Wei Kua Ti Hsiang,'3 one of the
'weft' classics (Ku Wei Shu, ch. 32).
C Cf. what was said above (pp. 77, 107) about the origins of coordinate geometry.

d Actually the use of the word ching for the geographical north-south direction and of wei for the
east-west direction, goes back to the Han in the Ta Tai Li Chi (ch. 81; cf. R. Wilhelm (6), pp. 250 if.).
This is found also in the commentaries of Kao Yu '. of the Later Han (on Lii Shih Chhun
Chhiu, chs. 62 if., and on Huai Nan Tzu, ch. 4). It may be noted that this is the opposite of the modern
usage, where ching means latitude and wei longitude. The change seems to have come about in the
Thang.
e Wang Yung (1), pp. 60, 68.
f In his Hsiian-Ho Po Ku Thu Lu 15 (Hsiian-Ho reign-period Illustrated Record of Ancient Objects),
cit. KCC Y, ch. 56, p . la.

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54 2 22. GEOGRAPHY AND CARTOGRAPHY
divinities (ling I), trigrams (kua 2 ), the duodenary cyclical characters (chih3), the fort-
nightly periods (chhi4), and so on. Each side of the square being divided into three
by the eight radiating divisions which separate the twenty-four azimuth points into
groups of three, then if coordinate lines were drawn a across the space so enclosed, nine
small squares (yeh 5 or chiu kung 6 ) would be formed. b The wordyeh 5 will be met with
again in connection with the astronomical-geographical work of Li Shun-Feng in the
Thang (see below, p. 544). The central division was called chen. 7C Wang Fu adds that
there are intersecting points of the coordinates (tsho tsung ching wei 8 ), and that on the
background of the mirror the five sacred mountains (wu Y09) are sometimes repre-
sented. d Although we are doubtless dealing here with very symbolic or diagrammatic
representations, they did go back, on boards and mirrors, to the cosmological specula-
tions of the Han people, and could not have been unknown to Chang Heng and Phei
Hsiu. Moreover, the ancient methods of divination in which 'pieces' like chess-men
(chhi I O) were thrown on to a marked board, perhaps the shih itself, seem to have been
connected with another old system of coordinates, namely, the multiplication table,
for which the characteristic expression is li-chheng. 11 It will be remembered (pp. 9,
36, 107 above) that one of these was found in the Tunhuang manuscripts (Li Nien, 7).
Another Tunhuang manuscript e has the title Chiu Kung Hsing Chhi Li-Chheng I2-
'Tabulation of Data in the Calendar of the Nine Palaces in which the Chess Pieces
Move'. This calendar had been introduced by the astronomer Li Yeh-Hsing in + 548,
and the tables were drawn up by Wang Chhen.f But the exact connections between
the coordinate system of chess (or rather' pre-chess " if the term be allowable) and that
of cartographic practice require much further investigation.
The mention of astronomical aspects of the map grids raises at once the question to
what extent the Chinese cartography of Phei Hsiu and Chang Heng was keyed to
celestial phenomena. In this respect there would seem to have been little difference
between the Chinese and the Greeks, for while the latter used the gnomon shadow and
the length of the solstitial day to determine latitude, the former were also perfectly
aware that the shadow length varied continuously in the north-south line.g The ChOll
Li saysh that the Surveyors (Thu Fang Shih l3) concern themselves with the method
of the gnomon shadow template i (chang thu kuei chih fa 14) for determining the sun's
shadow length, and by its aid measure the earth, constituting fiefs and principalities,
i.e. presumably fixing their boundaries. As for longitude, the Chinese were no worse

a The expression used is thou,'S lit. 'thrown across', which may be significant; see on, Sect. 26i.
b Cf. the nine divisions of heaven (yeh S ) in Huai Nan Tzu, ch. 3. The other term persisted for many
centuries as chiu hung ha 16 to mean the squared paper on which children practised writing characters.
C Again a significant word, which will occur in connection with the Buddhist-Taoist wheel-maps,

see below, p. 567.

d Cf. below, p . 566, in connection with these wheel-maps.
e British Museum, Stein no. 6164. f See p. 107 above.
g Cf. pp. 292 fr. above. h Ch. 8, p . 29b (ch. 33, p . 60; Biot (I), vol. 2, p. 279).
i Cf. above, pp . 286 fr.

1 ;.~ 2 ~J 6 7L'g 7ii

8 m** ~E- t~ 127L1i:fTi!:!'l1.1i!Z
13 ± 1i j{; 16 7L 'S': ~
 PLATE LXXX

s
Fig. 223 . A recon struction of the shih o r diviner's board of Han times (Rufus (2)
after Harada & Tazawa), a symbolic representation of h eaven and ea rth w hich is
conn ected with the origins of the magnetic compass. The sq uare plate of the ea rth
was surmo unted b y a rotating round plate sig ni fy ing the h eavens. The forme r was
marked with cyclical characters and hsiu , the latter carried the figure of the Great
Bear, with cyclical cha racters and prognosticatory signs. Fragments of these boards
were first found in two Han tombs in Korea, the tomb of Wang H sU (d. + 69),
and the P a inted Basket tomb .
 22. GEOGRAPHY AND CARTOGRAPHY 543
off than the Greeks. Its measurement with any degree of accuracy did not become
possible until the 18th century, with the invention of the marine chronometer. a
Throughout antiquity and the middle ages, dead reckoning was the only way.b

(iii) Development in Thang and Sung

Between the Chin and the Thang, maps continued to be produced, but we know little
about their scientific value. The 97th chapter of the Pei Shih (History of the Northern
Dynasties) gives a description of the Western (i.e. Central Asian) peoples and king-
doms, which, from internal evidence, also took the form of a map (++37), and which
has been thus reconstructed by Herrmann (11). In the Liang (early + 6th century)
we hear reports of maps inscribed on stone steles, c which is interesting in connection
with the magnificent (and still existing) Sung examples, shortly to be examined. In
+605 a famous grid map was made by Phei Chil,1 who was Commercial Commissioner
for the Sui dynasty with his headquarters at Chang-yeh (Ganchow) on the Old Silk
Road in Kansu. This also has been reconstructed by Herrmann (I I), while Jager (I)
has translated both Phei Chil's biographyd and the few fragments which remain of his
Sui Hsi Yu Thu 2 (Map of the Western Kingdoms in the Sui Dynasty).e
The Thang saw a great development of map-making. The wide extensions of the
empire which were added early in the dynasty stimulated the mapping of Central Asia,
and no doubt account for the books and maps of Hsil Ching-Tsung 3 in + 658/ Wang
Ming-Yuan4 in + 661,g and Wang Chung-Ssu S in +7+7. h Unfortunately, all these
were afterwards lost. Then came the greatest Thang cartographer, Chia Tan 6 (+730
to + 805), and although it is true that his work did not survive either, we nevertheless
have a good deal of information about it. It was in +785 that he was entrusted by the
emperor (Te Tsung) with the preparation of a map of the whole empire, but the work
was not completed till +801, smaller sections, as of Kansu and Szechuan, being pre-
sented in the meantime'! Its title was Hai Nei Hua I Thu 7 (Map of both Chinese and
Barbarian Peoples within the (Four) Seas). The map was 30 ft. long and 33 ft. high,
constructed on a grid scale of I in. to 100 li. It must therefore have covered an
oikoumene of 30,000 li from east to west and 33,000 li from north to south; which is
much more than the 7000 li square shown in Fig. 226 (the map of + 1137), and must

a Lloyd Brown (1), pp. 208 fI.

b For the possible use of hodometers in the time of Phei Hsiu and Chang Heng, see below, p . 577.
c Shu I Chi,8 ch. 2, p. 6b.
d Sui Shu, ch. 67, p . 9a.
e The work of Phei Chii was known unusually early t o occidental scholars, e.g. Ritter (I), vol. 7,
p. 560, and K. F. Neumann (1), p. 187. There was a map of the Yantgze River at this time which is
thought to have used the grid.
f Hsin Thang Shu, ch. 221 A, p. loa, and biogr. ch. 223, pp. I a fI.
g Herrmann (8), p. 249.
h Hsin Thang Shu, ch. 43B, p . I4a, and biogr. ch. 133, pp. 4b fI.
I Some authorities give these dates as + 784 and + 7r;6.
544 22. GEOGRAPHY AND CARTOGRAPHY

therefore have been, to all intents and purposes, a map of Asia. a Herrmann (8) notes
that this scale is about I: 2,000,000. One is tempted to compare the great map of
Chia Tan with that of Cassini (c. + 1680) at the Paris Observatory,b which had a
diameter of 24 ft . and used a polar azimuthal projection.
Chia Tan's contemporary Li Chi-Fu was also a geographer of importance. c One of
his maps was connected with his Yuan-Ho Chiin Hsien Thu Chih already mentioned,
and another was concerned with all the fortified points and strategic locations north of
the Yellow River. This was set up in the imperial baths and the emperor (Hsien
Tsung) consulted it daily.d Li Te-Yii I (the son of Li Chi-Fu) continued geographical
work when governor of Szechuan, making military maps to facilitate the control of the
barbarian tribes. e All these maps were connected with itineraries. At about the
same time Yuan Chen 2 had a road-map prepared on the occasion of the marriage of a
princess to the Khagan of the Uighurs in + 82I. f Chia Tan prepared itineraries from
China to Korea, Tongking, Central Asia, India, and even Baghdad;g others are extant
in the excellent Man Shu 3 (Book of the Barbarians) by Fan Chh04 (c. +862), and
most of these have been analysed by Pelliot (17) and Chavannes (14).h
It is possible that in the Thang a further effort was made to link geographical with
celestial coordinates. The hint arises from an obscure group of writings which
Chavannes overlooked but to which Wang Yung has drawn attention. In this period
we hear of certain maps (fang chih thuS or fang yii thu 6 ) which yet do not seem to be,
as their names would at first sight imply, associated with local topographies; and which
are associated with Taoist and Buddhist scholars, especially Li Shun-Feng, I-Hsing
and Lii Tshai.i The astronomical chapters of both the Thang Shu say that Li PO,7 the
father of Li Shun-Feng, resigned his official position to live the life of a Taoist, and
produced one of these maps) The text continues:

The celestial bodies are suspended in the heavens without changing as time passes, but
the names of provinces and districts have always changed, and thus have made difficulties
for the scholars of later generations. So in the Chen-Kuan reign-period ( + 627 to + 649)
Li Shun-Feng wrote his Fa Hsiang Chih 8 (The Miniature Cosmos),k in which all the

a Chiu Thang Shu, ch. 138, p . 7 b. Ancient place-names were inserted in black, and those of Chi a
T an's own time in red.
b Lloyd Brown (I), p. 219.
C Cf. above, pp. 490, 520.

d Chiu Thang Shu, ch. 148, p . 6a; Hsin Thang Shu, ch. 146, p . 5b .
e Hsin Thang Shu , ch. 180, p. 3a.
r TSCC, Ching chi tien, ch. 429, i wen, p. 3a.
g Hsin Thang Shu, ch. 43 B, p. I4a.
h This was something in common with European geographical literature, which was full of itineraries,
from the Bordeaux Pilgrim of +333 onwards (Beazley (I), vot. I, pp. 26, 57). Cf. pp. 513, 524 above.
I All have been encountered before, pp. 350, 202, and 323 .
j We met him already as an astronomer, p . 201 above.
k From other passages we know that this lost book discussed the merits and defects of various types
of annillary spheres (Chiu Thang S hu, ch. 35, p. I a; H sin Thang Shu , ch. 31, p. I b; YuHai, ch. 4, p. 21 a) ,
but it must have done much more than this.

s 11 is. III
 22. GEOGRAPHY AND CARTOGRAPHY 545
provinces and districts of the Thang were included. At the beginning of the Khai-Yuan
reign-period (+713 onwards), I-Hsing remodelled this work and reduced its size.-
The biographies of Lii Tshai and of Shang Hsien-Fu I in the Chiu Thang Shu speak b
of similar maps made about + 630 and + 695 respectively. Significantly, the latter
was an astronomer in charge of the imperial observatory. Then there was an official,
Lii Wen,2 who wrote a preface c about +800 to a geographical work Ti Chih Thu 3 by
Li Kai 4 in which he said:
The boundaries of every square inch correspond to the celestial divisions on high. The
(relation between the) phenomena in the heavens and the aspect (i.e. physical features) of
the earth can thus ire brilliantly seen (Fang tshun chih chieh erh shang tang hu fen yeh; chhien
hsiang khun shih ping jan kho kuan 5).d
The problem now is, what exactly was this cartographic movement in the Thang?
There are three obvious possibilities. First, fen yeh certainly included straight astro-
logy. The association of particular earthly regions with sections of the sky was a very
old idea in China, found in early Han and pre-Han texts. e But it may also have laid a
new emphasis on the importance of showing physical features as opposed to political
territorial divisions. To the fixed stars would correspond the fixed mountains and
rivers, not the changeable city names. As we shall see in a moment, this might be
the background of the greatest extant achievement of + 12th century map-making.
Thirdly, the efforts of these Taoists and Buddhists may have been directed towards
a really astronomical coordinate system. It would have been just as easy to draw
meridian lines parallel to the hour-circles separating the different hsiu, as it had been
for the Greeks to draw them on the model of celestial longitudes. And it would have
been just as difficult for the Thang people to have fixed their terrestriallongitudes in
any way, as it was for everyone else before the construction of Mr Harrison's marine
chronometer. f I am not sure that this would have implied (as would seem at first sight)
a spherical earth, though by the time of the Thang there had been so many foreign
contacts that men such as Li Shun-Feng could hardly have been unaware that there
was such a hypothesis. g It will be remembered that already for the + loth century
documentary evidence exists h that a projection analogous to that of Mercator was used,
the hsiu being represented as long rectangles centred on the equator and of course very
distorted towards the poles. It would, then, have been possible to fit the system of the
hsiu into the traditional terrestrial rectangular grid.!
a Chiu Thang Shu. ch. 36. p. 1 a. tr. auct.; cf. Hsin Thang Shu. ch. 31, p. Bb. b Chs. 79 and 191.
C He had been ambassador to Turfan. which may have encouraged his geographical interests.
d La Ho-Shu Wen Chi. ch. 3. tr. auct.
e Cf. p. 200 above. La Shih Chhun Chhiu. ch. 62. Huai Nan Tzu. ch. 3. pp. 15 a. b. systematised in
Chin Shu. ch. 11, pp. 19a ff. f Cf. Gould (1) .
g Besides. they would have known the ideas of the founders of the Hun Thien cosmology long
before. h Cf. pp. 264. 276 above regarding the Tunhuang manuscript star-map .
i The chief study of this fen yeh system is due to Hsti Wen-Ching.6 who produced it in + 1723
(Thien Hsia Shan Ho Liang Chieh Khao 7 ).

I #if.Ui • Sri. 3 i1I!ar.1I

s~~zw~~a.~~~~~~m~~~
77i:rUlliImJlt:1f
 22. GEOGRAPHY AND CARTOGRAPHY
The second alternative above may serve to alert us to the possibility of a primitive
kind of contour map originating in the Thang. Ogawa (1) has drawn attention to a
very interesting chart of Thai Shan I (the eastern sacred mountain) which appears in
+ 17th-century editions of an anonymous work known as the Wu Yo Chen Hsing Thu z
(Map of the True Topography of the Five Sacred Mountains). As Fig. 224 shows,
the system of delineating the mountain ranges compares not unfavourably with the
modern style placed beside it.a Quotations from this book in the Thai-Phing Yu Lan

Fig. 224. Early attempt at contour mapping; on the right a representation of the Thai Shan mountain
range from a + 17th-century edition of the Wu Yo Chen Hsing Thu, the text of which is of much earlier
but uncertain date. On the left, for comparison, a contour map of modem type. From Ogawa (1).

encyclopaedia b show that at some time or other quite precise measurements were
made of the breadth and depth of gorges. The date of the text is uncertain, but it may
be significant that the title is mentioned in the Han Wu Ti Nei Chuan 3 (The Inside
Story of Emperor Wu of the Han), an anonymous Taoist romance probably of the
+ 4th century attributed to Ko Hung. This contains a cartographical passage which
will be examined later in connection with the Chinese wheel-map tradition.
As has been indicated above (p. 521) a great deal of geographical work was done in
the Sung, and it is from this period that the oldest examples of Chinese cartography
still extant derive. Early in the dynasty (before + 1000) there is an account C of a map
a Cf. the geomantic diagram already reproduced in Fig. 45 (Vol. 2, opp. p . 360). There can be no
doubt that for many centuries in China specialists in particular sciences or pseudo-sciences had their
own quite effective conventions in physical geographic mapping.
b E .g. TPYL, ch. 44, p. sa; ch. 663, p. lb.
e Sung Shih, ch. 292, p. 6b.
 22. GEOGRAPHY AND CARTOGRAPHY 547
of the Western countries, and strategic maps of Kansu, prepared by a geographer in
the imperial service, Sheng Tu. I A Commissioner of the Tibetan Borderlands,
Liu Huan,2 made a map of the mountains and presented it to the emperor in + 104-0.a
Remarkably accurate plans of cities had already been made in the Thang. In + 1080 Liu
Ching-Yang 3 and Lu Ta-Fang were instructed to make a historical map of the city
of Chhang-an (Sian), which they did to scale (che fa 4) at 2 in. to the mile, identifying
and marking sites of ancient palaces and the like. b This is the basis of the plans
preserved in the Chhang-an Chih Thus of Li Hao-Wen. 6
But all other records of the + 11th century are overshadowed by the two magnificent
maps which still exist, carved in stone in + II37,c and now in the' Forest of Steles'
(Pei Lin7) at Sian. To these the papers of Chavannes (10) and Aoyama (4) were
primarily devoted. The first is entitled Hua I Thus (Map of China and the Barbarian
Countries), the second Yu Chi Thu 9 (Map of the Tracks of Yu (the Great)). Both are
about 3 ft. square (see Figs. 225 and 226).
Though the dates of the present examples are the same within a few months,d the
first seems a good deal more archaic than the second. It has no grid, the coast-line is
sketchy, the Shantung peninsula is not shown, and the river-systems are imperfect.
The barbarian countries are represented rather by texts than by geographical markings,
but within China both places and mountains are shown. As the latest date in the
textual material is + 104-3, this date may be taken as very probable for the first com-
position of the map. On internal evidence, the anonymous geographer had the Thang
map of Chia Tan at his disposal. e The inscriptions mostly concern the barbarian
peoples, and have been fully translated by Chavannes. Neither map shows Formosa
though both have Hainan.
The second map (Fig. 226) is one which does the greatest credit to the Sung carto-
graphers. Its inscription says that the grid scale is 100 li to each square. Its coastal
outline is much firmer, and comparison of the network of river systems with a modern
chart shows at once the extraordinary correctness of the pattern. Anyone who com-
pares this map with the contemporary productions of European religious cosmography
(e.g. Figs. 212, 214-, 217) cannot but be amazed at the extent to which Chinese geo-
graphy was at that time ahead of the West.f But although the Map of the Tracks
of Yu has a more modern look than the first of these two maps, it seems rather to have
belonged to a different and not much younger tradition. On the copy preserved at

a Sheng Shui Yen Than Llt lo (Fleeting Gossip by the River Sheng) by Wang Phi-Chih," ch. 2, p. 9b.
b Yiin Lu Man Chhao, ch. 2, p. 11 a.
C The reign-period given is that of a transient Chinese buffer-state in a puppet relation to the Liao.

d One was engraved in the 4th, the other in the loth month.
e Soothill (4) actually urges that this was Chia Tan 's map, from which the sheets for the barbarian
lands had been lost, and that the texts were a substitute for them. Sung bibliographies show that
versions of Chia Tan's map were still extant.
f Heawood (in Soothill, 4) pronounced it superior to even the best Hellenistic efforts. There was
nothing like it in Europe till the Escorial MS. map of about + 1550 described by de Reparaz-Ruiz (2).

s~:!i:ii!;;1II
10 i; * iili\ tJ1 t\
 GEOGRAPHY AND CARTOGRAPHY

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Fig. 225. The Hua I Thu (Map of China and the Barbarian Countries), one of the two most important
monuments of medieval Chinese cartography, carved in stone in + 1137 but probably dating from
about + 1040 (from Chavannes). The size of the original, which is now in the Pei Lin Museum at Sian,
is about 3 ft. square . The name of the geographer is not known.

Chen-chiang in Chiang-su, which Yil Chhih I (Prefectural Director of Studies) caused

to be engraved in + 1142, there is mention of an earlier copy of + 1100 which itself
was based on the (old Chhang-an version' . a In any case there is no doubt that the
purpose of the second map was to instruct students in the geography of the Yil Kung.b
a There is nothing impossible in Wang Yung's su ggestion that it m ay go back to Ytieh Shih, the
geographer of the Thai-Phillg Huall Yu Chi in the late + loth century.
b This is why the second map is less sound than the first on the south-western rivers (Salween,
Mekong, etc.); these were not known to the Yti Kung. Similar mistakes in it were pointed out to
Chu Hsi by a scholar from Szechuan (CTCS, ch. 50, p . 28b).
1 1u ~
 PLATE LXXXI

Fig. 226. The Yii Chi Thu (Map of the Tracks of Yii the Great), the most remarkable cartographic work
of its age in any culture, carved in stone in + 1137 but probably dating from before + 1100 (from
Chavannes). The scale of the grid is 100 li to the division. The coastal outline is relatively firm and the
precision of the network of river systems extraordinary. The size of the original, which is now in the Pei
Lin Museum at Sian, is about 3 ft. square. The name of the geographer is not known.
 PLATE LXXXII

Fig. 227. The oldest printed map in any culture, a map of West China (Ti Li chih Thu) in
the Liu Ching Thu (Illustrations of Objects mentioned in the Six Classics), an encyclopaedia
edited by Yang Chia in the close neighbourhood of + 1155 (copy in the Peking ational
Library). This map should be compared with that in Fig. 208; though it does not reach
as far south. Provincial names are indicated here in white on black, and the line of the
Great Wall is prominent.
 22. GEOGRAPHY AND CARTOGRAPHY 549
It is of interest that in both these maps the north is at the top, and this is true for all
the Sung maps which have survived. The practice of placing the south at the top
seems to have originated among the Arabs rather than the Chinese a and to have become
known only later in China. There is a Sung map included in the late Chhing book of
Chang Chien 1 on the Hsi-Hsia State, Hsi-Hsia Chi Shih Pen M02 (Rise and Fall of
the Hsi-Hsia), which must date from before + II25, and in which the north is at the
top (Pelliot, 18). We illustrate another from a Sung edition of the Liu Ching Thu
(Illustrations of Objects mentioned in the Six Classics) in the Peking National Library
(Fig. '227). This was edited by Yang Chia 3 and printed in the close neighbourhood
of + II 55; here the interest is that it gives us our first Chinese printed map. The
first European printed map does not come until about two centuries later, in the
Rudimentum Novitiorum (the Llibeck Chronicle, an account of the history of the
world),b printed in that city by Lucas Brandis in + 1475. If the two are compared
(Fig. 228), the advantage seems to lie much with the Chinese cartographer, whose
work, though crude, shows no tendency to compress the topography into an artificial
disc-like form, and confines itself to the practical setting-down of the characters
of place-names instead of scattering artistic and mythological drawings over the
board. c
Of the many other Sung maps which have not survived, and of their makers, details
will be found in Wang Yung. d Some of the most distinguished men of the time culti-
vated cartography, for instance Chu Hsi the Neo-Confucian philosopher, Shen Kua,
Huang Shang 4 the astronomer, e and Lu Chiu-Shao 5 the learned brother of the idealist
philosopher Lu Chiu-Yuan. An historical map, Chih Chang Thu,6 was made f by Shui
An-Li.7 A passage from Shen Kua indicates the high strategic value which was placed
on maps in the Sung period, and the disinclination to allow cqpies of them to leave
the country. He says:

In the Hsi-Ning reign-period ( + 1068 to + 1077) ambassadors came from Korea bringing
tribute. In every hsien city or provincial capital which they passed through they asked for
local maps, and these were made and given to them. Mountains and rivers, roads, escarp-
ments and defiles, nothing was omitted. When they arrived at Thiehchow they asked for
maps, as usual, but Chhen Hsiu, 8 who was then prefect of Yangchow, played a trick on them.
He said that he would like to see all the maps of the two Chekiang provinces with which

a Cf. the remarks below, p. 563, on al-Idrisi's world map.

b Cf. Hind (I), vo!. 2, p. 363; Pollard (I), p . 50; Klebs (I), no. 867 (i); Santarem (I), vo!. 3, p. 230,
(2), p!. 18; Anon. (27); Bagrow (2), pp. 61, 62.
c Of course, Brandis' map was soon followed by the first printed edition of Ptolemy (Bologna, 1477).
d Mori (1) has described a map of about + 1270 preserved in Japan. Masuda (1) has written on the
political significance of cartography in this period.
e Huang Shang's maps have been studied by Aoyama (5, 8). He was working between +1190 and
+ 1194, when his Yu Ti Thu· was carved on wood. A copy of it is still preserved in a Japanese cloister.
Another of his maps was the basis of the great Suchow stele map shortly to be described.
r Cf. Liang Chhi Man Chih, ch. 6, p. 8a.

7
\!! ]Uc l¥- ;1\1:.
fJt ~ ill
*
55 0 22. GEOGRAPHY AND CARTOGRAPHY

","dot"..

Fig. 228. The first printed European map, for comparison with Fig. 227; Lucas Brandis' woodcut for
the Rudimentum Novitiorum of + 1475 . Here the T-O influence is still at work, but hardly succeeds in
organising the confusion; Babylonia appears twice, Dacia adjoins Norway, and the Earthly Paradise is
still in the Far East.

they had been furnished, so that he could copy them for what was now wanted, but when he
got hold of them, he burnt them all, and made a complete report on the affair to the emperor.-

The other most important epigraphic monument of the Sung time is the companion
stele to that which shows the stellar planisphere already examined (p. 278 above). This
is still at Suchow, where it has been seen and studied by many modern scholars.b

_ Meng Chhi Pi Than, ch. 13, para. 11, tr. auct., adjuv. Chavannes (10). The Liang Chhi Man Chih
(ch. 5, p . 4b) amplifies this -by saying that a previous ambassador to Korea, Lu To-Sun,' had brought
back complete maps of that country about + 970; so the Koreans were only trying to 'get their own
back'. Cf. Addendum below.
b Chavannes (8), Vacca (5), Aoyama (5), Wang Yung (1). It was one of four which Huang Shang had
presented to the throne in + I 194, but Aoyama considers that in all its essentials it goes back to Shen
Kua's time a century or more earlier. Indeed it purported to represent China as it was before the loss
of the capital (Khaifeng) to the Chin Tartars in + 1126.
 PLATE LXXXIII

Fig. 229. The Ti Li Thu (General Map of China), a map in the Hua I Thu tradition
(cf. Fig. 225), made by Huang Shang about + 1 193 and engraved on a stone stele at
Suchow by Wang Chih-Yuan in + 1247 (from Chavannes). The size of the original map
is about 3 i x 3t ft. The character chui in the title is an old alternative form for ti.
Fig. 230. One of th e narrative fre scoes in the Chhien-Fo-Tung cave-temples near Tunhuang in Kansu . This painting is of early Thang date
(-+- 7th-century) from cave no. 268 (T217. P7o) and measures about 9 ft. long x 7 ft . high (photo. Lo Chi-Mei).
 22. GEOGRAPHY AND CART OGR AP H Y 55!
Made in + 1193, it was engraved on stone in + 1247 by Wang Chih-Yuan.1 It is in
the 'China and Barbarians' rather than the 'Tracks of Yti' tradition (see Fig. 229),
mountains and forests being more naturalistically drawn in, with no grid, and with
place-names inserted in cartouches, just as on the fanciful topographic story-pictures
of the Thang so abundant on the walls of the cave-temples at T unhuang (see Fig. 230).
The coast-line and the Shantung peninsula are, however, better than in the + 1137
map. The inscriptions have been fully t ranslated by Chavannes (8). The same series
of steles has also an important city-map of Suchow, engraved in + 1229 (Moule, 15),
interesting in connection with those made for Sian four centuries earlier. Thus we
have a plan of the city some fifty years before it was visited by M arco Polo.

(iv) Climax in Y uan and Ming

With the Yuan period we reach a man who might be regarded as the focal figure in
the history of Chinese cartography, Chu Ssu-Pen2 (+ 1273 to + 1337).a Inheriting
the tradition of Chang Heng and Phei Hsiu, he was able to summarise by its aid the
large mass of new geographical information which the Mongol unification of Asia had
added to earlier knowledge possessed by the Thang and Sung. Chu Ssu-Pen was a
younger contemporary of the astronomer Kuo Shou-Ching, and he in his turn was
succeeded by two geographers hardly less brilliant than himself, Li Tse-Min3 and
the monk Chhing-Chtin,4 about whom more will shortly be said. Doubtless all these
men benefited by the contacts with Western M uslims, Persians and Arabs, such as
Jamal al-Din b and the others whose lives and work have been studied by Chhen
Yuan (3).c The views of Chu Ssu-Pen on the geography of China's border countries
were perpetuated in edition after edition of his great atlas, and lasted almost undis-
puted until the beginning of the 19th century.d
Chu Ssu-Pen prepared his map of China between + 1311 and + 1320, using older
maps, literary sources, and the results of personal travel. e His map was a large one,
not dissected, and bore the simple title Yu ThuS (Earth-Vehicle (i.e. Terrestrial) Map).1
He himself was rather chary of mapping the more distant regions, saying, in sceptical
words which deserve to be remembered:

Regarding the foreign countries of the barbarians south-east of the South Sea, and north-
west of Mongolia, there is no means of investigating them because of their great distance,
although they are continually sending tribute to the court. Those who speak of them are

a Biography by Naito (1). b See above, p. 372.

C There were geographers among them, as witness Shan-Ssu 6 (Shams ai-D In) and h is Hn Yu Thu
ehing7 (Geography of the Western Countries), n ow lost.
d We owe to Fuchs (I) a valuable monograph on the geograp hical work of C hu.
e It is of interest that Chu Ssu -Pen was himself a Taoist , an d studied under famous Taoists such as
Chang Jen-Ching 8 and Wu Chhiian-Chieh. 9 He says in his preface that among other sources he
consulted the Yu Chi Thu of + 1137.
f Rare copies in manuscript an d inscribed on stone in a Taoist temple lasted till the + 19th century
but have all been lost.

5 ••
55 2 22. GEOGRAPHY AND CARTOGRAPHY

unable to say anything definite, while those who say something definite cannot be trusted;
hence I am compelled to omit them here. a
As we shall see, however, Chu's successors had access to better information, though
their cartography did not equal his.
For about two centuries this great map existed only in manuscript or epigraphic b
form, but in + 1541 it was revised and enlarged by Lo Hung-Hsien l (+ 1504 to
+ 1564), and printed about + 1555 under the title Kuang Yu Thu 2 (Enlarged Ter-
restrial Atlas). The preface reads:
Chu Ssu-Pen's map was prepared by the method of indicating the distances by a network
of squares (yu chi li hua fang chih fa 3), and thus the actual geographic picture was faithful.
Hence, even if one divided (the map) and put it together again, (the individual parts) in the
east and west fitted faultlessly together .... His map was 7 ft. long and therefore inconvenient
to unroll; I have therefore now arranged it in book form on the basis of its network of squares.c
Apart from the general map (see Fig. 231), there were sixteen sheets of the various
provinces, sixteen of the border regions, three of the Yellow River, three of the Grand
Canal, two of sea routes, and four devoted to Korea, Annam, Mongolia and Central
Asia. The scale was usually 100 li to the division, but sometimes also 40, 200, 400 or
500.d Lo Hung-Hsien naturally drew on many other Yuan and Ming sources e in his
revision, including the schematic grid-map of the north-western countries (Hsi-Pei Pi
Ti-Li Thu 4 ) in the Yuan ehing Shih Ta Tien s (History of Institutions of the Yuan
Dynasty), + 1329 (Fig. 232).f
In spite of Chu Ssu-Pen's caution about far-distant regions, it is a remarkable fact,
as Fuchs (I) has pointed out, that he and his contemporaries already recognised the
triangular shape of Mrica. In European and Arabic maps of the + 14th century the
tip of Mrica is always represented as pointing eastwards, and this is not corrected until
the middle of the + 15th century ; the Chinese atlas of + 1555, however, has it pointing
south, and other evidence shows that Chu Ssu-Pen must have drawn it in this way as
early as + 1315.g From the middle of the + 16th century, further editions of the
Kuang Yu Thu continued to appear, the last being that of + 1799. h
a Tr. Fuchs (I).
b It is known that an epigraphic copy was still extant in + 1715. We now have no access to the original
form of the map. C Tr. Fuchs (I).

d The + 16th-century printed editions employ quite modem symbolism to indicate physical features
and sizes of settlements. Thus cities of the first order are indicated by a white square, those of the
second rank by a white lozenge, and those of the third by a white circle; post-stages by a white triangle
and forts by a black square, etc. (see Fig. 233). Colours to indicate areas and frontiers are known to have
been used in a military map as early as + 1084. e Fuchs (I), p. 13.
f There is a special study on this by Ting Chhien (cf. Pelliot, I9); but the most comprehensive
identification of the place-names on it is that of Bretschneider (2), vo!. 2, pp. 1-136, who includes a
map with transliterations. See below, p. 564.
g I am indebted to Dr W. Fuchs personally for the establishment of this fact. Wang Yung (I),
p . 91, is wrong in supposing that the map containing Africa was introduced only in the edition of
+ 1579 edited by Chhien Tai.6
h Cf. Klaproth (2); Himly (I) . The study of these editions, some of which are very rare, is a com-
plicated matter, for which the reader is referred to Fuchs (I) and Hummel (IO). The later ones are not
Fig. 231. Two pages from the Kuang Yii Thu (Enlarged Terrestrial Atlas), begun by Chu Ssu-Pen about + 1315 and enlarged .by Lo Hung-Hsien about + 1555 ; the general
map of China on a grid scale of 400 li to the diviiion. The black band in the north-west represents the Gobi Desert. A map deriving from this was printed in Purchas his Pilgrimes .
554 22. GEOGRAPHY AND CARTOGRAPHY

LW
"'I'
" ~[;Il E.* !~
r~
*ll!,I!ibc
I", fY
,
'.
I-
w ~t" I.
~,

'.'. - ~. !ik. I-
~~ie:

.,. "';. ~'-.

'.
\ ~
~" S- - ~I 1--
ir
~II
:
" ~ 1'! ~ i.rr
....
IIii ' ~"'. ~
iOl 1'1
J; iJ: I'l ". ' .jI lfil ~
I

IM Il '.
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..11. lim
-. '.
.J I--
,
.
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a!
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Fig. 232. The schematic grid-map of the north-western countries in the Yuan Ching Shih Ta Tien
(History of Institutions of the Yuan D ynasty), + 1329. North is at the right-hand bottom corner. This
system of marking nothing but place or tribe names on a scale grid has been called the ' Mongolian style '
in cartography.

The other two geographers of whom we have already spoken specialised rather on
the construction of maps of the maximal known world, such as that of al-Idrisi two
centuries before them. Li Tse-Min, of whom we know nothing save that he flourished
around +1330, produced a Sheng Chiao Kuang Pei Thu l (Map for the Diffusion of
Instruction). That of the monk Chhing-Chiin (+ 1328 to + 1392) must have been
made some forty or fifty years later; it was called Hun-! Chiang-Li Thu z (Map of the
Territories of the One World). Both of these maps got to Korea in + 1399 through
the agency of the Korean ambassador, Chin Shih-Heng,3 and were there combined in
+1402 by Li Hui4 and Chhiian Chins,a with the title Hun-! Chiang-Li Li-Tai Kuo Tu
chih Thu 6 (Map of the Territories of the One World and the Capitals of the Countries
so good as the earlier, and some even d istorted the grid system to correspond with the size of the page.
On the other hand, other maps, for example one of Japan, were gradually added. Statistical data on
population, etc. were also expanded. A copy of one edition reached Florence in + 1606; for its history
see Moule (14) and Frescura & Mori (I). A manuscript translation of the text was made in + 1701 by
Francesco Carletti with a Chinese collaborator, and the identity of this was recognised after still a
further hundred years by Klaproth ( I). Rightly he called it • un des monumens geographiques les
plus curieux que je connaisse, apres le livre de Ptolemee' . Meanwhile the Kuang Yii Thu in China
had been the model from which the Jesuit Michael Boym made some fine manuscript maps still extant,
about + 1654 (see Fuchs, 5), and a little later it was the basis of the Atlas Sinensis of Martin Martini
(below, p . 586). a Cf. p . 279 above.

I *tt«itlll 2 t'!:,-dJJ. 1II

6 t'!:,-~;tl!{tlll«ll;z-1II
 22. GEOGRAPHY AND CARTOGRAPHY 555
in Successive Ages). A copy of this, dating from about + 1500, has been preserved
in Japan,a and the Chinese Ta Ming Hun-I Thu l of about +1585 is in the same
tradition.
Ogawa b was the first to draw attention to the
Korean map, which is in size about 5 x 4 ft., and - :I .
has been carefully described by Aoyama (1, 2, 3),
though only so far as the Asian parts are con-
cerned. c The fact that the names of the Chinese
cities are all the same as in + 1320 suggests that
the map as a whole must go back to Chu Ssu-
Pen's own time. The treatment of the Western
parts is very interesting; it includes about 100
place-names for Europe and about 35 for Africa,d
which has its correct triangular shape and points
in the right direction. In the northern part of
Africa the Sahara is shown black, like the Gobi
in so many Chinese maps (including the Kuang
Y uThu), and the position of Alexandria is indicated
by a prominent pagoda-like object representing
the famous Pharos. The outline of the Mediter-
ranean is well drawn, but the cartographers failed
to black it in, perhaps not being quite sure that
it was an ordinary sea. Germany and France are
marked phonetically (A-Iei-man-i-a and Fa-li-hsi-
na), and the Azores are shown. One of the two
largest capitals in the world, judging from the
symbols adopted, is Pyongyang in Korea, but
Europe has the other city of equal importance, the
position of which would indicate approximately
Budapest. Such extensive knowledge of the
occident, which was much clearer than that of
Europeans about Chinese geography at the time,
must no doubt have been gained from Arab,
Persian and Turkish contacts,e notably perhaps
a Neither of the + 14th-century components has survived,
unfortunately. b (I), p. 606.
C Curiously, Japan was not added until the version of iii:"iiiii';'iiiiiiiiiiiiiiiill
+ ~5S00. f . ... Fig. 233. The key to the symbols in the
o ar It h~s not b.een poss~ble t.o Identify ~any of Kuang Yii Thu. Cities of the first order
th~m. For the mformatIOn contam~d I.n the remamder of were indicated by a white square, those of
this paragraph
. I am hunder dmuch
d· f obligatlOn
h ·d to 1Dr W. Fuchs,
f hi the secondo rde r by a W h·t
I e Iozenge, an d
w h0 IS eng~ge m t e stu y 0 t e OCCI enta .parts 0 t . s those of the third by a white circle; post-
map, and with whom I h~ve seen a photographic copy of It. stages by a white triangle and forts by a
.• A check on al-IdrlsI s forms for .Germany and France, black square, etc. This must be one of the
kmdly made by Mr D. M. Dunlop, gives al-Lamllnlyah and earliest occasions on which systematic
I"* IY.I m, - • symbolism of this kind was employed.
55 6 22. GEOGRAPHY AND CARTOGRAPHY
that terrestrial globe which came with Jamal aI-DIn to Peking in + 1267, and was
marked with a grid (presumably of latitudes and longitudes), though the Korean map
has none. Essentially, however, it was a concrete result of the conquest of almost the
whole oikoumene by the Mongols. A final point of interest concerning this remarkable
map is that it could not include the information which Cheng Ho certainly brought
back five years later about the peninsular nature of India. Only in a subsequent
version of about + 1580 (in the Imperial Palace Museum at Peking) is India shown
as a peninsula between south-east Asia and Africa.
The maps of this type are rightly regarded by Fuchs (1) as the most magnificent
examples ofYuan cartography, completely overshadowing all contemporary European
or Arabic world maps. Parts of the Korean map are here reproduced (Figs. 234, 235).
One should remember that the maps of Chu Ssu-Pen, on which it was based, were
contemporary with the early portolans in the West. The extent of the lead which the
Yuan cartographers had, however, may perhaps best be appreciated by comparing the
Korean map with the fantastic Catalan map of + 1375, reproduced by Yule,a which
also purported to show Asia as well as Europe. Of course that too was based on + 13th-
century material, for example, the information collected by Marco Polo, but when one
compares what the two groups of cartographers did with their material, the advantage
lies clearly with the Chinese.
The Kuang Yii Thu tradition gave rise to other atlases towards the end of the Ming
dynasty. There was, for instance, after + 1600, the Huang Ming Chih-Fang Ti Thu I
of Chhen Tsu-Shou,2 a worthy successor.

(6) CHINESE SAILING CHARTS

Just about the time when Chhiian Chin and his group of Korean geographers were
combining the Yuan world-maps into one, there began that remarkable series of
Chinese maritime explorations which have already been mentioned above. b During
the first half of the + 15th century a series of expeditions under a eunuch admiral
ranged far and wide in the South Seas and the Indian Ocean, greatly adding to Chinese
geographical knowledge and bringing back all kinds of rarities to the imperial court.
Here it is in their cartographical aspect that we must consider them, but we can hardly
do so without a slightly fuller explanation than they before received. c
Two texts will suffice to give an idea of the scale of the expeditions. The first is from
the Li-Tai Thung Chien Chi Lan 3 (Essentials of History):d
al-Afranslyah. Apparently neither al-Idrisl nor Ibn Khaldiin mentions the Azores. That the Korean
world-map of + 1402 does mention them is quite extraordinary, for they were not rediscovered by the
Portuguese until after + 1394, and not generally known till about + 1430.
a (2), vol. I, p. 299, and vo!. 2. Cf. the valuable name-index of Hallberg (I).
b E.g. in the historical Section (6j), Vol. I, p. 143.
C General accounts are available in the papers of Mayers (3), who was the first to study them;

Pelliot (2), Duyvendak (8, 9, 10, II), Mills (3), etc. Recent Chinese monographs are those of Fan
W~n- Thao (1); Feng Chheng-Chiin (1), and Cheng Hao-Sheng (1); there is also the valuable paper of
Liu Ming-Shu (2).
d By Lu Hsi-Hsiung 4 (editor and compiler), + 1767.
 PLATE LXXXV

Fig. 234. The Korean world map of + 1402, HU1I-1 Chiang-Li Li-Tai Kuo Tu chih
Thu (Map of the Territories of the One World and the Capitals of the Countries in
Successive Ages), by Yi Hwei (Li Hui) and Kwon K eun (ChhUan Chin), cf. Fig. 235.
This portion shows the Korean peninsula and, to the left, the coasts of China (from
Aoyama).
 PLATE LXXXVI

Fig. 235. North China on the Korean world map of + 1402. The great bends of the Yellow River, marked in
white, can be seen, and the serrated black line of the Great Wall. The large lake in Sinkiang may have indicated
Lop Nor (from Aoyama).
 22. GEOGRAPHY AND CARTOGRAPHY 557
In the third year of the Yung-Lo reign-period ( + 1405), the eunuch Cheng Ho, I commonly
known as the 'Three-Jewel Eunuch', a native of the province of Yunnan, was sent on a
mission to the Western Ocean.
The emperor, under the suspicion that the last emperor of the Yuan dynasty might have
fled beyond the seas, commissioned Cheng Ho, Wang Ching-Hung 2 ,a and others, to pursue
his traces. Bearing vast amounts of gold and other treasures, and with a force of more than
37,000 soldiers under their command, they built great ships, sixty-two in number, and set
sail from Liu-chia-chiang b in the prefecture of Suchow, whence they proceeded by way of
Fukien to Chan-Chheng, and thence on voyages throughout the western seas.
Here they made known the proclamations of the Son of Heaven, and spread abroad the
knowledge of his majesty and goodness. They bestowed gifts upon the kings and rulers, and
those who refused submission they overawed by force. Every country became obedient to
the imperial commands, and when Cheng Ho turned homewards, sent envoys in his train
to offer tribute. The emperor was highly gladdened, and after no long time commanded
Cheng Ho to go overseas once more and scatter largesse among the different States. On this,
the number of those who presented themselves before the throne grew ever greater. Cheng
Ho was commissioned on no less than seven embassies, and thrice he made prisoners of foreign
chiefs. His exploits were such as no eunuch before him, from the days of old, had equalled.
At the same time, the different peoples, attracted by the profit of Chinese merchandise,
enlarged their mutual intercourse for purposes of trade, and there was uninterrupted going
to and fro. Thus it came to pass that in those days' the Three-Jewel Eunuch who went down
into the West' (San Pao Thai-Chien hsia hsi-yang 3 ) became a proverbial expression; and all
who, in after times, were sent as bearers of commissions to the countries by sea, were wont
to impress the outer nations with the name of Cheng Ho. Yet, as regards China, the treasure
that was lavished on these undertakings brought no profit in return; while, of the soldiers
in the expeditions, many perished by shipwreck or were cast away in distant lands, so that
the number who returned, after nearly a score of years had elapsed, was not more than one
or two in ten. c

By a fortunate discovery of recent years, we are enabled to gain a glimpse of how these
things seemed to Cheng Ho and his companions. In 1937 Wang Po-Chhiu discovered
a stele in Chhang-Io, Fukien, which bears an inscription of sailors' gratitude to a Taoist
goddess, dedicated at the New Year in + 1432, just before the seventh and last
expedition weighed anchor.
The imperial Ming dynasty, in unifying seas and continents, surpasses the Three Dynasties,
and goes even beyond the Han and the Thang. The countries beyond the horizon and at the
ends of the earth have all become subjects, and to the most westerly western, or to the most
northerly northern countries, however far they may be, the distances and routes may be
calculated. Thus the barbarians from beyond the seas, though their lands are truly distant,
have come to audiences bearing precious objects and presents.
The emperor, approving of their loyalty and sincerity, has ordered us (Cheng Ho) and
others, at the head of several tens of thousands of officers and troops, to embark upon more
than a hundred large ships, in order to go and confer presents on them, thus to make manifest
a Cheng Ho's vice-admiral. b Near present Shanghai.
c Ch. 102, tr. Mayers (3), mod. The last sentence is, of course, orthodox Confucian anti-eunuch
propaganda.
55 8 22. GEOGRAPHY AND CARTOGRAPHY
the transforming power of the (imperial) virtue, and to show kind treatment to distant
peoples. From the third year of the Yung-Lo reign-period (+ 1405) till now, we have
seven times received the commission of ambassadors to the countries of the Western Ocean.
The barbarian countries which we have visited are: by way of Chan-Chheng (Champa),
Chao-Wa (Java), San-Fo-Chhi (Palembang) and Hsien-Lo (Siam), crossing straight over
to Hsi-Lan-Shan (Ceylon) in South India, Ku-Li (Calicut) and Kho-Chih (Cochin),a we
have gone to the western regions Hu-Lo-Mo-Ssu (Hormuz),b A-Tan (Aden), and Mu-Ku-
Tu-Shu (Mogadishiu, in Africa).c All together more than thirty countries large and small.
We have traversed more than one hundred thousand li of immense water spaces, and have
beheld in the ocean huge waves like mountains rising sky-high. We have set eyes on barbarian
regions far away hidden in a blue transparency of light vapours, while our sails, loftily
unfurled like clouds, day and night continued their course with starry speed, breasting the
savage waves as if we were treading a public thoroughfare. Truly this was due to the majesty
and the good fortune of the Court, and moreover we owe it to the protecting virtue of the
Celestial Spouse (Thien Fei I).
The power of the goddess, having indeed been manifested in previous times, has been
abundantly revealed in the present generation. In the midst of the rushing waters it happened
that, when there was a hurricane, suddenly a divine lantern was seen shining at the mast-
head, and as soon as that miraculous light appeared the danger was appeased, so that even
in the peril of capsizing one felt reassured and that there was no cause for fear .... d

The discovery of this and other similar inscriptions is all the more valuable as for some
reason or other the official records in the imperial archives subsequently disappeared.
Nevertheless, the expeditions gave rise to four books of great importance, which
have been analysed by Pelliot (2). The earliest was the Hsi-Yang Fan Kuo Chih z
(Record of the Barbarian Countries in the Western Ocean) by Kung Chen J in + 1434;
quickly followed by the Hsing Chha Sheng Lan 4 (Triumphant Visions of the Starry
Raft)e by Fei Hsin s in + 1436-both of these men had been among Cheng Ho's
officers. Then came the turn of one of the Chinese Muslim interpreters, Ma Huan,6
who in + 1451 produced the Ying Yai Sheng Lan 7 (Triumphant Visions of the
Boundless Ocean).f The presence of Ma Huan was particularly natural since it is now
established that Cheng Ho's real family name was Ma, and that he also was of Yunnan
Muslim extraction.g The last of the four books is the Hsi-Yang Chhao Kung Tien Lu 8

a All these places were visited on the first three expeditions (+ 1405 to + 1407, + 1407 to + 1409,
+ 1409 to + I4II). On the third, the ruler of Ceylon (Vlra Alakesvara, sometimes wrongly styled
Vijaya Bahu VI) made difficulties, and was taken in temporary captivity to China.
b The fourth voyage (+ 1413 to + 1415) added Hormuz and the Persian Gulf. On this occasion
Chinese Muslim interpreters were attached to the staff; hence the presence of Ma Huan.
C The last three expeditions (+ 1417 to + 1419, + 1421 to + 1422, + 1431 to + 1433) explored the

east coast of Africa, including Melinda, and brought back, among other things, the giraffe. The eluci-
dation of all these dates is due to Duyvendak (9).
d St Elmo's Fire. ·Tr. Duyvendak (8, II), mod. auct.
e The usual term for ships carrying ambassadors.
f Translations of this famous work are available by Groeneveldt (I); Rockhill (I); Phillips (2);
and Duyvendak (10). It is reproduced in part in TSCC, Pien i tien, chs. 58, 73, 78, 85, 86, 96, 97, 98,
99, 101, 103, 106.
g Liu Ming-Shu (2); Duyvendak (8) .

zi!§# .~iil:. 3 'Nl: ~ • JiU! .Hi ~'t

7 41i ilOJ ~'t 8 i!§ # t'l Jt ~ lo\
 22. GEOGRAPHY AND CARTOGRAPHY 559
(Record of the Tribute-Paying Western Countries) of + 1520a by Huang Sheng-
Tsheng. 1
Now while all these works are full of information about the people and products of
the places visited by the expeditions they do not contain (and seem never to have
contained) any maps. Huang, however, speaks of 'sailing directions' (lit. compass
bearings, chen wei 2 ), which he used as one of his sources. b And in fact we do possess
certain maps which give the routes followed by Cheng Ho and his ships; these have
been preserved at the end c of a book on military technology, the Wu Pei Chih 3
(Treatise on Armament Technology) written by Mao Yuan-I4 before + 1621 and
presented to the emperor seven years later. In an introductory note it is stated that
these maps were derived from the records left by Cheng Ho.d Duyvendak (10) and
Wang Yung have noted that the grandfather of Mao Yuan-I was Mao Khun,5lifelong
collaborator of a man whose chief work was the defence of the coast against Japanese
pirates (Hu Tsung-Hsien,6 governor of Fukien) and the friend of an outstanding
authority on coastal geography (Cheng Jo-Tseng, already mentioned, p. 516). Very
probably Mao Khun found these maps in the governor's yamen and handed them down
to his grandson. e
Part of one of these maps is here reproduced (Fig. 236). It can be seen at once that
it does not derive from the tradition of Phei Hsiu's grids, but is a true mariner's chart
giving elaborate compass-bearings in the legends along the lines of travel, adding the
distances in 'watches', f and noting all points along the coast which could be of
importance to sailors.g It is distorted by an extreme schematism, which Mills (I) has
compared to diagrammatic' underground tube' maps or steamship companies' voyage-
schedule maps of today. In the portion reproduced, we see the opening of the Persian
Gulf to the left, with Hormuz (86) and Muscat (81), while to the right is the entrance
of the Red Sea by Socotra (60) and Aden (62). The land towards us is therefore Arabia,
and the farther land India, where Bombay is marked (67).h Neither south nor north
a A significant date, since it saw the beginning of the Spanish conquests of the American continent.
These, together with the previous voyages of Columbus, would have been impossible but for two
essential Chinese inventions, the magnetic compass and the stern post rudder, available also to Chl!ng
Ho. Huang's book has been translated by Mayers (3).
b His expression, Chen Wei Pien,' may be taken as the title of a specific book. This was noticed by
Pelliot (9), p. 139. Though Rockhill (I) , p. 77, was inclined to think that the expression was used only in
a general sense, Pelliot always believed that evidence of a specific book would some day come to light,
cf. (za), p. 345, (2b), p . 308, (33), p . 79·
c Ch. 24 0 .
d We also possess a MS . of + 15th-century sailing directions, in the Bodleian Library, which has
been analysed by Duyvendak (I) . On this see Sects. 26i and 29/ below.
e Before the end of the 17th century they were reproduced again, less well than in the Wu Pei Chih,
by Shih Yung-Thu 8 in his Wu Pei Pi Shu 9 (Confidential Treatise on Armament Technology). On
this edition see Duyvendak (10), p. 18, and Pelliot (33), p. 78.
f Ten king'O or ehing lO was equivalent to the distance covered in one day and one night with a
favourable wind. One king equalled 2 h. 24 min. sail, or about 60 li. On these matters see S. Wada (I)
who deals with Chinese navigation to the Philippines before the Ming.
g E.g. half-tide rocks and shoals as well as ports and havens.
h Actually Mahaim.

I 1i1!i 1f 3JP;;frmiil;; • ~ Jij tli

6 1iJl*~ 8 Di:jklll 9 JP;; fiHiI.
 22. GEOGRAPHY AND CARTOGRAPHY

Fig. Z36. One of the sea-charts from the Wu Pei Chih. Though not printed until + I6zI, these charts
date from the expeditions of Cheng Ho ( + 1405 to + I433). In the above map the coast at the top is that
of western India, that at the bottom representing Arabia. To the left is the opening of the Persian Gulf,
to the right is the entrance to the Red Sea. The Indian Ocean is thus compressed to a schematic corridor
in which sailing tracks are marked with precise compass-bearings and other instructions. Places can be
identified by the numbers Hormuz (86), Muscat (81), Socotra (60), Aden (6z), Bombay (Mahaim) (67).
Alongside each one is given the altitude of the pole-star in chih (finger-breadths); further details on this
and other points of navigation will be found in Sect. Z9J. Such charts as these may be considered
Chinese portolans but they are quite different in type from the portolans of the West (from Phillips).

is at the top, but east, and part of the distortion is in order to squeeze the Indian Ocean
sufficiently to allow of representation within the limits of the size of the book. These
maps have been exhaustively analysed and their place-names identified by
G. Phillips (1); and it is not possible to accept the low estimate of them entertained
by Liu Ming-Shu (2).a Indeed, they correspond, not only in nature, but also in date
(early + 15th century) with the portolan charts of Europe, the only difference being
that they give their compass bearings in words instead of drawing rhumb-lines from
arbitrarily chosen centres. b As to their accuracy, we are indebted for a close examina-
tion to Mills (1) and Blagden, who were both familiar with the coastline of the whole
Malayan peninsula, and formed a high admiration for the precision of the Chinese
sailing directions. Moreover, Mulder (1) has recently considered the material from the
pilot's point of view. Routes are generally given for inner and outer passages where
islands are concerned, sometimes with preferences if outward- or homeward-bound.
Bearings are given by cyclical characters, sometimes doubled, and sometimes with the
addition of the word' red' (tan I) which probably meant' due' south, east or north as

a Rockhill (I) preferred the maps in the + 1564 Yu Ti Tsung Thu' (General World Atlas) by Shih
Ho-Chi,' but they are not comparable. Shih's maps belong to the tradition of Chu Ssu-Pen, in which
the grid covers land but not sea, and though he shows South Africa just as Chu did, correctly enough,
his disposition of islands is very arbitrary.
b • The Chinos ', wrote Mendoza (+ I585), • doo governe their ships by a compass divided into
IZ partes, and doo use no sea cardes, but a brief description of Ruter (Routier), wherewith they doo
navigate and saile . . . .' Of course some of the later Western portolans are of very superior execution.

1ft
 22. GEOGRAPHY AND CARTOGRAPHY

the case might be. a An accuracy of 5° was general, which is to be considered excellent
for a pilot of + I425.b
There has been some discussion as to possible foreign influence on the Wu Pei Chih
charts, which it now seems safe to take as associated with Cheng Ho's expeditions.
Duyvendak (10) and Pelliot (2) suspect Arabic influence. c Fan Wen-Thao (1) notes
that Shih Pi 1 brought home from Java in the early Yuan period (before + 1297) a map
of the country, and in + 1372 the king of a place which Feng Chheng-Chlin (1) has
identified as Coromandel sent one. The difficulty is, however, that no Arabic portolan
has so far been discovered, and we are therefore very ill-informed about the nautical
charts which the Arabic merchant captains must surely have had. Until this is eluci-
dated it will be hard to decide to what extent the makers of the Chinese charts received
stimuli from Arab sources. We shall return to this subject in the sub-section on
navigation (29fbelow). In the meantime we must be content, with Mills, to take leave
of Cheng Ho as we watch him 'crashing north at a steady six knots' on his last
homeward voyage.

(7) THE ROLE OF THE ARABS

The extensive Arab-Chinese contacts of which we have just been speaking make this
a convenient place to consider the next portion of the whole picture, namely, the role
of the Arabs in the history of cartography.d Their close relation with the Byzantine
world gave them an early contact with the remains of the Hellenistic geographers, and
Ptolemy was available to them from the middle of the +9th century. In the time of
al-Ma'mun's Caliph ate ( + 813 to + 833) new lists of latitudes and longitudes were
prepared. e It was therefore natural that the tradition of quantitative cartography was
never quite lost among the Arabs.
Nevertheless, for the earlier centuries ( + 8th to + 11th) the other tradition, that of
religious cosmography, was very strong if not entirely dominant. Many examples of
Arabic T -0 maps and wheel-maps with climates f are known. There was also a tendency
to greater geometrical schematisation, so that the appearance of the wheel-maps lost
all resemblance to the actual contours of sea and land. These things may be seen in
the albums of K. Miller (4) and of Yusuf Kamal. I reproduce one of the highly
geometrised maps in Fig. 237; it is that of Abu Isi)aq al-Farisi al-I!?takhriabout +95o.g
a Probably standing for tan,' 'single', i.e. 'dead on'. Some markings on the compass were actually
painted red; cf. Sect. z6i below.
b Cf. the studies of Chang Li-Chhien (1) and S. Wada (1). Dumoutier (1) has described an Annamese
'portolan', but we have not had access to his reproduction of it.
c But as Mr J. V. Mills points out to us, the tradition could have been purely Chinese. Chu Ssu-Pen
already showed the sea-routes between Fukien and Manchuria as paths running horizontally across his
charts (see Fuchs (1), pis. 37 and 38).
d This may be studied in Kimble (1), who devotes a special chapter to the' rise and fall' of Muslim
geography; in Beazley (I), vo!. 3, and in the special monograph of Nafis Ahmad (I).
e K. Miller (3) has compared the Arab and Hellenistic values for the degree and the earth's circum-
ference.
f See pp. SZ9ff. above.
g Sarton (I), vo!. I, p. 674; Hitti (I), p. 385; Mieli (I), p. 115.
562 22. GEOGRAPHY AND CARTOGRAPHY

The great Sicilian geographer al-IdrIsI made aT-map anda climate-map about + 1154. a
The most ancient Turkish world-map, by Ma}:lmud ibn al-I:Iusain ibn Mu}:lammad
al-KashgharI in + 1074, which shows Khanbaliq (Peking) and Kashgar, is also of the
wheel-type. b Wheel-maps with climate 'latitude' lines were still current in the
+ 13th century, for example, that of ZakarIya' ibn Mu}:lammad al-QazwInIc (+ 1203
to + 1283) figured by Yusuf Kamal. d They compare very poorly with the contem-

Fig. 237. An Arabic wheel-map. that of Abii ISQ!iq al-F!irisl al-IHakhrl and Abii al-Q!isim MUQarnrnad
ibn I:Iauqal (+950 to +970). It clearly shows the strong tendency to geometrical stylisation charac-
teristic of the second period of Arab cartography (Mieli (I) , pp. I IS. 201). In the original. east was at
the top. just as in the T -0 maps of contemporary Latin Europe. but instead of the Earthly Paradise the
Arab scholars knew enough to place in the Furthest East both China and Tibet. Note also how the tip
of Africa points eastwards. a mistake which the Chinese geographers were the first to correct (from
Beazley after Reinaud).

porary Chinese maps which we have been examining. By the + 14th century, how-
ever, the general configuration of the known world was becoming fairly clear. When
in the Lebanon in 1948, I had the privilege of examining a manuscript book written
in his own hand by Na!?Ir ai-DIn al-rusI in + 133 I, and belonging to the collection of
Professor Sami Haddad at Beirut. Entitled Memoranda on Astronomy,e it gives a world-
map on a disc or sphere, with climates for the northern half only (Fig. 238). Like the
a Miller (4). vol. 3. p. 160. For other similar ones see his pp . 131. 135. II6.
b Miller (4). vol. 3. p. 142. C Sarton (I). vol. 2. p . 868.

d Yusuf Kamal (I). vol. 3. p . 1050.

e It must be identical with the work known to Brockelmann (2). vol. I. p . 5 I I. as al- Tadhkirah
al-Nii,inyah. We are grateful to Mr D. M. Dunlop for checking this.
 22. GEOGRAPHY AND CARTOGRAPHY

world-map of Marino Sanuto (+ 1306 to + 1321)a which it closely resembles, it shows

the tip of Africa pointing east and not south. Alone of the three contemporaries,
Chu Ssu-Pen (cf. above, p. 552) got this point right. But all three of these early
+ 14th-century cartographers failed to appreciate the peninsular character of India.
The chief point to be made, however, is that the Arabs did participate in the tradition
of religious cosmography, making their wheel-maps centre on Mecca rather than on
the Jerusalem, Mt Meru or Mt Khun-Iun of other civilisations. b

Black Sea (actually painted black by a

later hand)

al-Andalusir~-t_::;;;;:;;;:::;:;;;;;::::::;;::;:;;;I~-"":::;:"'--'=------l,,-\

Hindi-Sln

Persian
Gulf
Hind

Fig. 238. The world-map of al-Tusl (orig. sketch from autograph MS. copy), + 1331.

In comparing the scientific cartography of the Muslims with the Chinese, there are
three chief maps to keep in mind. The first and most famous of these was the world-
map of Abii 'Abdallah al-Sharif al-Idrisi (+ 1099 to + 1166),C made about + 1150 for
Roger 1I, the Norman king of Sicily, and often reproduced in modern works. d This
was fully in the Ptolemaic tradition, using nine parallels of latitude (climates) and
eleven meridians of longitude, but arranged on a projection like Mercator's and
• Beazley (I), vol. 3, opp. p . 521.
b Actually the Arab cartographers invoked a mythical city, Arim or Arym, which was supposed to
be situated on the central meridian of the oikoumene some 10° east of Baghdad. In spite of this, Mecca
was often placed orbocentrically (Wright (I), p. 86). The name Arln seems to derive from the Indian
city of Ujjain in MlIlwll which had been one of the capitals of the + 5th-century Gupta kings and the
site of a famous observatory. Ptolemy had known it as Ozene. Arabic geographers spoke of Arln as
•the cupola of the earth', a phrase which suggests connections with the central mountain of ancient
Indian cosmology.
C Sarton (I), vol. 2, p. 410 ; Mieli (I), p . 198.
d K. Miller (4); Yusuf Kamal (1), vol. 3, p . 867; de Reparaz-Ruiz (1).
 22. GEOGRAPHY AND CARTOGRAPHY
making no attempt to allow for the earth's curvature. a In this respect it resembled
the Chinese grid-maps. AI-IdrlsI made use of a great variety of sources for his informa-
tion about further Asia and Mrica, for example, Ibn Khurdadhbih'sb itineraries of
the Muslim world (+ 9th century) and al-Mas'udI's c descriptions of the East ( + loth).
Kimble expresses surprise at the failure of Latin scholars to make any use of al-IdrlsI's
work, composed though it was at the chronological and geographical focal point of
Islamic and Christian civilisation. From the reproduction here given (Fig. 239),
which may be compared with Fig. 226, the advantage seems to rest with the con-
temporary Chinese grid-map of + II37. Yet early in the next century Abu 'All al-
I:Iasan ibn 'All al-Marrakushld gave a list of 134 coordinate reference-points which
connected geography with astronomy more closely than was ever the case in China.
For although the altitude of the sun or the pole-star fixed the latitude, the Arabs made
more thorough use of the old Hellenistic suggestion of determining the longitude by
comparing the onset times of lunar eclipses.
The two other sets of maps of importance for our argument are essentially grid-
maps constructed not by Chinese but by Muslims. The first of the kind were those
made by Hamdallah ibn abu Bakr al-MustaufI al-QazwlnI (+ 1281 to + 1349)e to
illustrate his Ta'rikh-i-Guzida (Select Chronicle).! AI-MustaufI al-QazwlnI was
certainly in contact with East Asia, since in other works he gives the Mongol equivalents
of plant and animal names. His three maps of Iran are on rectangular grids, and his
two world-maps, though discoidal, have grids (Fig. 240). The manner of inserting
nothing but place-names, without symbols for any physical feature, is identical with
that seen in the Yuan Ching Shih Ta Tien of + 1329 (see above, p. 554). This 'Mongol
style ', if such we might call it, appears again in the maps of I:Iafi~-i Abrug(d. + 143 0 ). h
Most interesting of all, the non-astronomical grid system has even a contemporary
Latin representative. The world-map of Marino Sanuto has already been mentioned, i
but this Italian was responsible also for a map of Palestine, which illustrated his Liber
Secretorum Fidelium Crucis (a kind of Crusader's geography). This mapj dates from
+ 1306 and shows twenty-eight' spatia' ruled from north to south, and eighty-three
'spatia' ruled from east to west (Fig. 241). But this is the solitary example of the use
of a grid by any European before the later portolans and the revival of Ptolemy. It
may not be without significance that it was a map of an Arab country.
The outlines of a possible general scheme of transmission are now becoming clear.k
How far did the Arab attempts at quantitative cartography at the beginning of the
+ 14th century influence the later development of the European portolans? Was Arab
quantitative cartography entirely due to the knowledge of Ptolemy, or was there some
a Kimble (I), p. 57. b Hitti (I), p. 384; Sarton (I), vol. I, p. 606.
C Sarton (I), vol. I, p. 637. d Mieli (I), p. 210; Sarton (I), vol. 2, p. 622.
e Sarton (I), vol. 3, p. 630.
f K. Miller (4), pis. 83, 84, 85, 86; Yusuf Kamal (I), vol. 4, pp. 1255 fT.
Ir Sarton (I), vol. 3, p. 1855.
h K. Miller (4), vol. 3, p. 178 and pis. 72 and 82.
i On him see T. Fischer (I) and Kretschmer (I); Sarton (I), vol. 3, p. 769.
j Reproduced by Yusuf Kamal (I), vol. 4, pp. 1162 fT., esp. p. 1173; Nordenski6ld, pI. VII.
Described by Beazley (I), vol. 3, pp. 309, 391, 521, 529.
k Vemet (I) has also perceived this.
 ,.
IX
• • •

G Q::ry
~
s9 I
c£9 10.....

0- - .,.
0> .....

t
- 'I", 0

"' ,", . • f" ')

"
"
"' . 4 ,

. 1 ~. " • • 1
• • • 1\ ,.1 . _

x IX
Fig. 239. The world -map of AbO' Abdalliih al-Sharif 0.1- Tdrlsi (c. + 1150), made for Roger lI, King of
~orm~n Sicily. It may be compared with the contemporary Chinese map of + 1137 (Fig. 226). Here
south 18 at the top, and though there are nine parallels and eleven meridians the earth's curvatu re is not
N I
taken into account, just as in the Chinese grid-maps. For al-Idrisl China was still an unkno\\n land Raslanda, perhap:>. m('3nt for thl!' F.lt6cs. p~rbp, the on In If the mythlC".,1 I le of I·'ncsland 1n thr
Atlantic (from K. :\!illcr and Yusuf KUlllll).
behind the V·laB of Gog and l\lagog (left bottom) but lndia (though not marked ss a peninsub) and the
East Indies were better known . To the left of the amoeboid British Isles (right bottom) is the isbnd of
Fig. 240. One of the maps of Iran in the 'Mongolian style', i.e. with no features but grid and place-names, made by Hamdalll1h ibn
abo Bakr al-Mustaufl al-Qazwlnl, c. + 1330, to illustrate his Ta'r!klz-i-Guzlda (Select Chronicle) (from K . Miller and Yusuf Kamal).
 PLATE LXXXVIII

Fig. 241. The map of Palestine on the Chinese grid system made by Marino Sanuto to illustrate his Liber Secretorum
Fidelium Crucis (+ 1306) (from Yusuf Kamal).
 22. GEOGRAPHY AND CARTOGRAPHY
stimulus from the grid-maps of China, where the tradition had long been current?
The Arab colony at Canton was certainly well established by the middle of the + 8th
century, and the two following centuries saw the extensive travels in China of Sulaiman
the Merchant and of Ibn Wahb al-Ba!?rLa Then the Mongol conquests of the + 13th
century brought the Arab and Chinese worlds in closest contact. Perhaps Marino
Sanuto was employing a characteristic Chinese practice without knowing it.

(8) RELIGIOUS COSMOGRAPHY IN EAST ASIA

Only one major component of the overall picture remains to be described, namely, the
existence of a tradition of religious cosmography in East Asia. This was not recognised
by former sinologists but has been established in recent researches, especially by
Nakamura (I). Essentially, this type of map is centred on the legendary mountain in
Central Asia or the north of Tibet, Mt Khun-Lun; 1 west of which are unknown
regions, while to the east Korea, China, Indo-China and India form a series of pro-
montory-continents extending into the eastern oceans. Around these outer seas there
is a ring-continent itself surrounded by further ocean. Quite a number of these maps
have been published, as by Courant,b Cordier c (Fig. 242), Yi Ik-Seup(I), Hulbert(l)
and Rosetti (I), as well as N akamura himself. They are particularly frequent in Korea,
where they occur as woodcuts, manuscripts and paintings on screens. Though they
undoubtedly represent archaic tradition , paradoxically most of them are of late date
(17th and 18th centuries). Nakamura showed, however, that many legendary names
of countries taken from the Shan Hai Ching appear on them (110 out of 145), while
others come from the Yu Kung chapter of the Shu Ching, the Mu Thien Tz u Chuan,
Lieh Tzu, etc. Often there are annotations in the corners copied straight out of Huai
Nan Tzu. No place-name later than the + 11th century has been seen on any of them.
There can be no reason for doubting that the Koreans received this tradition from
China, though it seems never to have been so popular there. Herrmann reproduces d
a Chinese map of exactly this type dating from + 1607 by Jen Chhao. e There is
another in the Thu Shu Pien 2 (On Maps and Books)f of +1 562 by Chang Huang,3
entitled Ssu Hai Hua I Tsung Thu 4 (Complete Map of China and the Barbarian Lands
within the Four Seas). This again has Mt Khun-Lun in the centre. g The compiler
says:
This map is copied from a Buddhist work. It represents Jambudvlpa (the oikoumene)
within the four oceans of the universe . ... Although this map, taken from the Fo Tsu Thung

a Renaudot (I); Reinaud ( I) ; Ferrand (2).

vol. 2, pI. X.
b ( I ), c (3), pI. V.
d (8), pI. XII. Cf. his p. 244.
e We cannot identify this man or his work as Herrmann omitted the characters of his name and
gave no further details. f Ch. 27, pp. 39b, 40a.
g It also includes Ming place-names, however, as well as earlier ones which come mostly from the
Ta Thang H si Yu Chi of Hsiian-Chuang. There was thus some sort of connection with Buddhist maps
showing pilgrim itineraries (cf. Julien, 1). Nakamura discusses the relationship with a very queer map
of + 1194 preserved in Japan.
566 22. GEOGRAPHY AND CARTOGRAPHY

Chi, does not clearly represent the shape of the world, I give it here. Such Buddhist attempts
are not as a rule convincing. a

This note is of much interest, since it indicates the Buddhist-Taoist nature of the
tradition, and the low value in which it was held by scholars who knew the scientific
tradition of Phei Hsiu. The Fa Tsu Thung Chi l (Records of the Lineage of Buddha
and the Patriarchs) still exists in the Tripitaka; b it is due to a monk Chih-Phan Z and
dates from + 1270. Its cosmographical content seems to go back, through +7th-
century intermediates of which only the names are known, to the Ssu Hai Pai Chhiian
Shui Yuan Chi J (Record of the Sources of the Four Seas, and the Hundred Rivers)
with maps, prepared by another monk, Tao-An,4 in + 347.
It is just about this time that we have a text which is perhaps the principal literary
reference to this wheel-map tradition. It occurs in the Han Wu Ti Nei Chuan (Inside
Story of the Emperor Han Wu Ti), a Taoist work of the Chin period attributed to
Ko Hung. Ogawa (1) drew attention to this, but without seeing its proper relevance.
The emperor is on a visit to the legendary goddess of the West, Hsi Wang Mu.

On this occasion the emperor also saw certain baskets in which there were small books
bound in purple silk. He asked whether these contained the techniques of the holy immortals,
and if he could be allowed to glance at them. Hsi Wang Mu took them out, and showed
one of them to him, saying, 'This is the Wu Yo Chen Hsing Thu 5 (Map of the True Topo-
graphy of the Five Sacred Mountains). Only yesterday all the immortals from Chhing-
Chheng 6 Mountain c came to me asking for it, so I shall have to give it to them. It was made
by San-Thien Thai-Shang Tao-Chiin 7 (The Highly Exalted Taoist Adept of the Three
Heavens)d and it is extremely secret and important. How could so gross a person as you be
fit to carry it? I will bestow upon you instead the Mysteriously Shining Scripture of Life
(Ling Kuang Seng Ching 8 ) so that you may communicate with the spirits and strengthen
your will (to immortality).'
But the emperor, prostrating himself, insisted on having the map. Hsi Wang Mu then
said: 'Formerly, in the 1st year of the Shang-Huang Chhing-Hsii 9 reign-period, e San-Thien
Thai-Shang Tao-Chiin went down to see the wide world, and investigated the differences
of lengths and breadths among the rivers and seas. He also observed the differences of
height among the hills and mountains. Then he established the (position of the) Pillar of
Heaven (Thien Chu 10) f and arranged the geographical features in their positions all around
it. Then he placed (on the map) the five mountains (in a manner) imitated from the method

a Tr. Nakamura (I). b N 1661; TW 2035.

c Near Kuanhsien in Szechuan.
d The second person of the Taoist trinity (cf. Vo!. 2, p. 160).
e An imaginary reign-period.
f Another + 4th-century work, the Shen I Ching (Book of the Spiritual and the Strange) says (para. 9,
Chung Huang Ching): 'On Mt Khun-Lun there is a bronze pillar which goes high up to the heavens.
This is called Thien Chu. It has a circumference of 3000 li, as round and smooth as if cut with a knife.
At the base of it are the dwellings of the immortals.' Again, the Shui Ching opens with the statement
that Mt Khun-Lun is orbocentric. All this was a commonplace of legend, presumably signifying the
Kai Thien axis (p. 211 above).

1 f*ilI.a1f*B 3gg~alll7lti&t~
S3i.~~~1II 73;RxJ:iI:8
9J:~m-"
 PLATE LXXXIX

Fig. 242. Religious cosmography in East Asia; an 18th-century Korean MS. wheel-
map in the Buddhist tradition centred on Khun-Lun Shan (equivalent of Mt
Meru) and entitled Ssu Hai Tsung Thu (Comprehensive Chart of the Four Seas) .
umerous islands are shown in the oceans, and many countries in the ring-continent.
At east and west there are two islands each with a Tree of the Sun and Moon; cf.
the' Arbores Solis et Lunae' appearing in the east at the top of Figs. 213 and 228
above. Cf. the' Insula Solis' in the same position in Fig. 212 . North is here at the
top, and north of the central plain of China (Chung Yuan) the line of the Great
Wall can be seen crossing the Yellow River (from Cordier, 3).
 22. GEOGRAPHY AND CARTOGRAPHY
of concentric zones (i.e. taking one as central and disposing the others symmetrically) (chih
wu yo erh ni chu chenfu ' ). The position of honour (the central position) was given to Mt Khun-
Lun, where the dwellings of the immortals were depicted. An important position was also
given to the island mountain of Pheng-Lai a where the halls of the spirits were shown. The
Water of An2 (the moon?) was written in as very holy and sublime, since it is the origin of
the extreme Yin influence. The Thai Ti 3 (Great Emperor, i.e. the sun?) was similarly placed
in the wilderness where the Fu-Sang tree is.b A little hill no bigger than ten feet square can
be the place where human fates are decided. A small island in the stormy sea has enough
room for the Nine Sages. Each continent C has its proper name .. .. All of them are located
in an orderly manner in the huge environing ocean with its tremendous waves. The rivers
are also seen flowing (on the map), some green and some black. The assembly of spirits is
depicted cradled on the waves; all the immortals and jade girls are gathered there. Some of
their names are hardly known, but their real features are distinctly displayed. Thus by the
use of the compass and the square the rivers and their upper reaches were measured, and
the mountains drawn with circularly curving lines (phan chhii 4). The mountain-ranges bend
back upon themselves and the smaller hills wander back and forth (ling hui fou chuan 5). The
height of the mountains and the extent of their slopes (shan hao lung chhang 6 ) are shown by
lines. turning and curving (chou hsiian wei she 7 ). Indeed, they look like written characters
(hsing ssu hua tzu 8). Thus the written names of the mountains were determined by their
respective natural shapes, and the reality of the mountains is enshrined in symbols. d The
diagrams of the shapes (of the mountains) were kept secret in Yuan-Thai,9 but when they
were taken out they served as charms and talismans among the immortals. By their aid,
Taoists can pass safely over all mountains and rivers. The hundred gods and the assembly
of immortals showed the greatest respect for this map and acclaimed it. Although you are
not their equal, you have often visited mountains and marshes, you have the heart of an
eager seeker after truth, and you have not lost sight of the Tao. I rejoice that this is so, and
now therefore I will give you the map. Keep it, I enjoin you, with as much care as men show
to their lords and their parents. For if the secrets of it should leak out to ordinary people,
evil fortune will overtake you.' e
There can thus be no doubt that we have to do with a mixed Buddhist-Taoist tradi-
tion of religious cosmography, analogous to that of Europe, but with Mt Khun-Lun
as orbocentric instead of Jerusalem. Its connection with the protective charms of the
Taoists is interesting-Pao Phu Tzu, chapter 17, is entirely concerned with this sub-
ject, and I reproduce one of Ko Hung's numerous diagrams (ju shan fu 10) which seems
to depict at least four of the five symmetrical mountains (Fig. 243). Among the
Tunhuang manuscripts at the British Museum, there is a Shou Shou Wu Yo Yuan
Fall (The Received Method of Drawing the Circles of the Five Mountains).! But it
would take us too far from the present argument to follow this further.
a Cf. Sect. 13C in Vol. z, p. Z40. b Cf. Granet (I). Suns hung like fruits on a mythical tree.
C Cf. the ideas of Tsou Yen (Sect. 13C in Vol. Z, p. Z36) .

d Now we can understand the idea behind the Taoist' tallies' and charms which would protect
adepts who had to cross wild mountains. Bearing in their hands the very essences of the topographic
pattern, they would be immune from any evils which the spirit of the mountain, if not understood,
might do them (cf. Sect. 10 in Vol. z, esp. p. 140).
• Tr. auct. f British Museum, Stein no. 3750.

I ~3i$ifiiIlUUaM 2:lC*
61l1illiMlA 7 m~~rt
IIN3'C3i~IlIl*
568 22. GEOGRAPHY AND CARTOGRAPHY

The cosmography of Tsou Yen in the - 4th century had, as we have seen, a an
environing ocean, though not a central mountain. So also did that of the Kai Thien
astronomical theorists. b When Yung Heng,I therefore, in the Sung, says in his Sou
Tshai I Wen Lu 2 (Collection of Strange Things Heard)C that' in the east, north and
south there are seas with different names, but actually it is all one sea', he was not
necessarily influenced by the wheel-map tradition, though this may be a reference to
it. However, the Ho Thu Wei Kua Ti Hsiang (one of the apocryphal or weft classics)
saysd that the Khun-Lun Mountain is in the centre of the earth, corresponding to
heaven, and that the eighty regions are scattered all around it (pu jao chih 3). China is
in the south-east and occupies only one of these regions. If
this was written towards the end of the later Han, one can
perhaps see in it the combination of the indigenous world-
picture deriving from Tsou Yen with that which came from
India. e
Obviously everything points to an Indian origin of these
wheel-maps; and perhaps of all wheel-maps a Babylonian
one.! A glance at the work of Kirfel on the cosmography
of the Indians shows immediately that in Buddhist and Jain
ideas, long before our era, there were four continents centring • •
upon Mt Meru (Uttarakuru in the north, Piirvavideha in the
east, Jambiidvlpa in the south, and Aparagoyana in the
west). Brahmanic tradition also has the ring-continent,
I <> I
Fig. 243. A Taoist talisman
I
modified by what were perhaps echoes of Greek 'climates'. from Ko Hung's Pao Phu
The classical literary exposition of this cosmography is that Tzu, c. + 300, intended to
protect those who wandered
of the Abhidharma-kosa (bk. 3) ,g probably composed about through wild mountains, and
+ 370. Crystallised in stone by the Khmer people, builders perhaps a crude diagrammatic
representation of their dis-
+h
of t h e ( 9t century) Ph nom Bakh en b etween A ngkor Vat position.
and Angkor Thorn, it is still one of the wonders of the
world. h One can hardly doubt that this cosmographic tradition came into China with
Buddhism, perhaps joining earlier indigenous conceptions of Mt Khun-Lun as central.
But never did it triumph over the tradition of scientific cartography there, as its
analogue did in Europe.

a See Sect. 13C in Vol. 2, p. 236. b See above, p. 212.

C Ch. I, p. la.
d Ku Wei Shu, ch. 32, p. 4a.
e F . W. K. MUller (I) has published a late, but interesting, pictorial representation of Mount Meru
with its environing continents, from a Japanese source. For an earlier Chinese Buddhist version see
Feer (I).
f It would be interesting to know whether they were pre-Buddhist in China. The Hou Han Shu,
ch. II2B, p . 18b, gives an account of the magician Feng ChUn-Ta (cf. Vol. 2, p. 148) who begged
unsuccessfully from another Taoist Lu NU-Seng< for a 'Five-Mountain Map '. But the story is in the
Thang commentary, not the text, so it does not prove much. On sacred mountains in all old Asian
religion, cf. Quaritch Wales (2).
g Tr. de la Vallee Poussin (7). Cf. Renou & Filliozat (I), vol. 2, pp. 377, 380.
h See Filliozat (9).
 22. GEOGRAPHY AND CARTOGRAPHY

(e) CHINESE SURVEY METHODS

I t is to this tradition of scientific cartography that we must now briefly return. Before
we can draw the threads of this Section together, there are three more subjects which
must be touched upon, first the probable survey methods which were used by the
Chinese cartographers who made the grid-maps; secondly, the origin of relief and
other special maps; and thirdly, the coming of Renaissance cartographic science to
China. We shall then be able to round off the whole by a comparative retrospect and
a final surprise.

f,
N!
W
'-----l-~-:--------------~' cr~ ..
Fig. 244. Chinese survey methods; a reel of measuring tape (from the
Suan Fa Thung Tsung of + 1593).

It seems quite safe to assume that by the beginning of the Han, the Chinese were
in possession of the simple and ancient survey instruments which had been known to
the Babylonians and Egyptians. a As we have seen,b the astronomical use of the
gnomon goes back to the earliest Chou or Shang times, and it could not have been set
up without the use of the water-level and the plumb-line. Ropes, cords (Fig. 244) or
chains must also have been used, together with graduated poles (Fig. 245). One of the
earliest literary references to calculations of surveyors in the field may be that in the
a From the considerable literature on ancient surveying methods, I will refer only to the paper of
Lyons (2) on ancient Egyptian, and of Waiters (I) on Greek and Roman, instruments. For the Middle
Ages and the Renaissance there is now a valuable book by Kiely (I) and an excellent study of topo-
graphical maps by Price (7). b Pp. 284ff. above.
570 22. GEOGRAPHY AND CARTOGRAPHY

Fig. 245. Chinese survey methods; apparatus figured in the Wu Ching Tsung Yao (Collection of the most
important Military Techniques) by Tseng Kung-Liang ( + 1044). To the left a graduated vertical pole
(tu kan) and a surveyor with his sighting-board (chao pan); to the right a water-level (shui phing) with
three floating sights and two plumb-lines (Chhien chi, ch. I I). The text of the description of these
instruments in Tseng's book follows verbally that of a much earlier work, the Thai Pai Yin Ching
(Manual of the White and Gloomy Planet of War) written by Li ChhUan in +759.

Shan Hai Ching, a where Yii the Great orders two of his legendary assistants (Ta Chang I
and Shu Hai 2) to pace out the size of the world. Shu Hai, says the text, held the
counting-rods in his right hand (yu shou pa suan 3) and pointed to the north with his
left. This, at any rate, gives a glimpse of late Chou or early Han surveyors. Similarly,
the Chou Li speaksb of the compass and square, the plumb-line and water-level (kuei,4
ChU,5 hsien,6 shui phing 7 ) in more than one place. c
a Ch. 9, p. 3a. b Ch. II, p. 15b (ch. 40, p. 52; tr. Biot (I), vo\. 2, p. 481).
C Cf. Mbtg Tzu, IV (I), i, 5.

'**
,7ItlP-
2ft~ 61\!i
 22. GEOGRAPHY AND CARTOGRAPHY 57!
One of the developed forms of the plumb-line was the groma,a associated with Rome
and Hellenistic Egypt, but possibly of older origin. It consisted of two sets of plumb-
lines fixed at right angles and arranged to turn round a vertical axis. One pair could
be used for sighting and the other to determine the direction at right angles. It seems
that the Chinese of the Han also used this instrument-the Khao Kung Chi section
of the Chou Li saysb that the builders (Chiang Jen I) 'level the ground (by the use of)
water (-levels), and suspend (plumb-lines) (shui ti i hsien 2 ).' Then 'they test the
verticality of posts, gnomons or poles, by the plumb-line (chih yeh i hsien 3).' To
the first of these phrases the + 2nd-century commentary of Cheng Hsiian says that' at
the four corners (of an instrument) four straight (lines) hang over the water, and (the
surveyors) observe with this the high and the low; when this has been decided the
ground can be levelled'. c
Other names for the water-level were chun 4 (which may be an ancient pictogram
of the instrument), shui hings (the ' water balance'),d and shui nieh. 6 Fig. 245, taken
from the Wu Ching Tsung Yao (Collection of the most important Military Techniques),
by Tseng Kung-Liang in + 1044, shows what seems at first to be a kind of plane table
or altitude theodolite. But the description shows that it is a trough with three floats,
each bearing a fiducial sight. e The other important invention of Hellenistic antiquity,
besides the groma, was the dioptra of Heron of Alexandria (c. + 65). This was the
ancestor of the altazimuth theodolite of today, but how nearly its actual use approxi-
mated to that of the latter is a point of some doubt (Lyons, 2). That the Chinese used
sighting-tubes (wang thung 7 ) from the Han period or earlier has already been indicated
above.! I have not, however, come across any early descriptions which would suggest
that it was mounted on a graduated quadrant, except, of course, in the special case of
armillary rings. If these were already coming into use in the - 4th century, it is hard
to believe that the advantages of an azimuthal quadrant mounting for surveying would
not have been appreciated. The surveyor's sighting-tube shown in Fig. 146 is mounted
for altitudes.
A good deal has already been saidg of the practical geometry set forth by Liu Hui
(cf. Fig. 246) in his Hai Tao Suan Ching (+263),h and we have noted i the significant
fact that he and Phei Hsiu were contemporaries. Teng Ai,S a general of the Wei State,
was also living at that time, and it is recorded of him that whenever he saw a high
mountain or a broad marsh, he always' estimated the heights and distances, measuring
a Singer (2), p. 113 .
b Ch. 12, p . lsa (ch. 43, p . 19; Biot (1), vol. 2, p . 553). Cf. p. 231 above.
C Chiang Yung, in his commentary on the Khao Kung Chi section (Chou Li J I Chi; Ya0 9 ), deals
with the matter in some detail (ch. 7, p. 6b) .
d Cf. Schlegel (5), p. 408.
e Another good iltustration of this is in the late Chhing Hsiu Fang So Chih 10 (Brief Memoir on Dyke
Repairs), by Li Shih-Lu. I I
f P. 33 2 • The reference to it in Huai Nan Tzu will be remembered.
g P. 31 above. h Tr. van Hee (7, 8).
I P. 540 above.

l *itI!~).~~ 3li:~~).M. .~ 5 7~ Ji'

7 ~ tili 8 'Ot 9 J~hlUt 1ili~HJ 10 ~ JI/j JJt ;G;
57 2 22. GEOGRAPHY AND CARTOGRAPHY

III At. . ff4

•• ~
~

11
...
i
Ji

Fig. 246. An illustration of survey geometry from the Thu Shu Chi Chhbtg; measuring
the height of an island crag (Li fa tien, ch. 122).

by finger-breadths, before drawing a plan of the place and fixing the position of his
camp ' .a The account adds that people used to laugh at him for being so particular.
But the remark is interesting as showing how widespread in the + 3rd century were
survey techniques involving, for the most part, the properties of similar right-angled
triangles.
Perhaps the most important survey instrument of the European Middle Ages was

a Wei Chih ' (in San Kuo Chih), ch. 28, p. 17b, quoted in TPYL, ch. 335, p. 2a.
 22. GEOGRAPHY AND CARTOGRAPHY 573
the baculum, cross-staff, or Jacob's staff. a In its simplest form it was a graduated rod
about 4 ft. long, of rectangular cross-section, and having a cross-piece which could
slide along this while remaining at right angles to it. Measurements of a distant line
which could not be reached and paced were made by standing approximately half-
way along it at different distances from it, and sighting the two ends of the line past
each end of the cross-piece. The dimensions of the staff being known, and also the
distance between the observer's positions, the length of the line could be calculated b

Fig. 247. The use of Jacob's Staff; an illustration from the De Re et Praxi Geometrica
by Oronce Fine (Paris, + 1556).

(see Fig. 247). The accepted view is that this simple device was first described by the
Provens:al Jewish scholar, Levi ben Gerson ( + 1288 to + 13#), in 132I.c It certainly
a D . E. Smith (I), vol. 2, p. 346; Lloyd Brown (I), p. 182; Feldhaus (I), col. 543; Taylor (3,4,5).
Some, like the writer, may have come across Thomas Bancroft's epitaph on William Holorenshaw :
Lo in small closure of this earthly bed
Rests he who heaven's vast motions measured,
Who, having known both of the land and sky,
More than famed Archimed, or Ptolemy,
Would further press, and like a Palmer went,
With Jacob's Staff, beyond the firmament.
b The instrument had other uses, for instance, it could measure altitudes of celestial bodies.
c See Sarton (I), vol. 3, pp. 129, 600. One form of it had of course been described by Ptolemy
(Almagest, v, 14) and Pappus (Commentary, v), under the name of the dioptra, but it was only capable
of measuring very small angles. The diameter of the sun was obtained by its aid. We are indebted to
Dr Derek Price for a reminder of this. Ptolemy's' triquetrum' (cf. above, p. 373) was also an allied
instrument. When one of its limbs was freed from the vertical zenith-pointing position by ai-Kind! in
+ 9th-century Baghdad, it became essentially a quadrant without a graduated arc, and could be used to
measure the angular distances of any two stars, not only the zenith distances of stars at culmination.
AI-Kindl's description has been translated by Wiedemann (9), and the fact that the manuscript in
question was copied as late as + 1212 suggests that the instrument was then still being found useful.
By making two observations from different positions in a straight line, the heights or lengths of distant
terrestrial objects could also be ascertained, and this use was also described by ai-Kind!. But all these
instruments had actual material limbs along the lines of sighting; the turning-point came when some-
one appreciated the simple fact that the cross-piece of a cross-bow, if equipped with sights at each end
and made to slide on the butt, would do just as well. On Levi ben Gerson and the cross-staff see also
Steinschneider (4), pp. 248, 270.
574 22. GEOGRAPHY AND CARTOGRAPHY

lasted a long time, till about + 1594, when it was replaced by the backstaff of John
Davis. a This in its turn gave place in the + 18th century to reflecting instruments,
which were the direct forerunners of the modern sextant. It would be natural to
assume, then, that knowledge of the cross-staff reached the Chinese through Arab
contacts in the' + 15th century, if not indeed still later through the Jesuits. b Similarly,
it has been supposed c that the use of cross-wires in sighting-tubes or alidades was
introduced to China by the visit of Jamal aI-DIn in + 1267. The Yuan Shih, however,d
speaks only of holes taking the place of the sighting-tube in his armillary sphere, and
of two sighting-tubes embodied in his triquetrum instrument (tshe chhiI).e
The following remarkable passage from Shen Kua shows that the cross-staff was
known already in the + IIth century, in the Sung, and that the cross-wire grid had an
ancestry as far back as the Han. This is what he says:

When I once dug in the garden of a house at Haichow, I unearthed a crossbow trigger-
mechanism (or, a crossbow-like instrument). On looking at the whole breadth of a mountain,
the distance on the instrument was long; on looking at a small part of the mountain-side, the
distance on the instrument was short (because the cross-piece had to be pushed further away
from the eye, and the graduation started from the further end) (chhi wang shan shen chhang,
wang shan chih tshe wei hsiao tuan 2). The (stock of the crossbow) was like a rule (chhih 3) with
graduations in inches and tenths of an inch. The idea of it was that by (placing) an arrow
(tsu 4 ) (across it at different points) and looking past the two ends of the arrow (mu chu tsu
tuan s) one could measure the degree (tu 6 ) of the mountain on the instrument, and in this
way calculate its height. This is the same as the method of similar right-angled triangles (kou
ku 7) of the mathematicians.
Now the Thai Chia 8 chapter f (of the Shu Ching) speaks of a man with his bow drawn and
his finger on the trigger' aiming at the target (wang hsing 9) embraced in the graduations (tu 6)
(of his sights), and so letting fly '. I suppose that this degree system (tu 6 ) was something like
the graduations on the crossbow-instrument just described.
Then in the Han time (Liu) Chhung, Prince of Chhen (Chhen Wang Chhung 10) was very
skilful with the crossbow; he could hit the bulls-eye with a hundred per cent score. His
method was: g , Thien fu ti tsai, tshan lien wei chi, san wei san hsiao, san wei wei ching, san hsiao
wei wei, yao tsai chi ya.' 11 These words are (at first sight) rather obscure and difficult to
understand. 'Thien fu ti tsai' (Heaven covers and the Earth sustains) probably refers to the
motions of the hands in holding the crossbow, one in front and one behind. The next four
characters (' tshan lien wei chi') refer to the position of the arrow (tsu 4) (used as cross-piece)

a Cf. Cooper (I).

b Mikami has a paper (15) on the study of the Dutch art of surveying by the Japanese. Cf. Bemard-
Maitre (I), p. 57.
C Ko Chih Ku Wei, ch. 2, p . 27a; apparently following an opinion of Mei Wen-Ting.
d Ch. 48, p . Ila.
e This was the modified form described by al-Kindi (see previous page).
f Ch. 14; cf. Medhurst (I) , p. 147; Legge (I), p. 97. Thai Chia was the fourth Shang emperor in the
traditional lists, and famous as an archer.
g As recorded by Hua Chhiao,I2 quoted in Rou Ran Shu, ch. 80, p . 2b; later cit. e.g. TPYL, ch. 348,
P·3 a .

J m~ • ;It ~
llJ :& ~ ~ llJ Z ru ~ 'J- ~ 3 R
5§i£~~ 6 Jr '-ro a 8 .x1fl 0tt.1t
JI 7dfl i1l! ~ ~~~ ~ 3 tt 3 'J- 3 tt ~ j~. 3 'J- ~ ~ ;:: ~ tI :If
 22. GEOGRAPHY AND CARTOGRAPHY 575
in relation to the degrees marked (on the stock), and this position in turn depends upon the
distance of the target. This is the' Triple Connection' (tshan lien 1) ; it is like a steelyard or
balance (and with it the proper elevation of the crossbow can be assessed). It is exactly the
same principle as the use of similar right-angled triangles for the measurement of heights and
depths. The' san ehing san wei' (three lengthwise and three crosswise; i.e. a grid or cross-wire
sights) are set up on the frame (pheng 2 ) (or, as if a framework), and by means of them (the
archer) can mark his target, whether high or low, to the right or to the left.
I once arranged such a 'three lengthwise and three crosswise' (grid) on a crossbow, and
also sighted the target with the cross-piece arrow, and the result was that my shots were
successful seven or eight times out of ten. If graduations are added on the trigger-mechanism
(itself), the accuracy will be still further improved. a

The significance of this passage, written about + 1085, is that in Europe the cross-
staff was also known as the crossbow or arbalest, and may plausibly be supposed to
have developed from that particular propulsive mechanism. Now, as we shall see
later,b the crossbow was much more ancient and widespread in China than in Europe.
It seems to have been introduced from the East twice, first for artillery use only, in
Hellenistic and early Byzantine times, and then in the + I Ith century for what became
a period of crossbow dominance. Hence an application to surveying at the time of
Levi ben Gerson or somewhat before, would be natural. In China, on the other hand,
it formed the standard weapon of the Han armies, and was in continuous use from
the - 4th century onwards. c Could this fact have had something to do with a superiority
in survey methods which assisted the continuity of grid cartography after Phei Hsiu?
In any case, Shen Kua certainly had in his hands a crossbow-like instrument with
graduated divisions for the measurement of heights, breadths and distances. This is
what we saw that Phei Hsiu considered so necessary as one of his' Essentials of Map-
Making' .d Shen Kua further believed that the sighting techniques of the Prince of
Chhen nine hundred years before had also involved an instrument with a stock
graduated for use as a cross-staff. That Liu Chhung and other Han marksmen used
cross-wire grid sights is well assured from other evidence e but the epigram does not
attest the use of the cross-staff at that time, as Shen Kua thought, and if it was not
known then it was certainly not known in the Shu ehing period. The time of Phei Hsiu
himself would be a reasonable guess for its introduction.
If the cross-staff was really first developed in China, and afterwards found its way to
Europe, the association with Levi ben Gerson suggests that its transmission may have
been effected through Jewish circles.! The probable role of Hebrew travellers and
merchants in carrying ideas and techniques between East Asia and Western Europe

a Meng Chhi Pi Than, ch. 19, para. 13, tr. auct. Cf. Hu Tao-Ching (1), vol. 2, p. 635.
b In Sect. 30e on military technology.
C It was even developed in the Sung, as we shall see, into a repeating weapon of machine-gun type

(Sect. 30e).
d P. 540 above.
e On this see Sect. 30e below.
f See Addendum on p . 681 below.
 22. GEOGRAPHY AND CARTOGRAPHY

has already been noted, a and we shall find another possible example of their influence
in a topic in Section 27 c on engineering. b
A passage on the application of survey methods to cartography is also contained in
the Meng Chhi Pi Than:

As for the geographical books (writes Shen Kua) there was formerly a Fei Niao Thu [
(Bird's-Eye Map)c but we do not know who its author was. The Fei Niao system may be
explained as follows. As roads and paths are sometimes winding and sometimes straight,
without any definite rule, if a walker starts out in anyone of the four directions from a given
point along a path, his pacing will not help us to get the direct distance. Therefore what we
call 'straight lines in the four directions' (ching chih ssu chih 2) have to be measured by other
methods, just as a bird can fly in a straight line unaffected by the convolutions of mountains
and rivers.
I recently made a map ofthe counties and prefectures (Shou Ling Thu 3) d on a scale (fen lii 4) of
2 inches for 100 li. I used the methods of chun wang S (rectangular grid), hu yung 6 (mutual
inclusions),- phang yen 7 (checking from the side),! kao hsia 8 (heights and depths), fang
hsieh 9 (right angles and acute angles), and yu chih [0 (curved and straight lines). With these
seven methods one can work out the distances as a bird would fly them. The finished map
had fang yu ll (four-cornered, square, divisions) strictly to scale (yuan chin chih shih[2). Then
the four (azimuth) directions and the eight positions may be increased to twenty-four,
these being designated by the twelve cyclical signs, eight of the denary series of cyclical
signs, and four of the kua (trigrams). Thus later generations with the help of my recorded
data, and using the twenty-four directions, will be able to reconstruct the map showing
the positions of districts and towns without the slightest mistake, even if the original copies
should be lost. g

This statement is of particular interest, for it suggests rather strongly that towards
the end of the + 11th century Chinese cartographers were recording compass-bearings,
as in modern ordnance surveys. It will be remembered that elsewhere in the same
book we have the earliest definite reference to the magnetic needle in any literature. h
Maps of the kind here described by Shen Kua may therefore have resembled the
Mediterranean portolans of three centuries later, where a series of compass roses are
accompanied by a network of approximate meridians and parallels. i But in + 1085

a In Sect. 13 e, f (VoJ. 2, pp. 278, 297 above), concerning the passage of philosophical ideas, tables
of categories, and the like.
b The invention of the Cardan suspension.
c Or 'As-the-Crow-Flies' Map, suggested the late Prof. A. C. Moule. Shen Kua is perhaps alluding
to the maps of Chang Heng (see above, p. 538).
d Other texts assembled by Hu Tao-Ching (1), voJ. 2, pp. 991 fr. show that this map was imperially
commissioned in + 1076 and presented in + 1087.
e This technical term is not one of Phei Hsiu's, but it may well refer to similar right-angled triangles,
and is perhaps an extension of his taG li (cf. p. 539 above). Cf. Hai Tao Suan Ching, problems 1-6. Hu
Tao-Ching's text reads ya yung."
f Again, this technical term is not one of Phei Hsiu's. Cf. Hai Tao Suan Ching, problems 7 and 9.
g Pu Appendix, ch. 3, para. 6, tr. auct.
h Cf. Sect. 26i below.
i Chu Kho-Chen (4) and Wang Chen-To (5), p . 114, concur.

I JIt .It 1II l;)< ~lII <?}-$ SJt.:z

6 §.Ifil 8 jfIj r 9 11 tf 10 if: il I! 1i J!I\
!l~i!i Zlif
 22. GEOGRAPHY AND CARTOGRAPHY 577
Europe was still far indeed from having reached this point. Unfortunately, none of
the Chinese 'land-portolans', such as this, has survived. The practice, however, is
relevant to the question of the indigenous origin of the Wu Pei Chih maps of Cheng
Ho's time. a If Shen Kua's methods were at all widespread, one might expect to hear
about the same time of the establishment of 'trigonometrical stations' from which the
bearings would be taken. Something of this sort may lie behind the military map
which Liu Chhang-Tsu I presented to the emperor in + 1083. b
For determining the lay of sloping ground, graduated poles were used in Shen Kua's
time. This we know from one of his autobiographical sections, where he describes
work which he once did as a government hydraulic engineer (between + 1068 and
+ 1077).
The Pien Canal (Pien Chhii 2) had brought down so much silt that the bottom of it had
become higher than the ground outside by about 12 ft., all the way between the eastern water-
gate of the capital to Yung-chhiu and Hsiang-yi. Looking down from the embankments one
could see the inhabitants as if they were living in a deep valley. In the Hsi-Ning reign-period
the government were considering a plan for clearing out the Lo River and leading it into
the Pien Canal. My duty as a government conservancy official was to measure the canal from
Shang-shan-men near the capital to the Huai-khou at Ssu-chou (the place where the canal
debouched on the Huai River). The distance was 840 li, 130 pu (about 175 miles). The
ground at the capital was found to be higher than that at Ssu-chou by 194 ft. 8 in. A test
boring was made in the Po river-bed several li east of the capital, and the old bed was not
seen until it had gone down 30 ft. (such was the accumulation of silt).
The instruments used (to determine the slope) were the shui phing 3 (water-level), the
wang chhih 4 (sighting-tube with graduated scale, presumably an altitude theodolite), and
kan chhih s (graduated pole). But the measurement of the fall could not be made with perfect
accuracy, so the following steps were taken. As the silt was piled outside the bed of the
Pien Canal or on its embankments, dams were built to collect the water in the bed itself.
Mter water had been let in, another dam was built, the whole series being in a succession
like steps. The differences between the water levels were then measured, and their sum gave
the total fall. C

This serves to remind us of another point of social importance, namely, the stimulus
which the characteristic water conservancy works of China must have given to the art
of cartographic survey.d Many problems of this kind are contained in Chhin Chiu-
Shao's mathematical work of + 1247, the Shu Shu Chiu Chang (Figs. 248 and 249).
The question may be raised whether the hodometer or taximeter carriage was used
to any extent by the ancient and medieval Chinese cartographers. The simple applica-
tion of gear-wheels involved has already been alluded to in Section 71 on culture
contacts, e where it was pointed out that the first references to hodometers in China are at
least as early as those in Europe. They go back to Prince Tan of Yen ( - 240 to - 226)
a Cf. p . 560 above. b Yu Hai. ch. 14, p. 37b.
C Meng Chhi Pi Than, ch. 25, para. 8, tr. auct. Cf. Hu Tao-Ching (1), vo!. 2, pp. 795ft'.
d Cf. the abiding interest shown by Phei Hsiu and others in everything connected with the Yii
Kung.
e Vo!. I, pp. 152. 195. 229. 232 above.
Fig. 248. Plan of an irrigation survey problem by Chhin Chiu-Shao, + 1247 (Shu Shu Chiu Chang,
ch. 6). The total length of the p arallel canal is given as 118 li or 59 km. The irrigated fields are marked
with the character thien, the major river dyke is called an, and the minor dykes chheng. Cartographical
accuracy comes second in these representations to geometrical formalisation.

'./-;
.).
,l ./
~

~~~
-J.-
~
~ I ~
~ _d.!J ·I ~
;- i+
if: \:;t1~~'I+.q~~.,'+ I
ji.~

Fig. 249. Sung Ching-Chhang's reconstruction of the preceding problem in his Shu Shu Chiu Chang
Cha Chi (1842), ch. 3. He draws the map with closer approach to reality and inserts further details such
as the sluice-gate (tau men) at the entrance to the parallel canal, and the smaller lateral derivates (hsiao
chiang). The main canal runs along! li away from the river and takes 2! li to reach that position.
 22. GEOGRAPHY AND CARTOGRAPHY 579
and to Han Yen-Shou (between - 140 and -70). The proper place for the main
discussion of the hodometer (called chi li ku chhe, I 'mile-counting drum carriage ')
will be in Section 27 c on engineering, but in view of the fact that Chinese map-making
must have involved so much dead-reckoning, one cannot help wondering whether
such men as Chang Heng, Phei Hsiu and Chia Tan did not make some use of it. The
Renaissance cartographers seem to have done so. Lloyd Brown reproduces a an
illustration of a surveyor's carriage with a dial-recording hodometer from Paul
Pfintzing's Methodus Geometrica of + 1598. The French physician Jean Femel had
in the same century measured a meridian line between Amiens and Paris by the use of a
hodometer.b However, no Chinese text has yet come to light which demonstrates the
employment of this device by the cartographers. In steppe or plain country, if not in
mountainous regions, it could have been helpful.
We shall also examine in the appropriate place the famous' south-pointing carriage'
(ting nan chhe 2 ), which was a more elaborate application of gearing principles. This was
probably invented in the Han, and could conceivably have been of cartographic value
in open regions where the ground was not too broken, though one has the impression
that it belonged to the mechanical arcana of the emperor and was not capable of much
practical use. Again, we have not found any text which would relate it to map-making.

(f) RELIEF AND OTHER SPECIAL MAPS

The idea of representing the surface of the earth in modelled form on an exaggerated
scale, so that the contours of mountain and river systems may clearly be seen, seems
to us obvious enough. And, indeed, it has a much longer history than is usually
suggested by historians of geography. Let us, in this case, start from recent times and
work backwards.
For John Evelyn the idea was not so obvious, as may be seen by a paper of his which
appeared in the Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society for + 1665, 'Of a
Method of making more lively Representations of Nature in Wax than are extant in
Paintings, and of a New Kind of Maps in Bas-Relief; both practised in France'.
Lloyd Brown believes c that the earliest known relief map was one of the Swiss canton
of Zurich in + 1667. Feldhaus d and other writers attribute the priority to Paul Dox,
who in + 1510 thus represented the neighbourhood of Kufstein. Sarton e takes the
matter further back by pointing out that Ibn BaHiitah ( + 1304 to + 1377) describes
a relief or raised map which he saw at Gibraltar.! I shall now show that relief maps of
a scientific character were well known in China in the + 11th century.
a (I), p . 243 .
b L10yd Brown (I), p. 290.
C (I), pp. 273, 337, 362, 364.
d (I), col. 552.
e (I), vol. 3, pp . I I 57, 1620.
f Defremery & Sanguinetti (I), vol. 4, p. 359.
580 22. GEOGRAPHY AND CARTOGRAPHY
Our main evidence for this is contained in the Meng Chhi Pi Than (+ 1086), in
which Shen Kua wrote:
When I went as a government official to inspect the frontier, I made for the first time a
wooden map upon which I represented the mountains, rivers and roads. Mter having
explored personally the mountains and rivers (of the region), I mixed sawdust with wheat-
flour paste (modelling it) to represent the configuration of the terrain upon a kind of wooden
base. But afterwards when the weather grew cold, the sawdust and paste froze and was no
longer usable, so I employed melted wax instead. The choice of these materials was dictated
by the necessity of making something light which would not be difficult to transport. When
I got back to my office (in the capital) I caused (the relief map) to be carved in wood, and
then presented it to the emperor. The emperor invited all the high officials to come and see
it, and later gave orders that similar wooden maps should be prepared by all prefects of
frontier regions. These were sent up to the capital and conserved in the imperial archives. 8

Shen Kua must therefore take an important place in the history of relief maps, as of
other aspects of geography.b But there are further records of Sung scholars interested
in the relief technique. About + 1130, Huang Shang l made a wooden relief map,c
and this attracted the attention of the great Neo-Confucian, Chu Hsi, who requested
his friend Li Chi-Chang 2 in a letter to try and find it.d Chu Hsi himself constructed
relief maps in sticky clay (chiao niJ) as well as in wood. Lo Ta-Ching 4 records in his
Ho Lin Yii Lu S (Jade Dew from the Forest of Cranes) a conversation with Chao Shih-
Shu 6 (i.e. Chao Chi-Jen 7) who told him of the philosopher's love for mountain scenery,
which he would always go out of his way to visit. Then he added:

Chu Hsi also made a wooden Map of the Countries of the Chinese and Barbarians
(Hua I ThuS), upon which the convexities and concavities of mountains and rivers (wa tieh
chih shih 9) were carved. Eight pieces of wood were used, with hinges to connect them
together. The map could be folded up and one person could carry it. Whenever he travelled,
he took this along with him. But it was never really completed. e

How far back the idea of relief maps goes before the time of Shen Kua is not clear,
but there are several features in ancient Chinese art which may well have given rise to
it. One of these is the custom of representing sacred mountains in sculptured relief
upon incense-burners and jars. Laufer has described in detail f the well-known bronze
'hill-censers' or Vast Mountain Stoves (po shan hsiang lu 10) of the Han dynasty, some
examples of which have survived. These are mentioned in all Chinese archaeological
works, such as the Chhing Hsi Chhing Ku Chien 11 (Hsi Chhing Catalogue of Ancient

a Ch. 25, para. 22, tr. auet., adjuv. Chavannes (10). Cf. Hu Tao-Ching (1), vol. 2, p. 813.
b See the special article on him by Chu Kho-Chen (4).
C Yu Hai, ch. 14, p . 38a.

d Chu Tzu wen Chi, replies to Li Chi-Chang.

e Ch. 3, p. 5, tr. auet. The passage is quoted in Shuo Fu (1652 edition of Thao Thing), ch. 21 (Ho
Lin Yu Lu), p . lb.
t (3), pp. 174 ff.
I .;re
6 ilUli~.
tl~m1i£
 22. GEOGRAPHY AND CARTOGRAPHY 581
Mirrors and Bronzes) of + 175I. a
One is shown in Fig. 25oa. The cover of these
incense-burners, which were also made in pottery, is always shaped in the form of a
realistic hill or mountain, with holes through which the perfume escaped, and some
arrangement by which the mountain is surrounded by water. b This art motif must be
at least as early as the Former Han, for the censers are referred to by Chang Chhang,l
who died in -48, in his Tung Kung Ku Shih z (Stories of the Eastern Palace), as well
as in other Han books. c The Rsi Ching Tsa Chi, which, though written later, is well
informed on Han matters, attributes d the construction of such censers to the famous
mechanic e Ting Huan,3 who incorporated in them ' many queer birds and strange
animals, all of which could turn round by themselves' -activated, perhaps, by the

Fig. 250. Two kinds of vessel from which the earliest relief maps may have originated. On the left (a),
a pottery' hill-censer' (po shan hsiang lu) of the Han period, its cover moulded so as to represent one of
the magic mountain islands of the Eastern Sea. On the right (b), a pottery mortuary jar the lid of
which also represents modelled mountains. After Laufer (3), pis. LV and LVII.

ascending hot-air current. In later times, these hill-censers, fitted with long handles,
were adopted in Chinese Buddhism for liturgical purposes, and many of the donors
depicted on the frescoes at the Tunhuang caves may be seen carrying them. But as
Chinese archaeological books often suggest a Taoist identification, the usual view is
that the hill-censers were originally supposed to represent the famous sacred island-
mountains in the Eastern Sea, of which Pheng-Lai 4 was the most important. The
representation of these mountains long persisted in other materials, such as the large
blocks of jade thus carved, many of which were in the imperial collections in recent
a Especially ch. 38, pp . 40 ff. The' Western Retreat' was a library and museum in the imperial palace.
b Illustrations and comment in Laufer (3), p. 192; Siren (1), vol. 2, pIs. 35, 36, 37; Hentze (1),
p. 203; R. L. Hobson, vol. 1, p. 7; Koop (1), pI. 57.
C On stylistic evidence Wenley (1) places at least one existing specimen in the late Warring States
period.
d Ch. 1, p. 8a.
e Cf. below, Sect. 27.

3T*i
 22. GEOGRAPHY AND CARTOGRAPHY
times. a The identification with Pheng-Lai seems probable enough, as the tradition
seems to have begun about the time of Taoist dominance under Han Wu Ti. More-
over, Han mortuary jars with lids representing a mountain in relief are also common,b
and here the connection with ideas of immortality would be evident (Fig. 25ob). It
may well be that the idea of relief maps originated in this way.
This is, however, not the only possibility. Wang Yung has pointed out that the
earliest Chinese maps (as indeed we have already seen)C were carved on wood, citing
the' Fu Pan Che' I-Bearers of the Tables of Population-to whom Confucius always
used to bow. d There seems here a very old connection between geographical maps and
population statistics. e Among the many other meanings of the word pan (also written
pan 2) is that of the mould with branching channels used for casting coins,! as also, of
course, the carved board from which each page of a book was printed. No doubt
in China the carving and incising of characters was particularly important from the
oracle-bones and the bamboo slips onwards, and so might have given rise to the idea
of the material representation of the earth's surface in relief. Of course carved inscrip-
tions were also a feature of the Babylonian and Egyptian civilisations. In any case,
there is one strange account of what may have been a relief map in the - 3rd century,
which cannot be omitted. In describing the tomb of Chhin Shih Huang Ti, the Shih
Chi says:
In the tomb-chamber the hundred water-courses, the Chiang (the Yangtze River) and the
Ho (the Yellow River), together with the great sea, were all imitated by means of flowing
mercury, and there were machines which made it flow and circulate. Above (on the roof)
the celestial bodies were all represented; below (presumably on the floor or on some kind of
table) the geography of the earth was depicted. g
Here, at the least, there must have been channels for the mercury to flow in, so that
a relief map is implied. This was in - 210.
Then, in the Han, we find in + 32 a mention of strategic maps made by a general,
Ma Yuan,3 in which the disposition of mountains and valleys was represented by
modelling in rice. h He demonstrated this before the first emperor of the Later Han at
a critical moment in the campaigns which established this dynasty. The same technique
persisted in the Thang, for in the + 9th century Chiang Fang 4 wrote a special essay on
the subject, Chii Mi Wei Shan Fu. 5
The use of wood for maps led to one rather remarkable development in the + 5th
century, namely, the making of what seems to have been a 'jigsaw map'. The story
comes from the official history of the Liu Sung dynasty, which says:
Hsieh Chuang 6 (+421 to +466) made a wooden map ten feet square, on which mountains,
water-courses and the configuration of the earth were all well shown. When one separated
a Hansford (I), pI. XXIX. b Laufer (3), pp. 198 fT.
e P. 535 . d Lun Yu, X, 16, iii.
e This we see in its late fonn in the Kuang Yii Thu. f Cf. below, Sect. 36.
g Ch. 6, p. 31a (tr. Chavannes (I), vol. 2, p . 194; Wieger, TH, p. 225).
h Hou Han Shu, ch. 54, p. 6b. The passage has been translated by Bielenstein (2), p. 50.
 .... '-"" .
- ........ ~..! .;. . .,
.-_.-

Fig. 25 I. The first edition of Matteo Ricci's world-map (+ 1584), reproduced by Chang Tou-Chin in his Thu Shu Pien of + 1623
(from d'Elia (2), vol. 2, PI. VIII). Entitled Yii Ti Shan Hai Chhiian Thu, it has straight parallels and curving meridians; China is
represented almost at the centre, with' the capital of the Great Ming D ynasty' in prominent characters. A large and straggling
antarctic continent is shown, perhaps to balance the land masses of the northern hemisphere. Was the part of it south of the East
Indies meant for more than New Guinea? This raises the question of an Asian tradition (which the Jesuits may have encountered)
of a great unknown southern continent; see Sect. 29 hereafter.
 PLATE XCI

Fig. 252. A corner (one-twelfth) of the definitive world map of Matteo Ricci (+ r602) entitled
Khun Yii Wan Kuo Chhiian Thu. The projection was similar, but the larger format permitted the
inclusion of far more information. Here can be seen the western part of Africa, Spain, France,
Ireland and the western coasts of England and Scotland. A north polar projection occupies the
left-hand top corner, and at the top on the right are two small eclipse diagrams (from d ' Elia (3),
vol. 2, PI. II).
 22. GEOGRAPHY AND CARTOGRAPHY

(the parts of the map) then all the districts were divided and the provinces isolated; when
one put them together again, the whole empire then once more formed a unity.a

But there seems to be no further mention of this in Chinese history. Though the date
of the first map of this kind in the West is not easy to determine, it would be hard to
believe that it was as early as this.
As for terrestrial globes, none is mentioned in Chinese texts until the Yuan time,
when there is a description of the model brought by Jamal aI-Din in + 1267.b
Apparently it had little effect, for such globes were not again made until the Jesuit
period.

(g) THE COMING OF RENAISSANCE CARTOGRAPHY

TO CHINA
In 1583 Matteo Ricci established himself at Chao-chhing I (then the capital of the two
provinces Kuangtung and Kuangsi), and it was there that he was asked by Chinese
scholarly friends, especially Wang Phan,2 to prepare for them a map of the world.c
This was the beginning of his famous world-map (Khun Yu Wan Kuo Chhuan Thu 3)d
of 1602. It was on a flattened sphere projection, with parallel latitudes and curving
longitudes, and it was certainly based on the world-map of Ortelius (+ 157o).e For
example, like the map of Ortelius f before it, and that of Kepler (1630) g after it, it
marks the entirely imaginary isle of 'Friesland' in the Atlantic south of Iceland. h
Ricci's map has been carefully analysed by Baddeley and Heawood, while the text on
it has been fully translated by L. Giles (10) and Goodrich (8). There has been much
discussion as to Ricci's Chinese sources, I and his influence on subsequent Chinese
a Sung Shu, ch. 85, p. I b, tr. auct., adjuv. Chavannes (10).
b See above, p. 374. We shall return to the matter in Sect. 29/.
C Bernard-Maitre (I), pp. 40, 50, 60-2, 70; Trigault (Gallagher tr.), pp. 166 ff., 301 ff., 331, 397,
536. See Fig. 25 I.
d Photographically reproduced by the Chinese Society of Historical Geography at Peiping in 1936.
And two years later, in sumptuous form, by d'Elia (5). Cf. Bernard-Maitre (13); Szczesniak (7);
Vacca (10).
e It is usually held that the contribution of Ricci to Chinese geography was enormous. 'He gave
to the Chinese', it is said, ' their first complete map of a round world showing the western hemisphere
and the five continents in their relative positions.' This is true in so far as America was not previously
known to them. But to say that he ' demonstrated how to describe and locate places by longitude and
latitude' is not quite fair, for, as we have seen (p. 292), the different lengths of gnomon shadows had been
known in China for many centuries, and longitude was very difficult to determine accumtely before
'Mr Harrison's Number One' of + 1735. The measurement of the degree of latitude had been going
on in China at least since the time of I-Hsing who determined it about +725 as 351 li 80 pu (Gaubil (2),
pp. 77, 78). Ricci certainly assigned to many places previously unknown to the Chinese transliterations
which they bear to this day ; but his services have sometimes been proclaimed rather uncritically. For
example, d'Elia (5) gives a particularly bad Chinese map of China and Korea of + 1555 as a foil to Ricci's
world map, but makes hardly any reference to Chu Ssu-Pcn and none at all to Li Hui and Chhtian Chin,
the great summarisers of the cosmographical knowledge of the Mongol age. Cf. Szczesniak (7). See
Fig. 252.
f Cf. Lloyd Brown (I); Tooley (I). g Nordenskiold (I), pp. 153, 198.
h We get this again in Giulio Aleni's Chih Fang Wai Chi' of + 1623 (Fig. 253). Dunlop (2) suggests
an origin from al-Idrisi's 'Raslanda' and a confusion with the Faroes.
1 Puini (3), Chhen Kuan-Sh(;ng (2).
 22. GEOGRAPHY AND CARTOGRAPHY

Fig. 253. One of the maps illustrating the Chih Fang Wai Chi (On World Geography) of Giulio Aleni,
+ 1623, one of Matteo Ricci's Jesuit cartographic successors in China. This portion shows Spain,
France and the British Isles. East Anglia is labelled An, Scotland Ssu-kho-chhi-ya, and Ireland Hsi-
pai-ni-ya, Spain being I-hsi-pa-ni-ya. Iceland appears as I-lan Tao , with further west the mythical
island of Fei-lan Tao (Friesland). The adjacent sheet has a spouting whale and a large ship of European
rig---exotic reading for a Chinese scholar.

cartography has been described by Chhen Kuan-Sheng (I) and Hummel (II). To
Bernard-Maitre (8) we owe an exhaustive discussion on all aspects of Chinese geo-
graphy in the + I7th and + I8th centuries, which, however, belongs to the history of
science in general rather than to that of the characteristic Chinese contributions. Sub-
sequently the art and science of map-making was cultivated by several of the Jesuits-
Sanbiasi's 'Ricci-type' map of + I 648 has been described by Mills (2), and Verbiest's
 22. GEOGRAPHY AND CARTOGRAPHY 585
stereographic projection map of + 1680 by Ahlenius. For these later works the reader
is referred to Fuchs (3, 5), Bernard-Maitre (8), and Herrmann (8).a
Great geographical and cartographic activity took place in the Khang-Hsi reign-
period ( + 1662 to + 1722) when the emperor was personally interested in extending
the scientific knowledge of his vast dominions. Much use was made of Manchu and
Mongol travellers and explorers. In + 1677 the Manchu officials U muna band Sabsu c
explored the Long White Mountain region in Manchuria, and between + 1712 and
+ 1715 Tulisen d made a long journey to visit the Torguts on the Lower Volga. In
continuation of the Thang and Yuan expeditions to the sources of the Yellow
River, and the wanderings of Hsu H sia-Kho (cf. above, p. 524), Lasi e and Sulun f
conducted a five-month expedition in Tibet in + 1704, which led, after the further
investigation of Amidag in + 1782, to the official publication Chhin-Ting Ho Yuan Chi
Lueh. l
Meanwhile an elaborate programme of work had led to the Khang-Hsi Jesuit Atlas,
the Huang Yu Chhuan Lan Thu, 2 which has been reproduced and exhaustively studied
by Fuchs (2,3). The original idea seems to have been that of Jean Franyois Gerbillon
(Chang Chheng 3 ), who persuaded the emperor to undertake a complete survey of the
empire. The project lasted from + 1707 to + 1717, and when complete was not only
the best map which had ever been made in Asia, but better and more accurate than
any European map of its time. The individual sheets,h dissected, and without the
coordinates, were incorporated in the Thu Shu Chi Chheng encyclopaedia (+ 1726).
The Jesuit who bore the chief responsibility was Jean-Baptiste Regis (Lei Hsiao-Ssu 4);
among his assistants were J oachim Bouvet (Pai Chin 5) and Pierre J artoux (Tu Te-
Mei 6), together with Chinese scholars such as Ho Kuo-Tung. 7 The atlas was engraved
on copper plates in + 1718 by Matteo Ripa (Ma Kuo-Hsien 8) i and afterwards repro-
duced many times, in Europe as well as in China.
The history of this period would have to deal, not only with the bringing of
Renaissance cartography to China, but also with the advances made by Western
geographers in knowledge of Asia which the new access to Chinese sources permitted)
Joao de Barros first published at Lisbon ( + 1563) his Terceira Decada da Asia, which
consisted of translations from Chinese geographical texts. k The first map of China to
appear in a European atlas was that of Fr. Ludovico Georgio, a Portuguese Jesuit, in the
a Pp. 287 ff. The parallel history of cartography in Japan may be approached through the papers
of Ramming (I); Dahlgren (I).
b Wu-Mo-Na.9 C Sa-Pu-Su.10

d Thu-Li-Shen Y e La-Hsi. lZ
f Shu-Lan.13 g A-Mi-Ta. 14
h Of China proper and Manchuria, not of Tibet and Mongolia.
i A secular priest, not a Jesuit. His m emoirs are not without interest . A copy of his map, preserved
in the Chinese College at Naples, has been described by Petech (3). On the whole project see also
Bemard-Maitre (14) .
J Tenri University has made available a collection of Western maps of Japan between 1552 and 1840
Anon., 6). See also the review of Szczesniak (8). k Cf. Boxer (I), p . lxxxvi.

I ik ~ iiJ it: liiHJ. 3j&~ 4 ~ ~.\!\

6 ij: 1f. ~ 8~~~ 9 m: ~ iiIJ
lllllJIfl 13fflll .. [t.iJli~
586 22. GEOGRAPHY AND CARTOGRAPHY
third addendum of Ortelius (+1584).a The first to attain correct views on the Chinese
coastline was J. H. van Linschoten (+ 1596), and it is well known that Fr. Martin
Martini's Atlas Sinensis of + 1655 was largely based on the Kuang Yu Thu, which
European geographers such as d'Anville greatly admired. b Vacca(5) goes so far as to
say that up to the end of the 17th century European geographers simply copied from
Chinese atlases, and not always very accurately, never improving on them. Purchas'
Pilgrims (+ 1625) contains c an interesting 'Map of China, taken out of a China Map
printed with China characters, etc. gotten at Bantam by Capt. John Saris'. d This is
entitled Huang Ming I Thung Fang Yu Pei Lan I and seems to be derivative from the
Kuang Yu Thu. e
Meanwhile the stream of Chinese geographical scholarship continued. In the
+ 17th century fine contributions were made such as the Thien Hsia Chun Kuo Li
Ping Shu 2 (Merits and Drawbacks of all the Countries in the World) f by Ku Yen-Wu. 3
The following century produced a very great work, the Chhien-Lung Atlas of China.
This was based on Jesuit surveys carried out between 1756 and 1759, and the maps
were executed on a scale of I: 1,500,000. By 1769 the wood-cut edition was ready, and
by 1775 it was engraved on copper plates. Once again China was ahead of all other
countries in the world in map-making, and the enlightened imperial patronage of the
Jesuits and their Chinese co-workers was well rewarded.g Much of the surveying was
done by Felix da Rocha (Fu Tso-Lin 4 ) and Joseph d'Espinha (Kao Shen-Ssu5),
while Michel Benoist (Chiang Yu-Jen 6) worked on the cartography at Peking. h A good
'Geography of the Empire' (Chhien-Lung Fu Thing Chou Hsien Chih 7) appeared in
+ 1787, and a 'Historical Geography of the Sixteen Kingdoms' (i.e. + 5th century)
(Shih Liu Kuo Chiang Yu Chih 8 )i in + 1798, both by Hung Liang-Chi. 9 But all this
lies outside the scope of the present book.
It is interesting that there was much reluctance on the part of the Chinese geo-
graphers to give up the rectangular grid system. During the first half of the 19th century
many atlases showed both grid-lines and latitude-longitude lines on the same map (for
example, the Huang Chhao I Thung Ti Yu Chhuan Thu 10 produced by Li Chao-LoI I
in 1832). In such maps the crossing of a given latitude and longitude was taken as the
central point, and the system of rectangular spaces laid down in relation to it, but
some other latitudes were also shown)
a It is not nearly so good as the grid-map of + 1137. On Georgio see Szczesniak (7).
b Huttmann (I); Bernard-Maitre (IS) ; Tooley (I). C Pt. III, Bk. ii, ch. 7, Sect. 7, p. 401.

d Whose journeys to the East are described in Purchas, Pt. I, Bk. iv, ch. 2, p. 384.
e The general disposition of river and lake systems is the same, thus Erh Hai in Yunnan is crescent-
shaped in both, and the relations of Yellow River and Great Wall in Shensi are identical. The map in
Purchas reproduces the symbols for city sizes, but their meaning seems not to have been understood.
It also inverts the names of Szechuan and Kweichow provinces.
f Cf. Forke (9), p. 479. g See Bernard-Maitre (8) and Mills (7).
h Cf. Pfister (I), pp. 774, 776, 818, 821, 865.
i Translation by des Michels Cl). Cf. Forke (9), p. 563.
j I am grateful to Mr J. V . Mills and Dr W. Fuchs for drawing attention to this.

I.M -.~ •• ft 2~Tn~~~. 3 U~jf£; 4tt1i. f1!~

5 i€:itilt ,,[,, 6~lf;fft: 7~IW:M!JHl.9'li!\li;m 8 Tj,~m~;m
9 ~ ~ 15 10 • W! - • :Jt!! • ~ 11!\1 11 * ~l:.i~
 22. GEOGRAPHY AND CARTOGRAPHY

(h) COMPARATIVE RETROSPECT

It is now possible to look back over the mass of material which has been analysed, and
to gain a provisionally comprehensive view such as that summarised in Table 40. All
that has now to be done is to recapitulate the main points in it, and to add a few
further considerations in the nature of cement for which there was no opportunity
before. As suggested at the opening of this Section, we may distinguish between
scientific cartography and religious cosmography. The former tradition begins early
in the West, with the great Greek and Hellenistic geographers, but then dies out com-
pletely, leaving the field to the orbocentric wheel-maps of the latter tradition. But
just as this occurs in Europe, we find the Chinese initiating a long line of scientific
map-makers which is never interrupted until it blends with the cartography of the
Renaissance.
The first question which arises is whether there could have been any transmission
of the idea of meridians and parallels eastwards from Marinus and Ptolemy to Chang
Heng and Phei Hsiu. At present there is no way of answering this. Facts which have
been given already in the Section on culture contacts,a however, are sufficient to
indicate that such a transmission would have been possible through the early travels
of traders and 'ambassadors' from Roman Syria. The parallel case of the passage of
Ptolemy's geography to India has been much discussed. b Cosmas Indicopleustes, for
instance, relates that the' Brahmans' held views very like those of Ptolemy.c But even
if we could prove that an idea was transmitted, it would not help us much with regard
to the detailed local sources of Chang Heng and Phei Hsiu, and we have no need to
assume any lack of originality on their part.
In the West, Hellenistic quantitative cartography was conserved in dormant state
only in Byzantine civilisation, but after it became available to the Arabs, in the
+9th century, led to much greater geographical achievements in their culture, such
as the work of al-Idrlsl in the + 12th. Meanwhile, the Latin world was dominated
by the religious wheel-maps in the style of Macrobius, Orosius and Beatus, and
awakening came, not from scholarly geographers, but from practising sailors and
navigators at the beginning of the portolan period about + 1300. That this was at least
partly dependent upon the transmission of the magnetic compass from China cannot
be questioned. d But it was not long before the loxodromes of the portolans began to
be supplemented by a rectangular grid, and the second question which arises, therefore,
is to what extent this too could have been a transmission in the westward direction.
Arabic map-makers, and even a Latin, Marino Sanuto, were using rectangular grids
almost from the beginning of the portolan period. Now the Arabs were well established
at Canton from the middle of the + 8th century onwards, and the two following
centuries were marked by many travels in China, those of Sulaiman the Merchant and
of Ibn Wahb al-Ba~rl (Ferrand, 2); those of Abu Dulaf ibn al-Muhalhil (Ferrand, I)
a Section 7 h in Vol. 1, pp. 191 ff. b Cf. Kennedy (1), pp. 498 ff.
c McCrindle (7), vol. 2, p. 48.
d Cf. Sect. 26i below.
 tit
00
00
Table 40. Chart to show the comparative development of cartography in East and West

Orbocentric wheel-maps
(Babylonian or Indian origin?)
IEuROPE I .",.",,--___ ICHINA \

Eratosthenes ( - 3rd) .", .", .", ,.

"",
,
-------- - - - - - - __ --...
HMiaPrPLonarucshus «-+2 n d » _ ...... '... \ I@
Ptolemy
I st
( + 2nd). ..... ,.
~ transmission of idea of parallels and meridians? ?
Chang Heng ( + 2nd)
I 1'0
I
,. , Phei Hsiu ( + 3rd ) I
...... , I
,-'
Macrobius (+ 5th) \ { TaO_An ( + 347)
Orosius
I
( + 5th)

Beatus (+ 8th)
I
$
recovery of Ptolemy ( + 9th)
transmission of
magnetic compass
Chia Tan
I
( + 8th)
:
I
I
I

~
al- Idrisi (+ 12th), I Sian rectangular grid-maps (+ 12th) I

(---- :
I
transmission of ~ Suchow maps (+ 13 th )
!
I
I
.-------.
J.---
rectangul ar grid
I
(al-Qazwini. + 14th)
/
I
Chih-Phan
(+ 12 70 )
I ~_"",",,"------- Marino Sanuto I Chu Ssu-Pen (+ 14th) I
I 06
( + 13 ) I (Hafiz i Abru. + 15th) (Kuallg Yli Thu) I
1 recovery oof Ptolemy by + 1475 ? .. I :
I
I I
M ercator ( + 1569)
Wu Pei ChilL charts (+ 15th) I
I
I
ends + 17th
transmission of Renaissance cartography

transmission of Chinese geographical data

,
I
Korean tradition
 22. GEOGRAPHY AND CARTOGRAPHY 58 9

10.

,
Fig. 254. Babylonian discoidal map on a clay tablet of the -7th century (Cuneiform Texts in
the British Museum, vol. 22, pI. XLvm).

and the Christian monk al-NajranI (Ibn al-Nadlm). It would almost be surprising if
men such as these had brought back with them no knowledge of Chinese quantitative
cartography. Moreover, al-MustaufI al-QazwlnI was working in the period of Mongol
dominance (early 14th) and his type of map (a grid with place-names only) is identical
with contemporary Chinese maps. The suggestion is therefore permissible that the
advances of cartography in + 14th- and + 15th-century Europe were due, not only to
the study of Ptolemy by the Arabs, but also to some transmission of quantitative
cartographic principles from China.
We may now return for a moment to the religious cosmographic tradition. This was
quite clearly present among both the Arabs and the Chinese, though with the latter,
at any rate, it never dominated in geography to the extent which it did in medieval
59 0 22. GEOGRAPHY AND CARTOGRAPHY

Europe. Perhaps Confucian good sense and Taoist skill prevented any enthusiastic
reception of the Buddhist world-conception centring on Mt Meru (Khun-Lun). But
its ultimate origins invite a third question. Was it really Babylonian? In India it seems
to be of considerable antiquity. Winter (I) has reminded us of its presence in a part of
the Jain Canon (the Surya-prafiiapti)a which may go back to the later part of the
- 1st millennium. Hence it may not be without significance that Akkadian and
Babylonian maps (Fig. 254) ranging from about -2500 to - 500 are known, and that
they are all discoidal. b In any case, there can be little doubt that the Chinese received
it from India.
It only remains to add that while the transmission of Renaissance cartography to
China in the time of Matteo Ricci cannot be underestimated, the reverse transmission
of geographical information about East Asia to the + 17th-century geographers of
Europe must also be remembered. It was owing to the solid work of generations of
Chinese map-makers that knowledge of this part of the world became incorporated in
modern geography.

(i) THE RETURN OF THE RECTANGULAR GRID TO EUROPE

These concluding lines may serve as a pendant to the long story of cartography in
East and West, in which the various cultures have been seen to be so interwoven, as
much, perhaps, as in any other of the subjects with which we have to deal.
At the beginning of the present century cartographers had become so adept in
methods of representing on paper the curvature of the earth's surface, and the astro-
nomical determination of latitude and longitude had become so refined, that no one
would have taken anything but a very superior attitude to the traditional Chinese
rectangular grid. It would not have been imagined that this grid would again have
been required. Yet in the First World War it was found, about 1915, that in the co-
operation of artillery with survey engineers for accurate gunfire an orthomorphic pro-
jection was necessary. And thus rectangular coordinates, or 'carroyage', returned to
the field of activity, a conical orthomorphic projection due to Lambert being eventually
adopted. c For convenience of immediate recognition, without corrections, of the
distance between two points, the rectangular grid once more became normal in military
maps. More recently still, it has become essential in trans-polar flying, where any
course taken (except in the north-south direction) rapidly crosses the converging
meridians at a constantly changing angle, and navigation is made even more difficult
by the proximity of the magnetic pole. d A particular meridian is therefore accepted as
standard and a parallel grid network based on this is employed to keep the angle of
course constant. But we do not suggest that the similarity with the age-long Chinese
tradition was known to those who made these innovations in modern Europe.
With this we bring to an end our study of Chinese cartography and geography.
a Masson-Oursel, de Willman-Grabowska & Stern (I), p. 174; Renou & Filliozat (I), vol. 2, p. 613;
Thibaut (2), p. 21.
b Unger (1,2); Meek (I); Cuneiform Texts from Babylonian Tablets in the British Museum, vol. 22,
pI. XLVIII.
C Cf. Steers (I); Hinks (2); Bramley-Moore (I). d Cf. p. 365 above.
 59!

23. GEOLOGY
[AND RELATED SCIENCES]

(a) INTRODUCTION; GEOLOGY AND MINERALOGY

The study of the Chinese contributions to geology and mineralogy labours under the
great difficulty that there exists as yet no monograph on the subject either in Chinese
or a Western language- in other words the basic work has not yet been done. In the
course of a general survey such as this it is naturally impossible to do it, and we must
therefore be content with what can only be a rough first approximation. Moreover,
geology and mineralogy are largely modern, post-Renaissance, sciences. The former
really begins with Nicholas Stensen's a Prodromus of + 1668, which introduced concep-
tions such as folded strata, faulting, volcanic intrusions, eroded forms, etc. Not until
the latter half of the 18th century did geology as we know it take shape, with the
Neptunian theories of A. G. Werner b and his followers opposing the Plutonian ideas
of J. Hutton c and his school. Ancient and medieval times had contributed relatively
little to geology, and the general backwardness in investigating the structure of the
earth's crust d may broadly be said to have been shared by the Chinese, though they
were responsible, as we shall see, for several empirical discoveries and inventions of
great interest. Mineralogy goes back further, in the sense that catalogues of different
kinds of stones, ores, gems and minerals were being made already in antiquity-here
the ancient and medieval 'Lapidaries' (corresponding to the Herbals and Bestiaries)
of Europe can be matched with (and sometimes are found to have been surpassed by)
those of India and China. But again modern mineralogy as we know it developed
from the concern of the 18th century about the classification of mineral substances.
Some, such as Berzelius, sought a system based purely on chemical composition;
others, such as Linnaeus, preferred a natural history classification; Werner adopted
a mixed system, and it was not until the crystallographic work of R. J. Haliye that
modern systematic mineralogy could arise.
In order to assess Chinese contributions, one needs good general histories of geology
and mineralogy in Europe. Even these are not too numerous. The most complete and
useful which I have found is that of F. D. Adams, but certain smaller papers are
a + 1638 to + 1686 ; Pledge (I), pp. 91, 124; Adams (I), p. 358. Cf. the source-book of Mather &
Mason (I).
b +1749 to +1815; Adams (I), p. 209.
c + 1726 to + 1797; Pledge (I), p. 97; Adams (I), p . 238.
d A factor here which is not usually taken into account is the necessity of really stable political
conditions before geologists can make field trips on a scale suffi cient to allow of the verification of
hypotheses. Me.nbers of the Chinese Geological Survey in our own time, for example, have lost their
lives owing to the incomprehension of backward tribesfolk. But such conditions are rapidly becoming
a thing of the past.
e + 1743 to + 1821; Adams (I), p. 205. The best study of the development of mineralogy since
Haliy is that of Groth (I).
59 2 23. GEOLOGY

valuable, such as that of Bromehead (I). The well-known book of Geikie deals
essentially only with the post-Renaissance development of geology, and the same
applies to that of Zittel, now rather old. The most important Chinese work is that of
Chang Hung-Chao, Lapidarium Sinicum, which is a thorough discussion of some of
the most important mineral substances mentioned in Chinese texts, including many
disputed questions of nomenclature. a The mineralogical parts of the books of the
Pen Tshao I type have given rise to several works of importance in Western languages,
notably those of de Mely (I), Read & Pak (I), and Geerts (I). These, together with
smaller contributions covering more specialised parts of the field, will be discussed
below in their proper place. For the mineralogical knowledge of classical antiquity in
Europe, there is the old and forgotten, but still useful, compendium of selected texts
and comments by Lenz (I), besides recent work by Hitler (I), Wellmann (I) and others.
Monographs by Berger and Sagui parallel these for geology. On medieval mineralogy
Mieleitner may be consulted. In working on this subject one has to bear in mind the
literature on mining in China; b it is enormous in size and scope, and we have not been
able to check more than a small part of it for points of mineralogical interest. c

(b) GENERAL GEOLOGY

(I) PICTORIAL REPRESENTATIONS

In the first place the capacity for accurate observation and representation of geological
forms as shown in Chinese pictures and book illustrations should not be under-
estimated. If one takes up a modern book such as the Hsia Chiang Thu Khao 2 (Illustra-
tions of the Yangtze Gorges), typical of many produced during the last century, but
with drawings and text in purely Chinese traditional style showing no trace of Western
influence, one finds that many geological formations are very clearly represented. In
the copy which I saw in Chungking d in 1946 I noted scarps, flat-tops and peneplains,e
granite boulder tors,! a picture showing very fine dipping strata,g a mesa hill cap of
hard rock or a monadnock,h and a red sandstone hogback anticline. i It is probable
that a whole text-book of geology could be illustrated largely from Chinese pictures

a Among subsidiary articles in Chinese, I may refer to Yin Tsan-Hsiin (1). There is a forgotten
glossary of Chinese geological and mineralogical terms by Muirhead. Though the book of Ko Li-Phu
(A. W . Grabau) has not been accessible to us, I believe that it deals mainly with quite modern times.
b Most of it of course concerns mineral deposits in China as described by modern geologists, both
Chinese and Western, or the modern exploitation of these deposits; but accounts of traditional mining
practice are embedded in it. Among the books on the mineral wealth of China, those by W. E. Wang
and by Torgashev may be mentioned.
C Comparisons with the mineralogy of the Arabs will of course be desired; here I can only indicate
a few pointers to that literature-Wiedemann (I), Ruska (I), Mullet (I). For comparative mining
traditions see Sebillot (I).
d It included the text of the Hsia Chiang Chiu Sbzg Chhuan Chih 3 (Record of the Yangtze Gorges
Lifeboat Service); cf. Worcester (I), p . 28. Dr Michael Bolton kindly brought it to my attention.
e Pp. I, 13, 24. f P . 30.
g P. 32. h P. 54.
i P.63.
 23. GEOLOGY 593
and book illustrations, mountain scenery having always been one of the favourite
subjects of artists. For a study of this observational side of geology in China abundant
material would be found in the local histories and geographies, the hsien chih, I a class
of literature which has already been described. a Numerous illustrations of this kind
are scattered through the late encyclopaedias, such as the Thu Shu Chi Chheng of
+ 1726, in the Shan chhuan 2 division. So also the late geographies, such as the
Ta Chhing I Thung Chih of + I73o,b would have to be drawn upon; it was from
this that Biot (IS) selected a number of fragmentary geological notes, as, for
example, on the basaltic columns (shih sun sen pU 3 ) at Shih-Men Shan 4 in Yunnan. c
If we look through the section of the Thu Shu Chi Chheng just mentioned, we have
no difficulty in finding many scenes of geological interest. Fig. 255 shows an example
of the rejuvenation of a valley, the previously stabilised floor having been cut sharply
through by new river erosion, forming sharp river terraces. Another effect of water
is seen in the superficial deposit of water-rounded boulders (Fig. 256), which the
artist, however, has strewn rather too freely in unlikely positions. In Fig. 257 we have
a platform of marine denudation with a wave-cut arch; following this level to the right
the eye detects further relics of the same platform. The manner of representing the
crags on the right at the top is a conventional one, seen in many such pictures, and
perhaps related to calligraphic traditions and techniques; its geological meaning is
not obvious. d Fig. 258 is another example of extreme rejuvenation. The' crag and
platform' motif was a favourite one. Dipping strata are faithfully reproduced in
Fig. 259, and the Permian basalt cliffs of O-Mei Shan are seen in Fig. 260. Fig. 261
is interesting as it shows in the distance a very typical U-shaped glacial valley, as well
as dipping strata in the foreground. Finally, the karst limestone pinnacles, rising with
extreme abruptness out of the flat plain, so typical of the landscape of Kuangsi, are
shown in Fig. 262, which represents the neighbourhood of Kweilin.e
Perhaps the most striking of all such pictures is that which the Sung painter Li
Kung-Lin 5 (ft. c. + IlOO) made of an exposed anticlinal arch at Lung-Mien Shan 6
(Fig. 263).f
The fact that so many identifications are possible is in itself a remarkable testimony
of the faithfulness to Nature with which Chinese painters manipulated their brush-
strokes. To illustrate geological structures was indeed far from their thoughts, and the
accurate description of such forms may well have little to do with the aesthetic

a P. 5 1 7 above.
b Cf. p. 521 above. It would be of interest to follow back these iconographic traditions as far as
possible; they could certainly be traced to the Sung.
e The remarkable descriptive work of Hsii Hsia-Kho at the end of the Ming has already been
noticed above, p. 524.
d One can see it applied elsewhere in the illustration of the crystals of calcite given in the Pen Tshao
Kang Mu. On all such conventions Petrucci (3) is to be consulted.
e I am much indebted to Mr Brian Harland for his advice in these geological identifications.
f These mountains are north-west of Thung-chheng in Anhui, just north of the Yangtze between
Hankow and Nanking.
2 tU JII
594 23. GEOLOGY

Fig.255. Geology in Chinese art: (a) the rejuvenation of a valley at Li-Shan , near Fei-hsien, in Shantung
(TSCC, Shan chhuan tien, ch. 23).

Fig. 256. Geology in Chinese art: (b) deposit of water-rounded boulders at I-Shan in southern Shantung
(TSCC, Shan chhuan tien, ch. 26).
 23. GEOLOGY 595

Fig. 257. Geology in Chinese art: (c) a platfonn of marine denudation with a wave-cut arch at
Lao-Shan near Tsingtao on the Shantung coast (TSCC, Shan chhuan lien, ch. 29).

Fig. 258. Geology in Chinese art: (d) extreme rejuvenation of a valley at Kuang-Wu Shan in northern
Honan (TSCC, Shan ch/wan tien, ch. SI).
 23. GEOLOGY

appreciation of Chinese painting itself, yet surely the old empirical closeness to Nature
of the Taoists was still there, and the world depicted was the real world. After we had
made the study of landscapes on which the preceding paragraph was based, we found
that others had already approached the matter in a different way. For many centuries
Chinese literature has contained handbooks or guides for painters which include a
great variety of type-forms or standard components of pictures, and among these,

Fig. 259. Geology in Chinese art: (e) dipping strata
at Hsiang-Shan south of Khaifeng near the tomb
of Pai Chii-I (TSCC, Shan chhuan tien, ch. 64).
Fig. 260. Geology in (:hinese art: (f) the
Permian basalt cliffs of O-Mei Shan in western
Szechuan (TSCC, Shan chhuan tien, ch. 173). This
region is the site of famous Buddhist abbeys, and
from the top of the mountain, one of the westem-
most peaks of the Tibetan massif, the Fo Kuang
(Buddha Light), a kind of Brocken Spectre, can
often be seen (cf. p. 477 above).

geological structures (hills, mountains, waters) naturally have a conspicuous place. a

Among the handbooks perhaps the most famous is the Chieh-Tzu Yuan Hua Chuan'
(Mustard-Seed Garden Guide to Painting), issued by Li Li-Ong2 & Wang Kai 3 in
+ 1679, a book which in some editions included examples of very early polychrome
block printing, afterwards to be raised to so famous an art by Japanese masters.
Tentative geological identifications of the type-forms shown in chapter 3 of this work b
have been made by Taki (I) and March (3).c

a Late Japanese popular publishing abounded in manuals of this kind, which are thus among the
commonest of all Japanese books in occidental collections and private libraries.
b In the Chhu chi (first series).
C With the collaboration of D . McLachlan. We thank Dr Cheng Te-Khun for these references.
 23. GEOLOGY 597
Apart from certain general terms, such as lun khuo 1 (outline mountain ranges like
a pile of cut-off wheel-rims) and chang kai 2 (the last enveloping outline of a peak far
away), the forms are termed tshun 3 (mountain wrinkles), i.e. standard representations
of mountain curvatures. Of these the teachers distinguished rather more than twenty
variations of what was possible for a brush. Glaciated or maturely eroded slopes,
sometimes steep, are shown by the technique called' spread-out hemp fibres' (phi ma
tshun 4 ), and mountain slopes furrowed by water into gullies are drawn in the ho yeh

Fig. 261. Geology in Chinese art: (g) a typical Fig. 262. Geology in Chinese art: (h) limestone
U-shaped glacial valley in the distance with karst masses and pinnacles near Kweilin in
dipping strata to the right; Chhi-Chhli Shan near Kuangsi (TSCC, Shan chhuan lien, ch. 193).
Pao-ning in northern Szechuan (TSCC, Shan Cf. VO!. I, Fig. 4.
chhuan lien, ch. 178). This scenery is typical of
theSzechuan-Shensi border and the road through
the Chhin-Ling mountains.

tshun s manner (,veins of a lotus-leaf hung up to dry'). 'Unravelled rope' (chieh so

tshun 6) indicates igneous intrusions and granite peaks; 'rolling clouds' (chiian yiin
tshun 7) suggest fantastically contorted eroded schists. The smooth roundness of
exfoliated igneous rocks is seen in the 'bullock hair' method (niu maD tshun S ),
irregularly jointed and slightly weathered granite appears in 'broken nets' (pho wang
tshun 9 ), and extreme erosion gives kuei mien 10 or khu-lou 1I tshun (' devil-face' or' skull'
forms). The horizontal stratification of sedimentary rocks is easily to be seen in the
eke tai 1 2 (' folded belts ') tshun, and faulted angular rocks are unmistakable in the hsiao
fu phi l 3 and ta tu phi l4 tshun (' hacked or cleaved with a small, or large, axe '). Lastly,
Ifltlfli 2d$~ 3~ qli l!li ~ 'iiif1.l'HIt 6~$*~
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 23. GEOLOGY
cleavages across strata, with vertical jointed upright angular rocks, looking somewhat
like crystals, are depicted in the' horse-teeth' (ma ya tshun I) technique. These are
only a few of the technical terms, but they show the degree of systematisation that was
reached.

(2) THE ORIGIN OF MOUNTAINS; UPLIFTING, EROSION, AND

SEDIMENTARY DEPOSITION

As regards statements concerning the origin of mountains, Chinese literature proves

unexpectedly rich. Here the most famous text is that of the Neo-Confucian Chu Hsi.
In the Chu Tzu Chhuan Shu we find the following passage (the philosopher has just
been talking about the periodical cataclysmic destruction of the world and its re-crea-
tion at stated very long intervals of time): a
In the beginning of the heavens and the earth, before the chaotic matter was divided, there
was, I think, nothing but fire and water. Earth was formed as a deposit from the water.
Even today, when we stand on a high elevation and look far and wide, the company of
the hills looks like the waves of the sea. The waters must have moulded them into these
shapes, but as to when their solidification (ning2) took place, we have no idea. That which
must have been at first extremely soft, became hard and solidified. Some one remarked that
these processes resembled the moulding of beaches by the tides, and the philosopher agreed.
The heaviest part of the original waters, he said, formed the earth, and the finest parts of the
original fire formed the wind, the thunder, the lightning, the sun, the stars, and so on .... b
The small is the sample (lit. the shadow) of the great. Only one day and one night is
enough to see it.c The Five Peaks d are all but one Chhi, (blown by) a vast breathing. The
waves roar and rock the world boundlessly, the frontiers of sea and land are always changing
and moving, mountains suddenly arise (ph0 3) and rivers are sunk and drowned (yin 4).
Human things become utterly extinguished and ancient traces entirely disappear; this is
called the 'Great W aste-Land of the Generations'. I have seen on high mountains conchs
and oyster shells (lo pang 5), often embedded in the rocks. These rocks in ancient times were
earth or mud, and the conchs and oysters lived in water. Subsequently everything that was
at the bottom came to be at the top, and what was originally soft became solid and hard.
One should meditate deeply on such matters, for these facts can be verified.e

The great importance of this passage for the history of palaeontology will be referred
to shortly. But, as Grabau has pointed out, the main geological interest of the conversa-
tion (which would have taken place about + I 170) is that Chu Hsi recognised the fact
that the mountains had been elevated since the day when the shells of the living animals
had been buried in the soft mud of the sea-bottom. f Three centuries later, in the time

a Cf. above, in Sect. 16d, Vo!. 2, pp. 48sff.

b On the 'centrifugal cosmogony' see above, in Sect. 14d, Vol. 2, pp. 371ff.
C For example, the changed shape of sand dunes or beaches after a severe storm.

d Probably a reference to the five sacred mountains.

e Ch. 49, pp. 19b, 20b, tr. auct., adjuv.le Gall (I), p . 121, Forke (6), p . II2, (9), pp. 182 ff., Bodde(6).
f The parallel between the wave forms of mountains or folded strata and the waves of the sea was
an associated, but really quite distinct, idea. It could easily h ave originated from the observation of
ripple marks on sand beaches, the great pressures in the earth's crust not yet being visualised. The
Fig. 263. Geology in Chinese art (i): an exposed anticlinal arch at Lung-Mien Shan near Thung-chheng in Anhui, just north of the Yangtze
between Hankow and Nanking; a painting by Li Kung-Lin (ft. c. + IIOO) .
 23. GEOLOGY 599
of Leonardo da Vinci, who takes an important place, as we shall see, in the history of
palaeontology, it was still supposed that the fact that shells were found in the Apennine
mountains indicated that the sea had once stood at that level. Leonardo himself, how-
ever, attributed the origin of mountains to elevation and distortion after the formation
of their fossil-containing rocks. a
It might be thought that this was a flash of insight on the part of the great Sung
philosopher, and stood alone. In fact, however, it was only part of a train of thought
which had begun centuries before and was to continue long afterwards. The pursuit
of this leads us to a peculiar technical term of the Taoists-sang thien,1 the' mulberry-
grove'. Originally it was a place-name and perhaps a constellation-name, but by the
Thang it had come to be used for land which had once been covered by the sea, or
would be in the future. Li Pai so refers to it in poems. b At this time Yen Chen-
Chhing2 wrote an essay, Ma-Ku Shan Hsien Than Chi 3 (Notes on the Altars to the

view that the mountains were actually formed by the effects of the waters under the sea, afterwards
rising in violent cataclysms high above sea-level, seems to have been particularly associated with the
Neo-Confucian philosopher Tshai Yuan-Ting,' the exact contemporary of Chu Hsi. For Mr J . R.
McEwan informs us that Japanese 18th-century books frequently give as the authority for this view a
work entitled Tsao-Hua Lun s (Discourse on the Creation) attributed to Tshai. Unfortunately this is
not mentioned among his other b ooks as listed in Sung Shih, ch. 434, p. 6b, or Sung Yuan Hsiieh An,
ch. 62, nor is it referred to by Forke (9), p . 203 . On the other hand Tshai did write a book on geomancy
(the Fa Wei Lun,6 Effects of Minute Causes) and from his sayings recorded in the above sources one
can see that the expression tsao-hua-the Author or Foundation of Change--was always on his lips.
Indeed, this expression parallels the favourite phrase Ko Chih' (cf. Vo!. I, pp. 48-9) and signals titles
of interest to us. Perhaps the Tsao-Hua Lun was an opuscule preserved only in Japan. Now it may
be significant that the Tao Tsang contains (TT3I8) a Tsao-Hua Ching (Creation Canon; full title
Tung-Hsiian Ling-Pao Chu Thien Shih-Chieh Tsao-Hua Ching 8) of unknown date and authorship,
which ' explains the structure of the universe, heavens, earth, hells, sun, moon, continents, upheavals
by water, fire and wind, renewed creations' and so on. Buddhist influence is obvious, but there is a
geological relevance too. We think that this was probably compiled in the Thang period, for the
Tsao-Hua Chhilan Yil 9 (The Beginnings of the Creation) by Chao Tzu-Mien 10 (now lost), which appears
in the Thang Shu bibliography, was very probably connected with it. A Ming commentary, the Tsao-
Hua Ching Lun Thu" by Chao Chhien,12 still exists. In another direction, geological thought links up
with alchemy. Below, p. 638, we shall study some remaining fragments of a Tsao-Hua Chih-Nan 13 by
Thu Hsiu Chen ChUn 14 (Guide to the Creation, by the Earth's Mansions Immortal), especially in
connection with the theory of the growth of metals in the womb of the up risen mountains. To accelerate
such growth artificially was one of the alchemists' principal aims. Hence, presumably, the Tsao-Hua
Chhien Chhui lS (The Hammer and Tongs of Creation) by the Ming prince Ning Hsien Wang l 6
(cf. Vo!. I, p. 147, and Sect. 33 below). And even the title of a lost Ming book makes sense in
this connection-the Tsao-Hua Fou Hung Thu l7 (Diagrams of the Natural Incubation of Mercury),
i.e. the formation of its ores in the earth; by an alchemist who called himself Sheng HsUan
Tzu 18 (the Ascending-Mercury Master). In using the word' Creation' for the translation of all these
titles, we must remind the reader that the conception of creation in the full sense ex nihilo was entirely
un-Chinese (see Vo!. 2, p. 581). The Author of Change was no person, but a numinous allegory of
the T ao.
a The importance of Chu Hsi's statement has been fully realised by modern Chinese scientists, as,
for example, by the doyen of living Chinese geologists, Li Ssu-Kuang (1) . Also by western writers,
e.g. Silcock (I).
b Waley (13), p. 44.

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600 23. GEOLOGY

Immortals on Ma-Ku Mountain),a in which he quoted some remarks attributed to

the legendary Taoist woman immortal Ma Ku:

Ma Ku said, 'Since I was last invited here I have seen that the Eastern Sea has turned into
groves and fields (sang thien I). This change has occurred three times. The last time I arrived
at Mt Pheng-Lai b (for an assembly of Hsien immortals) I noticed that the sea was only half
as deep as it had been at the previous meeting. It looks as if the sea will again be turned to
mountains and dry land.'
Fang Phing 2 laughed and said, 'The sages all maintained that where the sea is now the
dust will one day be fiying.'

And Yen Chen-Chhing goes on to say:

Even in stones and rocks on lofty heights there are shells of oysters and clams to be seen.
Some think that they were transformed from the groves and fields once under the water
(sang thienl).c

This essay must have been written about + 77o.d

But Ma Ku's views on the sang thien were by no means new in the + 8th century.
Yen was quoting from the Shen Hsien Chuan 3 (Lives of the Divine Hsien) attributed
to Ko Hung. 4 If this attribution were right, the book would date from about + 320,
but though it is probably not as old as this it is certainly pre-Thang. The same words
of Ma Ku and Fang Phing appear in it in a section devoted to her in the 7th chapter,
where other women immortals are also discussed. One of the oldest mentions must
be that ascribed to Kuo Pho about + 310 in the Shih Shuo Hsin Yii; e he defended the
site of a grave which some had criticised as being too near the water's edge by saying
that it would all turn into mulberry groves as the centuries went by. Moreover, other
pre-Thang references may be adduced. It will be remembered that in the Section on
mathematics we met with an interesting book entitled Shu Shu Chi I (Memoir on
some Traditions of Mathematical Art) which purports to have been written by Hsii Y0 5
about + 190, but which cannot in any case have been later than about + 570 when
Chen Luan 6 wrote the commentary on it. Here we find, in the text itself, the following
curious passage:

Those who do not recognise the 'three' yet boastfully claim to know the 'ten', are like
the River People who lost the direction of their destination, and blamed it on the unskilful
hand of the direction-finder. f If one does not know the length or shortness of small moments

a TSCC, Shan chhuan tien, ch. 149, i wen, p. 2a. Also in Yen's collected works, ch. 13. He was a
Taoist (Thang Yu Lin, ch. 6, pp. 2bff.).
b The magic island in the Eastern Sea, cf. above, Sect. 13C in Vol. 2, p. 240.
c Tr. auct.
d Yet Sarton (I), vol. 3, p. 213, calls' astounding' the early + loth-century statement of al-Mas'udi
that sea could turn into dry land, and land again be covered by the sea.
e Ch. 3A, p . 3 1a.
f The significance of this passage, together with others in the same book, for the history of the
magnetic compass, will be referred to below, Sect. 26i.
 23. GEOLOGY 601

of time (chha-na I), a how can one appreciate what Ma Ku meant by the' sang thien' (i.e. the
long periods of centuries during which the sea is turned into dry land)? If one does not
understand how to distinguish between very small quantities (chi-wei 2 ),b how can one
understand the hundreds of millions (of units) which form the whole universe?c

It is therefore safe to say that at some time between the + 2nd and the + 6th centuries,
the expression sang thien had a familiar connotation equivalent to what we should now
call ' geological time'. Another reference to these ideas occurs in the Chin Shu (History
of the Chin Dynasty), which speaks of Tu Yii 3 ( + 222 to + 284) as follows:

Tu Yii often used to say that the high hills will become valleys and the deep valleys will
become hills. So when he made monumental steles recording his successes he made them
in duplicate. One was buried at the bottom of a mountain, and the other was placed on top.
He considered that in subsequent centuries they would be likely to exchange their positions. d

Here again there was a long lapse of time between Tu Yii's own period and the time
when the Chin Shu was written, just before + 635, yet the Chin Shu is considered
well informed and its writers must have had access to reliable sources. Besides, an
earlier book, the Shih Shuo Hsin Yu, e describes how Huan Wen 4 said about + 360 that
the whole Chinese continent would sink beneath the sea. Whether or not we should
really refer these ideas to the + 3rd century or before, there can be no doubt that they
are pre-Thang, and thus long before Chu Hsi. In the Thang, moreover, they were
widespread; there is, for instance, a famous poem of Chhu Kuang-Hsi,s one of Yen
Chen-Chhing's contemporaries, which says that 'the sea will be changed into groves
of mulberry-trees'.f Mter the + 8th century the term sang thien came to be applied
poetically to the sea in general. g In + 1210 the poet Chang Tzu,6 for example, brought
the idea into several of his writings. h In the + 14th century it must have been very
common, for a writer such as Chhen Thing7 has recourse to it in his Liang Shan Mo
Than 8 (Jottings from Two Mountains)i to explain why an iron chain which was
a I.e. Skr. k~atla, 'atomic' instants of time.
b I.e. piled-up particles, 'atoms', Skr. paramti1)u. We shall return to these terms in Sect. z6 b.
c Pp. 3 b, 4a, tr. auct.
d Ch. 34, p. llb, tr. auct.; cit. in TPYL, ch. 589, p. zb. The story is often quoted, as in the +9th-
century Lin Chio Chi 9 (The Unicorn Horn Collection of Examination Essays), p. l2a. Tu Yti, a
minister of State, was also a geographer, astronomer, and patron of engineers.
e Ch. 3B, p. I9a; also Yii Chien, ch. 3, p. 7a.
f Cf. the Thang inscriptions recorded in the Ku Kho Tshung Chhao, pp. 3Za to 61 b. And a poem by
a Buddhist abbot of the +9th century in one of the Tunhuang scrolls (Bib. Nat. Pelliot no. ZI04); for
this reference we thank Mr Wu Chhi-Yti.
g The same chapter of the Thu Shu Chi Chheng which quotes Yen's essay, gives a number of others
by men such as Tseng Ying-Hsiang 10 of the Ming; and Huang Ju-Heng, 11 Hsiung J en-Lin 12 and Hsieh
Chao-Shen I3 of the Chhing-all expressing the same idea of geological transformations by changes in
the relative level of sea and land. Cf. Thang Chhiieh Shih, ch. I, p. Z4a; Ao Yii Tzu (c. + 1040), ch. I,
p. 4b; Sung Chhuang Pai Shuo ( + I I 57), p. I I a; Chhing Po Pieh Chih ( + 1194), ch. 3, p. I b; Tung Hsiao
Shih Chi (+I30Z), ch. 4, p. 7a, ch. 11, p. 6b.
h Nan Hu Chi
" (Southern Lake Collection of Poems), ch. z, p. I4a, ch. 3, p. lb.
i Ch. 9, p. 4b.

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602 23. GEOLOGY
supposed to have been lost in a river centuries before was found in a well at the top of
a hill.a
Though the ideas about mountain formation as we have so far described them had
a distinctively Taoist and Neo-Confucian connection, there can be little doubt that
they originally derived from the Indian notion, brought to China probably by the
Buddhists, of periodical cataclysms in which the world was destroyed and formed
anew. b Hence some interest attaches to a curious story preserved in the Yeh Kho
Tshung Shu I (Collected Notes ofthe Rustic Guest), written by Wang Mou 2 in+ 120I.
It relates to an incident alleged to have occurred in - 120 in the reign of Han Wu Ti.
During digging operations near the Khun-ming Lake' black ashes' (hei hui; 3 perhaps
asphalt, coal, peat, or lignite) were found, and to a question of the emperor regarding
these Tungfang Shuo replied, 'You had better ask the Taoists from the Western
Countries' (kho wen hsi yii Tao jen4), i.e. Buddhist monks. The Phien Tzu Lei Pien s
(Collection of Phrases and Literary Allusions) has a quotation c from the Wu Ti chapter
of the Chhien Ran Shu (which is not there now) to the effect that the Buddhist monks
replied: 'These are the remains of the last cataclysm of heaven and earth' (Tzhu shih
thien ti chieh hui chih yii yeh 6). Modern researches on the time when Buddhism
entered China do not allow us to accept the story as it stands, d since monks were
certainly not there in the Former Han dynasty; but the story must be quite old, for it
is also found in the San Fu Ruang Thu 7 (Description of the Palaces in the Capital),
a Chin book;e and in the Kao Seng Chuan (Biographies of Famous Buddhist Monks)
of the + 6th century. It therefore probably dates from the earlier years of Buddhism
in China. If it had been pressed a little further it could have brought the scientific
thinkers of China to an early appreciation of the role of volcanic phenomena in mountain
formation. We shall return to this subject in a moment.
Adams points out that the references to mountain building in European classical
times are extremely scarce. f As may be seen from Kretschmer's account, European
medieval views were dominated by the Noachian Flood legend, essentially an echo of
very ancient Babylonian local happenings. This was the background of the explanation
of fossils on high mountains given by Leonardo and already mentioned. Long before
him, however, there had been advanced geological thinking in Islamic civilisation. In
the mid + loth century the Brethren of Sincerity,g in their Rasii'il Ikhwiin al-$afii',
had discussed changes in sea-level, denudation, peneplanation, river evolution, and so
on.h As we know now from the work of Holmyard & Mandeville, the De Congelatione
et Conglutinatione Lapidum, which used to be ascribed to Aristotle, was really part of

a Cf. Yu Yin W~n Ta, p . 7a; Kuei Chhien Chih, ch. 14, p. lob.
b Cf. Sect. 16d in Vol. 2, p. 420 above. C Taken from TPYL, ch. 871, p. 6a.
d Cf. Franke (5), Maspero (5).
e Ch. 18. It is quoted by the + 3rd-century Nan Fang Tshao Mu Chuang.
r (I), p. 330.
g See above, Sects. loj and 13j, Vol. 2, pp. 95ff., 296.
h Paraphrased translation by Dieterici (I). See Rushdi Said (I).

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 23. GEOLOGY
Avicenna's Kittib al-Shifti' (Book of the Remedy) written in + 1022. After dealing
with petrifactive processes, Avicenna ascribes the formation of heights to natural
convulsions such as earthquakes which suddenly raise a part of the land, or to the
erosive action of winds and floods which carry away part of a formation while leaving
the rest. He speaks of agglutination and petrifaction from the original flood waters in
terms which distinctly resemble the ideas of Chu Hsi rather over a century later.
A true explanation of the nature of fossils would follow, and Avicenna gives it. The
geology ofthe Brethren and of Avicenna leaves a much more modern impression than
some European suggestions of later date, such as the theory of Ristoro d' Arezzo
(c. + 1250)a that the configuration of the earth's surface corresponded to the positions
of the fixed stars in th~eighth sphere (whether nearer to or farther from the earth), an
idea which received the support of Dante Alighieri. There seems to be a certain com-
munity between medieval geology in Islam and in China; it is much less fanciful than
that of Europe. Not until a book such as the De Montium Origine of Valerius Faventies
(+ 1561)b do the more sober considerations of the effects of earthquakes, volcanic
action, and sedimentary deposition, enter into the growing geology of the Renaissance.
For the full distinction between primary (volcanic) and secondary (stratified eroded)
mountains, we have to await the work of Lazzaro Moro (+ 1687 to + 1740).c
The slow erosion of uplifted strata was quite clearly conceived in medieval Chinese
thinking. There was an old expression ling chhih 1 or ling i2 which probably meant
originally the gradual slope of hills, as in Huai Nan Tzu d and Hsun Tzu,e but which
commentators in the Chin and later interpreted in the sense of reduction in course of
time. River-valley erosion is referred to by the Han poet Chia 1,3 who speaks of the
way in which rivers change their courses, and sometimes return to their old beds; f and
by Emperor Yuan of the Liang (c. + 55o).g In the Sung, Shen Kua gives, in the
Meng Chhi Pi Than, a number of interesting accounts of observations. About + 1070
he wrote:
Yen-Tang Shan 4 (mountain) near Wen chow is very beautiful but there is no mention of
it in the old books .... It seems to be referred to first by a Thang monk Kuan-Hsiu,S who
wrote a poem about another monk No Chii-L 0 6 who lived there . . .. Now I myself have
noticed that Yen-Tang Shan is different from other mountains. All its lofty peaks are
precipitous, abrupt, sharp and strange; its huge cliffs, a thousand feet high, are different
from what one finds in other places. Its peaks are hidden by foothills so that from outside
one cannot see much, but when you get near the peaks themselves, they seem to pierce the
skj. Considering the reasons for these shapes, I think that (for centuries) the mountain
torrents have rushed down, carrying away all sand and earth, thus leaving the hard rocks
standing alone.
In places like Ta Lung Chhiu,' Hsiao Lung Chhiu,8 Shui Lien,9 and Chhu Yiieh KU,IO
one can see in the valleys whole caves scooped out by the force of the water. Standing at the
a Adams, (1), pp. 335, 341. b Tr. Adams (I), pp. 348 ff.
C Adams (I), p. 368.
d Chs. 11 and 20. e Ch. 28, p. 4b.
f Quoted in Shih Chi, ch. 84, p. 11 b. g Chin Lou Tzu, ch. 4, p . 17 a.
 23. GEOLOGY
bottom of the ravines and looking upwards, the cliff face seems perpendicular, but when you
are on the top, the other tops seem on a level with where you are standing. Similar formations
are found right up to the highest summits. So also we find even in small waterways that
the banks become scooped out like a rounded shrine or oratory (khan!) wherever the
force of the swirling water strikes against them. This is the same thing happening. Now in
the large gorges of Chheng Kao 2 and Shensi we can see the earth standing straight up as
much as a hundred feet (loess canyons). They are, indeed, a small model of Yen-Tang Shan
though this is simply earth while Yen-Tang Shan is hard rock. a

These eroded cliffs which Shen Kua saw are shown in Fig. 264 taken from the
Thu Shu Chi Chheng. b Shen Kua also describes sedimentary deposition.
When I went to Hopei on official duties I saw that in the northern cliffs of the Thai-Hang
Shan 3 mountain-range, there were belts (strata) containing whelk-like animals, oyster-shells,
and stones like the shells of birds' eggs (fossil echinoids). So this place, though now a thousand
li west of the sea, must once have been a shore. Thus what we call the 'continent' (ta lu 4 )
must have been made of mud and sediment which was once below the water. The Yii
Mountain,S where Yao C killed Kun, was, according to ancient tradition, by the side of the
Eastern Sea, but now it is far inland.
Now the Great (i.e. the Yellow) River, the Chang Shui,6 the Hu Tho,7 the Cho Shui 8
and the Sang Chhien 9 are all muddy silt-bearing rivers. In the west of Shensi and Shansi
the waters run through gorges as deep as a hundred feet. Naturally mud and silt will be
carried eastwards by these streams year after year, and in this way the substance of the whole
continent must have been laid down. These principles must certainly be true. d

Thus Shen Kua fully understood in the + 11th century those conceptions which, when
stated by James Hutton in 1802, were to be the foundation of modern geology.e
Again, Tu Wan, in the Yiin Lin Shih Phu of + 1133, makes clear references to
weathering and erosion processes. f We can therefore certainly not follow Hoover &
Hoover in their statement that Agricola's writings in + 1546 were 'the first adequate
declaration of the part played by erosion in mountain sculpture'.g Exposed fossil-
containing strata had been described byTu Mu 10 thirty years earlier as something long
known and familiar.h
There is plenty of material in Chinese literature on other interesting questions of
general geology, but as it has not been systematically worked up, I shall have to be
content with simply drawing attention to some of the subjects on which much m ore
could be found.

a MCPT, ch. 24, para. 14, tr. auct. Cf. Hu Tao-Ching (1), vol. 2, p. 762.
b Shan chhuan tien, ch. 132.
C Legendary emperor; cf. Vol. 2, p. 117, for Kun, the father of Yti the Great.

d MCPT, ch. 24, para. 11, tr. auct. Cf. Hu Tao-Ching (1), vol. 2, p. 756.
e Shen Kua's contemporaries had no thought of denouncing his views as heretical and irreligious.
But neither was any Geological Society founded to search for facts which should test them.
f E.g. ch. I, pp. 6b, 9a. Cf. also Hua Man Chi," Ch. I, p. 5b; Tung Hsiao Shih Chi," ch.I1, p. 6a,b,
ch. 14, p . 2b.
g (I), p. xiii. Nor was erosion and sea encroachment first expounded by John Ray in + 1692, as is
often said. h Nan Hao Shih Hua, p. I3a.

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 23. GEOLOGY 60 5

Fig. 264. Geology in Chinese art: (j) the eroded Fig. 265. Stalactites (khung kung nieh, yin
cliffs of Yen-Tang Shan near Wen chow on the coast nieh or chung ju), stalagmites (shill chhuang),
of southern Chekiang (TSCC, Shall chhuan tien, and crystalline deposits (shill lIua) ; from Li
ch. 132). These were some of the mountains Shih-Chen's P en Tshao Kang Mu of + 1596.
which stimulated Shen Kua in the + 1 Ith century
to consider erosion and sedimentation, and to state
the basic geological principles concerning them.

(3) CAVES, U DERGROUND WATERS, AND SHIFTING SANDS

The study of caves (tung I ) and the formations found in them has been pursued
throughout Chinese history; they were of particular interest to the early Taoist
hermits, and the word continued always to have a numinous significance in the Taoist
religion. Stalactites (Fig. 265) are included in the earliest lists of inorganic and
chemical substances and drugs which have come down to us, namely, the Chi Ni Tzu
book (probably - 4th century) a and the Shen Nung Pen Tshao Ching 2 (Pharmacopoeia
of the Heavenly Husbandman), the first of the Pen Tshao series b and in date either
Former Han or + 1st century. In these lists they bear the name which they retained
till the end, shih chung jU 3 (stone bell milk).c Another ancient named was khung kung
nieh. 4 The Shen Nung Pen Tshao Ching also distinguishes stalagmites as yin nieh. s
a Cf. above, p . 402 and in Vol. 2, Sect. 18/, p. 554.
b Cf. below, Sect. 38, where the series is tabulated.
C See below, Sect. 33, with its tabulations of the mineral and chemical substances recognised in

the old Chinese literature. d Cf. Chang Hung-Chao (1), pp. 213 fr.

'i!ij
606 23. GEOLOGY
Ko Hung about + 300 refers to them in connection with one of the varieties of his
magical mushrooms (chih1).a Though the passage in the Pao Phu Tzu is obviously
embroidered, it is clear what he is talking about.
The 'stone-honey mushroom' (shih mi chih2) grows in the stone caves of the Shao-Shih
mountain. In those caves are deep valleys through which one cannot pass. If a stone is
thrown into such clefts its sound is heard for half a day. There is a stone pillar standing more
than a hundred feet from the entrance to the caves, having on top of it what looks like an
upturned lid, ten feet high. One may observe the stone-honey chih fall from the roof of the
cave and slip into this cover. At definite intervals drops invariably appear and fall like rain-
water off the eaves of houses. Single drops fall continually. Though the stone-honey chih
never ceases to fall, the lid never overflows. Above the cave characters are inscribed in
'tadpole' script, saying, 'Those who succeed in eating one tou of stone-honey chih will
enjoy life for a thousand years.' Although all the Taoists long to visit this place, few are
able to do so. One could perhaps catch the drops with a wooden bowl attached to the end
of a strong bamboo rod, but I know of no one who has succeeded. Still, since we have the
inscription, someone in former generations presumably did. b

In the later mineralogical books, such as the Yun Lin Shih Phu 3 (Cloud Forest
Lapidary) of the Sung,C stalactites and stalagmites are always discussed. d Other names
found are chiang shih4 (ginger-stone), shih phiS (stone spleen) and wei shih 6 (stomach
stone). Like all other products, whether inorganic, herbal or animal, they had pharma-
ceutical uses, for which the various Pen Tshao books may be consulted.

The existence of underground streams was well recognised. There is mention of one
in a Sung book, the Hsien Chhuang Kua I Chih 7 (Strange Things seen through the
Barred Window),e by Lu Ying-Lung. 8 A connection of some wells with the sea was
suspected in certain cases, where the water-level seemed to rise and fall with the tides,
hence the name hai yen 9 -eye of the sea. A Thang book, the Yu-Yang Tsa Tsu
( + 8th century), speaks of this, as also two Sung books, the Mo Kho Hui Hsi ( + 1080)
and the Yo-Yang Feng Thu Chi 10 (Customs and Notable Things of Yo-yang), by
Fan Chih-Ming,11 of later date.!
A great deal of information about springs is to be found in the encyclopaedias g and
geographical collections. The role of petrifying springs in the history of geological and
mineralogical thought is so important h that it is not surprising that these attracted
a These have never been identifiable, but were probably stone concretions of unusual shapes and
colours, which were thought likely to confer immortality if powdered and swallowed.
b Ch. 1I, p . 3 b, tr. Feifel (3), p. 6; mod.
e Ch. 3, p . 8a. See below, p. 645. d Cf. Ling Wai Tai Ta, ch. 7, p. 13b.
e P . lIa.
f Cf. the curious idea, widespread in + 16th- and + 17th-century Europe, that sea-water was con-
veyed subterraneously to the mountains and there distilled by internal heat as if in an alembic
(Adams (I), p. 440). See also on mineral waters Yung Chheng Shih Hua, ch. I, p. lIa; Yii Chien,
ch. 9, p. 3 b, Thang Yii Lin, ch. 8, p. 23 a.
g E.g. TSCC, Khun yii tien, chs. 31-42. h See Adams (1).

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 23. GEOLOGY
much attention in China also. A good description of one occurs in the early + 6th-
century Shu I Chi (Records of Strange Things).

The Yang Chhiian l (spring) is located north of Thien-Yii Shan 2 (mountain). A clear
stream flows forth several dozen yards. Herbs or pieces of wood placed in the water are all
turned to stone (hua wei shih 3 ), clear and hard. a

Ancient Chinese writings refer constantly to two place-names which indicate

phenomena of geological interest. Just as authors of the Warring States time or early
Han are always speaking of Mt Khun-Lun,b so they speak also of the liu sha 4 (shifting
sands) and of the jo shui s (weak water) , both in the far west or north-west. The former
occurs twenty-two times in the Shan Hai Ching and the latter five times; both are
mentioned frequently in Lit Shih Chhun Chhiu, Huai Nan Tzu, etc.
For our purpose the identification of the places is of secondary importance; the
interest of the names lies in the phenomenon concerned. The shifting sands or quick-
sands were, I think, exactly what they seemed. Shen Kua discusses the matter in the
Meng Chhi Pi Than:

The Thang encyclopaedia, Thang Liu Tien, discussing the Five Elements, has, among
various other sections, one on a 'Ping River' (Ping H0 6). People now do not know what this
means. But when I used to talk with the generals in Fu and Yen 7 at the An-Nan 8 camp, I
found in the army records that many soldiers had been lost at the Fan River. They said that
the Yiieh people called it nao sha 9 and the northern people called it huo sha 10 • C At the Wu
Ting river, going over with a horse, the sand shifted a hundred feet away from where one
was, like people treading on curtains, though where we trod was firm. In some places,
however, they would sink in. Horses, camels, and waggons have all been engulfed, and
hundreds of soldiers have disappeared there. This is indeed liu sha 4-flowing sand. Ping
may also be written pan 11 meaning' deep mud'. This is why' Ping Ho' came to mean, in the
divination books, bad luck, like the present term, khung wang,12 i.e. 'emptiness and death'. d

There are certainly localities in north-west China today which still present the same
difficulties. A recent experience is to be found in the book of Band & Band, e who
describe an awkward passage in 1943 near the north bend of the Yellow River by
saying that it was like' walking on chocolate blancmange'.
The phenomenon of 'singing sands' is also referred to in Chinese texts. This is
particularly associated with the sand dunes surrounding the temple and lake of Yueh-
Ya Chhuan I 3 some miles west of Tunhuang (Cable & French).f The nature of the
phenomenon has been much discussed.

a Tr. auct. b Cf. above, p. 565.

C Exactly the same as our ' quick' -sands.

d Ch. 3. para. 11. tr. auct. C f. Hu Tao-Ching (1). vol. I. p. 128.

e (I), p . 209.
f (I), p . 63 . When I m yself visited this place the sand s r efused to sing.

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608 23. GEOLOGY

(4) PETROLEUM, NAPHTHA, AND VOLCANOES

The second ancient term of interest, jo shui (,weak water'),a is often taken simply as
the name of a river. But ancient authors repeatedly state that wood will not float in it.
Kuo Pho (about +300) says, in his commentary on the Shan Hai Ching, that it will
not bear the weight even of a wild-goose feather (pu sheng hung maD I) . In a passage
from his contemporary, Ko Hung, already quoted,b we have met with the same idea
before. So also Chang Shou-Chieh,2 the great Thang commentator of the Shih Chi,
says that 'without the help of a boat made of feathers you will not be able to cross it'
(fei maD chou pu kho chi 3 ).c While some may prefer to believe that these were fancies
derived from an ancient name, the suggestion may be put forward that in all these
cases the foundation for the stories was the natural occurrence of petroleum seep ages. d
The reference is often to various parts of Central Asia now hard to identify, but such
seep ages certainly exist and have existed in the western provinces, especially Kansu
and Szechuan. Fractions of fairly low boiling-point can occur (paraffins and naphthas)
as well as the thick black natural oils, and it could easily be imagined that in some
circumstances these would attract attention as 'waters' in which even wood or feathers
would sink. e The natural petroleum which occurred at Lao Chun Mia0 4 in Kansu
(near Suchow) was locally known and used for greasing cart-axles many years before
the present oilfield with its refineries was established there. It is mentioned in many
old records such as the Yuan-Ho Chun Hsien Thu Chih, which records that in the
Northern Chou period, between + 561 and + 577, it was used successfully in war
against the Turks who were besieging Chiu-chhuan (Suchow).f Chang Hung-Chao
discusses these natural seepages,g and mentions some of the other terms used for rock-
oil or petroleum, such as shih YU,s shih chhi 6 (,stone lacquer '), shih chih shui 7 (,stone
fat water '), and meng huo yu 8 (' fierce fire oil '). h Stone lacquer was probably one of the
earliest terms; as such the Po Wu Chi,9 a book i written by Thang M€:ng 10 about + 190,
knows it.

a Besides the references mentioned above, we have it in many descriptions of Western Asia, e.g. Hall
Han Shll, ch. 118, the Nestorian Stone, the Wei Liieh, the Wen Hsien Thung Khao, ch. 339, the Chu Fan
Chih, etc. all translated and discussed by Hirth (I); see esp. p. 291.
b Above, Vol. 2, p. 438.
c Ch. 123, p. 6b (the Ferghana chapter).
d It is interesting that the Indians told Megasthenes of a river in the north, everything thrown into
which sank like stone. It was called Silas, presumably from Skr. silii, stone (Megasthenes, Frag. 19;
Arrian, Indica 6, 2; Strabo, XV, c, 703; Bevan (I), p. 404). Cf. Marco Polo, ch. 22 (Moule &
Pelliot ed.).
e For Western and Arabic references, cf. Forbes (4a). Cf. John Eldred's account of Mesopotamian
seep ages in + 1583 (in Forbes (4b), p. 26) and Tardin's book of + 1618.
f In Sect. 30 we shall give a detailed account of its military use about + 1100.
g (1), pp. 205 fr. h As to this last term, cf. Sect. 30 below on military technology.
i 'Notes on the Investigation of Things.' Not to be confused with the Po Wu Chih of a century
later, as Wittfogel, Feng et al. do (I), p. 565, probably through trusting to TSCC.

3 ~F:e:flr~P]'~
8 f{ 1'< iill
 23. GEOLOGY 60 9
This Later Han record of miscellaneous scientific matters says:

In the mountains south of Yen-shou I a there are certain rocks from which springs of
'water' arise. They form pools as big as bamboo baskets, and the stuff flows away in small
streams. This liquid is fatty and sticky like the juice of meat. It is viscous like uncongealed
grease. If one sets light to it, it burns with an extremely bright flame. It cannot be eaten.
The local people call it' stone lacquer'. b
Another version of the story, cited by Li Tao-Yuan in the + 6th century,C adds that it
was used for greasing cart-axles,d and the bearings of water-power trip-hammers. e
Apart from the use of naphtha in warfare, f natural petroleum was later used, in the
Sung, for obtaining carbon for ink. Shen Kua says:
Petroleum (shih yu) is produced in Fu 2 and Yen 3 (places in Shensi and Kansu). This
'oil-water' (chih shui 4) is the same substance as that which old accounts g describe as coming
from Kao-nu Hsien. 5 It comes out mixed with water, sand and stones. In the spring
the local people collect it with pheasant-tail brushes,h and put it into pots where it looks like
lacquer. It can easily be burnt, but its smoke, which is very thick, makes the curtains all
black. I once thought that this smoke might be useful, and tried to collect its deposit for
making ink. The black colour was as bright as lacquer and could not be matched by pine-
wood resin ink. So I made a lot of it and called it Yen-Chhuan Shih 1 6 (Yen River Stone
Juice). I think that this invention of mine will be widely adopted. The petroleum is abundant,
and more will be formed in the earth while supplies of pine-wood may be exhausted. Pine-
forests in Chhi and Lu have already become sparse. This is now happening in the Thai-
Hang mountains. All the woods south of the Yangtze and west of the capital are going to
disappear in time if this goes on, yet the ink-makers do not yet know the benefit of the
petroleum smoke. The smoke of 'stone charcoal' (shih than yen 7-coal) also makes cloths
black (and could be used for ink).i
The striking feature of this passage, written about + 1070, is not that Shen Kua used
petroleum to produce a black smoke,i just as is done in physiological laboratories
today for making kymograph papers, but that he foresaw the de-forestation of his
country, and thought that the' inexhaustible' supplies of oil in the earth could be used
as a substitute for wood. It is rather characteristic of the Chinese pre-industrial era
that petroleum presented itself to an exceptionally intelligent man (as Shen Kua
certainly was), not as a new and immensely significant source of power, but only a new
way of making ink.
a In Shensi, mod. Yenan.
b In Ma Kuo-Han's collection, YHSF, ch. 73, p. 4b; tr. au ct .
C Shui Ching Chu, ch. 3, p. 28b.

d So also Yu-Yang Tsa Tsu, ch. 10, p. 2b.

e Cf. below, Sect. 27J.
r CL below, Sect. 30.
g Cf. Chhien Han Shu, ch. 28B, p. 6a, which says that this place had 'water which would bum'.
This is the oldest reference so far found.
h This technique is also mentioned by Agricola in the + 16th century (ch. 7).
i MCPT, ch. 24, para. 2, tr. auct. with Chang Tzu-Kung. CL Hu Tao-Ching (1), vol. 2, p. 745.
j The same idea had occurred to Ibn I:Iauqal a century earlier (Forbes (4a), p. 18, (4b), p. 28;
Mieli (I), p. II 5) . He was placed nearer to good sources of the material.
610 23. GEOLOGY
As for natural gas, we must reserve a discussion of its very long practical use by the
Chinese to Section 37 on the salt industry, where opportunity will arise for describing
the fire-wells and salt-wells of Szechuan and other provinces. The use of the gas for
evaporating the brine goes back certainly to the Han, and knowledge of it is probably
older still. The following story, however, concerns a seepage of naphtha. The Fa Yuall
Chu Linl (Forest of Pearls in the Garden of the Law), a Thang Buddhist encyclo-
paedia by Tao-Shih 2 (+ 668), describes a pool of fire somewhere near Nepal, which
was visited by the Chinese ambassador Wang Hsiian-Tshe about + 65 0 : a

There was a little lake of water which would burn. If one set light to it, a brilliant flame
would appear all over its surface as if coming forth from the water. If one poured water on
it to extinguish it, the water changed to fire and burned. The Chinese ambassador and his
suite cooked their meal on it. Later he asked the king of that country about it ... and was
told that it protected a gold casket containing the diadem of Maitreya. b

This brings us to volcanic phenomena. As there are in China proper no volcanoes,

all information on this subject had to come from outside. c One of the first references
occurs in the late + 3rd-century Shih I Chi:

In Tai-Yii Shan 3 there is an abyss a thousand miles deep, in which water is always
boiling. Metal or stones thrown into it are attacked and reduced to mud. In winter the
water dries up and yellow smoke billows forth from the ground many yards high. People
who live among these mountains dig down to the depth of several tens of feet and get scorched
stone like charcoal, which will burn with flames. It can be ignited by a candle, and the flames
are blue. The deeper they dig the more fire they get.d

This does not sound like an eye-witness account, and some believe that it was a descrip-
tion of Mt Etna brought by Syrian traders, though it seems at least equally likely that
it may derive from reports of the south seas brought back by official travellers like
Khang Thai, who was envoy to Indo-China about + z60. e There is, moreover, another
text in one of the apocryphal classics, which Chhen Phan (4) thinks goes back to the
time of Tsou Yen (-4th century), but is more probably late Han. Here belongs also
the mention of a volcano in the spurious Yiin Cheng chapter of the Shu Ching; f the
fire consumed even jade and stone.
Of hot springs, however, there were always plenty in China.g In the Thang, Hsti

a We have met him before in several connections (Vol. I, p. 2II; Vol. 2, p . 42 8).
b Ch. 16, p. ISb, tr. Levi (I), p. 3 14 ; eng. auct. The common-sense approach of the Chinese is most
characteristic.
C The Europeans had volcanoes at much closer quarters, h ence th e larger interest shown by them
anciently in this (cf. Adam s (I), pp. 399 ff. and elsewhere).
d Ch. 10, p. 6a, tr. au ct. For other ea rly references see TPYL, ch . 869, p . Sb , ch. 871, p. 3a.
e His account of Cambodia is in Liang Shu, ch. 54, p. 6b; Nan Shih , ch. 78, p . sa.
f Ch. 9, tr. Medhurst (I), p . 128.
g The author has very pleasant personal remembrances of the b aths at Fuchow (Fukien) , Peiw~n­
chhtian (Szechuan), and An-n ing (Yunnan). He takes this oppo rtunity of recording his deep indebted-
ness in many ways to the friends in whose company h e visited and enjoyed them , Dr Huang Hsing-
Tsung and Dr Wu Su-Hs tian.
 23. GEOLOGY 6II
Chien,1 in his encyclopaedic Chhu Hsiieh Chi 2 (Entry into Learning), noted a that if
the upper reaches of a stream smell sulphurous, its springs are likely to be warm or
hot. b About + 800 Li Ho 3 described an arseniferous spring. In the Sung, the author
of the Chhi Tung Yeh Yii believed that the heat was caused by the combustion of
sulphur and alum underground. c In the Ming, Wang Chih-Chien 4 listed many curious
kinds of mineral-laden waters and their effects.d A whole monograph could of course
be written on Chinese ideas concerning volcanic phenomena. e

(c) PALAEONTOLOGY
Though the term 'fossils' is now reserved for the remains of plants and animals
embedded in the strata of the earth's surface, its original meaning was much wider and
included everything of interest which could be obtained by digging. We shall glance
later on at the medieval and Renaissance theories of ' lapidifying' emanations or juices,
in connection with the early ideas on the generation of minerals. Here we are con-
cerned only with the gradual recognition of the fact that some of the life-like forms
discovered in the rocks were in fact the remains of ancient animals, perhaps of species
now extinct. If it be held that palaeontology did not begin until after the appearance
of classificatory systems of Linnean character, it has nevertheless what must then be
called a pre-history going back for many centuries. This is what we have to trace in
comparing Chinese with occidental statements on the subject.
Sometimes it is convenient to begin at the modern end and work backwards.
Andrade (I) informs us that Robert Hooke, during the latter part of the 17th century,
was 'the first to recognise the true nature of fossils and their importance as a record of
the earth's history'. According to Raven,! John Ray, the great systematist (+ 1627 to
+ 1705) was' one of the first to assert that fossils were the remains of living organisms'.
The quotations already given from Shen Kua ( + 11th century) and Chu Hsi ( + 12th)
would alone suffice to show that these statements cannot be true. In any case, the
progress of correct views in the 16th and 17th centuries may readily be followed in the
discourse of Adams g on the 'lapides figurati', as they were then called. Von Zittel h
also shows that while some of the most industrious collectors (such as Martin Lister
and Edward Lhwyd) I held erroneous ideas, the right explanations were given by
Palissy (+ 1580), Alessandro degli Alessandri (+ 1520) and Girolamo Fracastoro
(+ 1517). All these followedj the achievement of Leonardo da Vinci, who in + 1508
wrote his famous passage about the shells of oysters found in high mountains. k But
Avicenna (Ibn Sina) in + 1022 had said the same thing, in almost the same words,l
• Ch. 7, pp. 8afr. He attributed the statement to Chang Hua's Po Wu Chih, c. +290.
b So also Thang Tzu-Hsi'ss I Chao Liao Tsa Chi, ch . I . p . 40b.
c Ch. I, p . 6a. d Piao I Lu, ch . 2, p. 7a.
e Cf. Chhih Ya, ch. 2, p. 5; I Chao Liao Tsa Chi, ch. I, p . 26a.
f (i), p. 170. g (I), pp. 250 fr.
h (I), p. 17. i Gunther (I), vol. 14.
J And, if Duhem is right (I, vol. 2, pp. 283 fr.), derived from him.
kEd. McCurdy (I), vol. I, p. 330. 1 Holmyard & Mandeville (I), p. 28.
612 23. GEOLOGY

while al-BIriini in + 1025 had deduced the former presence of a sea from the finding
of fossil fishes. a This takes us back to the time of Shen Kua and Chu Hsi. There are
no immediately previous contributions from Europe or Islam, and it will therefore be
convenient at this point to see how far back the recognition and study of fossil remains
goes in China, before returning to the contributions, mostly afterwards forgotten, of
Greek and Hellenistic writers.
Recapitulating what was said a few pages above, it will be remembered that Yen
Chen-Chhing in about + 770 clearly associated the occurrence of fossils with what we
should now call sedimentary strata afterwards lifted into mountains. The leading idea
under which he did so was that of the' mulberry-grove', a Taoist technical term which
could have sprung, one feels, straight from the nature-mysticism of Chuang Tzu, with
its conviction of the mutability of all things. It is in the light of this, which we were
able to trace back at any rate to the end of the Han ( + 2nd century), that we may read
the quotations to be given on the following pages concerning particular types of fossils.
We shall begin with fossil plants, and then deal briefly in succession with the remains
of extinct invertebrates-brachiopods (a group in which the fossil forms far surpass
the living ones in number and variety), cephalopods (ammonites, nautiloids) and other
molluscs; and arthropods (trilobites, an extinct group; and fossil crustacea). Lastly
something will be said about fossil reptiles and mammals.

(I) FOSSIL PLANTS

China certainly contributes to the beginnings of palaeobotany.b Knowledge of the

petrification of pine-trees may go back to the + 3rd century, since encyclopaedias
quote Chang Hua as saying that all such trees turn into stone after three thousand
years. c But in the Thang a great interest was taken in the matter. The Hsin Thang Shu
saysd that in one of the regions of Central Asia inhabited by the Uighurs, there is a
river called Khang-Kan I which in three years will turn into blue-coloured stone any
pieces of wood dropped into it. In + 767 the painter Pi Hung 2 made a famous fresco
depicting fossilised pine-trees. e At the end of the + 9th century Tu Kuang-Thing
said in his Lu I Chi 3 (Records of Strange Things):
In a pavilion on a mountain in Yung-khang 4 Hsien near Wuchow 5 there are what look like
rotten fir-trees. But if you break a piece off, you will find that it is not decayed in the water,
but a substance changed into stone, which previously was not yet transformed in that manner.
On examining (other) pieces in the water (at that place), they turn out to be transformations
of the same character. These metamorphoses do not differ from fir-trees as to branches
and bark; they are simply very hard. f
a Prostov (I).
b Of course we cannot now be sure, in any individual case, such as those here to be mentioned,
that the author was really dealing with' petrified wood' or plant remains. Many other things have
often been mistaken for it, such as fibrous calcite, asbestos, various banded concretions, metamorphosed
schists, inorganic cylindrical casts, etc.; even by modern geologists. The point is, what did the medieval
Chinese writers think they were observing? Fossil plants.
c Laufer (13), p. 22. The passage cannot be found in the present text of the Po Wu Chih, however.
d Ch. 2I7B, p. 7b. e Phei Wen Yiin Fu, ch. IOOA, p . 21 b (3903'3).
f Cit. in Ko Chih Chi71g Yua71, ch. 7, p . II b, tr. Laufer (13); mod.

'mT 2 ~* 3~'k~-m .7~m 5~9t1

 23. GEOLOGY

This was written probably towards the end of the + 9th century. Half a century later
these petrified pines of Yung-khang attracted the attention of the Taoist poet
Lu Kuei-Meng,1 who wrote two poems on them. a
The fossilisation of pine trees was appreciated also in the Sung. In the Mo Kho
Hui Hsi (+ 1080) we read:

In Hu Shan 2 there are Pu 3 tree (-trunks)b several feet in length, of which half has been
changed into stone and half is still the hard wood. Tshai Chiln-Mo,4 seeing these and thinking
them particularly strange brought one to his house and I myself c saw it there. d

The Cheng Lei Pen Tshao 5 of about + 11IO remarked, in words quoted textually in
subsequent pharmacopoeias:

Now in Chhuchow 6 there is a kind of 'pine-stone' (sung shih 7) which looks like the trunk
of a pine, but which is actually stone. Some say that these really were once pine-trees, which
in the course of ages have been transformed into stone. People polish them and keep them.
They are of the same nature as asbestos. e

It was good observation that only part of a tree-trunk may petrify.f But there may have
been some confusion with another kind of stone called sung fin shih 8 (pine-forest stone),
which was found in Szechuan; this simply has elaborate dendritic markings due to
crystallisation of manganese dioxide. g One of the first descriptions of this is in the
Tung Thien Chhing Lu Chi,9 by Chao Hsi-Ku 10 ( + 13th century).h
In ot her cases also it is not easy to be sure whether true fossil plants are being
described, or whether the writers really mean something else. Thus the Kuei Hai Yu
Heng Chih (Topography and Products of the Southern Provinces), about + 1I75,
speaks of 'stone plum-trees' (shih mei ll ) and 'stone cypresses.' (shih pOI2), but as it also
says that they grow in the southern seas, they were probably different kinds of cora1. i
Yet if this is so it is odd that Fan Chheng-Ta did not use the usual word fo r coral,
shan hU,13 which is at least as old as the +7th century) He also distinctly says that
they are of the same nature as the fossil crabs (shih hsieh 14 and shih hsia I 5).

a According to the Yiin Lin Shih Ph" of + I 133; ch. 2, p . 3 a.

b Unidentifiable, cf. B 11, 202.
C Pheng Chheng.

d Ch. 5, p . 6b, tr. auct.

e Entry Pu hui mu,16 asbestos, tr. auct . Cf. Chang Hung-Chao (1), p. 198. Cf. alsu de Mely (I),
p. 86; his text, p. 83; PTKM, ch. 9, p. Ha.
f Other Sung a nd Yuan references in Hsieh Chhuan Chi, ch. 2, p. I9b; Wu Li Pu Shih Hua, p . I I a;
Tung Hsiao Shih Chi, ch. 10, p. 7a.
g Figured by Chang Hung-Chao (1), pI. XIII.
h In Shuo Fu, ch. 12, p. 18b.
i In Shuo Fu, ch. 50, p. lob; Ling Wai Tai Ta, ch. 7, p. ISb.
j RP33·

4~:f\'~ 5m ~*1$i
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14 E M IS E W
 23. GEOLOGY

Yao Yuan-Chih,I in his + 17th-century book, the Chu Yeh Thing Tsa Chi z
(Miscellaneous Records of the Bamboo Leaf Pavilion), says: 'Not only wood but also
herbs can change into stone. When this happens to plants the "water-absorbing stone"
(shang shui shih 3) is produced'. a The usual name for this stone was han shui shih,4
and Chang Hung-Chao has been able to identify it b as calcareous tufa formed from
some species of Chara. It seems that recognition of this stone goes back to the Thang. c
Fossil bamboo-shoots are much spoken of in the Sung period. Lu Yu's 5 Lao Hsiieh
An Pi Chi 6 (Notes from the Hall of Old Learning)d describes the finding of these shih
sun 7 at Chhengtu, but he talks of caves and wells in the same passage, and may
perhaps have referred to stalagmites. On the other hand the following words of Shen
Kua seem to indicate fairly clearly some kind of fossil plants:

In recent years [c. + r080] there was a landslide on the bank of a large river in Yung-Ning
Kuan 8 near Yenchow. 9 The bank collapsed, opening a space of several dozens of feet, and
under the ground a forest of bamboo shoots was thus revealed. It contained several hundred
bamboos with their roots and trunks all complete, and all turned to stone. A high official
happened to pass by, and took away several, saying that he would present them to the
emperor. Now bamboos do not grow in Yenchow. These were several dozens of feet below
the present surface of the ground, and we do not know in what dynasty they could possibly
have grown. Perhaps in very ancient times the climate was different so that the place was
low, damp, gloomy, and suitable for bamboos. On Chin-Hua Shan 10 in Wuchow ll there
are stone pine-cones, and stones formed from peach-kernels, stone bulrush roots, stone
fishes, crabs, and so on, but as these are all (modern) native products of that place, people
are not very surprised at them. But these petrified bamboos appeared under the ground so
deep, though they are not produced in that place today. This is a very strange thing.e

One cannot help being reminded of the providential landslide which turned Roderick
Murchison into a geologist.

(2) FOSSIL ANIMALS

With the fossils of animals we are on much surer ground. The brachiopods are a very
ancient phylum of invertebrates bearing a superficial resemblance to bivalve molluscs.
Owing to the fact that the many extinct species of Spirifer and related genera had
shells which look like the outstretched wings of a bird, the Chinese name for them was
shih yen [Z (stone-swallows). These 'stone-swallows' were identified as fossil brachio-
pods by Davidson in + r8S3.f The first important reference to them seems to be

a Ch. 8, tr. auct. b (1), p. 309.

c RP 102. d Ch. 5, p. I3a.
e MCPT, ch. 21, para. 17, tr. auct. They might however have been corals, crinoids, fulgurites or
various other things. One cannot expect too much from contemporaries of William the Conqueror,
and the main interest is that Shen Kua thought they were fossil plants. Cf. Hu Tao-Ching (1), vol. 2,
p.69 2 •
f Cf. Hanbury (I), p. 274; RP 107.
'ijtji;Z 2 1t~.*lill'.
6 ~!¥Jt. ~B 7 E~
II~!JH I2EjIW
 23. GEOLOGY

towards the end of the + 5th century, when Li Tao-Yuan said in the Shui Ching Chu
(Commentary on the Waterways Classic):

In Shih -Yen Shan I there are a sort of stone oysters (shih kan 2) which look like swallows.
Hence the name of the mountain. There are two varieties of these stone shapes, one large
and one small, as if they were parents and offspring. During thunderstorms these 'stone-
swallows' fly about as if they were real swallows. (Yet) Lo Han said: 'Now the (stone-)
swallows do not fly about any more.' a

Li Tao-Yuan was quoting here from the Hsiang Chung Chi 3 of Lo Han, 4 who had been
an official of the Chin (ft. c. + 375),b so it seems likely that the fossils had been recog-
nised at least as early as the + 4th century.
From the Thang Pen Tshao ( + 660) onwards, these fossils were incorporated into
the pharmaceutical compendia. Fig. 266, which shows a drawing of them, is taken
from the Pen Tshao Kang Mu. c From the centuries following the time of Li Tao-
Yuan more than thirty texts are known which emphasise the value and beauty of these
stone-swallows and describe their collection as imperial tribute. These include the
geographical chapters of the Thang dynastic histories. d It is noteworthy that Li Tao-
Yuan, who spoke of 'stone oysters', came nearer the truth than the many later writers
who accepted the technical term 'stone-swallows' without question. Yen Chen-
Chhing, in the important passage quoted above (p. 600) on mountain formation, used
the same words as Chu Hsi (la pang,S molluscs), yet what he actually saw may well have
been brachiopod fossils. They were recognised by Tseng Min-Hsing in + 1176 as
having once been in the sea. e

It was a curious idea that the stone-swallows came out of the rocks and flew about
in windy and stormy weather. But the legend at any rate stimulated a Sung scholar to
disprove it experimentally in the + 12th century. It had considerable authority; not
only had Lo Han mentioned it, but his +4th-century contemporary, the famous
painter Ku Khai-Chih,6 had definitely affirmed it,! as also many later writers. But
Tu Wan was not content to believe the story, and wrote (+ 1133) in his Yun Lin Shih
Phu (Cloud Forest Lapidary):

The stone-swallows are produced at Ling-ling 7 in Yungchow. 8 It was said in ancient

times that when it rained they flew about. In recent years, however, I have climbed up high

a Tr. auct. b Biogr. Chin Shu, ch. 92, p. 20a.

C It is a curious fact that many Chinese Devonian brachiopods (especially Spirifer spp.) have been
described on the basis of pharmaceutical material, no outcrop sources of these species having yet
become known to geologists (personal communication from Dr K. P. Oakley and Dr Helen Muir-
Wood). In other cases the sources are well known.
d Most of the texts are given in the thorough discussion of Chang Hung-Chao (1), pp. 251 ff.
• Tu Hsing Tsa Chih, ch. 4, p. 5 b.
f If we are to believe what Chiang Yti 9 says in the + 17th century in his Hsiao -Hsiang Thing Yu
Lu!O (Listening to the Rain at Hsiao-hsiang).
 23. GEOLOGY

Fig. 266. Drawings of fossil animals from Li Shih-Chen's Pen Tshao Kang Mu of + 1596. At the top
to the left, shill hsieh, i.e. stone crabs. Below, to the left, shih she, i.e. stone serpents; and to the right
shih yen, i.e. brachiopods such as Spiri/er and related genera.

cliffs, and found many of these stone shapes with the form of swallows. Some of them I
marked with my pen. As the rocks were exposed to the blazing sun they cracked and
weathered when thunder showers came, and the ones which I had marked fell to the ground
one after another. It was because of the expansion in the heat and contraction in the cold
that they fell flying through the air. They cannot really fly. The local people have in their
houses many stone plates which show these stone-swallow shapes. a

The texts frequently say that the stone-swallows were dissolved or preserved in
vinegar for use as medicine. The Lung-Chhuan Hsien Chih I (Lung-chhuan Local
Topography) of + 1762 says: 'People who like to do unnecessary things catch them
in nets, cut each one into two, and put them into a vessel with vinegar in it. Those
which can move after being put in are supposed to be the best ones.'b No doubt the
pharmacists deceived themselves in thinking that spontaneous splittings of the stone
were real movement, but perhaps what they did was r.ot so unnecessary after all. It is
a Ch. 2, p . 3 b, tr. auct. b Tr. auct.
 23. GEOLOGY
at any rate interesting that geologists still use acetic acid today for removing calcareous
matrix from phosphatic fossils so as to bring out fine detail. Tu Wan seems to allude
to this very practice when he says a that the workers use' drugs' to etch certain stones. b
But even more to the point is the fact that the traditional Chinese diet was always
lacking in calcium (owing to the absence of milk products from the diet), and a good
source of assimilable lime was greatly needed. Even if a large part of the calcium in
fossil bones and other mineral materials was in the form of phosphate rather than
carbonate, some calcium acetate would certainly be formed, and this would be more
suitable for pharmaceutical use, corresponding indeed to the employment of calcium
lactate and other similar organic salts today. The Pen Tshao Kang Mu prescribes
fossils for dental and other troubles likely to be due to hypocalcaemia. c
By the time of Li Shih-Chen in the + 16th century a certain confusion had come
about between the stone-swallow fossils and a bird, the cave-dwelling martin, Chelido
dasypus, which had the same name (shih yenl).d This had been introduced into the
pharmacopoeia by the + loth-century Jih Hua Pen Tshao,2 and of course used for
different purposes. Li Shih-Chen clears up any doubts, however, and treats of the
fossil brachiopod and the bird in two quite different chapters of the Pen Tshao Kang
Mu. e
True fossillamellibranchiate molluscs are also mentioned, as we have already seen
from several quotations (' stone oysters '), and gastropods too (' conchs '), or what were
thought to be so. The Thang Pen Tshao notes the resemblance of the former to the
stone-swallows. Chou Chhii-Fei, about + 1178, in his Ling Wai Tai Ta,! speaking of
Hsiangchow 3 in Kuangsi, says that apart from the stone-swallows, there are many
fossils of another kind resembling sea oysters (hai kan4) which, once living, have
become inlaid (khanS), as it were, into the stone. He adds that these are not the real
stone-swallows, so that a clear distinction must have been made in his time. But
fossil lamellibranch molluscs did not acquire an important place in the lapidary parts
of the pharmaceutical compendia, though the San Tshai Thu Hui encyclopaedia
(Ming) gives a shih ko 6 (fossil clam) along with the true stone-swallows. g
Some very impressive coiled fossil shells of soft-bodied animals which possessed
an external skeleton were recognised by the Chinese, at any rate from the Sung
onwards, the first Pen Tshao in which they appear being Su Sung's7 Pen Tshao Thu
Ching 8 (Illustrated Pharmacopoeia) of + 1070. I illustrate these' stone-serpents' (shih
she 9 ) in Fig. 266, but an even cruder drawing h is contained in the + 1468 edition

• Yiin Lin Shih Phu, ch. 2, p. 2a.

b Kung jen yung yao tien hua chien chih.'o
C De Mely (I), pp. 131,237; text, p. 126.
dRead (3), no. 287.
e Chs. 10 and 48 respectively.
f Ch. 7, p. Isa.
g De Mely (I), p. 130.
h The modem edition of the Thu Ching Yen I Pen Tshao in the Tao Tsang (TT 761) has illustrations,
but I do not feel confident that these go back to the + 11th and + 12th centuries in their present fonn.

4 #Hlt 5 ifX
10 I A Jlnfi mIi 1(. ~ NI
 23. GEOLOGY
of the Cheng Lei Pen Tshao. 1 An alternative name was yang chio 10 2 (ram's horn
conchs).a Su Sung b wrote:

The stone-serpent appears in rocks which are found beside the rivers flowing into the
southern seas. Its shape is like a coiled snake with no head or tail-tip. Inside it is empty. Its
colour is reddish purple. The best ones are those which coil to the left. It also looks like the
spiral shell of a conch. We do not know what animal it was which was thus changed into
stone. But (the petrifaction) must have been similar to that which occurred in the case of
the 'stone-crabs'. c

Here it is interesting that sinistral and dextral coiling was noticed, and fossils showing
it would have been almost certainly gastropods rather than cephalopods. Then Khou
Tsung-Shih, 3 in the Pen Tshao Yen 1 4 of + I I 15, acutely observed that in his opinion
the stone-serpent had never been a snake like modern snakes.

The stone-serpent is in colour like earthen plates on old walls or like hanging hawthorn
berries. d Both ends are the same size. The stone-serpent is a very different kind of thing
from the stone-crabs, for they were once real crabs subsequently changed (into stone), but
the stone-serpent was never a snake (such as we find nowadays). People use it very little."

Shen Kua alludes, about + 1080, to the finding of such fossils: f

In the Chih-Phing reign-period (+ 1064 to + 1067) a man of Tsechow s was digging a
well in his garden, and unearthed something shaped like a squirming serpent, or dragon. He
was so frightened by it that he dared not touch it, but after some time, seeing that it did
not move, he examined it and found it to be stone. The ignorant country people smashed it,
but Chheng Po-Shun,6 who was magistrate of Chin-chheng 7 at the time, got hold of a large
piece of it on which scale-like markings were to be seen exactly like those on a living creature.
Thus a serpent or some kind of marine snake (chhen 8 ) had certainly been turned to stone, as
happens with the 'stone-crabs'.

And about the same time the author of the Hsi Chhi Tshung Yu (Western Pool
Collected Remarks) attributesg to Wang Chin-Chhen 9 the idea that there were
particular places under the sea where serpents and crabs were petrified.
Another kind of cephalopod with external skeleton gave rise to conspicuous fossils,
the orthoceratids, or straight-shelled nautiloids. Ordovician limestone containing
them was known by the time of the Ming at any rate as 'pagoda-stone' (pao tha shih 10), h

a RP 109; de Mely (I), p. 132.

b Shen Kua's contemporary, whose astronomical maps and instruments we have already admired
(pp. 277,351 above).
c Tr. auct. Quoted in subsequent compendia, such as PTKM, ch. 10, p. 43b.
d What both these authors said about the colour of the ammonites was presumably due to im-
pregnation of the fossils with iron salts, giving a brownish pink colour.
e Ch. 5, p. 7b; tr. auct. Quoted also in subsequent compendia, such as PTKM, ch. 10, p. 43b.
f MCPT, ch. 21, para. 18, tr. auct. Cf. Hu Tao-Ching (1), vol. 2, p. 693.
g Ch. 2, p. 34a. h Li Ssu-Kuang (1), p. 104.
 23. GEOLOGY

the septa of the fossil encouraging such an analogy. Other names were' Thai Chi shih' I
on account of a fanciful resemblance to the circles which the Neo-Confucians liked
to embody in their philosophical diagrams, a and also ' straight-horn stone' (chih chio
shih 2 ). Chang Hung-Chao figures a fine specimen of Orthoceras sinensis from a locality
in Hupei. b The nautiloids were not used in medicine, nor was it realised that they were
animal remains.
Fossil arthropods had more of a success in medieval China than the fossil cephalo-
pods just mentioned. Stone containing trilobites was called' bat-stone' (pien fu shih 3),
from the resemblance which the cross-sections of these animals have to the wings of
bats.C In + 1637 Wang Shih-Chen 4 gave a detailed description of these fossils in his
Chhih Pei Ou Than 5 (Chance Conversations North of Chhih-chou). But already four-
teen centuries earlier trilobite-containing rocks had been prized, for Kuo Pho, in his
commentary on the Erh Ya dictionary, says that another name for bats was chih mo 6
and that the men of Chhi use such' bat-stone' for inkstones (chih mo yen 7). The fossils
were probably identical with what was called shih tshan 8 (' stone silkworms '), and as
such they entered the pharmacopoeias. d The earliest in which they were mentioned
was the Khai-Pao Pen Tshao 9 of +970.
Pleistocene crabs were much more widely known. The same early Sung lapidary
introduced them into medicine. e The most common fossil species of China is Macro-
phthalmus latreilli, frequently found in Hainan and Kuangsi; and the name by which
they were always known was shih hsieh, 10' stone crabs'. Fan Chheng-Ta mentions
them several times in his Kuei Hai Yu Heng Chih (+ 1175)/ and in one place suggests
that they were formed from sea-foam, which is a little reminiscent of the 'succus
lapidificus' of European medieval writers. He also says there was a different variety
(shih hsia I I). But plenty of other writers from Sung to Chhing g affirm that they were
real crabs which had been caught in the mud and afterwards petrified. As in the case of
the stone-swallows, there was in late times a confusion with a living species,h which
Li Shih-Chen had to clear up.
Fossil and sub-fossil vertebrates in which the Chinese were interested included the
remains of fishes, reptiles and mammals. The earliest reference to fossil fish has
recently been the subject of a discussion started by Sarton (4), who reported the
examination of such specimens by King Louis IX in + 1253, as given in an account by
a Cf. Sect. 16d above (Vol. 2, p. 461).
b (1), pI. Xl.
C Chang Hung-Chao (1), figures masses of trilobites (Drepanura premesnili) in Cambrian rock from

Shantung, pI. VlII.

d For the Pen Tshao Kang Mu see RPllo; for San Tshai Thu Hui, see de Mely (I), p. 132, text,
p. 127·
e RP 108; de Mely (I), p. 132, text, p. 127.
f P. 7b (in Shuo Fu, ch. 50, pp. lob, 18b); also Ling Wai Tai Ta, ch. 7, p. Isa.
g E.g. Yao Khuan in his late + 11th century Hsi Chhi Tshung Yu, ch. 2, p. 34a; Kao Ssu-Sun in
Hsieh Lueh of + I 184 (in Shuo Fu, ch. 36, p. 18a); Chhu Jen-Huo" in HsU Hsieh Phu 13 (Chhing).
h See Read (5), no. 214C; Telphura spp.

'i1i.fiJ:6
7 i!& illil!.
.. ~'If A. tJ
620 23. GEOLOGY

the chronicler Joinville in 1309. Pease (I) then adduced the famous passage from
Xenophanes at which we shall glance briefly later, and Eisler (3) conjectured that
certain terms on Babylonian cuneiform inscriptions might refer to fossil fish. Of a
more certain character was the passage from al-BlrunI (+ 1025) translated by Prostov.
Goodrich (6) drew attention to the words of Chu Hsi already quoted, though they
are not strictly relevant to the point at issue, since shell-fish are not fish. It was
left to Rudolph (2) to draw on the excellent discussion of Chang Hung-Chao,a which
shows that, so far as China is concerned, we can start definitely in the + 6th century.
The first reference to 'stone fishes' (shih yii J) comes in the Shui Ching Chu of Li
Tao-Yuan (d. + 527).

At Stone-Fish Mountain in Hsiang-hsiang Hsien 2 there is a lot of non-magnetic iron ore

(hsiian shihJ). It is of dark colour and veined like mica. If you split open the outer layer
there are always shapes of fishes inside, with scales and fins, heads and tails, just as if they
were carved or painted. They are several inches long, and their details are perfect. If burnt
they will even give off a fishy smell. b

The Yiin Lin Shih Phu of + 1133 has a long passage on the subject.

At the top of the mountains in Hsiang-hsiang Hsien in Thanchow 4 there are horizontal
stones buried in the earth. Digging down several feet one can unearth slabs of blue stone;
this is called the 'cover of the fish-stone'. Below this the stone is bluish grey or whitish,
and removing layer by layer, you come upon the shapes of the fishes. They look like' false
carp' (chhiu chiS).c Their scales and antennae are all as perfect as if drawn with ink .
Digging down twenty or thirty feet blue stone is again seen; this is called the' support of the
fish-stone'. Underneath is sand and earth. In the stone the fishes seem to follow one another
as if they were swimming. Sometimes their shapes are injured or indistinct, obscured by
spots, as if the river-weeds had been petrified with them. Then among hundreds of specimens
hardly one or two are clear. The fishes in the stone have no definite orientation, but lie
in all directions; sometimes they are coiled like dragons. Occasionally one can get them out
complete so that both sides can be seen in all perfection.
The local people make falsifications of these fish by painting stone with lacquer. But if
you scrape it and burn it you can easily distinguish by the smell what is true and what is
false.
Moreover, in Lung-Hsi 6 (Kansu) there is a place called Yii-Iung (Fish-Dragon). Here
also if you take out the stone and split it you can obtain many fish shapes, just the same as
what is produced in Hsiang-hsiang. I wonder whether in very ancient times the mountains
fell down upon the rivers in which these fishes lived, so that after many ages they were
condensed into stone (sui chiu thu ning wei shih 7 ), as we see them now.

a (1), pp. 258 fr.

b Ch. 38, p. 3a, tr. auct. Substantially the same passage is repeated in the Yu-Yang Tsa Tsu of
+860 (ch. 10, p. 4a). Other Thang books, the Ch/lao Yeh Chhien T sai B (Records of the Doings of
Gentle and Simple) and the Lin Chio Chi" (Unicorn Horn Collection of Examination Essays), p. Isa,
also mention these fossils. The latter distinctly recognises them as petrifactions. For a late reference see
Chhih Pei Ou Than, ch. 21, p. lOb, ch. 22, p. 17b, ch. 23, p. ISb.
c Read (6), no. 147.

'EfM 2 m1m1l\li: 3~E 'if,'l#l

7~R±lli~E 8lJj!f~l\D(:
 23. GEOLOGY
As Tu Fu says, writing about Yli-Iung: 'At night there is nothing but the sound of the
water; the birds and mice of the empty mountain are all hiding away.' a

Here we find an unusually precise description of the geological location of the stone,
and the account of a palaeontological test. This seems to have been necessitated by
some considerable demand for the fossil fish, which encouraged forgeries, but it was
aesthetic rather than medical, for they were not prominent in the Pen Tshao books.
Or else it was because they were regarded as charms for good harvests, and placed in
cupboards to keep away' silver-fish' (Lepisma), bookworms, and other harmful insects.b
The commonest fossil fishes in Chinese rocks are Lycoptera spp.c
The bones and teeth of fossil reptiles, birds and mammals were always known in
China as 'dragon's bones' and 'dragon's teeth' (lung ku l and lung chhih 2). What L i
Shih-Chen says about them in the Pen Tshao Kang Mu has been translated by Read. d
While most of them were undoubtedly of mammalian origin, and from a great variety
of species (Rhinoceros, Mastodon, Elephas, Equus, Hippotherium, etc.) some of them
were bones of deinosaurs and pterodactyls. The great esteem in which 'dragon's
bones' were held medicinallye aided modern palaeontologists to their discoveries of
fossil man in China (Sinanthropus pekinensis), as Davidson Black describes. M oreover,
it was through the examination of drug-store material that the first discovery of the
inscribed oracle-bones f was made just before the beginning of the present century.g
It is an interesting fact that the incorporation of vertebrate fossils in the pharma-
copoeia occurred earlier than in the case of others already described; for the bones are
mentioned in works of Han or San Kuo period such as the Shen N ung Pen Tshao Ching
and the Ming I Pieh Lu, while the teeth appear firs t in the Chin Li shih Yao Lu 3
(Mr Li's Record of Drugs). The Chhien Han Shu (c. + 100) says in its chapter on
irrigation and water-conservancy: 'A canal was dug at Cheng 4 to introduce the
waters of the Lo 5 River to Shang-yen 6 • . •• During the excavations dragon bones were
found and therefore the canal was named the "Dragon-Head waterway".'h This was
approximately in - 133. i So also Wang Chhung says, about + 83, that ' when the
floods had been controlled and were flowing to the east, strange bones were found where
the serpents and dragons had been; thus there was evidence of these queer creatures. ' j

a Ch. 2, p. I a, tr. auct.

b We know this from the Lu-Ling I Wu Chih 7 (Strange Things of Lu-ling), which refers to a stone-
fish monument (probably a particularly fine section) seen in +971, which bore the date + 763.
C Figured by Chang Hung-Chao (1), pIs. IX, x.
d (4), nos. I02a, b. Cf. Hanbury (I), p. 273 .
e Schlosser (I) describes the trade.
r Cf. above, pp. 83 ff. in Vol. I, Sect. 5 b.
g See Creel (1), p. 2, for the story.
h Ch. 29, p. 5 b, tr. auct.
i Similar finds are being made by the hydraulic engineers of the great Huai River Conservancy
Works nearly two thousand years later. The eminent palaeontologist Dr Phei Wen-Chung is leading
a field survey of them (NCNA, 7 April 1954).
j Lun Heng, ch. 9. Forke (4), vol. I, p. 173, entirely misunderstood this passage. Our attention was
drawn to it by Mr D. Leslie.
1 mt 'It z ta tIi 5 i-l
7 la Ii~U'fdi8 ;m
 23. GEOLOGY
The common name shows that the fossils were always regarded as being the remains
of animals long dead, even if somewhat mythological, but the existence of prehistoric
monsters is clearly stated by Khou Tsung-Shih early in the + 12th century. a
Presumably the only pharmaceutical value which the bones ever had was as a source
of lime, so it is curious that among the various methods of preparation which Li Shih-
Chen gives, digestion with vinegar to produce an assimilable salt is not mentioned.
Some pages previously, we dropped the occidental story at the time of Ibn Sina and
al-BirunL Since then we have seen that from the Han (about - 1st century) onwards,
the Chinese accumulated a mass of information about various fossil remains. In com-
paring their records with those of Western pre-Renaissance writers, one has the
impression that they defined and recognised their material with a good deal more
precision and comprehension, as well as appreciating something of the geological
significance of fossils. What remains to be filled in is the contribution of the ancient
Mediterranean civilisations. At this we can only glance, referring the reader to books
such as those of Geikie and Adams, and to papers such as those especially devoted by
v. Lasaulx and McCartney to (fossil lore in Greek and Latin literature'.
The oldest Greek reference is certainly that ascribed to Xenophanes (ft. c. - 530
but only known through a quotation in Hippolytus ( + 3rd century):

Xenophanes says that the sea is salt because a great variety of mixed materials flow into it.
He further says that the land and sea were once mixed up, and even thinks that the land is
dissolved in course of time by moisture. For this he says he has the following proofs. Shells
(of sea-animals) are found far inland and on mountains, and he tells us that in the stone-
quarries at Syracuse imprints (remains) of fish and a certain kind of seaweed have been
found, while at Paros in the depths of the rock there are impressions of sardines, and at
Malta similar moulds of all kinds of marine creatures. He says that it follows from this that
at one time all these lands were under water. After all things had been turned into mud, the
impressions were dried out and consolidated. And men must all perish when the earth has
been carried down into the sea and (again) become mud; and from that point generation
will begin anew, and these changes take place in all the world. b

Here the echo of the Indian periodical cataclysms is interesting, but one can see that
if the passage really belongs to Xenophanes the pre-Socratics were able to think along
lines which seem very advanced when we meet with them in a Chu Hsi or a Leonardo.
As for later references to fossils in Greek authors, some have proved to be mere mis-
understandings,C but others are quite definite, as, for example, in Strabo,d Pausanias,e

a Pen Tshao Yen I, and copied in later compendia. The mythological aspect of the subject, about
which there is, of course, a large literature (e.g. Hornblower, 2), is not really relevant here. The point
is that the medieval Chinese scientists associated the animal in their minds with the genuine fossilised
material.
b Refutationes, I, 14, IS, tr. Bromehead (I), Heath (4), K . Freeman (I), p. 103; mod. Although all
western classical scholars seem to accept with little hesitation the genuineness of such quotations given
after a lapse of eight centuries, one cannot help remarking that sinologists would show great reluctance
to do so in a parallel Chinese case. The passage comes from a rather corrupt text, but the references
given will indicate some of the emendations and the reasons for them.
e Bromehead (I), p . 104.
d Geogr. I, iii, 4.
e I, xliv, 6.
 23. GEOLOGY
Plinya and so on. Conclusions of a geological character, however, were not usually
drawn; the facts were simply noticed as curiosities. Theophrastus ( - 370 to - 287)
started the idea of fish-spawn being scattered among the rocks and then petrifying, or
of a special vis plastica which was able to bring about morphogenesis but not to confer
life and movement on the product. b Mter the patristic period, the presence of fossil
sea-shells in rocks was taken simply as evidence for the flood, as, for example, in
Priscian's Latin translation of Dionysius Periegetes (c. +436)C or Isidore of Seville's
Etymologiae (c. +630).d Finally, interest in fossils completely died out until the
Renaissance.
The picture thus presented is very reminiscent of the Great Interruption which was
so prominent in the history of quantitative cartography.e Brilliant insights or great
achievements were attained by the Greeks, but from about the + 2nd to the + 15th
century China was much more advanced than Europe, until modern science begins to
appear. The pre-history of palaeontology also illustrates this, and it does not seem at all
likely that any stimulus was received by the Chinese from the West at the beginning
of their best period.
a Hist . Nat . XXXVII, x, I!. b Geikie p. 16.
(I),
C Bunbury (I), vol. 2, p. 685. d XIII, 22,ii; cf. Kimble (I), p. 155.
e P. 587 above. And we can recognise a pattern which we have also seen in mathematics (e.g. p. 101),
in astronomy (pp. 366, 379), in tidal theory (p. 493) and in human geography (pp. 514, 520).
 24. SEISMOLOGY
(a) EARTHQUAKE RECORDS AND THEORIES
If China had no active volcanoes it nevertheless formed part of one of the world's
greatest areas of seismic disturbance from the earliest times. It was natural, therefore,
that the Chinese should have kept extensive records of earthquakes, and these indeed
now constitute the longest and most complete series which we have for any part of
the earth's surface. a Earlier lists, taken from the Chinese histories, have all been
incorporated in those of Huang (2) and Anon. (8), but it is still good to read some of the
original texts. The Thu Shu Chi Chheng encyclopaedia, for example, devotes six chapters
to excerpts from the dynastic annals concerning earthquakes. b From Omori's study we
learn that up to + 1644 there had been 908 recorded shocks for which we have precise
data. Among the earliest was that of -780 mentioned in the Shih Chi,c when the
courses of three rivers were interrupted. At Nanking between +345 and +414 there
were 30 shocks, and between + 1372 and + 1644 no less than 1I0. But the main area
always lay north of the Yangtze and in all the western provinces. From the records
there emerge twelve peaks of frequency between the end of the Sung and the beginning
of the Chhing, showing a 32-year periodicity. Earthquakes sometimes affected several
provinces, but different regions did not usually have them simultaneously, and there
seems to have been no time correlation between Chinese and Japanese earth-
quakes. One of the worst Chinese ones was that of 25 September + 1303 in Shansi,
while that of 2 February + 1556 is said to have killed more than 800,000 people in
Shansi, Shensi and Honan. A famous siege of Sian in + 1128 was ended by an
earthquake.
No great progress was made in ancient or medieval China regarding the theory of
earthquakes, which indeed in Europe also had to await post-Renaissance conceptions
of the nature of the earth's crust. However, in connection with the - 8th-century
earthquake already mentioned, we find an early statement of ideas concerning them.
The Shih Chi says:

In the second year of the reign of King Yu l (of Chou), the three rivers of the western
province were all shaken and their beds raised up. Poyang Fu 2 said: 'The dynasty of the
Chou is going to perish. It is necessary that the chhi of heaven and earth should not lose
their order (pu shih chhi hSu,3); if they overstep their order (kuo chhi hSu,4)d it is because there
a Anyone with intimate acquaintance in China will have come across personal experience of seismic
phenomena. One of the writer's best friends was made an orphan by the loss of all his family when
their cave-dwelling home in Honan was destroyed in an earthquake about 1930.
b Shu cheng tien, chs. II 5-21. Among other accounts of earthquakes may be mentioned those in
chs. 34-6, 88 and 89 of the Hsin Thang Shu, translated by Pfizmaier (67).
c Ch. 4, p. Z4b. Huang (2), vol. 2, p. 45.
d Cf. Heraclitus on the sun' not transgressing his measures', in Vol. 2, pp. 283, 533 above.
 24. SEISMOLOGY 62 5
is disorder among the people. When the Yang is hidden and cannot come forth, or when the
Yin bars its way and it cannot rise up, then there is what we call an earthquake (ti chen I).
Now we see that the three rivers have dried up by this shaking; it is because the Yang has
lost its place and the Yin has overburdened it. When the Yang has lost its rank and finds
itself (subordinate to) the Yin, the springs become closed, and when this has happened the
kingdom must be lost. When water and earth are propitious the people make use of them,
when they are not, the people are deprived of what they need. Formerly when the rivers
I and Lo dried up, the dynasty of the Hsia perished. When the Ho dried up, the dynasty of
the Shang perished. Now the virtue of the Chou is in the same state as that of these dynasties
was in their decline .... The Chou will be ruined before ten years are out; so it is written
in the cycle of numbers a (shu chih chi yeh 2 ).b

Apart from the usual aspect of State prognostication c in Poyang Fu's discourse, its
interest lies in what it says about the Yin and Yang. d Similar ideas were prevalent
throughout the Chhin and Han periods, e as we know from the Lii Shih Chhun Chhiu f
and the Lun Heng;g it was thought, too, that earthquakes could be predicted astro-
logically. The theory of the imprisoned Yang was embodied in the I Ching (Book of
Changes) under the fifty-first hexagram chen,3 which could refer either to thunder or
earthquake shocks, and will still be found in Sung books, such as the Yii Thang Chia
Hua 4 (+ 1288)h by Wang Yiin.s
Let it not be thought that these theories were more primitive than those which the
ancient Mediterranean world entertained on the subject of earthquakes. Lones has
summarised what was thought in Aristotle's time and before it. The Meteorologica i
recapitulates previous explanations-Anaxagoras believed that earthquakes were
caused by excess of water from the upper regions bursting into the under parts and
hollows of the earth; Democritus thought that this happened when the earth was
a1ready saturated with water, and Anaximenes suggested that the shocks were caused
by masses of earth falling in cavernous places during the processes of drying. Aristotle
himself in the - 4th century attributed the instability to the vapour (pneuma, 7TV€up.a)
generated uy the drying action of the sun on the moist earth, and to difficulties met
with by the vapour in escaping) This is closely parallel to Chinese ideas of the

a Cf. p . 402 above; chi as a technical tenn for the Jupiter Cycle, which is perhaps what Poyang means
here.
b Tr. Chavannes (I), vol. I, p. 279; eng. auct. Parallel texts, Kuo Yu, Chou YU, ch. I, pp. 20a ff.;
Chhien Han Shu. ch. 27 c, p . 5 b.
C Cf. Khai-Yuan Chan Ching, ch. 4, p . 3a.

d In view of what has been said above (Sect. 13 c, e, Vol. 2, pp. 241 ff.), it seems unlikely that anyone
in the -8th century would have appealed to Yin and Yang in quite so definite a way, but the speech
attributed to Poyang Fu by Ssuma Chhien would be quite characteristic of the time of Tsou Yen or
somewhat before.
e The Khai-Yuan Chan Ching (+718) quotes (ch. 2, p . 3a) the Hsing Ching as saying that earth-
quakes wer~ due to excess of Yin, and menaced princes.
t Ch. 2'), tr. R. Wilhelm (3), p. 74.
g Chs. 17.42,43,58; tr. Forke (4), vol. I, pp. II2, 127; vol. 2, pp. 160,211.
h 'Agr.eeable Talks in the Jade Hall', ch. 2, p. 2a.
i n, vii, viii (365 a 14ff.).
j The lively statement of this theory by Shakespeare will be remembered (King Henry IV (Pt. I),
Act. lll, sc. I, 11. 25 ff.).

3 :it
626 24. SEISMOLOGY

imprisonment of chhi. A few pages below, we shall have occasion to notice an even
closer parallel between Aristotelian and Chinese ideas on the generation of rocks and
ores, both being expressed in pneumatic terms. No further progress was made in
seismic theory until modern times.
But the importance of pneumatic ideas equally in China and Europe is quite striking.
Seneca, writing just over ten years before the birth of Chang Heng, says:
The chief cause of earthquake is air, an element naturally swift and shifting from place to
place. As long as it is not stirred, but lurks in a vacant space, it reposes innocently, giving no
trouble to objects around it. But any cause coming upon it from without rouses it, or
compresses it, and drives it into a narrow space ... and when opportunity of escape is cut off,
then 'With deep murmur of the Mountain it roars around the barriers', which after long
battering it dislodges and tosses on high, growing more fierce the stronger the obstacle with
which it has contended. a
One might be reading Ching Fang or any other Han mutationist.

(b) THE ANCESTOR OF ALL SEISMOGRAPHS

But if theory did not advance, China has unquestionably the credit of having pro-
duced the ancestor of all seismographs. This was due to the brilliant mathematician,
astronomer and geographer, Chang Heng I (+78 to + 139), whom we have already
met with in these other connections. b Many modern Western seismologists, such as
Milne, c Sieberg and Berlage, have freely recognised d the great merit which belongs to
Chang Heng in this field. e Modern Asian scholars, themselves geophysicists, such as
Li Shan-Pang and Imamura, have studied his work, while others have given detailed
biographies of him.f
The basic text which describes Chang Heng's instrument is contained in the bio-
graphical chapter devoted to him in the Hou Han Shu. g The information which it
gives is fortunately rather detailed, and the passage has been repeatedly ~ranslated or
paraphrased into Western languages. h The following version attempts t-> combine the
a Quaestiones Naturales, tr. Clarke & Geikie (I), p. 247. The verse quoted is Virgil, Aeneid, I, 55--6.
b Cf. pp. 100, 343, 363 and 537 above.
C But the description of Chang Heng's instrument was suppressed from later editio': ls; one must use

that of 1886.
d Davison's work on the founders of seismology, however, does not mention Chang Heng, and it is
particularly strange that Knott's does not do so either, since Knott (like Milne) worked in Japan.
e Here a strange circumstance must be mentioned. Sarton (I), in his great Introduction, refers the
invention of the seismograph to Chhao Tsho,z who lived in the - 2nd century (vol. I, p. 196). The
only authority cited is Sieberg, who describes (p. 2II) Chang Heng's instrument, erroneously referring
it to - 136 instead of + 132, and giving only his Japanese name (or rather a distortion of ir) • Chiocho'.
So Milne and Shaw refer only to 'Choko', and a writer in Nature in 1939 knows only 'Tyoko', which
is Imamura's version. Now the biography of Chhao Tsho in Chhien Han Shu, ch. 49, says nothing
about a seismograph or anything remotely connected with it. We believe, therefore, that Homer must
here have nodded, and that the whole entry should be omitted from the next edition of the Int,·oduction.
f Sun Wen-Chhing (2,3, 4) ; Chang Yin-Lin (4) ; Chang Yti-Che (I, 2).
g Ch. 89, p. 9b, cit. TPYL, ch. 752, p. lb.
h Pelliot & Moule (I); Imamura (I); Forke (6); H . A. Giles (5); Waley (11); Milne (I).
 24. SEISMOLOGY

best elements in previous renderings, all of which have been carefully compared with
the text:
In the first year of the Yang-Chia reign-period ( + 132) Chang Heng also invented (tsao ,)
an 'earthquake weathercock' a (hou feng ti tung iz-i.e. a seismograph). b
It consisted of a vessel of fine cast bronze, resembling a wine-jar, and having a diameter of
eight chhih 3. c
It had a domed cover, and the outer surface was ornamented with antique seal-characters,
and designs of mountains, tortoises, birds and animals.
Inside there was a central column capable of lateral displacement along tracks in the eight
directions, and so arranged (that it would operate) a closing and opening mechanism (Chung
yu tu chu, pang hsing pa tao, shih kuanfa chi 4).d
Outside the vessel there were eight dragon heads, each one holding a bronze ball in its
mouth, while round the base there sat eight (corresponding) toads with their mouths open,
ready to receive any ball which the dragons might drop.
The toothed machinery (ya chi 5) e and ingenious constructions were all hidden inside the
vessel, and the cover fitted down closely all round without any crevice.
When an earthquake occurred the dragon mechanism of the vessel was caused to vibrate
so that a ball was vomited out of a dragon-mouth and caught by the toad underneath. At
the same instant a sharp sound was made which called the attention of the observers.
Now although the mechanism of one dragon was released, the seven (other) heads did not
move, and by following the (azimuthal) direction (of the dragon which had been set in
motion), one knew (the direction) from which the earthquake (shock) had come (lit. where
the earthquake was). When this was verified by the facts there was (found) an almost
miraculous (shen 6 ) agreement (i.e. between the observations made with the apparatus and
the news of what had actually happened).
Nothing like this had ever been heard of before since the earliest records of the Shu (Ching).
On one occasion one of the dragons let fall a ball from its mouth though no perceptible
shock could be felt. All the scholars at the capital were astonished at this strange effect
occurring without any evidence (of an earthquake to cause it). But several days later a
messenger arrived bringing news of an earthquake in Lung-Hsi (Kansu).f Upon this every-

a Pelliot was puzzled here by the reference to winds, and thought that they might have something
to do with earthquakes, but the point is really quite clear; Chang H t!ng's apparatu s determined the
azimuth direction in which the earthquake's epicentre lay, just as the weathercock determined the
direction of the wind. Chu Kho-Chen (2) has urged that two separate instruments are referred to h ere,
a weathercock (hou feng i)-which he interprets as some kind of anemometer-and the seismograph
(ti tung i). Dr Chu feels that this is justified by passages from the San Fu Huang Thu which we have
already noticed (see p. 478 above) in connection with weathercocks (private communication), but we,
at any rate, have not been able to find any reference to the seismograph in the text of this Chin book.
b Others have carefully written' seismoscope' instead of' seismograph', but the following description
will, I think, justify the use of the latter term.
C As the Later Han chhih was just on nine of our inches, the diameter would be six feet.
d This is the key sentence of the whole. We have assumed that kuan and fa are antitheses, but
fa-chi was the technical term for the contemporary crossbow trigger, a beautiful piece of mechanism
in cast bronze (cf. below, Sect. 30). If this sense is preferred the interpretation of Wang Chen-To is
strengthened.
e This need not mean toothed gearwheels. Both Wang Chen-To and Imamura need teeth or pins
in one way or another, as will be seen.
f About 400 miles away to the north-west. Ong Wt!n-Hao (2) has made a study of the earthquakes
in Kansu province, and gives a register of their recorded occurrences (-780 to + 1909).
31{
628 24. SEISMOLOGY

one admitted the mysterious (power of the instrument). Thenceforward it became the duty
of the officials of the Bureau of Astronomy and Calendar to record the directions from which
earthquakes came. a

It will be agreed that this passage is one of the greatest interest. Let us see in what
way it is possible to reconstruct the instrument of Chang Heng. We owe to Wang
Chen-To (1) an interesting attempt, but what is particularly valuable in these matters
is the approach of men who are themselves practical experimentalists in the fields
concerned-in this case Milne and Imamura.
First, Milne saw correctly that the 'central column' was essentially a pendulum.
Both he and Wang Chen-To assumed it to be a suspended pendulum, while Imamura

Fig. 267. A reconstruction of the external appearance of the first of all seismographs, that of
Chang Heng (+ 132), by Li Shan-Pang.

believes that it must have been an inverted one. All the seismologists have appreciated
the technical difficulty of constructing an apparatus in which only one of the balls
should drop out (and thus 'write' its record of the phenomenon), since there are
always, besides the main longitudinal shock-wave, other components, mostly lateral,
some of which may be of great force. It was necessary therefore to include some
arrangement whereby the apparatus would be immobilised immediately after giving
its first response.
A reconstruction of the external appearance of the apparatus by Li Shan-Pang is
given in Fig. 267. Fig. 268 then shows the reconstruction of the intern~l mechanism
proposed by Wang Chen-To. The pendulum, heavy and fat, carries eight arms radiat-
ing in the eight azimuthal directions. Each of these bears at its end a vertical pin
a Tr. auct.; adjuv. Pelliot & Moule (1); Imamura (1); Forke (6), p . 19; Pfizmaier (92), p. 148;
H. A. Giles (5), p. 277.
Fig. 268. An attempted reconstruction of the mechanism of Chang H@ng's seismograph by Wang
Chen-To (I). The pendulum carries eight mobile arms radiating in as many directions and each
connected with cranks which are provided with catch mechanisms at the periphery. Anyone of the
cranks which raises a dragon head and so releases a ball is thus at the same time caught and held, thus
immobilising the instrument. 3, crank ; 4, right-angle lever for raising the dragon's head; 6, vertical pin
passing through a slot in the crank; 7, arm of pendulum; 8, pendulum; 9, catch; 10, pivot on a pro-
jection; 12, sling suspending the pendulum; 13, attachment of sling; 14, horizontal bar supporting the
pendulum; IS, lower jaw of dragon supporting ball.
 24. SEISMOLOGY
loosely engaging with a small slot at the proximal end of a long crank. The crank is
pivoted at the further end, so that when the pendulum swings in that direction the
dragon's upper jaw is raised, releasing the ball from the mouth, while at the same time
a hook on the crank catches on to a projection or annular rim attached to the inside of
the vessel's wall, and thus immobilises the mechanism. Much of Wang Chen-To's
paper is devoted to showing that the people of the Later Han were able to construct
such a mechanism, as is proved by the levers and cranks used in contemporary devices
such as the crossbow trigger. Here he is certainly right.
Imamura's contention would be, however, that the immobilisation mechanism pro-
posed by Wang would not have sufficed to prevent further motion due to transverse shock
components. He favours a pendulum of inverted type (see Fig. 269).a A pendulum
of circular cross-section with a heavy bob stands on a base-plate; its diameter is 3 cm.,
its centre of mass 17 cm. high, and the minimum acceleration required to overturn it
is 8'7 gals. b Above the bob the pendulum is prolonged into a pin (perhaps the 'tooth'
of the text), which passes through the central hole of two diaphragms fixed horizontally
in the upper part of the vessel. Both of these are provided with eight slots or guides
(perhaps the' tracks' implied in the text), the important point being that once the pin
has entered one of these as a result of the initial shock, it is unable to respond to
subsequent shock components in such a way as to knock out any further balls. The
transmission of the pin's movements to the ball in question is effected simply by laying
sliders on the lower slotted plate; these are each available to give a push to each of their
respective balls, which would normally be held in place by very small indentations in
the bronze or some similar device. The only linguistic difficulty about Imamura's
view is that the text distinctly says 'the seven (other) heads did not move', implying
that one of them did; but perhaps we should not insist upon so strict an interpretation
of Fan Yeh's words. In any case, it is of much interest that Imamura and Hagiwara
constructed a model instrument on this pattern and tested it out at the Seismological
Observatory of Tokyo University. It was found that the ball was usually released not
by the initial longitudinal wave, but by secondary transverse waves; though if the first
shock was very strong it would do. It may well have been necessary, therefore, for
Chang Heng to calibrate his instrument empirically. The historiographers would hardly
be likely to have taken note of the fact (if such it was) that in some circumstances
one had to take the direction at right angles to the dropped ball as that of the earth-
quake's epicentre. Imamura points out that by estimating the duration of the
preliminary tremors, and consequently the focal distance, one could give a rough
estimate, not only of the direction, but also of the distance, of the earthquake. It will
have been noticed that the text is a little confused as to these two determinations.
The principle of recording by means of dropping balls was one in which Chang
Heng had been anticipated by Heron of Alexandria (ft. + 62), who used them in some
of his hodometers c (cf. Sect. 27c below). It is interesting to note, however, that they

a Subsequently Wang Chen-To (6) also adopted the hypothesis of an inverted pendulum, as may
be seen from his latest model (Fig. 270). b I gal. = 1 / 1000 g.
C Cf. Diels (I); Beck (I), p. 53.
 24 SEISMOLOGY

Upper
plate

Lower
plate
with
three
sliders
and
ballsin
poslUon
.
I
'==
Sliders
="==~ Lower plate

Bob

Pendulum

Fig. 269. Imamura Akitsune's reconstruction of the seismograph of Chang Heng employing the
principle of an inverted pendulum. When knocked over by an earth tremor the pin at the top must enter
one or other of the slots provided and expel a ball by pushing one or other of the eight sliders. It can
then no longer leave the slot and the instrument is immobilised.

Fig. 270. Another reconstruction of Chang Heng's seismograph by Wang Chen-To (6), accepting
Imamura's principle of the inverted pendulum. Only the skeleton of the instrument is shown here,
Wang Chen -To still favouring lever systems rather than slots and sliders.
 24. SEISMOLOGY

are still used today, as, for example, in the Ekman current meter. This consists of
a mechanism attached to a sinker which is lowered from a ship on the end of a cable.
A propeller (idling) records the speed of the current by the number of its revolutions
in a given time, while a vane capable of moving round a vertical axis controls the
periodical fall of small bronze balls into a series of radial compartments. The statistical
curve of their distribution in these gives the mean direction of the current. a
That his instrument was considered of much importance at the time is clear from
the fact that it is referred to, not only in Chang Heng's biography, but also in the
, Annals' chapter in which the chief events of the reign of the emperor Shun are given. b
It is merely said that for the first time a seismograph (hou feng ti tung thung i I) was
installed in the Bureau of Astronomy and Calendar, and the commentary adds that
Chang Heng, who was Thai Shih Ling z (Astronomer-Royal) at the time, made it.c We
ought not to miss the point that the invention had a certain connection with the
centralisation of government; by its aid the high officials would have advance notice of
an earthquake in a distant province, and would be able to take measures to deal with
needs or disturbances which might ensue. It is therefore a parallel with the rain-
gauges and snow-gauges noticed above. d
From the Rou Ran Shu e we know something of the seismic shocks which occurred
during the period of Chang Heng's lifetime. Since +46 there had been twenty-five
important earthquakes in more than fifty commanderies and provinces. In the decades
before Chang Heng's invention was perfected, the capital itself (Sian) had been rocked
thrice. In + 133 and + 135, just afterwards, there were again two earthquakes which
did damage at the capital. A bad one centred in Lung-Hsi (Kansu) came in + 138,
and this (or its associated tremors) may well have been the occasion of the striking test
of the delicacy of the instrument.
Those who mention the seismograph of Chang Heng generally imply that it was
a chance achievement which had no subsequent history. This does not seem to be
true, however, for we can find at least two references to similar instruments in later
centuries. Hsintu Fang 3 we have already met as a mathematician; f he flourished in the
latter half of the + 6th century and served the Northern Chhi dynasty. The Pei Chhi
Shu tells us that

Hsintu Fang when young showed mathematical ability and was praised by everyone in his
locality. A man of great ingenuity, he was often absorbed in high contemplation, forgot to
eat or sleep, and fell into holes when walking about. Sometimes he said to his friends that
when concentrating on the mysterious refinements of the mathematical art he would not
even notice thunder. His knowledge of techniques (eventually) induced the emperor Kao

a For this information I have to thank Dr Ronald Fraser and R ear-Admiral Day, Hydrographer of
the Navy.
b Hou Han Shu, ch. 6, p. 8a.
C Moreover, it was mentioned in Tshui Yuan's' epitaph on Chang Hl!ng (Chin Shu, ch. II, p. 3a).
d Pp. 471ff.
e Ch. 26, pp. 1-5 .
f P. 35 8 above.
 24. SEISMOLOGY

Tsu (of the Sui) to entertain him as a client.... He wrote a book called Chhi Chun 1 (Specifica-
tions (or Calibration) of Instruments) which included descriptions of armillary spheres, the
'earthquake (weathercock), (seismograph), hydrostatic vessels a (wo chhiZ), water-clocks, and
so on, all illustrated by diagrams .... b

Thus if he was able to explain the principles of the seismograph and enjoyed imperial
favour, the presumption that he made and used one is not unreasonable. Indeed the
fuller account in the Pei Shih explains c that in earlier life Hsintu Fang was a client in
the household of a certain prince An-Feng Wang. 3 This man, whose personal name
was Kao Yen-Ming,4 had collected a large library of books on mathematics and science
as well as the classics, and had in his palace all kinds of scientific instruments. He
asked Hsintu Fang to collaborate in making calculations, but before long Kao Yen-
Ming had to flee to the south and Hsintu was obliged to write the book alone. d
In the succeeding generation Lin Hsiao-Kung S took up the subject. The Sui Shu
says:

Lin Hsiao-Kung was adept at astronomy and mathematics .... The emperor Kao Tsu
treated him intimately and with all hospitality. He proved very successful in predicting
fortune and misfortune, and the emperor entrusted him with all Yin-Yang matters ... . He
wrote the Wo Chhi Thu 6 (Diagrams of Hydrostatic Vessels) in three chapters, the Ti Tung
Thung I Ching? (Manual of the Bronze Earthquake (-Indicating) Instrument) in one chapter,
and the Thai I Shih Ching 8 (Great Unity Divining-Board Manual) in thirty chapters .... e

Lin was working during the period + 581 to + 604. As regards the actual construction
of the seismograph the same remarks apply as in the case of Hsintu half a century
earlier. It should, moreover, be remembered that this was just the period when Keng
Hsiin and others were making particularly complicated water-clocks with balance
adjustments,f so that there is no need to doubt mechanical ingenuity and ability at this
time, though before the unification by the Sui (+ 581) conditions were doubtless
unsettled.g
The seismograph seems not to have outlasted the Thang, however. In a passage
from the Yuan book Chhi Tung Yeh Yii by Chou Mi (c. + 1290), quoted elsewhere,h
it is interesting to find that, while the principles of all other instruments had been

• See below, Sect. z6c.

b Ch. 49, p. 4a, tr. :!lUct.
c Ch. 89, p. 13a.
d It will be remembered (p. 358) that Hsintu Fang was a pupil of Tsu Keng-Chih, whom he had
befriended when an exile at the prince's court.
e Ch. 78, p. 16a, tr. auct. Cf. Pei Shih, ch. 88, p. 37a.
f Cf. p. 327 above.
g In the Sui bibliography we find a Ti Tung Thu. 9 This may have been either another description
of the instrument, or possibly some kind of divinatory diagrams for earthquake prediction, or even a
map on which seismic disturbances were plotted.
h Ch. IS, p. 6b, tr. Needham, Wang & Price. Cf. p. 671 below.
 24. SEISMOLOGY
preserved, that of the seismograph had been lost and could not be recovered. Chou Mi
mentions the two books of Hsintu Fang and Lin Hsiao-Kung, but says that both had
disappeared and that no example of the instrument had survived. He goes on:

Judging from general principles, I see very well that celestial phenomena have definite
(quantitative) rules to follow (thien wen yu kuei tu kho hsun I) so that (it is possible to make
instruments to measure) hours and quarters succeeding one another without the slightest
inaccuracy. For example, the armillary sphere can measure (these movements). But earth-
quakes come from (unpredictable and) un measurable (pu tshe Z) collisions of the Yang and the
Yin. Take the case of the body of a man; the blood and the chhi are sometimes in accord
(shun 3 ) and sometimes in opposition (ni4), hence the flesh responds, and he winks his eyes
or moves his ears. If the chhi reaches (the vital point) he moves; if it does not, he is motion-
less. And yet this instrument (the seismograph) is said to have been placed in the capital far
away from the place where the earthquake occurred. How could the collision of the two
chhi make the bronze dragons vomit forth the balls? I cannot at all make out the principle,
and would very much like to find someone who understands it.a

This passage is particularly interesting because the difficulty felt by Chou Mi was
perhaps what we should call the distinction between phenomena which show great
natural regularity, and others which require statistical methods for their treatment.
He could not understand how an instrument could, as it were, 'lie in wait' for an
irregularly recurring phenomenon, especially at a distance. In other words he could
only visualise repetition as given in celestial recurrences. He did not realise that man
himself (as we saw on p. 160 above) must organise repetitions if there was to be fruitful
experimentation on earth, and only a recording machine planned and tested in this
way could register fitful phenomena. Perhaps significantly Chou Mi was a scholar but
Hsintu Fang was a practical man much nearer to the artisans. The passage also shows,
by its significant biological and microcosmic analogy, that the ancient pneumatic
theory was exerting a positively inhibitory influence on scientific thinking. Finally,
the account of Chang Heng's seismograph came to be frankly disbelieved, as we may
see from the Chhing book Chhiao Hsiang Hsiao Chi 5 (Woodsmoke Perfume Jottings)b
of Ho Hsiu,6 who reproduces, in the + 18th century, exactly the same argument as
Chou Mi in the + 13th.c
Possibly the seismographic pendulums of + 6th-century China found their way
somehow to the West, for we hear of seismographic instruments at the Maraghah
observatory in + 13th-century Persia. d Then again there is a great gap until 1703 when
de la Hautefeuille set up the first modern seismograph. e The principle adopted was

a Tr. auct. b Ch. 2, p. 9 a.

C 'A fixed thing cannot measure that which is essentially non-fixed' (yu ting pu neng tshe wu ting7).
d Kopriilii (I); Godard (I).
e Technical terms for types of shock and tremor date only from Galesius, De Terraemotu Liber,
+ 1571 (Adams (I), p. 405). First estimate of velocity of propagation of the wave was that of Michell,
+ I76I (Adams (I), p . 415). First intensity scale was that of Domenico Pignataro, + 1788 (Adams (I),
p . 420) .

I 7C~;ff.!!~ PJ~ z;;f'iltl 3 I@t

61PJffl 7;ff)E;;f'~~iltl~)E
 24. SEISMOLOGY
the spilling of an overfilled dish of mercury-this was used throughout the 18th century,
and by Cacciatore as late as 1848.a Only since that time have the extremely delicate
and complex mechanisms current today been developed.
It would be interesting to know whether the Thang seismographs persisted in Japan.
Instruments of apparently traditional type there in which a pendulum carries pins
projecting in many directions and able to pierce a surrounding paper cylinder, have
been described. b
a Von Zittel (I), p. z8z; Berlage (I). A good account of the development will be found in Boffito (I),
pp. 143 if., who illustrates (pI. 97) the mercury seismograph of Atanasio Cavalli (+ 1785). It is strange
that Chang H~ng's principle was more like that of modem than of 18th-century seismographs.
b Horwitz (7); Kreitner (I), p . Z93.
 25. MINERALOGY
(a) INTRODUCTION
As was stated at the beginning of this Section, the systematic study of minerals and
rocks is largely a modern and post-Renaissance development; it could not flourish
until the basic principles of crystallography had been worked out, and the micro-
scopical study of rock sections had become possible. Nevertheless, in pre-Renaissance
times the Chinese contributed at least as much as Europeans to what there was of
scientific and dispassionate study of stones and mineral ores.
It is at this point that we come, for the first time in this book, to a science which was,
at least in its earlier phases, purely descriptive. This confronts us with special diffi-
culties, for it would obviously be impossible, within the limits of so restricted a survey
as ours, to deal exhaustively with all the individual members of the class of inorganic
mineral substances which were studied. At the same time they cannot be dismissed
in too summary a way, since it is necessary to give some idea of the extent to which
mineralogy (as also later on, botany and zoology) was cultivated. I shall therefore
select a certain number of substances for brief discussion, choosing those on which
historians of science have thrown most light. Something will also be said, whenever
a descriptive science has to be dealt with, of the principles and methods of the classi-
ficatory systems which were employed. Then it will be necessary to attempt some
comparison of the total number of substances or species which were recognised and
named, in the lapidaries, herbals, bestiaries, or pharmaceutical compendia of East and
West. This implies short surveys of the surviving literature. Moreover, the practical
use of such knowledge in applied arts such as mining and medicine must not be over-
looked. But first of all, let us glance at the most important of the general theories about
minerals which were entertained in ancient and medieval China.

(b) THE THEO RY OF eRR! AND THE GROWTH OF

METALS IN THE EARTH
It has already been pointed out (p. 469 above) in the Section on meteorology, that for
Aristotle a there were two emanations or exhalations (anathumiaseis, ava(Juj-tLaUELS) of
the earth, given off under the influence of the sun. One kind, derived from the
moisture within the earth and on its surface, is a moist vapour' potentially like water'
(indeed the evaporating water which forms the clouds and returns as rain). The other,
which comes from the earth itself, is hot, dry, smoky, highly combustible' like a fuel' ,
'the most inflammable of substances ', and' potentially like fire'. Aristotle's doctrine
of the dry gaseous exhalation (pneumatodestera, 'TTVEUj-taTw'f)(;U'rEpa), and its relation to
the formation of minerals, has lately been elucidated by Eichholz. Metals were sup-
a Meteorologica, I, iv (341 b6 if,).
 25. MINERALOGY

posed to be congealed from the moist exhalation, a and all other minerals and rocks
by the dry. The exact nature of the processes involved, as Aristotle describes them,
remains obscure, but it seems that while the moist exhalation was thought to be the
material cause of the metals, the dry one was rather the efficient cause of the minerals.
However this may be, the important point for us is the' pneumatic' character of the
doctrine; the chhi I of Chinese writers seems a conception quite parallel to Aristotle's
'exhalations' .b
The preface to chapter 8 of the Pen Tshao Kang Mu opens thus:

Stone is the kernel of the chhi and the bone of the earth. In large masses it forms rocks
and cliffs, in small particles it forms sand and dust. Its seminal essence (ching)2 becomes
gold and jade; its poisonous principle becomes arsenolite (yu 3 ) and arsenious acid (Phi 4 ).
When the chhi becomes congealed (ning S ) it forms cinnabar and green vitriol. When the chhi
undergoes transformation, it becomes liquid and gives rise to alums and to mercury. Its
changes (are manifold), for that which is soft can become hard, as in the case of milky brine
which sets to rock (-salt); and that which moves can become immobile, as in the case of the
petrifaction of herbs, trees, or even of flying or creeping animals, which once had animation
yet turn into that which has it not. Again, when thunder or thunderbolts turn to stones,
there is a transformation of the formless into that which has form ...• c

This is surely the same doctrine as that of Greek' exhalations'. Probably both derive
from sources more ancient still, perhaps Babylonian, and certainly finding expression
in the prii1}a of Sanskrit texts anterior to both Greece and China. The quotation just
given was of course from the + 16th century, but we can go back through the + 11th d
to the + 5th, and then to the - 2nd. In thus surveying this field of ideas we find at
once that the theory of exhalations was intimately connected with a twin theory of the
gradual growth of minerals and metals in the earth, and of their transformation into
one another. 'The theory of exhalations', says Berthelot, e 'was the point of departure
for later ideas on the generation of metals in the earth, which we meet with in Proclus,f
and which reigned throughout the middle ages.' In so far as they recognised what we
should now call processes of slow chemical change in the constituents of the earth's
crust, they were not so far wrong; where they erred was in the assumption that metallic
and other elements themselves changed into one another. This was what Ibn Sina was
one of the first to doubt, in his famous passage against alchemy.g But nevertheless
the conviction that minerals and metals did change into one another while slowly

• They all had the element of water, as their fusibility showed.

b The exhalations persisted until the + 16th century and even later in the miners' lore of 'Witterung'
or' shimmering', an atmospheric phenomenon which was supposed to indicate the position of ore veins
(Sisco & Smith (I), p. 33; Adams (r), p. 30r). It would be interesting to compare the concepts revealed
by the new dictionary of colloquial and dialect rock terms used by miners and quarrymen (Arkell &
Tomkeiev, r) with those of parallel Chinese practical men and writings. See below, pp. 673 ff.
e Tr. auct., adjuv. de Mely (r), pp. xxiii, 3. Often quoted elsewhere, as in San Tshai Thu Hui, ch. 59.
d Cf. the passage from Shen Kua, MCPT, ch. 25, para. 6, quoted above (Sect. 13 d, Vo!. 2, p. 267) in
connection with the Five Elements.
e (2), p. 260. f +4ro to +485.
g Holmyard & Mandeville (r), p . 41.

'#i. zm Sllf
 25. MINERALOGY

growing in the earth was powerfully effective in encouraging the belief that by suitable
methods alchemists could succeed in accelerating similar changes under laboratory
conditions.
Li Shih-Chen wrote:

It is said in the Ho Ting Hsin Shu' (New Book of Poisonous Substances)a that copper,
gold and silver have a common root and origin. That which obtains the chhi of the purple
Yang b produces green (matter),c and after two hundred years this becomes stone; in the
midst of this the copper grows. It is because its chhi possesses a Yang (nature) that it is so
hard and tough. d

This takes us back to the + 12th century or somewhat before, a time when poets such
as Chang Tzu 2 were making use of these ideas in their writings. e Similar transforma-
tions were also thought to occur with the sulphides of arsenic. Li Shih-Chen says:

Orpiment f is formed on the Yin side of mountains, therefore it is called 'female yellow'
(tzhu huang 3 ). The Thu Hsiu Pen Tshao 4 (Earth's Mansions Pharmacopoeia)g tells us that
if the petrifying chhi of the Yang is not sufficient, a female (tzhu 5) mineral is formed; if it is
sufficient, a male (hsiung 6 ) mineral is formed. They take five hundred years to consolidate
and form minerals. During this time they react (lit. carry out the role of husband and wife),
which is why they are called male and female. h

That this goes back at least to the + 5th century we know from a quotation in the
Thai-Phing Yii Lan encyclopaedia from a lost book, the Tien Shu 7 (Management of
all Techniques), by a prince of the Liu Sung Dynasty, Chien Phing Wang 8 (ft. + 444).i

The most precious things in the world are stored in the innermost regions of all. For
example, there is orpiment (tzhu huang 8 ) . Mer a thousand years it changes into realgari
(hsiung huang 9 ). Mer another thousand years the realgar becomes transformed into yellow
gold. k

a This is a very obscure book. Li Shih-Chen quotes it among his authorities (ch. lA, p. 37b), but
its date is not known to us . Cheng Chhiao in the + 12th century wrote a Ho Ting Fang'O (Prescriptions
involving Poisons). Ho ting was a proverbial term for a poisonous substance.
b I suspect this may refer to cinnabar. It was a term of alchemical importance sometimes taken as
a personal pseudonym (see below, Sect. 33).
C Copper carbonate, no doubt.

d PTKM, ch. 8, p. I2a, tr. auct., adjuv. de Mely (I); cf. de Mely (I), pp. xxv 21; text, p . 18.
e Nan Hu Chi, ch. 3, p. lb.
f Arsenious sulphide.
g This again is a very obscure book, not mentioned in any of the official bibliographies, and not in
the Tao Tsang. Li Shih-Chen cites it in his own bibliography as the Thu Hsiu Chen Chun Tsao-Hua
Chih-Nan l I (Guide to the Creation, by the Earth's Mansions Immortal), ch. lA, p. I7a. It was pre-
sumably a Taoist book of Sung or Ming.
h PTKM, ch. 9, p. 39b, tr. auct. Cf. de Mely (I), pp. xxiv, 80.
I Biography in Sung Shu, ch. 72, p . 5 a. A contemporary of Proclus.
J Arsenic sulphide.
k Ch. 988, p . 3a, tr. auct.

I Q:~ J1'i ~ '~f 2 ~l< ~ii J ftl l'c .±~~;>\>:.~

7 J..\l!. 1Jf>r 8 9! 2jS- ± 9 t.tHI{ 10 Iilfl rn 11
 25. MINERALOGY
There are other quotations in Li Shih-Chen's Pen Tshao Kang Mu from these Taoist
authors. We read a that according to the Ho Ting books, when cinnabar (tan sha I ) is
acted upon by 'the chhi of the green Yang' it forms ores, which after 200 years become
green (' the girl is then pregnane), and gives birth after 300 years to lead which in a
further 200 years changes to silver; lastly, after 200 years, the' chhi of the Great Unity'
is obtained, and gold appears. Gold, they say, is the son of cinnabar, the Yang within
the Yin; before its formation the Yang must die and the Yin be condensed. We also
read b that, according to the Earth's Mansions Immortal, rock-salt (lu shih 2) is first in
ISO years changed into magnetite, then after 200 years into iron,c which, if not dug
up and smelted, will turn into copper (by means of the sun's chhi),d that into 'white
metal', and that finally into gold. 'Thus iron, silver and gold have a common root and
origin.'
We may detect here more than one chemical theory. The root and origin may be an
undifferentiated chhi or exhalation, its products depending on the balance of Yang and
Yin, or else perhaps cinnabar (mercuric sulphide) or salt, or (in another text)e lead.
But whatever the starting-point, it was agreed on all hands that there was a series of
chemical changes in the earth whereby minerals and metals were produced in definite
order. Berthelot (3) was fully justified, in reviewing de Mely's book, when he set beside
these Chinese quotations the following words from Vincent of Beauvais (c. + 1246):

Gold is produced in the earth with the aid of strong solar heat, by a brilliant mercury
united to a clear and red sulphur, concocted for more than 100 years .. .. White mercury,
fixed by the virtue of incombustible white sulphur, engenders in mines a matter which fusion
changes to silver. ... Tin is generated by a clear mercury and a white and clear sulphur,
concocted for a short time subterraneously. If the concoction is very prolonged, it becomes
silver. ... f

Berthelot supposed that this theory must have entered Chinese proto-scientific litera-
ture from Western sources. Yet we can find a classical passage in Chinese from the
- 2nd century (and therefore anterior to most of the Greek chemical writings,g

a PTKM, ch. 8, p. I I a. Cf. de M6ly (I), pp. xxv, 158.

b PTKM, ch. 8, p. 36a. Cf. de M6ly (I), pp. xxvii, 35.
C This belief was frequently appealed to by those who tried to explain the polarity and declination
of the magnetic needle (cf. Sect. 26i below). The change from magnetite to iron was supposed to occur
under the influence of the Yang chhi of the south; therefore the iron would naturally ' follow a maternal
principle' and point there. But metal was associated with the west, and declination was therefore
brought about by what might be called a 'conflict of loyalties '. Cf. Wang Chen-To (4), p. 214.
d Here is a hint of an astrological correlation. As may be seen from Berthelot (1,2) this was extremely
important in occidental mineralogical thought. But it seems rather less emphasised in parallel Chinese
writings.
e PTKM, ch. 8, p. 16b. Cf. de M6ly (I), pp. xxvi, 27. This is Thu Hsiu Chen Chtin again, whom
Li Shih-Chen quotes as saying that lead is the ancestor of all metals (chhien wu chin chih tsu 3). The same
idea is present in Hellenistic chemical texts such as those due to Bolos of Mendes (Berthelot (I), p. 229;
Berthelot & Ruelle (I), p. 167).
f Speculum Maius (see Sarton (I), vo!. 2, p. 929).
g The oldest author is Bolos of Mendes, the pseudo-Democritus, whose floruit must be placed in the
-2nd century, i.e. the same time as that of Liu An, prince of Huai Nan (Festugiere (I), p. 222).
 25. MINERALOGY
which centre on the + 2nd) stating it quite clearly. This is the conclusion of the fourth
chapter a of Huai Nan Tzu, studied attentively by Erkes (1) and Dubs (5). It runs as
follows:

When the chhi of the central regions (lit. the' main-lands ') ascends to the Dusty Heavens
(ai thien l ), they give birth after 500 years to chueh 2 (an unknown mineral, perhaps realgar).
This in its turn produces after 500 years yellow mercury, yellow mercury after 500 years
produces yellow metal (gold), and yellow metal in 1000 years gives birth to a yellow dragon.
The yellow dragon, penetrating to the treasuries (of the earth) gives rise to the Yellow
Springs. b When the dust from the Yellow Springs ascends and becomes yellow clouds, the
Yin and Yang beat upon one another, produce peals of thunder, and fly out as lightning. The
(waters) which were above thereupon descend (as rain), and the running streams flow down-
wards uniting in the Yellow Sea.
When the chhi of the eastern regions (lit the 'edge-lands ') ascend to the Caerulean
Heavens, they give birth after 800 years to chhing tsheng 3 (azurite or malachite, i.e. copper
carbonate). This in its turn produces after 800 years green mercury, green mercury after
800 years produces blue metal (presumably lead), and blue metal in 1000 years gives birth to
a Caerulean dragon. The Caerulean dragon, penetrating to the treasuries (of the earth) gives
rise to the Green Springs. When the dust from the Green Springs ascends and becomes
blue clouds, the Yin and Yang beat upon one another, produce peals of thunder, and fly
out as lightning. The (waters) which were above thereupon descend (as rain), and the running
streams flow downwards uniting in the Caerulean Sea. C

It would be tedious to prolong this passage, which continues its parallelism to the end.
So far we have had the yellow Centre and the blue-green East. The pattern of symbolic
correlations unrolls itself as follows:

South 'bull-lands' Red 700 yrs. chhih tan 4 red mercury copper
(red cinnabar) I
West ' weak lands' White 900 yrs. pai yu 5 white mercury silver
(arsenolite)
North 'cow-lands' Black 600 yrs. hsuan chih 6 black mercury Iron
(or dark) (dark grindstone)

The passage is certainly archaic. Mter what was said earlier d concerning the associa-
tion of colours, compass-points, etc., we cannot be surprised to meet with it again here.
But what is quite surprising is to find that same juxtaposition of meteorological and
mineralogical exhalations which, as we saw, was characteristic of Aristotelian doctrine.
I am inclined to think that the expression 'heavens' may be partly metaphorical;
perhaps the real sky and the real rain were meant in the case of the centre, but for the
other four regions, the reference may be rather to those upper layers of the earth's
crust in which the mineral transformations were to occur. In any case, the text
a Pp. 12a ft'.
b A proverbial expression for the Plutonic regions .
C Tr. Erkes (I). Dubs (5) ; slightly mod. d Sect. 13d above (Vol. 2. pp. 261ft'.).
 25. MINERALOGY
mentions many of the inorganic substances which later became so important in
alchemy-arsenic sulphide, sulphur, arsenious acid,a mercuric sulphide, mercury, and
the metals. Dubs is surely right in his view that the association of all these with the
five elements (manifested by the colours and the directions) indicates strongly that the
alchemical-mineralogical doctrine goes back to the - 4th-century school of Tsou Yen. b
He points out, moreover, that the order in which the elements are here listed is the
same as that found in the surviving fragments of Tsou Yen. We shall see further
evidence connecting the School of Naturalists with alchemy below. c Here it is only
necessary to note the link between the theory and the practice. The aim of alchemy
was the artificial production of gold, which it was thought would confer material
immortality; this mineralogical idea made the possibility more plausible by describing
the natural production of gold as the spontaneous metamorphosis of certain minerals.
I agree fully with Eliade d and others when they suggest that the early alchemists
believed that with the aid of divine beings they could hasten this natural metamorphosis
and thereby bring about alchemical transformation. The Chinese theory of the meta-
morphosis of minerals is then fully developed by - 122, and probably goes back to
- 350 or before. It is extremely difficult to believe that Tsou Yen and his School
derived it from Aristotle or the pre-Socratics. e The future will probably show that it
came from some intermediate and older source whence it radiated in both directions.

(c) PRINCIPLES OF CLASSIFICATION

A few words may here be in place concerning the graphic tools which the Chinese had
at their disposal for classifying stones and minerals. The two radicals which were
most important were of course shih 1 for all stones or rocks, and chin 2 for all metals
and alloys. Oracle-bone forms of the first character show what may be a mouth
(signifying a person) under an overhanging projection, and though the experts such
as Karlgren (I) do not commit themselves, the graph certainly suggests a man r;
sheltering in a rock cave (K 795 c). The second has often been taken as a
K79S c
drawing of a mine, with a cover over the shaft, and two nuggets of ore (K 652 b),
but this seems perhaps rather sophisticated for the Shang. One of the factors :1
which prevented or hindered a logical use of these radicals in classification was K6S2b
the fact that their derivatives, very numerous, included all kinds of stone and metal
implements, as well as noises made by stones and metals, and relevant verbs and
adjectives. A third radical, yii,3 applied to jade and all kinds of precious stones.! A

• In + 1637 Sung Ying-Hsing took the trouble to deny that tin ore was generated from arsenic
trioxide (TKKW, ch. 14, p. lob). In our own time it was still believed in Annam that gold grew in the
earth from' black bronze ' (Przyluski, 6).
b Cf. above, Sect. 13 c (Vol. 2, pp . 232 ff.). C Sect. 33.

d (4), and especially a more recent monograph (5), of luminous insight and deep learning.
e In vit:w of what we know of possible inter-cultural contacts in those times (Sect. 7 above).
f According to Hopkins (12) and other scholars, its ancient forms were pictographs of a girdle
pendant composed of several pieces of jade.

'1]
 25. MINERALOGY
fourth, lu, I was dedicated to salt, but unfortunately this was not given any general
application until modern times, only eleven derivatives being listed in Couvreur (2).
The lexicographers disclaim any interpretation of the Shang graph (K 71 b),
but one may suggest that it was a bird's-eye picture of the salterns in which ®
the brine was evaporated. Or it may have been, as Baas-Becking thought, an K71b
attempt to draw a large crystal of salt.
Colours played an important part in the classification of minerals, as was natural.
Tan, 2 which came to mean red, was a great witchword in Chinese alchemy and
mineralogy, having had the significance of cinnabar (mercuric sulphide) for as far
back as it can be traced. a Ultimately, on account of the use of cinnabar as a drug of
immortality by the Taoists, tan came to mean any medicine, pill or prescription. An
alternative way of writing tan 3 suggests the mineral in a furnace or container,
but the bone form (KI5ob) is more probably a picture of an oracle-bone, or A
part of a human skeleton, with a spot of magic red applied to it. Similarly, K1sob
other minerals and salts were given names ending in yellow (huang 4 ) or blue-green
(chhing S ), for example (as we have just seen) 'male yellow' and 'female yellow', in
just the same way as in our own time dyes of complex organic structure are known as
Nile Blue or Brilliant Green.
Another word which ought to have been capable of extended classificatory use was
fan, 6 used for alum and, with qualifiers, all related substances. The upper part of this
character means a fence or a hedge, and the philologists have of course renounced all
hope of understanding its origin; but for anyone who has seen the methods employed
in traditional Chinese chemical technology (as at the Tzu-liu-ching brine-field), it will
seem quite plausible to suppose that the character refers to the method used for
evaporating solutions at 'room temperature', namely, by pouring them continuously
in the open air over a large structure like a hedge made of dry thorn branches, thus
increasing enormously the air-water surface (Fig. 271).
Powders were known as sha 7 (' sands', lit. small particles of rock) , hui 8 (' ashes '),
jen9 (from finely divided rice meal), ni lO (' muds '), shuang II (' frosts', if white in colour),
and thang 12 'sugars' (cf. 'sugar of lead '). Inorganic substances were termed' fats' if
of greasy or viscous consistency, such as clays or soapstone, chih 13 or kao. 14 In the
quotations which have been given on the preceding pages we have seen several indica-
tions that the Chinese thought of the earliest stages in the growth of ores as being of
a soft, plastic or viscous consistency; and exactly the same idea (natural enough on any
conception of slow petrifaction) occurs in late medieval and early Renaissance Western
writers, who spoke of these materials as 'Bur' or 'Gur'. b

a There was, of course, confusion later with litharge and other red substances.
b Adams (2), pp. 283, 290. Though I have not seen it suggested, van Helmont may have been
simply pushing these ideas a stage further in his invention of the terms' BIas' and' Gas', the latter of
which was destined to make its fortune.

J U .. 1t. 5 I~ 7 0-
10 ~ 1I*i " tll' '4 1f
 PLATE XCIII

Fig 271. Evaporator of traditional type at the Tzu-liu-ching brine- field (orig. photo.). Solutions
of salts are continuously poured over these large thatch structures in the open ai r ; the air-water
surface is thus eno rmously increased and the brine concentrated. If this method is ancient it
may explain the structure of the character fan, alum.
 25. MINERALOGY

(d) MINERALOGICAL LITERATURE AND ITS SCOPE

Of what does the old Chinese mineralogical literature consist? First and foremost of
that remarkable series of compendia, stretching from the Han to the Chhing, com-
prised in the term pen tshao I-the pharmacopoeias. Some two hundred collections,
many of them very large, are included under this rubric. It would be logical to give
our description of them here, since the study of minerals brings us in real contact with
them for the first time, a but as the majority of the objects described in them are plants
and plant drugs, it may be more logical to postpone their bibliography until Section 38
on botany. The reader is therefore requested to refer to the table in that chapter. The
classical description of this mass of systematised knowledge is that of Bretschneider (I),
but his interest was wholly on the botanical side, and no one has properly studied as
yet their mineralogical contents. This overlaps into chemistry, since it is not easy to
draw any sharp line of distinction between inorganic substances occurring naturally
as ores or minerals and thus serving as the starting-points of chemical or alchemical
preparations, and other inorganic substances which it was customary for the tech-
nicians to prepare artificially. In Section 33 on chemistry, therefore, will be found a
Table of the principal substances used by ancient and medieval Chinese mineralogists
and chemists, with the principal names and synonyms current in different periods.
Before we can consider this, however, we must look at the literature more closely,
and the size of the field which it covered.
The Shen Nung Pen Tshao Ching2 (Pharmacopoeia of the Heavenly Husbandman)b
is certainly a work of Han date; it no longer exists separately but is incorporated with
commentaries in later Pen Tshao books. c Important is the fact that mineral remedies
were included in the pharmacopoeia from its earliest beginnings, and this first Pen Tshao
described forty-six inorganic substances, arranging them in three ranks according to
their believed therapeutic value. d Examples follow:

First Rank: cinnabar, mica, mineral waters, stalactites, alum, saltpetre, steatite, copper
carbonate, haematite, quartz, amethyst, a variety of clays.
Second Rank: orpiment, realgar, sulphur, mercury, magnetite, actinolite, marble, felspar,
copper sulphate, azurite.
Third Rank: stalagmites, iron oxides, iron, lead tetroxide, lead carbonate, tin, salt, agate,
arsenolite, lime, fuller's earth.

But this list, which will date from the - 1st or + 1st century, is not the oldest we have.
The Chi Ni Tzu J book, which may be of the -4th century, and is almost surely pre-

a But cf. pp. 434 and 436 above. For bibliography see Lung Po-Chien (1).
b The name is taken, of course, from the legendary agronomic-medical culture-hero.
c Its text was reconstituted and commented on by Miu Hsi-Yung< in + 1625. There is an un-
published translation of part of it by Hagerty (I), which I have been privileged to u se by the kindness
of its maker.
d PTKM, ch. 2, p. 340. Cf. Tokarev (I) on the minerals in the Shan Hai ehing.
 25. MINERALOGY

Han, gives a list of some twenty-four inorganic substances, most of which are included
in the lists of the Shen N ung Pen Tshao. It seems, however, to be a record of tribute
or economic geography rather than medical in aim.
All the subsequent Pen Tshao books open with chapters on mineral substances,
though some treat them much more fully than others. Thus the Cheng Lei Pen Tshao I
(Reorganised Pharmacopoeia), edited by Thang Shen-Wei 2 about + IllS, deals with
215, while the ShihLiao Pen Tshao 3 (Nutritional Medicine Pharmacopoeia) a of Meng
Shen 4 about + 670, concentrating attention on substances of nutritive value from
animals and plants, discusses only two or three. The climax of the series, the Pen Tshao
Kang Mu s (The Great Pharmacopoeia) of Li Shih-Chen 6 (+ 1596), gives a very
elaborate treatment to 217 substances. b We are able to identify these with considerable
precision, since J. F. Vandermonde in + 1732 returned to France from Macao bearing
labelled specimens of each of the minerals described by Li Shih-Chen, together with
a translation which he had made of the mineral chapters of the Pen Tshao Kang Mu
with the aid of Chinese pharmacists. The eighty specimens and the translation were
deposited in the care of Jussieu at the Paris Museum of Natural History, where after
being lost for many years they were studied first by E. Biot (17) and then by deMely(r).
Analyses were made, where necessary, by the French mineralogist A. Brongniart. The
translation (or rather, abridged paraphrase) of Vandermonde will be found as an
appendix to de Mely's book; it is still not entirely without value, but in view of the date
at which it was made it contains, not surprisingly, misunderstandings. De Mely him-
self (1896) gives a translation of the corresponding chapters of a Japanese edition of
the San Tshai Thu Hui encyclopaedia, originally compiled by Wang Chhi in + 1609,
reproducing the text itself. The Pen Tshao Kang Mu was also studied by another
worker, Geerts, who used the Japanese commentary of Ono Ranzan,7 and intended to
describe the entire compendium, with identifications and notes mostly of Japanese
relevance, but the task was not carried beyond the chapters on minerals (1878); it is
a work of some merit. L astly, there is the indispensable catalogue and commentary of
Read & Pak already mentioned.
It will naturally be asked whether there were in the Chinese literature any books
specifically on minerals apart from those in which they figure as materia medica. (The
few works which the Chinese possess, touching the subject of mineralogy', said Wylie,C
( are scarcely deserving a claim to the designation of science.' But this judgment was
much too severe. We are fortunate in possessing, from the Thang dynasty, an important
treatise on minerals by Mei Piao,8 the Shih Yao Erh Ya 9 (Synonymic Dictionary of
Minerals and Drugs),d prepared in the close neighbourhood of + 8 I 8. This is a
veritable key to the language of the Thang alchemists, for it lists 335 synonyms of

a Edited from a T unhuang manuscript by Nakao.

b Cf. Fig. 29 in Vol. r, facing p. 164, for some of its illustrations of plants.
C (r), p. 1I8.
d TT 894. Its second and third parts deal w ith vegetable d rugs and standard prescriptions.

I ilJf~1l#~ 2 r.tf1·iIi~ 4~ ~~ s #~~§

6* a.rlt 7 /J' 1!!f !IIll 111 QElifiMfft
 25. MINERALOGY

sixty-two chemical substances. a It has hitherto been too much overlooked, at least by
Western scholars. It may be said to parallel the alchemical lists given in the
Marcianus MS. 299 of the + 11th century, the Paris MS. 2327 of + 1478 (Berthelot),b
or Ruhland's Lexicon Alchemiae of + 1612. Then, with the Sung flowering of scientific
monographs devoted to special subjects, came a whole group of books devoted to
stones and minerals, the starting-point of which was aesthetic rather than medical.
One of the first of these was the Yuyang Kung Shih Phu I (Treatise on Stones by the
Venerable Mr Yiiyang),C which must have been written towards the close of the
+ 11th century, since it speaks of Mi Fu 2 (whom we shall meet again immediately) as
one of the great officials of the age. Not much of it is left. Then between + 1119 and
+ II25 came the Hsuan-Ho Shih Phu 3 (Hsiian-Ho reign-period Treatise on Stones)d
by the Szechuanese monk Tsu-Khao;4 this discussed sixty-three kinds of stones, but
only the contents table remains. Complete still, however, is the Yun Lin Shih Phu
(Cloud Forest Lapidary) by Tu Wan,s dating from + 1133. Some quotations from
this excellent author have already been given. e He is one of those who deserve the
praise of de Mely's remark : f 'If, as in the occidentallapidaries, each mineral or stone
is furnished with magico-medical formulae and improbable fables, the spirit of observa-
tion and analysis, which is totally lacking in the European treatises, brings forth many
intelligent comments.' Other Sung books there are, of course, which devote con-
siderable space to minerals from a non-medical point of view, for example the Tung
Thien Chhing Lu Chi of the + 13th century, already mentioned.g
The Ming and the Chhing did not live up to this standard, and one can only mention
the unsystematic book of Yu Chiin 6 in + 1617, the Shih Phin 7 (Hierarchy of Stones),
as well as smaller works such as Kuai Shih Tsan 8 (Strange Rocks), by Sung L09
( + 1665), and Kao Chao's 10 Kuan Shih Lu 11 (On Looking at Stones) of + 1668.
Whoever undertakes to write the much-needed monograph on the history of
mineralogy in China will have to take into account also another class of books, namely
those on inkstones. From the time of the introduction of carbon-black ink and brushes
it was the delight of Chinese scholars to select stones suitable for grinding their ink-
blocks with water. This led to the description, at least, of a considerable variety of
rocks. The most famous treatise on the subject is that of Mi Fu, a high official of the

a The careful listing of synonyms in pharmaceutical codices had begun much earlier, and is found
in the Hsin Hsiu Pen Tshao of + 659, as well as the Pen Tshao Thu Ching of + 1070 and all later works
of the same kind. A century after the Shih Yao Erh Ya a Japanese physician, Fukane no Sukehito,I '
produced a famous synonymic materia medica with Japanese equivalents added, the Honzo- Wamy ejl 3
(+918). This has come down to u s, and Karow (I) has given a detailed description of it. Lost for
centuries, it was not printed until 1796.
b (2), pp. 92 ff.
e In Shuo Fu, ch. 16, p. 25a.
d In Shuo Fu, ch. 16, p. 24b.
e Above, pp. 615, 620. There is an unpublished translation by H. Bendig (1).
f (1), p. xi; and de Mely knew his Occidental anJ Islamic lapidaries. g P.613.

I~\!C;~;O~ ' *Ilf 3~ >mEllI 4K!lI.~ 5ttt.i?

6 fi~ m 7 EJ:. 8 tI;o~ 9 SIC ~ 10 ii7ii ~I:.
1I a ;0 ti 12i5i1;jtJjii\lt: 13 ~ ~%11 ~
 25. MINERALOGY
Sung, the Yen Shih I of about + 1085; this has been translated by van Gulik (2). It
was not the first, however, for the Yen Phu 2 (Inkstone Record) of the late + loth
century, perhaps by Shen Shih,3 but also attributed to Su I-Chien,4 describes thirty-
two sorts of stones. The Hsi-Chou Yen Phu s was also famous; it was from the brush
of Thang Chi 6 who finished it by + 1066; a some fifty varieties (if we include those
in the appendices) are mentioned. Particular places renowned for the production of
inkstones had books of their own, such as the Tuan-Chhi Yen Phu 7 by an unknown
author about + 1135. b There seems to be no close parallel to this literature in the
occident, and it has not so far been examined by a mineralogist, except for the interesting
chapter of Chang Hung-Chao, who states c that limestone and clay shales were generally
preferred on account of their smooth surface.
Our future author would also have to take into account the numerous dictionaries
and encyclopaedias, the mineralogical material in which can obviously not be sum-
marised here. Some of this, such as the portions of the Thai-Phing Yii Lan translated
by Pfizmaier (95), is anecdotal and of no value except as an index of t he dates at which
various terms were in use. Another source would be that of the archaeological books,
such as the Ko Ku Yao Lun 8 (Ming).d
We are now in a position to construct a comparative table showing the coverage of
the successive lapidaries of East and West (Table 41).
A fuller t reatment would enable a surer conclusion, but it is clear first that the
number of stones and inorganic substances distinguished and named by t he Chinese was
certainly no less than that of the West. Again, we find that while the Greeks were
perhaps somewhat more advanced than their Chinese contem poraries the advantage
was lost in the Middle Ages, so that by the beginning of the + 11th century Chinese
systematism was a couple of hundred years ahead. It is striking that before the
Renaissance no people recognised more than about 350 items. With the Gemmarum
et Lapidum Historia of de Boodt (+ 1550 to + 1632)e the pre-modern period may be
said to come to an end.

a Printed, probably for the first time, together with other minor works on the same su bject, c. + 11 60,
by Hung Ching-Po.9
b The titles of other books of the kind will be found in the bibliographies of the official histories.
Cf. also Wylie (I), p. II6.
c (1), p. 27 6.
d This book, by Tshao Chao 10 (+ 1387), devotes ch. 7 to ancient stone objects, and to the stones
from which they were made.
e Tr. Hiller (2).

2 ~JI. ~ 3 i.!t ft 4 ~ J)d\'i 5 f.x ~HJUI

7V!M~m!.~ 8 :l*"t1 ~ ~~ 9 ~dl!; f8 10 1Il Ug
 25. MINERALOGY

Table 41. The coverage of stones and substances in Western and Eastern lapidaries

No. of No. of
Western lapidaries stones or Eastern lapidaries stones or
substances substances
described d escribed

c. - 350 Chi Ni Tzu (Chi Jan) 24

c. - 300 De Lapidibus (Theophrastus) a C·7O
- 1St century Shen Nung Pen Tshao Ching 46
+ 60 De Ma t. M ed. (Dioscorides)b 100
c. + 220 R ivers and M ountains
(p seudo-Plutarch) C 24
+3 0 0 Cyranides (Hermetic) C Pao Phu Tz u (Ko Hung) C· 7 0
+8 18 Shih Yao Erh Ya (Mei Piao) 62
(total synonyms 335)
+ 1022 K itiib al-Shifii' (Ibn SIn~)d 72
c. + 1070 L apidarium (Marbodus)e 60 Pen Tshao Thu Ching (Su Sung) 58
+ 1110 Cheng L ei Pen Tshao (Thang
Shen-Wei) 21 5
+11 20 H siian-Ho Shih Phu (Tsu-Khao) 63
+ I 133 Y iin Lin Shih Phu (Tu Wan) 110
c. + 1260 De Mineralibus (Albertus Magnus) f 70
c. + 1278 Lapidarium (Alfonso X) g 280
+ 1502 Speculum Lapidum (Camillus
Leonardus)h 279
+ 159 6 Pen Tshao Kang Mu (Li Shih-Chen) 21 7

(e) GENERAL MINERALOGICAL KNOWLEDGE

Some general remarks may now precede the few special entries on individual minerals
for which we shall have space. The oldest classification of minerals, found already in
Theophrastus, was simply whether or not they were changed by heat. Fusibility,
therefore, distinguished stones from minerals, and this we duly find in Pao Phu T z u,
who says:
Other substances decay when buried under the ground, or are melted when subjected to
fire. But if the five kinds of mica are put right into a blazing fire, they will never be destroyed,
and if buried they never decay.i

Many other texts reveal the same fundamental test, as we shall find in Section 36 on
metallurgy .
The term for micaj throughout Chinese history was ' cloud-mother', yiin mu. 1 The
description of it given in the Pen Tshao Thu Ching of + 1070 is not bad. Su Sung says:
a E ng. tr. J. H ill (I ). b E ng. tr. Goodyer (I ).
C F r. t r. d e M ely (3). d E ng. tr. H olmyard & Mandeville (I).
c F r. tr. Pannier ( I ); cf. E vans (I ), pp. 33 ff.
r Cf. Thorndike (I ), vo!. 2, ch. 59 ; E vans ( I) , pp . 84 ff.
g Cf. Evans (I), p . 42. h See bibliography.
i Ch. I I, p. 8b, tr. F eifel (3), p . 16. j The special study of Schafer (5) is now available.
 25. MINERALOGY
Mica grows in between earth and rocks. It is like plates in layers which can be separated,
bright and smooth. The best kind is white and shining .... Its colour is like purple gold.
The separate laminae look like the wings of a cicada. When they are piled up they look like
folded gauze. It is said that this belongs in the category of glass. It can be used in the
preparation of medicines. Thao Hung-Ching [+ 5th century] says [in his version of the
Ming I Pieh Lu]: 'According to the Hsien Ching I (Manuals of the Immortals) there are eight
kinds of mica, which can be differentiated by looking through them at the sun. Those with
a bluish white colour but mainly dark are called yun-mu,2 those with white and yellow
markings but mainly blue are called yun-ying, 3 those with blue and yellow markings but
mainly red are called yiin-chu;4 those like ice or dew but with yellow and white specks are
called y iin-sha, 5 those which are yellow and white and very crystalline are called yiin-i,6 and
those which are bright with pure transparent spots are called lin-shih.7 These six varieties
can be eaten, but each has its suitable time of year. Dark and black mica with iron-like spots
is called yiin-tan; 8 that which is opaque and fatty is called ti-cheng 9 (' earth-steam'). These two
should not be eaten. In any case (the powder) should be prepared with every care otherwise
the greatest harm could be done when such things enter the stomach.a
Here the description of the thin transparent plates is clear enough, and there is, more-
over, a systematic attempt to distinguish between the many different kinds of mica.
Though it might be hard to be quite sure what Thao Hung-Ching and Su Sung meant,
it would seem that the first samples in their series are muscovite, that the 'mainly
red' variety would be lepidolite, the most transparent kind phlogopite, and the dark or
black kind certainly biotite. The speck-like inclusions in biotite gave rise to the later
name of chin hsing shih.1O Elsewhere, in his entry on yu hsieh II (jade fragments, or
traces), Su Sung quotes a Pieh Pao ChingI2 (Manual of the Distinctions between
Precious Stones) as recommending observation of stones with both reflected lamplight
and transmitted sunlight.
The descriptions in the Pen Tshao books are so therapeutic in orientation that they
will be more suitably deferred until Section 45 on pharmacology. All the old Chinese
mineralogical works, however, paid attention to crystal form, noticing which sub-
stances had crystals of hexagonal, needle-like, pyramidal, and other types. The Pen
Tshao Thu Ching describes quartz crystals with six faces (liu mien 13) 'as sharp as if cut
bya knife', and calcite crystals' square and angular' (fang Leng I4 ). The word mien 15 for
crystal face occurs regularly in Tu Wan's lapidary of +1 133. Li Shih-Chen emphasises
the needle-shaped crystals of sublimed arsenious acid,b quoting in this connection the
Pen Tshao Pieh ShUO I6 (Informal Remarks on the Pharmacopoeia) by Chhen Chheng 17
of + 1090. Long before Li Shih-Chen, Su Sung, in the + 11th-century Pen Tshao
Thu Ching, had spoken of the subconchoidal fracture of native cinnabar. He said:

Cinnabar is found several dozens of feet deep in the ground. The local people find it by

a Thu Ching Yen I Pen Tshao , ch. I, pp. 7a, 8a, b, tr. auct. Parallel passages in Pao Phu Tzu .
b Ch. 10, p . 27a. A lmost all the world's arsenic is still obtained as a by-product in the flue dust of
smelters treating arsenious ores for the recovery of gold, copper, etc.

2~ 4ij: + f! 3)! 6m ~
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 25. MINERALOGY

means of the 'sprouts' (miao (i.e. signs drawn from the presence of other kinds of stone
l)

or even herbs).a
Cinnabar (tan sha 2 ) is thus found in association with a kind of white stone (pai shih 3 ) which
is known as the' cinnabar bed' (chu sha chhuang 4 ). The mineral grows on this stone .. ..
Upon breaking the lumps of the mineral, it is seen to form precipitous slopes (with
surfaces) like walls, as smooth inside as plates of mica . ...
The Thang Pen Tshao (by Su Kung) says that there are more than ten different kinds. The
best kind, kuang ming sha 5 (brilliant sand) grows in (a rock-formation) called' stone shrine'
(shih khan 6). The largest lumps are as big as eggs, the small ones like jujube fruits, chestnuts
or hibiscus berries. The broken surfaces shine smooth like mica.
The Lei Kung Yao Tui 7 (Lei Kung's Answers concerning Drugs) says that one can find
lumps (crystals) . . . with fourteen surfaces, each looking as bright as a mirror. On gloomy
or rainy days, humidity like a red juice forms on the broken surfaces. b

This is interesting for several reasons. We catch a glimpse of the great attention paid to
signs of ore beds, a and to the special characteristics of the country rock. The charac-
teristic fracture of the mineral is noted, and there is an attempt to describe crystal
form; cinnabar has hexagonal symmetry and occurs in rhombohedra which are often
twinned. It was presumably some such crystals which caught Lei Kung's attention. c
Brelich, indeed, has described penetration twin rhombohedra cinnabar crystals which
he saw when he visited the mercury mines in Kweichow; these would have just
fourteen faces.
Effects due to the contiguity of mineral deposits are not infrequently noted. For
instance, Tu Wan, speaking of the green colour of a certain stone (shao shih 8),d says
that it arises from the distillation of the vapours of the' sprouts' of copper, which are
not far off, since this stone always occurs in the neighbourhood of copper ores. e This
is not very different from saying that the stone contains inclusions of malachite or other
copper-bearing mineral. It is, moreover, reminiscent of the views put forward by
Agricola in the + 16th century, regarded by Hoover & Hoover f as the foundation of
modern theory, according to which ore channels were formed by the circulation of
ground waters (' succi ') in fissures subsequent to the deposition of the surrounding
rocks.g Similar statements concerning native copper sulphate occur in the Jih Hua
Pen Tshao (+ 970) and concerning copper carbonate in the Pen Tshao Thu Ching
(+ I07o).h Sometimes expressions such as 'turbid yellow water' are used instead of

a See below the special sub-section on geobotanical prospecting (pp. 675 tf.).
b Tr. auct. The last two quotations also come from Thu Ching Y en I Pen Tshao, ch. I , pp. 2a, 3 a, 4a .
C The compiler of the Lei Kung Yao Tui was probably the physician Lei Hsiao.o

d Not identified, but probably malachite or some other copper-containing mineral.

e Yun Lin Shih Phu, ch. I, p. 17b: Yin thung miao chhi hsun cheng, chieh tz hu shih kung chhan chih
yeh.'o Cf. TPYL, ch. 988, p. 4b, quoting a passage which is not in the present text of the Shen NUllg
Pen Tshao . Cf. the Buddhist doctrine of' perfuming' (hsun), Vol. 2, p. 408.
r (I), pp. xiii, 52.
g Cf. a classical paper by Posepny, and the recent book of Bateman.
h Thu Ching Yen I Pen Tshao, ch. 2, pp. 6a, 7b.

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 25. MINERALOGY

chhi, as in the Thu Ching's entry under shih chung huang tzu l (brown iron ore ;
haematite). a
Perhaps the most vigorous description of the conception of the deposition of ore
beds from the circulation of ground waters in rock fissures comes from the pen of
Cheng Ssu-Hsiao,2 who died in + 1332, about two centuries before Agricola was in
his prime. b
In the subterranean regions there are alternate layers of earth and rock and flowing spring
waters. These strata rest upon thousands of vapours (chhi) which are (distributed in) tens of
thousands of branches, veins and thread (-like openings). (There are substances there) both
soft and firm, ever flowing back and forth, and undergoing transformations. (The veins are)
slanting and delicate, like axles interlocking and communicating. (It is like a) machine (chi 3 )
rotating in the depths, (and the circulation takes place as if the veins had) intimate mutual
connections (and as if) there were piston bellows (tho y04) (at work). The mysterious network
(hsuan kangs) spreads out and joins together every part of the roots of the earth. The (inner-
most parts of the earth are) neither metal nor stone nor earth nor water (as we know them).
Thousands and ten thousands of horizontal and vertical veins like warp and weft weave
together in mutual embrace. Millions of miles of earth are as if hanging and floating on a sea
boundlessly vast. Taking all (including land and sea) as earth, the secret and mystery is that
the roots communicate with each other. The natures, veins, colours, tastes and sounds, both
of the earth, the waters, and the stones, differ from place to place. So also the animals, birds,
herbs, trees and all natural products, have different shapes and natures in different places.
Now if the chhi of the earth (ti chhi 6 ) can get through (the veins), then the water and the
earth (above) will be fragrant and flourishing ... and all men and things will be pure and
wise .... But if the chhi of the earth is stopped up (sai 7), then the water and earth and
natural products (above) will be bitter, cold and withered . .. and all men and things will be
evil and foolish ... .
The body of the earth is like that of a human being. In men there is much heat in and
under the watery abdominal organs (shui tsang 8); if this were not so, they could not digest
their food nor do their work. So also the earth below the aqueous region is extremely hot;
if this were not so, it could not' shrink' all the waters (so chu shui 9 ) (i.e. evaporate them and
leave mineral deposits), and it could not drive off all the (aqueous) Yin chhi (hsiao chu Yin
chhi 10). Ordinary people, not being able to see the veins and vessels which are disposed in
order within the body of man, think that it is no more than a lump of solid flesh. Likewise,
not being able to see the veins and vessels which are disposed in order under the ground, they
think that the earth is just a (homogeneous) mass. They do not realise that heaven, earth,
human beings, and natural things, all have their dispositions and organisations (wen till).
Even a thread of smoke, a broken bit of ice, a tumbledown wall or an old tile, all have their
dispositions and organisations. How can anyone say that the earth does not have its dis-
positions and organisations? c
a RP no. 81. Thu ehing Y en I Pen Tshao, ch. 2, p. 24b.
b The passage is quoted in abridged form by Huang Chi eh in his essay on Ch~ng Ssu-Hsiao. The
full text appears in a letter' Reply to Mr Wu the hermit, who had asked him about Field Expeditions
to observe Geomantic Matters (Ta Wll Shan-Jen wen yuan yu huan ti li shu I2 ) ' , in So-Nan Wen Chi"
(Collected Writings of Ch~ng Ssu-Hsiao), p. I2a . Another short biography of Ch~ng Ssu-Hsiao
occurs in Sung I Min Lu, ch. 13 , pp. 2b if. C Tr. auct.

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 25. MINERALOGY

The passage is certainly a fine one. Though the idea of some kind of circulation going
on in the earth was quite common in geomantic circles, Cheng applies it here with
clarity to the deposition of minerals by evaporation of (or precipitation from) ground
waters in ore channels. a It is interesting, too, that he adapts to his purpose the ancient
medical theory of pathogenesis by the stopping up of pores, in which connection,
naturally enough, he draws a conscious analogy of macrocosm-microcosm type. Of
this mode of thinking we have already treated in Sect. r 3f above. And he ends by
a noble affirmation of those organic conceptions so characteristic of all Chinese thought.
The old books mention innumerable practical uses of the various minerals. b At
periods, said de Mely,C when very few Europeans were clear as to the distinction
between sal ammoniac, saltpetre, alum and the like, the industrial processes of the
Chinese, such as tanning, dyeing, painting and firework-making, had led them to
make the necessary identifications. The distinction between the two sulphides of
arsenic (realgar and orpiment) appears in the second oldest list of chemicals which we
have, i.e. from the Former Han onwards (-rst century); they were hsiung huang I and
tzhu huang 2 respectively.d Ferrous sulphate (lufan; 3 tsaafan 4 ) served in dyeing;
mercuric sulphide (vermilion, cinnabar; shui yin chu S ) was used for red inks and
paints as well as for alchemical preparations; powdered steatite (hua shih 6) was added
to paper as a filler. Litharge (mi tha seng7) was a constituent of varnish. Skins were
dried with saltpetre (potassium nitrate; phu hsiaa 8 ), treated with ammonium chloride
(naa sha 9) and dyed with ferrous sulphate (huang fan 10). What saltpetre yielded when
mixed with sulphur (liu huang 11) and carbon (charcoal, than 12) was known to the fire-
work-makers and the military technicians. Oxides of cobalt (pien chhing I 3) and copper
(thung ten 14) were used by the porcelain-makers and enamellers.e Cobaltiferous ore
(yen shau IS) and salts of lead (oxides, carbonate or acetate) served for colours and glazes.
Sometimes a substance had value in medicine as well as in technology, for instance
kaolin (kaa ling thu 16) essential in ceramics but also used therapeutically as an antacid,
like kieselguhr (shih mien 17). Calcium sulphate (shih kaa 18) played an important part in
the preparation of the bean curd (tau fU I9 ) so universal in Chinese diet. One of the
oldest chemical industries was the preparation of lead acetate (chhien shuang 20 ) for
cosmetic use as white paint. Arsenolite (As4 0 s) (yii shih2I), while poisonous to rats,
was found to have an accelerating effect upon the growth of silkworms.f Copper

a We know now (cf. Bateman, I) that mineral d eposition is more often due to cooling and release of
pressure than to the evaporation of solutions by heat, but this does not detract from the insight of
Cheng Ssu-Hsiao and Agricola as to chemical changes in circulating mineral-bearing waters.
b Although this touches upon fields to which other Sections are devoted, we glance at it here since
so many of the substances u sed were obtained from' native' minerals without much preparation.
C (I), p. xi. d See now Schafer (6).
e We shall give closer attention to subjects such as this in Sect. 35 on ceramics.
f Arsenolite is mentioned in the Skan Hai eking (cf. de Rosny (I), p. 55), and it is Kuo Pho's + 4th-
century commentary on it which starts the silkworm story (PTKM, ch. 10, p. 23 b). The phenomenon

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 25. MINERALOGY

sulphate (shih tan,! lit. petrified bile) found employment as a fungicide as well as in
medicine, and stalactitic limestone (shih chung ju 2 ) was used as a chemical fertiliser.
White arsenic (phi shuang 3), obtained as a by-product from copper smelting, was
applied to the roots of rice-plants during replanting, to protect them from insect
pests; similarly wood soaked in copper acetate (thung chhing4) was protected from
decaying, especially under water. a

(f) NOTES ON SOME SPECIAL MINERALS

The best way to pursue the subject will now be to offer a few notes on particular
mineral substances such as alum, asbestos, and diamonds. b It will be more convenient,
however, to postpone the discussion of certain important mineral substances to other
Sections. Thus coal will be discussed under mining and metallurgy (36); fuller' s
earth under textiles (31); rock crystal under physics (optics) in Sect. 26g; magnetite
and amber under physics (magnetism) in Sect. 26i; salt and natural gas under salt
mining (37); saltpetre under martial technology (gunpowder) in Sect. 30; kaolin
under ceramics (Sect. 35).
(I) AETITES

Aetites, or the 'Eagle-Stone ', an object of interest to the ancients, but of minor
significance in modern mineralogy, was simply a nodular mass (geode) of haematite
or other mineral containing a loose centre produced by the leaching out of inter-
mediate more soluble layers. Bromehead (2) has devoted an interesting paper to it.
If this is what Theophrastus had in mind when he spoke of stones which are pregnant
and beget young, then specimens had become known already in Aristotle's time, but
the name itself does not appear until Dioscorides. The shih nao,5 which seems to
correspond to it, does not appear in the oldest Chinese lists, but is mentioned in the
Ming I Pieh Lu and by Ko Hung. The occidental fables about its reputed value in
childbirth could probably be paralleled in Chinese literature, but it does not seem that
it was ever regarded as of much importance there. c

itself was probably due to the greater toxicity of arsenic compounds for viruses than for their lepido-
pteran h osts. Speyer, for example, found that administration of sublethal d oses of arsenic compounds
to silkworms infected with polyh edral virus gave a high er p ercentage of pupations than in the control
senes.
a This goes b ack to K o Hung in the + 4th century (P TKM, ch. 8, p . ISb).
b After this Section had been completed two n otes of just this kind were publish ed by Schafer, one
on mica (S) and one on orpiment and realgar (6). H ad their learning been available to u s in time we
should have included appropriate entries for these m inerals h ere; as it is w e shall draw upon them in
Sections 33, 34 and elsewh ere.
C Cf. Laufer (12), p. 9.
 25. MINERALOGY

(2) ALUM
Alum, by contrast, was a substance of very great industrial importance. The history
of its production and use in Europe has recently been the subject of a brilliant and
monumental study by Singer (8). Its main application was as a dyer's mordant,a for
which it had to be pure, and there is no doubt that it was purified rather thoroughly
in several ancient civilisations (cf. Lucas (I) fo r Egypt). It was also used for making
hides supple, for sizing paper and finishing parchment, for glass-making, clearing
of natural waters, and fire-proofing of wood. Its styptic, emetic and astringent proper-
ties were greatly appreciated in medicine. The term fan, 1 for which an etymology was
suggested above, b occurs in the oldest Chinese lists, including Chi Ni Tzu of the
- 4th century. Deposits of the native hydrated double sulphates of aluminium and
iron, magnesium or manganese, were worked by the Egyptians, Greeks and Romans,
but later alunite was used. This is a basic alum insoluble in water, but upon calcination
it yields alumina and soluble potash alum; the Chinese distinguished native alum (seng
fan 2 ) from that prepared by roasting alunite (khufan 3 ). Highly crystalline products
were known as fan ching. 4 It would require a special investigation to determine from
what date these two sources developed; we only know a little about the localities of
origin. For example Wu Phu s says, in his Wu shih Pen Tshao 6 of + 225, that alum
came from Kansu and Chiangsi. c Singer (8) thinks that in Asia Minor the roasting of
alunite began about the + loth century, and certainly by late medieval times granular
alum was imported to China from the West. The third chief method appeared in
Arabia in perhaps the + 12th century; it consisted of boiling rocks containing alu-
minium sulphate with urine, so as to form ammonium alum. d When this was extended
to boiling aluminous shales, the product rivalled the Papal monopoly of alunite, to the
economic consequences of which so much of Singer's book is devoted. I cannot find
that this third method was used in China. There exists a description of traditional
alum-working there (Anon. 3), which it is interesting to compare with a parallel
description for India by Ray.e One of the oldest names for alum in China was shih
nieh; 7 as such it is mentioned in the Shan Hai Ching. Discussing this, Chang Hung-
Chao (1) seems to think that the alunite-roasting process was very ancient, and that
exploitation of native alum was not carried on by the Chinese until relatively modern
times.
As regards the western locality from which alum was imported, Laufer (I) offers
evidence that the term Po-Ssu 8 meant somewhere in the south seas, as well as Persia.
The Hai Yao Pen Tshao 9 (Drugs of the Southern Countries beyond the Seas) by

a Huai Nan Tzu, ch. 2, p . 6a, refers to this use.

b P . 64 2 • C TPYL , ch. 988, p. 4a.
d This process was doubtless discovered by finding that alunite from near a latrine gave a much
better yield. Agricola mentions all three methods (Hoover & Hoover ( 1), p. 564).
e (1), 2nd edn. p. 230.

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 25. MINERALOGY

Li Hsien (c. +775), says that there were two kinds of alums, one made in Malayan
l

Po-Ssu, and the other coming through there from Ta-Chhin 2 (Arabia). A significant
western connection is the use of alum with henna in China in the + 13th century as
reported by Chou Mi in his Kuei-Hsin Tsa Chih.a

(3) SAL AMMONIAC

Ammonium chloride (sal ammoniac) was also of importance both medically (a stimu-
lating expectorant and mild cholagogue) and chemically.b The 'hammoniac' salt of
Pliny cannot have been ammonium chloride, since its volatility and deliquescence are
not mentioned, nor does the salt appear among the lists of substances given by the
Alexandrian chemists of the + 3rd century. c Stapleton (I) thought that it was probably
introduced into chemistry by the Arabic alchemists towards the + loth century, partly
because they were able to prepare it by the dry distillation of hair. d Nevertheless, it
occurs naturally in volcanic situations in Central Asia, and was probably collected
there from an early date. Stapleton suggested that the Arabic word nushiidur was
perhaps derived from Chinese nao sha,3 a suggestion which Laufer e somewhat
cavalierly dismissed. Laufer's view that the borrowing was in the inverse direction
was so far plausible in that no one (including Chang Hung-Chao f subsequently) had
been able to find any reference to nao sha in Chinese texts earlier than the + 6th
century, when the Wei Shu 4 was written (+ 572). It had not been noticed that it
occurs in Wei Po-Yang's +2nd-century Tshan Thung Chhi,g where it bears a correct
reference to the refrigerant effect of the salt on boils. Whether Ko Hung's lu yen 5
means sal ammoniac is not clear, and the next main reference in a technical book is
apparently the Thang Pen Tshao of +660. Now it is indeed remarkable, as Laufer
pointed out, that the orthography of the Chinese term is so fluctuating, a fact which
would suggest a phonetic transcription. In works of the + 7th century, such as the
Sui Shu, variants such as nao,6 nung 7 and jao 8 (all probably homophones of nao)
are found . In the + 9th century Mei Piao writes niu 9 (probably also then pronounced
nao). In the + 6th century Wei Shou (in the Wei Shu) had written kang or wang lO • h
This word persisted through Thang and Sung books, and nao 6 seems to have become
definitely stabilised only in the Ming.
All the Chinese books agree (for example, the Hsi Yu Thu Chill (Illustrated Record
of Western Countries) of Phei Chii,12 c. + 610; the Pen Tshao Thu Ching of Su Sung,

a Hsii chi, ch. I, p . 17a.

b E.g. as a flux, and for m ak ing chlorides of silver and mercury.
C Partington (I), p. 147.
d In such a process, ammonium chloride remain s b eh ind, ammonium carbonate sublim es In
crystalline state, and hydrogen sulphide is given off.
e (I), pp. 503 fI.
r (1), p. 22I.
g Ch. 30 (tr. Wu & Davis (I), p . 257). We have checked this in the Tao Tsang text.
h Graphic corruptions. And there are even more variant forms.

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 25. MINERALOGY 655
c. +1070; and the Yeh Huo Pien (Memoirs of a Mission achieved in the Wilds) of
l

Shen Te-Fu,z c.+1398)a that native sal ammoniac came from the west, i.e. Szechuan,
Kansu, Sinkiang, and Tibet, where it was collected from the neighbourhood of volcanic
fumaroles. Towards the end of the + 18th century the Manchu geographer Chhi-
shih-i Lao-jen 3 said, in his Hsi Yu Wen Chien Lu 4 (Things Seen and Heard in the
Western Countries), concerning Kucha and Turfan:

Nao sha is produced in the mountains of that name which are north of the city of Kucha.
In spring, summer and autumn, the caves there are full of fire. From a distance they look
like thousands of iamps, and approach is difficult because of the heat. In winter, due to the
excessive cold and heavy snow, the fires die down. Local people go there to collect the sal
ammoniac, entering the caves naked because of the heat. b

In his Chu Yeh Thing Tsa Chi (Miscellaneous Records of the Bamboo Leaf Pavilion)
a century earlier, Yao Yuan-Chin wrote:

The mountains where sal ammoniac is produced near Kucha were called in the Thang the
'Great Magpie Mountains'. No one dares go near them in spring or summer. Even in the
cold weather, the people take off their ordinary clothes, and wear leather bags with holes
through which they can see. They enter the caves to dig up (the sal ammoniac), but come
out after one or two hours and could not possibly stay longer than three; even then the
leather bag is scorching hot. The nao sha sparkles on the ground, but not much of it can be
obtained. The product has to be kept in earthen jars with their mouths tightly closed, and
kept cool, otherwise it will all disappear. It will also disappear if subjected to wind, wetness
or damp; leaving only a white residue of granular appearance. Though this is the least
valuable part, it is probably the only kind which finds its way to the central parts of China.C

These descriptions have close parallels in Arabic authors.d On account of this volatility,
so well recognised, ammonium chloride acquired another Chinese name, chhi sha; 5
and doubtless because of its western origin, it was also known as ti yen,6 barbarian salt.
It was probably always impure, often mixed with sulphur or sulphates. If, as seems
likely, its collection in volcanic Central Asian regions goes back very far, the earliest
term may well have been Sogdian or Persian, giving rise later both to nushiidur and to
nao sha.

(4) ASBESTOS

Asbestos is unusual among minerals in having a fibrous structure; it is composed of

calcium magnesium silicate. Though it occurs in many forms (tremolite, actinolite,
other kinds of amphibole, etc.) and with various admixture of other elements, the
fibres are usually separable and look like flax. Chrysotile, or fibrous serpentine, is a
hydrous magnesium iron silicate which resembles asbestos and has similar properties.

• Cf. Schott (2). b Tr. auct.

C Tr. auct.
d Cf. de Meynard & de Courteille (I), vo!. I, p. 347; Ouseley (I), p. 233.
 25. MINERALOGY
From very early times it was discovered that these fibres could be woven so as to form
a kind of cloth which was indestructible by fire. It was natural that such a thing should
be considered a wonder and a work of great art, and in fact there are numerous
references to asbestos cloth from the centuries just before the beginning of our era
onwards. Those in European authors have long been known, but we owe an analysis
of the Chinese literature to Wylie (9) and Laufer (11), whose learned essays, however,
did not exhaust the subject. Although the intrinsic interest of asbestos minerals is not
so great, the nature of the substance set a scientific puzzle to the people of ancient and
medieval times, and the study of their ideas about it throws some unexpected light on
the growth of scientific thinking. This justifies a treatment rather less brief than might
at first sight be called for.
Theophrastus in the - 4th century did not know of asbestos; neither did Chi Yen.
But Strabo (- 63 to + 19) speaks of ' fire-resisting napkins' ,a and in this he is followed
by many later authors, such as Dioscorides b in the + 1st century, and Apollonius
Dyscolus the grammarian,c in the +2nd. Pliny knew of it as coming from Arcadia
and India. d The idea that it was of vegetable origin is Hellenistic, found for the first
time in the' Alexander Romance' of Pseudo-Callisthenes. e The Greek word asbestos,
which we still use, meant simply 'inextinguishable' or 'unquenchable', presumably
from the use of the substance in the wicks of lamps.
Laufer (11) thought that the Chinese first knew of asbestos through trade with
Roman Syria. Certainly the Wei Liieh 1 of Yu Huan 2 ( + 239 to + 265) lists it as a
product of Arabia (Ta-Chhin), as also does the Hou Han Shu,f where it is called by
its commonest name, huo wan pu 3 (' cloth washable in fire' or fireproof cloth). But
there is some evidence that the Chinese knew of it before the turn of the era, and before
Syrian or Arabic trade with China had begun. As we do not know which parts of the
Lieh Tzu book are of pre-Han date and which are not, we cannot be sure whether the
following passage was written in the - 3rd century or thereabouts, but the probability
of this seems greater than Laufer was willing to admit. We read:

When King Mu of the Chou dynasty made a great expedition against the Western Jung
people (Hsi-jung 4 ) they presented (to propitiate him) a Khun-Wu s sword and some fire-
proof cloth (huo wan pU 3 ). The sword was one foot eight inches long, a red blade of fire-
transformed (or refined) steel (lien kang 6 )g which would cut jade like clay.h The fireproof
cloth was cleaned by being thrown into a fire, when the cloth became the colour of the fire,
and the dirt assumed the colour of the cloth.i When taken out of the fire and shaken, it became

a Geogr. x, i, 6. b v, 156.
C Historiae Mirabiles, XXXVI; cf. Sarton (I), vol. I, p. 286. Contemporaries of Chang H eng.
d Hist. Nat. XXXVII, 54,156; cf. Thorndike (I), vol. I , p . 214.
e +2nd or +3rd century; cf. Thorndike (I), vol. I, p. 551; Cary (I).
f Ch. lI8, p. lob; cf. Hirth (I), p. 249.
g On the development of iron and steel technology in China see Sect. 30d below.
h The association of the' jade-cutting knife' (which we shall discuss shortly in connection with that
mineral) and the fireproof cloth is repeated in other ancient texts.
i This is an excellent description of the glowing red asbestos, with the dirt particles on it not yet
brought to red heat.
 25. MINERALOGY
as white as snow. A certain prince did not believe it, and thought that those who brought
news of it must be mistaken, but Hsiao Shu I said, 'Must the prince insist on maintaining a
preconceived idea, and deny the (demonstrable) truth?' a

In this passage the keynote of many subsequent discussions is struck, and Hsiao Shu
appears as the prototype of all those Taoists who used the example of fireproof cloth
to convince Confucian sceptics that there was more in heaven and earth than was
dreamt of in their philosophy. Another somewhat uncertain evidence for knowledge
of asbestos in pre-Han times is the quotation from the I Chou Shu (Lost Books of
Chou)b given by Chang Hua about +290, in which a tribute of fireproof cloth is
mentioned. C Such tributes are recorded frequently in books of the San Kuo and Chin
periods, such as the Hai Nei Shih Chou Chi 2 (Record of the Ten Sea Islands), or the
I Wu Chih 3 (Memoirs of Marvellous Things) by Hstieh Yti,4 or the Shih I Chi
(Memoirs on Neglected Matters)d by Wang Chi a (c. +300).
The last-named book, however, has another story which is of interest, referring to
the year - 598, or more probably - 308.e

In the second year of King Chao 5 of Yen, the sea-people brought oil in ships, having used
very large kettles for extracting it, and presented it to him. Sitting in the Cloud-Piercing
Pavilion he enjoyed the brilliant light of the (lamps in which the) dragon blubber (was
burnt). The light was so brilliant that it could be seen a hundred li away; and its smoke was
coloured red and purple. The country people, seeing it, all said, 'What a prosperous light! "
and worshipped it from afar. It was burnt with wicks (chhan 6 ) of asbestos (huo wan pU 7 ).f

Whatever the date to which this really refers, it must surely imply that some kind of
primitive sealing or whaling was going on in Han or pre-Han times, and that the oil
or blubber was consumed in the courts of the coastal princes with unburning wicks.g
Rather good evidence for asbestos in the Later Han is the story found in Fu Hstian's 8
Fu Tzu 9 (+ 3rd century) that Liang Chi,IO a famous general (d. + 159), had an in-
combustible gown, which he used to throw in the fire at parties. To this there are
many later European parallels. h A reliable statement of a presentation of fireproof
cloth by an unnamed western people occurs in the San Kuo Chih i where such a gift
was received by the Wei emperor between +240 and +253.

a Ch. 5, p. 27a, tr. Wylie (9), mod. et add. Cf. Wieger (7), p. 149. The words about the sceptical
prince may well be an addition of the + 3rd century, for a reason which will appear immediately below.
b Cf. Vol. I, p. 165 above. C Po Wu Chih, ch. 2, p. 6b.
d Ch. 9, p. 3b.
e Because there were two rulers of Yen with this same name. At least six hundred years had thus
elapsed between the event and our text; yet this is really no worse than the time-gap of the generally
accepted Xenophanes text on fossils, p. 622 above.
f Ch. 10, p. 3b, tr. auct.
g Under the heading of lung kao teng l l (dragon oil lamps) the quotation is reproduced in the Chhi
Kuo Khao 12 (Investigations on the Seven States) by Tung Yiieh 13 (a Ming book), ch. 14, p. II a.
h E.g. Marco Polo, ch. 60 (Moule & Pelliot ed.).
i Ch. 4, p. lb.

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 25. MINERALOGY

So far there had been no theories about the origin and nature of the fireproof cloth.
But Ko Hung about + 300 provided several, all wrong. What he said was as follows: a

There are three kinds of fireproof cloth. It is said that in the ocean there is a (volcanic)
mountain, Hsiao Chhiu,l with fire that burns of itself. b This fire rises in the spring and is
extinguished in autumn. On the island grows a tree the wood of which is non-inflammable,
but only scorches slightly, assuming a yellow colour. The inhabitants use it for fuel , but this
fuel is not transformed to ashes. When their food has been cooked they put out the fire by
water, and use it again and again-an inexhaustible supply. The barbarians also gather
flowers from these trees and weave cloth from them. (This is the first kind of fireproof cloth).
Further, they also peel the bark, boil it with lime, and so weave cloth, coarse and not so good
as the former. (This is the second kind.) Moreover, there are white rodents (pai shu 2), covered
with hairs each three inches long, which live in hollow trees; these can enter fire without
being burnt, and their hair may be collected and woven into cloth. This is the third kind .C

It is probable that one source of this description was the bark cloth or 'tapa', both
beaten and woven, made by various peoples of the south Pacific. There is reason for
thinking that Ko Hung took it from the reports of the south seas, particularly an island
called' Natural Fire Island' (Tzu-Jan Huo Chou 3), which Khang Thai 4 had brought
back from his diplomatic mission to Cambodia about the middle of the + 3rd century.d
Many other writers of the same period used this material, generally incorporating the
fire-rat story into it, for example the Wu Lu s (Record of the Kingdom of Wu) by
Chang Pho 6 ( + 3rd century); e Kuo Pho's commentary on the Shan Hai Ching,f and
the Shen I Ching (Book of Strange Spiritual Manifestations),g probably of the +4th
century.
We are here in the presence of the salamander legend. In the history of science it is
simply an index of the difficulty which ancient minds had in believing it possible that
textile fabrics could be anything other than animal or vegetable. Fibres of plastics
and glass, modern congeners of asbestos, were still in the womb of time. Ko Hung
deserves little credit for launching the fire-rat idea, but Laufer deserves still less for
refusing to admit that Ko Hung could have thought of it himself.h In fact, the early
history of the' salamander' is obscure. The authenticity of the passage in Aristotle, i
which speaks of flies engendered in copper furnaces, and of the salamander putting
a This passage seems not to be in the Pao Phu T zu now, but is quoted in TPYL , ch. 820, p. 8b,
ch. 869, p. sa, and in Kao Ssu-Sun's Wei Liieh 7 (+ 12th century), ch. 4, p. 3a. A parallel passage
occurs in the +6th-century Shu I Chi; and Hsiian Chung Chi (TPYL, ch. 868, p. 8a).
b Cf. Vol. 2, p . 438 above.
C Tr. Laufer (11).
d See the discussion of Pelliot (16), p. 74, on the narrative as it eventually found its way into the
Liang Shu, ch. 54, compiled in the + 7th century.
e Quoted in TPYL, ch. 820, p. 8a, and in Wei Liieh,7 ch. 4, p. 3a.
f Ch. 16, p. 7a. g Ch. 3 (Nan huang ching); TPYL, ch. 869, p. 7a.
h 'At first sight it is striking', he says, 'that Ko Hung's notice precedes in t ime any Western version
of the legend, yet this can rationally be explained.' A remarkable example of th e idee fixe of some
Western scholars that no Chinese could ever originate anything.
i Historia Animaiium, 552 b Il, J7.
 25. MINERALOGY
out fires, is in grave doubt. Most of the references are late, such as that in Augustine a
(end of the + 4th century). There may also be a connection with the phoenix legend,b
which occurs first in the Physiologus book c of Christian allegories (end of the + 2nd
century). In any case the salamander was fully established in Islamic literature by the
+ loth centuryd and in Europe by the + 12th.e Since the Chinese references are all
earlier than the Arabic ones, and since it would be unthinkable that an idea, even a
silly one, could have originated in China, some common source in West Asia about
the beginning of our era must be assumed. Thus Laufer.
About the time of the birth of St Augustine, Kan Pao wrote his Sou Shen Chi
(Reports on Spiritual Manifestations). It contained! a passage of much interest on
asbestos.

Within the wastelands surrounding the Khun-Lun mountains there is a burning fiery hill.
Upon it there are beasts, birds, plants and trees, which all thrive in the midst of the fire;
hence fireproof cloth is either a textile made from the bark of the plants and trees on the
hill, or else from the coverings of the birds and beasts.
In the time of the Ban dynasty, at a remote period, there were offerings of this cloth from
the western regions, but during the long interval which elapsed between that and the
beginning of the Wei dynasty, people came to doubt of its existence. The emperor Wen Tig
( + 220 to + 226), considering that the fierce nature of fire was incompatible with the preser-
vation of life, wrote a book entitled Tien Lun 1 (Discourses on Literature) in which he showed
the absurdity of the whole thing and warned intelligent people against giving any credence
to it. When the emperor Ming Ti ( + 227 to + 239) ascended the throne, he issued an edict
to the three dukes, saying' The maxims in the essay by my imperial predecessor are im-
perishable.' Be caused it to be carved in stone outside the door of the ancestral temple, and
also among the stone-carved classical texts in the Great College, to be a perpetual testimony
to coming generations.
Not long afterwards an envoy from the western regions arrived with an offering of fire-
proof cloth, whereupon the emperor ordered that the inscription should be obliterated. It
thus became a subject of general ridicule.h

Although this passage was quoted in the commentary of a dynastic history, it has
nevertheless a Taoist flavour of enjoyment at the discomfiture of the imperial Confucian

a De Civ . Dei, ch. 21.

b Cf. Hubaux & Leroy (1); Rundle Clark (I).
C Sarton (I), vol. I, p. 300.
d There are some remarkable parallels. For instance, a story of non-inflammable birds from a
volcanic region being kept in a palace, told by Su t· in his Tu Yang Tsa Pien J (ch. 2, p. 1a) at the
end of the + 9th century with reference to + 805, recurs in almost identical words in the writings of
Abo. 'Ubayd al-Bakri of Cordova (+ 1040 to + 1094); Hitti (I), p. 568; Mieli (I), p. 185; see de Slane (I),
P·43·
e Cf. Robin (I), pp. 136ff.
f I say contained, because the passage is not in the text as we now have it. It is quoted by Phei
Sung-Chih 4 in his + 429 commentary on the San Kuo Chill text of + 290 (ch. 4, p. 1b); and also by
the TPYL, ch. 820, p. 9a. Phei Sung-Chih adds some archaeological observations of his own on these
inscriptions made when he himself visited Loyang.
g Tshao Phei,s son of Tshao Tshao.
h Tr. Wylie (9).
660 25. MINERALOGY

sceptic; it is thus not surprising that it occurs in a parallel version in Pao Phu Tzu. a
There is no reason to doubt the general lines of the story, however.
We come now to the point of greatest scientific interest, namely the date at which
the mineral nature of asbestos was first clearly recognised. Strabo, Dioscorides, and
Plutarch were sound on the subject,b but Pliny hesitated, being inclined to regard it as
a variety of linen-then vegetables flourished and salamanders pranced throughout
Islam and the European Middle Ages. It is sometimes said that Marco Polo was the
first to report the truth once again, c but in fact he had long been anticipated by Chinese
writers. Probably the earliest text which can be cited is the Tung Ming Chi l (Light
on Mysterious Things), ascribed to Kuo Hsien 2 of the Han, but more probably of the
+ 5th or +6th century; in this book d asbestos is called shih ma 3 (stone hemp) and
shih mo 4 (stone veins). The writer says that' stone veins' are woven to make string and
cord. The stuff comes from Phu-Tung country and is as fine as silk; it will support
a weight of 10,000 catties. It is derived from a stone which one must beat in order to
separate its fibres. One can plait it into ropes like hemp and ramie, and one can also
make cloth of it. It is called' stone hemp'. In the early Sung there was clarity on the
subject-Su Sung says in his Pen Tshao Thu Ching (+ 1070):

The 'incombustible tree' grows at Shang-tang. It is now to be found in the Tse-Lu

mountains. It is of the nature of a mineral, bluish-white in colour resembling rotten wood.
When exposed to the fire it does not burn-hence its name (pu hui mu 5). e Some call it 'the
root of soapstone (or talc), (hua shih chih ken 6 ),f for wherever soapstone (steatite) is found,
there it is likely to be also. There is no particularly suitable time for collecting it. g

So also a younger contemporary, Tshai Thao,7 discussing asbestos in his Thieh-Wei

Shan Tshung Than 8 (Collected Conversations at Iron-Fence Mountain, c. + I115),
remarked, 'It has nothing to do with the hair of rats! (fei shu maD yeh 9),.h
Chang Yiieh lO of the Thang, in his Liang Ssu Kung Chill (Tales of the Four Lords
of Liang), gives an account of an experimental differentiation of asbestos products in
the + 6th century, i.e. at a time about the same as that of the Tung Ming Chi mentioned
above.

Master Chieh,12 passing through a market, noticed traders offering three rolls of fireproof
cloth. Recognising (the true kind) from afar, he exclaimed, 'This is fireproof cloth indeed-
those other two pieces are made from twisted bark, but this one is made from the hair of a
• Ch. 2 (tr. Feifel (I), p. 149). Cf. ch. 8 (tr. Davis & Chhen (I), p. 309). And it was often repeated
afterwards, e.g. in the Tu I Chih 13 (Things Uniquely Strange) of Li Jung " in the Thang (ch. I, p . 7a).
b Thorndike (I), vol. I, p. 213; K. C. Bailey (I), vol. 2, p. 256.
c Ch. 39 (Yule & Cordier ed., vol. I, p . 213). d Ch. 3.
e This was the traditional pharmaceutical name.
r This was the remark which struck de Mely (I), xxiii, 85, 106, 220, as showing such remarkable
mineralogical acuity.
g Thu Ching Yen I Pen Tshao, ch. 6, p. 13a; quoted also in PTKM, ch. 9, p. 43b, tr. Wylie (9).
h Ch. 5, p. 20b.

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 25. MINERALOGY 661
rodent.' On making enquiry of the merchants, their statement agreed exactly with that of
Master Chieh. When he was asked the difference between the cloth of vegetal and animal
origin, he replied, 'That made from trees is stiff, that from the rodent hair is pliable; such is
(one) way to distinguish them. Moreover, if you take a burning-mirror and ignite the bark
of chi 1 trees a on the north side of a hill, you will find that it will soon be changed (i.e. bark-
cloth is not fireproof).' The experiment was made, and turned out just as he said. b

Here then, although the salamander theory was accepted, it was understood that bark-
cloth was not properly huo wan pu.
Many later rejections of the fable can be found; Wylie instanced two Ming books,
the Shu Wu I Ming Su 2 (Disquisition on Strange Names for Common Things), by
Chhen Mou- Jen; 3 and the Tan Chhien Tsung Lu 4 (Red Lead Record) by Yang Shen. s
On the other hand numerous writers upheld either the vegetable c or the animal d
theory, or both at once.'" In + 1430 Chang Ning 6 wrote:

The first fireproof cloth I ever saw was at the house of Chang Hsing-I at Suchow, and at
the 'Pure Unity' Buddhist cloister at Jen-ho near Hangchow, in both instances about the
size of a two-cash piece. Recently I saw some at the house of Chu Ming-Yu, long and
narrow like a sash. When saturated with oil it could be used as a candle; placed over the
fire it might be used to burn incense. When the oil was exhausted and the fire extinguished,
the cloth was as perfect as before. The statements regarding the handkerchief of Liang Chi,
the tribute in the time of Emperor Wu of the Wei, and the record in the Yuan history of
the stone tissue at Chhieh-Chhih Mountain, which could be woven, are all credible therefore,
and no fables.f

Here he refers to a memorial by a Muslim official in Mongol service, A-Ho-Ma,7 in

+1267, which described asbestos by yet another name, shih jung,8 'stone silk-floss'.g
In spite of anything that Dioscorides or Su Sung had ever said, the Oxford Philo-
sophical Society in + 1684 was still about on the level of Ko Hung. On 10 September
in that year, Nicholas Waite wrote from London to Edward Tyson, in a letter still
preserved in the Society'S correspondence: h

The greate respect and honour I bore to those most learned and ingenious professors of
your Society I did in few days after my arrivall into this Citty (Oxford) expose to your sight
and tryall a piece of Cloth which by your experiment of the fire consumed nott, and you

a Cudrania spp. (R nos. 599, 600; Bn, S0l).

b Quoted also in Wei Liieh, ch. 4, p. 3b, tr. Laufer (1I).
C E.g. the Hsiian Chung Chi,. by a Mr Kuo,I O of uncertain, but pre-Sung, date (YHSF, ch. 76,
p. 30a, b).
d E.g. the Fa Mbtg Chi, JJ by Shu H si. 12 If the authorship is genuine, this mention of the' fire-rat
cloth' may antedate Ko Hung's, being of about + 280. The passage was preserved in Chhu Hsiieh Chi,
ch. 29, p. 30a, and TPYL, ch. 911, p. 6a; whence YHSF, ch. 62, p. 2Ia.
e E .g. the Yeh Kho Tshung Shu of + 1201, ch. 30, p. 12b.
f In his Fang- Chou Tsa Yen" (Reminiscences of (Chang) Fang-Chou), tr. Wy[ie (9).
g Yuan Shih, ch . 205, p. 2a. h Gunther (I), vol. 12, p. 226; letter no. 126.

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662 25. MINERALOGY

being then desirous I should give you a narrative of its substance and in whatt partes of
India made, will now communicate the same accompt I received from one Conco, a naturall
Chynees resident in the Citty of Batavia in the North East partes of India (sic), who by
means of Keay Arear Sukradana likewise a Chynees and formerly Cheife Coustomer to the
Old Sultan of Bantam, did after several year's dilligence procure from a greate Mandarin in
Lanquin, a province in China, ne re i of a yard of said Cloth, declaring thatt he was Credibly
informed thatt the Princes of Tartaria and others adjoyning, use it for burning their dead,
and thatt itt was believed by them to be made of the underparte of the roote of a Tree
growing in the province of Sutan; and suposed in like manner of the Todda Trees in India
and of the upper parte of said roote ne re the surface of the ground, was made a finer sorte,
which in three or fower times burning I have seen diminish almost halfe; and thatt out of
said Tree distills a Liquour which nott consuming is used with a weeke of the aforesaid
Cloth to burne in their Temples to posteritie. Now if the nature of this Subject as a vegittable
correspond not with your greate experiments or judgments, your Commands obleidging
me to render the same relation I received, hope there will nott be any ill construction made
thereof, which is all the favour and kindness desired by, Gentlemen, Your most assured
humble Servant, etc.

One hopes, indeed, that they put no ill construction on it; in any case, by + 1701, when
Ciampini's letter was published in the Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society,
the matter was set at rest once and for all, and asbestos was acknowledged mineral.
Yet by a crowning irony, the Jesuit Ferdinand Verbiest contributed to the Thu Shu
Chi Chheng encyclopaedia in + 1726 a description of the sa-la-man-ta-la I with an
appropriate legend. a
Once again we meet with the same pattern of advance; first the Greeks record
accurate information, but then between Hellenistic times and the Renaissance the
Chinese are more advanced than Europeans. b

(5) BORAX

Borax (native sodium tetraborate, or tineal) is apparently not mentioned in ancient

Chinese writings, and first appears in the pharmacopoeia in the Jih Hua Pen Tshao 2
of c. + 97°· c This is about the same date as its first mention in the West-' Armenian
borax', in a Coptic manuscript. d It probably came to China, at that time as later, from
the natural deposits in what is now Chhinghai province (north-eastern Tibet), around
Lake Kokonor. It may also have been produced from certain of the brines at the
Tzu-liu-ching field (see below, Sect. 37), as it is today. The use of borax (pheng sha 3 )
as a preparatory agent for soldering and brazing (in the molten state it cleans metal

a Chhin chhung tien, ch. 125, hui hhao, 3, pp. 8b, 9a .

b It would be interesting to know more of Persian and Indian literature, i.e. that of those countries
where asbestos was probably actually produced. Yet Finot's Indian lapidaries make no mention of
asbestos.
C Laufer (I), p. 503, suggests that the hu lo' mentioned as a Persian product in the Sui Shu (ch. 83,
p. 7b) may be a transliteration of the Persian word burah, which is a forerunner of our borax. In this
case, the Thang people may have received some of it from the west (Persia or Tibet).
d Partington (I), p. 193.
 25. MINERALOGY
surfaces by dissolving metallic oxides) a goes back in China to the + IIth century, for
it is mentioned by Su Sung (kho han chin yin I),b and the Chinese chemists of this time
must have been quite interested in it, as it is referred to by Tuku Thao 2 and the
'Earth's Mansions Immortal'. Li Shih-Chen says that borax' kills' the five metals,
as saltpetre does; presumably this refers to the preparation of metallic salts. c The mild
and non-irritant antiseptic quality of borax, which has given it such wide use in
Western, and even modern, medicine, was appreciated by the Chinese pharmacists,
who prescribed it for all kinds of external, including ophthalmic, affections.

(6) JADE AND ABRASIVES

Jade calls for more than passing remark, since it is no ordinary mineral; the love of it
was one of the most characteristic features of Chinese civilisation, and its texture,
substance and colour gave inspiration to carvers, painters and poets for more than
three thousand years. d Jade has given rise to an immense literature both in Chinese
and Western languages, but this is mostly concerned with aesthetic appreciation and
social uses. What is of interest to us here is rather the technological aspects of the
mineral, its mining, and above all the manner in which it was worked, no easy achieve-
ment in view of its great hardness. To such a study the recent book of Hansford has
been a valuable contribution.
The word which we use, jade, is a corruption of the Spanish ijada, meaning the
flank or the loins, the full form being piedra de ijada. During the course of the Spanish
conquests, green stones much prized by the Mexicans as amulets against diseases of
the kidneys were brought back to Europe together with repute of their worth. The
alternative name, piedra de los rifiones, was Latinised as lapis nephriticus, hence the
modern term nephrite. The ancient Chinese word, which had none of these connotations,
has been discussed above. e It is a remarkable fact that the appreciation of jade and the
art of working it was a feature also of ancient Central American civilisation, f and of the
New Zealand Maoris.g The Amerindian material was jadeite and that of the Maoris
nephrite. Current researches in Siberian archaeology are beginning to suggest a
common prehistoric origin for the jade-loving cultures on both sides of the Pacific.
The largest book on jade (and probably the largest on any subject in any language,
for it is a mammoth work) is that by Bishop, Bushell, Kunz, Li Shih-Chhiian, Lilley,
Thang Jung-Tso et al. which describes the Bishop Collection, much of which was
subsequently presented to the Metropolitan Museum, New York. The text and trans-
lation of a specially-written 'Discourse on Jade' (Yii Shuo 3) by Thang J ung-Tso appears
in it, with a series of pictures in Chinese style by Li Shih-Chhiian (Yii Tso Thu 4 )
a This invention can apparently be traced back to Mycenae (Parting ton (I), p. 351). Cf. Maryon &
Plenderleith (I), pp. 649ff.; Forbes (8), pp. 47ff.
b Cit. PTKM, ch. rr, p. 35b. C Cf. Vol. I, p . 212 above.

d In the Section on Taoism, Vol. 2, p. 43 above, a text was given which showed an early attempt to
describe the mineralogical qualities of jade, though only ethical and aesthetic terms were available.
c P. 641.
f See Joyce (I); Kraft (r). g See Chapman (I).
 25. MINERALOGY
illustrating the processes of working jade. It also contains a mass of material, edited
by Kunz, on jade mineralogy. Better known is the monograph on jade by Laufer (8), a
almost purely archaeological in content, however. Laufer's work should not be used
without recourse to Pelliot (20), whose introduction to the Lu Catalogue is considered
the most acute, critical and scholarly discussion of ancient jades which we have. Recent
books which may also be mentioned are those ofPope-Hennessy (1,2) and Salmony (I). b
Needless to say, there is a mass of material in the Chinese encyclopaedias, eight
chapters being devoted to jade, for example, in the Thu Shu Chi Cheng. c Chang Hung-
Chao (1) gives five useful sections to the subject.
True jade (chen yu I), or nephrite, is a crypto-crystalline silicate of calcium and
magnesium belonging to the amphibole class of minerals and related to fibrous actino-
lite (amphibole asbestos). Jadeite, though similar in appearance, is a silicate of sodium
and aluminium classed among the pyroxene minerals. d It is also crypto-crystalline,
but generally composed of small grains rather than minute fibres, e hence, though
slightly harder than nephrite, it does not offer quite such a tough resistance to the
tools of carvers. The colours of jade are due mainly to the presence of compounds of
iron, manganese, and chromium. The first are the most important, giving all shades
from the rich greens through yellows and browns to blacks. Greyish tints may be due
to manganese, and some blacks to chromite but the chief significance of chromium is
in the apple and emerald greens of jadeite. Pale yellows may sometimes be due to
titanium and blue and lavender tints to vanadium.
There are varieties of other minerals resembling jade fairly closely; the Chinese
knew them as 'false jade' (fu yu 2 ). Some specimens were certainly serpentine,! others
pyrophyllite g or even greenish steatite. h All of these are considerably softer than true
jade. Indeed, one of the most interesting features of jade is its great hardness-on the
Mohs scale jadeite is 6'5 to 7, nephrite 6 to 6'5, quartz is 7 and felspar 6. i This region
is all in the upper half of the whole range reaching from talc at the soft end to diamond
at the hard. It should be realised that this level of hardness is much harder than any
pure metal; so that the working of jade must have been a great problem for the ancients.
True jades can also often be distinguished from false by measurements of density and
refractive index.

a This drew much on the greatest Chinese study of jades, the work of Wu Ta-Chheng (2). But
it was somewhat impaired by reliance on the 18th-century forgery which purported to be a description
of the imperial collection of jades in + I I76 (see Vol. 2, p . 394 above).
b Cf. Cheng Te-Khun (3) ; H . A. Giles (5), vol. I. p . 312.
C Shih huo lien, chs. 325-32.

d Cf. Yoder.
e I say generally, because fibrous samples are known.
f Magnesium silicate. The 'jade' of north-west Kansu is known to be green serpentine (Pelliot, 21).
When at YUmen 3 (Jade Gate) in 1943, I obtained four beautiful wine-cups of this stone. There is a
curious historical confusion here; the location of the Han and Thang YUmen was much farther west,
in Sinkiang, nearer to the principal source of true jade, and the present YUmen obtained its name only
in the Ming. But its jade is only 'jade'.
g Aluminium silicate. h Soapstone, magnesium silicate.
i The statement often seen, that jade is harder than quartz, is not correct.
 25. MINERALOGY 665
After elaborate discussions on the sources of jade, it is now agreed that the rivers
and mountains of Khotan (Yii-Tienl) and Yarkand in Sinkiang were the principal,
perhaps the only, centres of production of the mineral for over two millennia. Already
in the -4th century, as Haloun (4) has shown, the Yiieh-chih people were inter-
mediaries in the trade. The Chhien Ran Shu noted the mines. a Particulars about the
region given in Chinese books have several times been translated. b Khotan is an oasis
surrounded to the north, east and west by the desert of the Tarim basin, and to the
south by the lofty Khun-Lun mountains; it has always been on one of the loops of the
Old Silk Road. The jade was found in the valleys of two rivers, the Karakash and the
Yurungkash, either mined (shan liao 2) or collected as lumps in the river-bed (tzu yii3).
Tu Wan, in his lapidary of + 1133, speaks of both methods, but Sung Ying-Hsing's4
Thien Kung Khai Wu 5 (The Exploitation of the Works of Nature) of + 1637 describes
only the collection of water-worn pieces (cf. Fig. z7z).c We possess descriptions of the
jade mines from two modern travellers, Cayley, who visited them in + 1870, and
Stoliczka, who was there four years later; at that time they were quite deserted owing
to local rebellions. d From their descriptions, which did not give much praise to the
mining methods used, it seems that fires were set against the veins to cause cracks,
these being afterwards opened by wooden wedges. e The veins are remarkable, how-
ever; Stoliczka saw some of pale green jade amounting in thickness to ten feet.
Jadeite was not known in China before the 18th century, at which time it began to
be imported through Yunnan from the Burmese deposits. An ancient term,fei tshui,6
which had originally meant kingfisher plumage and subsequently been applied (as by
Tu Wan) to certain fine green nephrites, was revived to describe it.f There are descrip-
tions of the Burmese mines by Griffithg and Chhibber. h The question whether there
were ever any sources of nephrite or jadeite within China proper is discussed by
Hansford at length, with negative conclusions. It was for long supposed that jade
weapons and implements found at neolithic sites in Europe must also have come from
Central Asia, but European deposits are now known to exist.
As for the ancient history of jade in China, we know that it was carved already by
the Shang people (- 13th century) as objects have been found at Anyang (Shih Chang-
Ju, 1, 2). Jade pieces of Chou date have been described by Kuo Pao-Chun, and Han
ones by Sekino et al. (1).i Here we are not concerned with problems of stylistic
• Ch. 96A, p. 8a (tr. Wylie, 10).
b Notably the version of Remusat (7) of the chapter on Khotan in TSCC, Pien i tien, ch. 55 ; and a
paraphrase by Ritter (2), vol. 5, p. 401, of the relevant parts of Chhi-shih-i Lao-jen's 18th-century Hsi
Yii Wen Chien LIt.
e In this picture we see women and girls at work in the river; they were supposed to go in naked,
the idea being that their Yin-ness would attract the Yang jade.
d In the 17th century Benedict Goes (see Vol. I, p. 169) also made some observations as he passed
through Sinkiang on his way to China (Trigault, tr. Gallagher. pp . 506 if.). Goes was given a rich
present of jade by his friend the Princess of Kashgar to sell in China and to support himself with on
the way (p. 502) .
e Cf. Hoover & Hoover (I), p . 118. f Cf. Han sford (I), p . 45.
g (I), p. 132. h (I), p . 24.
i Perhaps one of the earliest literary references to jade is in the Yii Kung, chapter 6 of the Shu Ching
(under Yung-Chou province); cf. Karlgren (12), p . 15; D emieville (2).
I 'f 00
666 25- MINERALOGY

Fig. 272. Collection of water-worn jade nuggets by women and girls in the Karakash and Yurung-Kash
rivers at Khotan (Sinkiang); a picture from Sung Ying-Hsing's Thien Kung Khai Wu of + 1637, ch. 18.

chronology, but with the ancient methods of working the jade. The neolithic jade tools
described by Andersson (5) a give evidence of having been made without the help of
metal, but abrasive sand must have been used, probably with laminae of sandstone or
slate as cutters, and abrasion is the secret of all subsequent jade working. b The ancient
name for these cutting or grinding stones was chih-li; 1 this is frequently found in the
classics. c The Shuo Wen gives other words, such as lan 2 and tsho 3 with the same
meaning. Huai Nan Tzu speaks of chien-chu,4 saying that it was used for working jade.
Similar achievements were made in the earliest periods of ancient Egypt, as Partington
points out,d for example, vases of diorite and bottles of rock crystal with narrow necks,
a Cf. Laufer (8), pI. 11.
b Early references to this are very rare, but Chou Mi at the end of the Sung describes the use of
river-sand by the jade workers (Chhi Tung Yeh Yii, ch. 16, p. I I a).
e E.g. Yu Kung chapter of Shu Ching; Shih Ching; also Shan Hai Ching; see Chang Hung-Chao (1),
p. 178. d (I), p. 96.

3 J!!
 25. MINERALOGY

when iron tools were certainly not available. He imagines abrasive powders, obsidian
cutters and 'almost infinite patience'. Hence the interest of the 'Khun-Wu' sword
or knife, which 'would cut jade like clay', and which comes into prominence about
the - 3rd century. We met with it in the quotation from Lieh Tzu a few pages back,a
but many other references could be adduced. b One feels that just as asbestos was a
real thing, so also there was something behind this curious term. Laufer (12) built
up an elaborate argument to prove that it was the diamond point, but Hansford gives
good reasons for rejecting this view. The phrase 'Khun-Wu knife' became proverbial
in later times for any steel knife of fine quality.c The only connection with the diamond
is that the term for the latter, chin hang, I was also in late times applied to other hard
substances such as corundum, and too much emphasis cannot therefore be placed on
Li Shih-Chen's comment on a passage which he quotes d from the + 4th-century Hai
Nei Shih Chou Chi.e This says that Khun-Wu stone is found in the western regions
near the Shifting Sands, and is smelted like iron to make knives which shine like rock
crystal and cut jade like mud. Li Shih-Chen simply says that this is 'the largest kind
of chin-hang'. Moreover, while in traditional jade-cutting the diamond is a useful
auxiliary, as Hansford puts it, all the important cutting tools are of iron or steel.
The central invention here was the rotary disc-knife (cha th02); see Fig. 273. The
oldest reference to it seems to be indirect, namely the mention in the Chin Shih
(History of the Chin (Tartar) Dynasty) f of abrasive sand for use with jade-grinding
wheels (nien yii sha 3 ); this refers to the + 12th century, though compiled about + 1350.
The Yuan Shih says that in + 1279 an official Abrasives Depot was established at
Ta-thung. The first specific reference to the rotary disc-knife is in the Thai-Tshang
Chou Chih 4 (Topography of Thai-tshang, in Chiangsu), the earliest edition of which is
+ 1500; here it is called sha nien,5 with reference to a famous worker, Lu Tzu-Kang. 6
These are relatively late texts, but perhaps it is not surprising that the methods used in
ancient times were kept secret by the technicians, in this case as in so many others. The
possibility in fact arises that what lay behind the Khun-Wu story was the first applica-
tion of a treadle-driven rotary steel knife and abrasive sand.g Hansford has found no
evidence that rotary tools were used for this purpose in the bronze age, apart from the

a Ch. 5, p. 27a.
b E.g. Po Wu Chih, ch. 2, p. 6b; Shih I Chi; Khung Tshung Tzu; Hsuan Chung Chi; Hou Han Shu,
ch. 1I2B, p. ISb, in the commentary on the biography of Kan Shih.7
C E .g. the + 13th-century Sui Yin Man Lu,8 ch. 4, p . 7a .

d PTKM, ch. 10, p. 37a.

e It is in the entry for Liu-chou.
f Ch. 24, pp. nb, 13 a. It was tribute from places in what is now part of Inner Mongolia.
g The usual view is that rotating knives were not used till the + 5th or + 6th century (Hansford (I),
p. 64), but it lacks any convincing basis. From what we know in general of anthropology and the
history of technology, there seems no reason for thinking that a treadle-mechanism could not have
been used as early as the - 3rd century; cf. Leroi-Gourhan (I). On the other hand Cheng Te-Khun (4)
maintains that rotary disc-knives as well as point and tube drills, possibly of bronze, were used in the
Shang period. Usher (I), p. 107, and Middleton (I) believe that disc-knives rotated by a bow-drill
mechanism (see on, Sect. 27a, b) were regularly used by Hellenistic gem-cutters and carvers.

QILliW
8 !i'il ~;;n.lHi
668 25. MINERALOGY
bamboo drill. By the use of the microscope, however, he has discovered traces of
rotary tools on late Chou perforated jade discs (pi I), and this would be in agreement
with our tentative interpretation. It is also in fair conformity with the rather late date
for the general use of iron in China. a Whether jades of earlier periods show any similar
traces has yet to be determined with certainty. In any case, whoever introduced the
rotary disc-knife deserves an important place in the history of technology when we
remember the cutting wheels of today, made of rubber-bonded silicon carbide and
rotating at 20,000 r.p.m. (170 m.p.h. at the cutting edge), wheels which will cut almost
anything at any temperature. b
Grease was used as a medium for the abrasives. In + 1092, Lii Ta-Lin, describing
a San Kuo belt-hook (tai kou 2 ),c wrote: ' It is said that with toad-grease (chhanjang 3 )
and a Khun-Wu knife, jade can be worked like wax.'d About + 1470 Tu Ang,4 in his
San Yii Chui Pi, s says the same thing, using the words hsia ma jang,6 and citing Thao
Hung-Ching of the + 5th century.e Of course many literary writers in all centuries
failed to realise that the abrasive contained in the grease was the important factor,
and thought that the organic material must exert some softening effect on the
stone.
Abrasive grinding (cho ,7 cho mo B) was carefully studied in Peking by Hansford just
before the second world war. His illustration of the large grinding disc (Fig. 274) may
be compared with the drawing of Li Shih-Chhiian (Fig. 273). He found six abrasives
in use, the softest being quartz sand (huang sha 9 ) and the hardest being diamond points
on drills. There were also crushed almandine garnets (i.e. silicate of calcium and iron;
hung sha,IO chieh y u sha,II tzu sha I2 ), crushed black corundum (i.e. emery; oxides
of aluminium and iron; hei sha 13), and modern silicon carbide (cf. Fig. 275). The
polishing medium (pao y ao I 4 ) is a mixture of carborundum and very fine loess calcite.
It is fairly clear that the most ancient abrasive was the quartz sand) and that the
corundum was a discovery of the + 12th century about the time referred to in the Chin
and Yuan Histories quoted above, while the garnet had come into use rather earlier,
in the + loth. If Chang Hung-Chao f is right in identifying wen shih IS with garnet
powder this can be traced back to the Thang. The general succession is exactly the
same as the order of hardness of the three abrasives.g
For an account of modern traditional jade-working Hansford will not be found
a Cf. Sect. 30d below.
b It is almost bizarre that the late Dr H. W. Dickinson should have regarded the Taylors of South-
ampton about + 1760 as the first mechanics to have made the circular saw into a practical workshop tool
C See e.g. Lemaltre (I); Alley (4) .
d Khao Ku Thu, ch. 8, p . loa.
e Hansford did not recognise here one of the technical terms for gear-wheels (hsia-ma) so that' toad-
grease' may not mean quite what it says. In fact, it suggests the use of toothed wheels for mechanical
advantage in some jade-cutting techniques, perhaps now abandoned.
f (1), p. 12 9.
g Laufer (12), p. SI, gives evidence to show that Chinese corundum was exported to the Islamic
countries during the Sung.
I~ 2,*~ 3 Jf.!Jf1j 5'=:'~~*
'Ji!( 8Ji!( ~ 9 }!{ ~ "M:E~
13~~ '4 W li;(\ 15 ::SCE
 PLATE XCIV

Fig. 273. Rotary tools for working jade (from Li Shih-Chhlian). Above, the steel disc knife (eha
tho, here called eha thU~) with its treadle mounting and protective shield; the accompanying text
mentions that hung sha (crushed almandine garnets) should be used with it. It is also said that when
the piece of jade being worked upon is heavy, a balance suspension should be rigged up, and indeed
one is shown in the picture. Below, the steel grinding wheel (mo tho, here called ehlllmg thU~), also
rotated by a treadle and operating with crushed garnets as abrasive. The text adds a reference to the
polishing wheels such as the ehiao thuo, made of a mixture of shellac (tzu ehiao) and carborundum.
and the leather buffing wheels (phi thuo).
 PLATE XCV

Fig. 274. A Peking jade worker using the large steel grinding wheel
(1110 tho or chhung thuo); from Hansford (1).

Fig. 275. Preparation of the abrasives in a Peking jade workshop; above, crushing
garnets in a roller-mill; below, sifting the crushed material (from Hansford, 1).
 25. MINERALOGY
disappointing. a Apart from the wire saw (la ssu tzu I ) most of the tools (tho tzu 2 ) are
mounted on treadle lathes. These include not only the discoidal knives but also all
kinds of borers (la tsuan,3 the tubular drill, and ta yen tsuan,4 the fine diamond drill).b

(7) PRECIOUS STONES, INCL U DING THE DIAMOND

Precious stones demand a brief reference. There comes a point, however, where it is
hard to distinguish between the history of science and the history of substances and
objects which have some scientific interest. Since gems were prized for purely aesthetic
or superstitious (medical)C reasons, and since it was impossible to classify them
rationally before modern times, their history is of primarily archaeological concern and
we cannot expect it to throw much light on the development of scientific thought or
techniques. The subject is moreover bedevilled by uncertainties in the identification
of the various terms both in East and West, and if this is serious in the case of European
historyd it is far worse when the technical terms for precious stones in India,e Persia
and China! have to be considered.g I do not know of any special work in Chinese
medieval times devoted solely to precious stones, h but of course there is a mass of
references to them in the lapidaries, antiquarian books, and encyclopaedias already
mentioned. Fig. 276 shows a Chinese gem miner descending a shaft ( + 17th century).
Bretschneider translated i a short section of the Cho Keng Lu of + 1366 about the gems
of foreign origin which the author, Thao Tsung-I, knew at that time. Pfizmaier (95)
translated a chapter of the Thai-Phing Yu Lan encyclopaedia ( + 980) on gems.
Two monographs were devoted by Laufer to the subject. In the more important
one (12) he investigated Chinese knowledge of the diamond. We have already had to
deal with the linear or chain-like macromolecules of asbestos and with a planar or
layer-lattice structure-mica. The diamond is fully three-dimensional, with a cross-
linked infinite lattice. There can be little doubt that the main ancient source of this
remarkable crystalline carbon, the hardest of 'stones', was India, and among the
earliest references is that in the - 1st-century Arthasastra,j though Dioscorides also
knew it in the + 1st. The Periplus mentions its export from India. k The earliest

a Consult also Hildburgh (I).

b Referred to by Chou Mi at the end of the + 13th century (Chhi Tung Yeh Yii, ch. 16, p. I I a).
C There is a good review of this aspect by Ponder (I).
d Cf. the standard works such as King (I, 2); Bauer (I); Spencer (I) ; Kunz (I, 2); Evans (I);
McLintock & Sabine (I) , etc.
• Cf. Finot (I).
f Cf. Laufer (I, 12, 13); Chang Hung-Chao (1); T. Wad a (I).
g Gem-stones and their tentatively identified Chinese names are included in the Table in Sect. 33
below.
h The Thu Ching Yen I Pen Tshao (ch. I , p. 13b) refers to a Pieh Pao Ching S (Manual of the
Distinctions between Precious Stones), but this is not in the bibliographies of the official histories,
and it has not been possible to trace any further information about it.
i (2), vol. I , pp. 173, 194. Reprinted by de Mely (I), p. 251.
j Shamasastry ed., p. 89. According to the latest views (Kalyanov, I) this work did not attain its
present form until the + 3rd century.
k Schoff ed., p. 45 . On the medieval Levantine and Asian gem trade see Mugler (I).

, &t=f
 25. MINERALOGY

Fig. 276. A gem miner descending a shaft (from the Thien Kung Khai Wu of + 1637, ch. 18). Sung
Ying-Hsing says that the gem miners of Yunnan and other remote provinces often meet with dangerous,
even lethal, gases in the workings, so that they rope themselves together in case one of them is overcome.
The pits are generally very deep but free from water. The words phou mien on the right simply mean
'cut away so as to show the shaft' .

reference to the diamond in China was thought to be that in the Chin Chhi Chit Chu I
(Daily Acts of the Chin Emperors) a which says that the Tunhuang region presented
diamonds in +277, adding that they are derived from gold, come from India, can be
used to carve jade, and though scoured many times, do not dissolve. b In this passage
they bear the name ever afterwards retained, chin-kang.1 Recently, Maenchen-
o

Helfen (2) has been able to adduce a still earlier passage, dating from + 114. The term,
which means literally' gold-hard' or 'metal-hard', was used by the Han and Chin
translators to render the Buddhist term vajra, or thunderbolt of Indra, so that it meant
in general anything which was firm, hard or indestructible. The close association of
a Quoted in TPYL, ch. 813, p. 8b.
b L aufer (12), p. 35; H ansford (I), p . 109.
 25. MINERALOGY

the diamond with gold occurs also in P1iny, but the origin of the idea, apart from some
general similarity of very precious and brilliant things, has not yet been explained.
For the folk-lore of the diamond the reader is referred to Laufer's monograph.
Stories about its collection were similar in East and West. There was a legend that
pieces of flesh were thrown into valleys where the diamonds lay, and were then picked
up with the stones adhering to them by eagles or other birds so that the gems could
be collected. This is related by Epiphanius, a Cypriot bishop, in the latter part of the
+4th century,a and appears also in the Liang Ssu Kung Chi with reference to about
+ 510.b The story may have originated in sacrifices of animals at the openings of
mines, or perhaps also in a method later used in China c in which people walked up
and down over diamond-containing sands with grass-sandals, these being later
collected and burnt, and the stones collected from the ashes.
Presumably it was the exceptional hardness of the diamond which gave rise to the
notion of its indestructibi1ity.d Ko Hung mentions this e about + 300, and reproduces
another story common to both East and West, that the diamond was sensitive to the
horn or blood of rams.! Lead was also thought to be capable of breaking it, as we find
both in Dioscorides, in Arabic alchemical writings, and in the Tan Fang Chien Yuan
of Tuku Thao (+ 11th century).g This certainly originated from the practice of
wrapping up diamonds in lead foil so that their splinters should not be lost when
diamond powder was being made. The use of diamonds for cutting hard stones such
as jade has been read (probably wrongly) into early Chinese references such as the
Hsuan Chung Chi ( + 6th century) h where a roller-cutter may possibly be referred to;
but in later texts, such as Chou Mi's Chhi Tung Yeh Yu (c. + I290)i it is to be
accepted. Apparently, however, the Chinese were not acquainted with cut and polished
diamonds until the Portuguese brought some to Macao. j
As regards other stones, F arrington & Laufer (I) have given a short, but excellent,
paper on the agate, which includes Chinese material. A more exhaustive study was
that of Laufer (13) on the turquoise (hydrated aluminium phosphate). Our name for
it derives simply from Turkey, whence we first knew it, but anciently it seems to have
originated from Persia, spreading east as well as west and reaching India and China.
Especially in Tibet was it prized, forming, with coral, the two commonest decorative
stones on all Tibetan works of art, and taking a place almost equivalent to jade in China.

a Laufer (12), p . 9. Marco Polo was one of the many who told the story (ch. 175, Moule & Pelliot ed .).
b Laufer (12), pp. 7, 19, who considers, plausibly enough, that the story migrated from West to
East because the Liang Ssu Kung Chi refers to Byzantium (Fu-Lin) in connection with it.
c Laufer (12), p. 6.
d The diamond's combustibility was not demonstrated till + 1777 by Bergmann (v. Kobell (I),
p. 388).
e Cit. by Li Shih-Chen, PTKM, ch. 10, p. 36b.
f An idea probably astrological in origin (Laufer (12), p. 24).
g Cit. by Li Shih-Chen in the same entry.
h In Ma Kuo-Han's collection (YHSF, ch . 76, p . 34b), also TPYL, ch. 813, p. 8b.
i Ch. 16, p . IIa, b.
j So Fang I-Chih 1 in the Wu Li Hsiao Shih' (Small Encyclopaedia of the Principles of Things),
+1664, ch. 8, p. 28a.
 25. MINERALOGY
Since the Tibetan word for it, gyu, is indigenous, it must have been known there since
very remote times. The Chinese term se-se, I obviously a transcription of some foreign
word, and thought by previous scholars to mean turquoise, is identified by Laufer
with the rubies of Badakshan. There are numerous references to them in the official
histories of the Thang. What seems to be certainly turquoise is first mentioned in the
+ 14th-century Cho Keng Lu as tien tZU. 2 Its modern name, lu sung shih, 3 goes back
only to the + 18th century, but the stone has been mined in China since the Yuan
time.
(8) THE TOUCHSTONE

The touchstone deserves a notice on account of its connection with an interesting

piece of technique. It was usually a coarse-grained or flinty velvet-black jasper
(basanite), i.e. crypto-crystalline silica associated with quartz and coloured by iron
and other oxides. The use of it was in the assaying of alloys of gold and silver.
Medieval metallurgists had a set of 24 'needles', or little bars of gold, each of a known
and marked standard from 1 carat up to 24 carats. Taking the gold to be assayed, they
rubbed it on the stone, and then rubbed one or other of the standard bars alongside
the streak which it had left, choosing first the standard apparently nearest in composi-
tion to the unknown. In ancient times the colour of the streak was the only guide, but
after the introduction of mineral acids, a little aqua regia was applied and the effect
of the solvent on the two streaks noted. a If any differences were seen, other standard
bars were used until an exact coincidence was obtained. The method depends on
differences in reflectivity and colour which cannot be detected from the metal surfaces
themselves but which become visible when the metal is finely divided on the dark
abrasive surface of the stone. According to Sisco & Smith (1), it can give tolerable
accuracy in the hands of a skilled person, provided that the match is carefully made
and that there are no unknown components in the alloy under test. The technique has
considerable historical interest since it is the ancestor of all those colorimetric and
nephelometric methods so widely used in modern chemistry and biochemistry.
The use of the touchstone in Greece is evidently very old, since there are references
to it in the poets back to the -6th century (Pindar, and Bacchylides b). Plato mentioned
it.c It was minutely described by Theophrastus d and (with misunderstandings) by
Pliny.e Agricola in + 1556 goes into its use at some length, giving tables for the
standard compositions of gold-silver, gold-copper, gold-silver-copper and silver-copper
bars'! So also the Probierbiichlein of + 1524.g The earliest Chinese reference yet found
seems to be in the archaeological book, Ko Ku Yao Lun of + 1387,h where the 'gold-
testing stone' (shih chin shih 4) is said to come from Szechuan, to be pure black and
delicately smooth, and to be used for testing alloys of silver as well as of gold. Another

a Cf. Lord (1). b Frag. 10.

c Gorgias, 486D. d Hist. Plant. paras. 78-80.
e Hist. Nat . XXXIlI, 43. f Hoover & Hoover (1), p. 252 .
g Sisco & Smith (I), pp. 86, 181. h Ch. 7, p. 16a.
 25. MINERALOGY

mention is in the Yiin-nan Thung Chih l of about + 1730, the revised version of older
historical geographies of that province which was made under the superintendence of
the Manchu official O-Erh-Thai 2 during his governorship. a Here the stone is said to
be the colour of a new ink-block, and to be greatly prized by the merchants who test
alloys with it. Chang Hung-Chao, however, suggests b that a much older term, tsung-
chhii,3 refers to the touchstone. This is given in old dictionaries such as the Kuang Ya 4
by Chang Is of the Three Kingdoms period (about +230)C and Kuang Yiin 6 com-
menced by Lu Fa-Yen 7 in the Sui (+ 6th).d A much older book, the Thung Su Wen 8
by Fu Chhien 9 of Later Han or Chin, says that 'just as the chien-chu 10 is used to
master jade, so the tsung-chhii 3 is used to master gold'. e But one can hardly be sure
that these were not simply stones for grinding. The exact date of the first use of the
touchstone in Chinese metallurgy therefore remains somewhat obscure.!

(g) THE SEARCH FOR MINERAL DEPOSITS

(I) GEOLOGICAL PROSPECTING

The methods used by ancient miners for finding the locations of deposits of ores and
minerals must have been primarily based on traditional geological lore, the observation
of the' lie of the land', the direction of strata, and the knowledge of what kinds of rock
were likely to be associated with the mineral sought. g The mining works of the
European 16th century give hints of such information. There must have been similar
traditions in China, as we saw above. h But new methods of prospecting have now been
introduced, some depending on geophysics (as in the measurement of gravity and of

• The scientific interests of O-Erh-Thai (Ortai) were shown later in his editorship of two imperially
commissioned compendia, one on agriculture, the Shou Shih Thung Khao, and the other on medicine,
the I Tsung Chin Chien. See his biography in Hummel (2), p. 601.
b (1), p. 179.
C Kuang Ya Su Ch€ng, ch. SA, p. 14b.

d Kuang Yun Chiao Pen, Shang phing sect., p . Isa.

e Ma Kuo-Han' s collection, YHSF, ch. 61, p. 23a.
f It might perhaps be worth suggesting that an old, almost proverbial, phrase,fei-tshui hsieh chin "_
the Jei-tshui stone can reduce gold to minute particles-may conceal the use of the touchstone kept as
a professional secret of the metallurgists. This is mentioned in that curious compendium of Taoist
lore, the Lu Shih IZ of Lo Pi 13 of the Sung (fide Ko Chih Ku Wei, ch. 2, p. 32 a). I should not have
suggested this were it not for the fact that Tu Wan (Yun Lin Shih Phu, ch. 2, p . 6a) wrote that he
had tested the statement repeatedly and proved it true. In + 1067 Ouyang Hsiu gave an eye-witness
account of such a test (Kuei Thien Lu, quoted in Yun Shih Chai Pi Than, ch. I, p. 11 b). As we saw
above, the Jei-tshui was some kind of jade or stone related to jade; Tu Wan in + 1133 certainly did
not mean what the term means now, i.e. jadeite.
g Modern geology and geochemistry have of course given a theoretical foundation to these old obser-
vations. For example, all the world's tin is obtained from ore-bodies formed originally in or near
acid igneous rocks of the granite type, while chromium always occurs in intimate association with
basic igneous rocks such as gabbro. Without knowledge of the chemistry of rocks, the search for
minerals could never have been put upon a rational basis.
h Pp. 649ff.; 660.

I~~ilm; l ~m'~ '61tfi1J • ~ flt

6 ~ tit 7fli*-g- 841iim-~ • !lll bt
11 ~ntl JiL~.: IZ~JE. 13 it?21
 25. MINERALOGY

the results of experimental detonations), others depending on the observation and

chemical "nalysis of plants growing in the area under investigation. Thus geobotanical
prospecting involves the study of the oecology of plants which are known either to
accumulate unusually large quantities of the element concerned, or to be capable of
living in environments containing amounts of it toxic to most other plant species.
Similarly, bio-geochemical prospecting involves the chemical or spectrographic analysis
of plants and soils. The latter could evidently not have been possible before the rise
of modern science, but the former, in so far as it consisted of an empirical association
of certain plants with certain minerals, goes back in China a surprisingly long way, as
We shall see.
Prospecting by the empirical association of one rock or mineral with another was
presumably part of the most ancient traditional Chinese miner's lore, since echoes of
it find their way into Han or pre-Han texts. Thus in the Kuan Tzu book:
Huang Tia said, 'I should like to know about these things.' Po Kao l answered,b 'Where
there is cinnabar above, yellow gold will be found below. Where there is magnetite above,
copper and gold will be found below. Where there is ling shih 2 above, C lead, tin, and red copper
will be found below. Where there is haematite (che 3 ) above, iron will be found below. Thus
it can be seen that the mountains are full of riches.' d
And on the next page, when Duke Huan of Chhi puts the same question to Kuan
Chung, the reply confirms the significance of haematite, cinnabar and magnetite,
adding that lead above is an indication of silver ore beneath it.
There is also a good deal of this in the Shan Hai Ching, though its descriptions of
mountains are ambiguous in that you cannot tell whether one material was found at
the top of a mountain and another at its base, or whether the deposits lay at different
depths in the same location. An examplee states that jade is above and copper ore
below. This kind of association may be instanced from many following centuries; thus
the Pen Tshao Shih 1 4 of + 725 states:
Generally one sees those who search for gold dig down into the earth for several feet until
they come to a stone called ten izu shih 5 (' tangle-stone') (which accompanies the gold).f
This is always in black lumps, as if charred, and underneath it is the gold-bearing ore, also
in lumps, some as large as one's finger, others as small as beans, and coloured a mulberry
yellow. When first dug out it is friable .g
So sure was this association that later books (such as the Pen Tshao Yen 1 6 of +1 I IS)
call the black stone the' gold companion stone' (pan chin shih 7). One catches glimpses

a Legendary emperor. b Legendary minister of Huang Ti.

c RP no . 13Si; unidentifiable.
d Ch. 77, p. 2a, tr. auct. The translation of Than Po-Fu et aI., p. 146, appears to be confused. The
passage is quoted also in TPYL, ch. 810, p. Sb; hence Pfizmaier (9S), p. 234.
e Ch. 3, p. 16a ; de Rosny (I), p. 131.
r This country-rock is unidentifiable.
11 Quoted by Li Shih-Chen, PTKM, ch. 8, p. 4b, tr. auct. Cf. de Mely (I), pp. xxiv, 14.

I fa ~ 1 ~;p 3~ 4#.!;t ta-ilt

6 #.!;t~~ 7~~ ;P
 25. MINERALOGY
also of disagreements; thus Su Sung (+ 1070) reports that realgar is an indicator for
the presence of gold, but Khou Tsung-Shih (+ I I 15) specifically denies it.a ThaoHung-
Ching (c. + 500) relates b that sulphur is considered by some to be the i l (essential
juice?) of alum, so that they ought to be found together, but considers this theory not
always borne out, because in the south there are places where alum is found but no
sulphur. Actually there is often in fact some connection between them, both being
related to volcanic phenomena (Singer, 8). Another association is that between iron
pyrites and alum (both containing iron and sulphur), and the Shan Hai Ching in fact
mentions this, as Chang Hung-Chao C points out. Lastly, Sung Ying-Hsing wrote in
+ 1637 'Where iron ore lies on the north of a hilllodestone is likely to occur on the
south side, but there are many exceptions to this'. d

(2) GEOBOTANICAL AND BIO-GEOCHEMICAL PROSPECTING

But the Chinese not only recognised the associations of ores and rocks, they also noted
certain connections between plants and ores. That the ore and the plants might be
separated by many feet or yards, or greater distances, was not felt by them as a diffi-
culty; the conception of 'action at a distance' appears in many ancient texts. e In
Section 38 on botany we shall take cognisance of a correlation which was made in the
- 3rd century between the fu-ling,2 a fungus parasitic on pine-tree roots, and the
dodder (thu-ssu 3 ), a plant parasitic on the branches. In Section 39 on zoology we
shall find that at least as early the effect of the moon on the reproductive cycle of
certain marine invertebrates was discovered. f A whole chapter of the Lii Shih Chhun
Chhiu is devoted to examples of this action at a distance.g And as we saw in Section 21
on meteorology, the Chinese were perhaps less hindered than Europeans in the
recognition of the true cause of the tides by their appreciation of the organic oneness
of the universe. h
Among the miao,4 or indications, of ore deposits, plants played a considerable role.
The best known text which shows this is perhaps that in the Yu- Yang Tsa Tsu,
written by Tuan Chheng-Shih about + 800. There we find the following:

When in the mountains there is the tshung S plant i (the ciboule onion), then below silver
will be found. When in the mountains there is the hsiai 6 pland (a kind of shallot), then below
gold will be found. When in the mountains there is the chiang 7 plant k (ginger), then below
a Thu Ching Yen I P€n Tshao, ch. 3, pp. 2b, 7a.
b Quoted in Thu Ching Yen I Pen Tshao, in its entry under sulphur (ch. 3, p. 16a).
c (1), p. 171. Cf. his introduction.
d TKKW, ch. 14, p. 9b.
e Cf. Vol. 2, pp. 293, 355, 381, 408.
f Cf. Vol. I, p. 150.
g Ch. 45, tr. R. Wilhelm (3), p. 114.
h Cf. in this connection Sect. 26 below on physics and acoustics, and all that was said on organic
philosophy in Vol. 2.
I R 666, Allium fistulosum. j R 663, Allium bakeri.
k R650, Zingiber officinale.

'~ 6i[ 'J:I

 25. MINERALOGY

copper and tin will be found. If the mountain has precious jade, the branches of the trees
all around will be drooping.-

The significance of this will be appreciated in the light of modern findings described
below. It is by no means isolated in Chinese literature. The association of tshung I
(Allium) with silver deposits occurs again b in the Pen Tshao Kang Mu as also does
that of the hsiai z (another species of Allium) with gold. c But Li Shih-Chen quotes
these statements from a source which must have been that of Tuan Chheng-Shih also,
namely the Ti Ching Thu 3 (Illustrated Mirror of the Earth). This work, which survives
only in the form of fragments collected by Ma Kuo-Han,d is mentioned in the Sui
bibliography and, though its writer's name is lost,e was evidently concerned with
mining and geobotanical prospecting. f Ma Kuo-Han believed that it was written in
the Liang dynasty (first half of the + 6th century).
The Ti Ching Thu has some interesting statements which Tuan Chheng-Shih did
not copy. For example, it says that' if the stalk of (a certain) plant is yellow and elegant
(tshao heng huang hsiu 4 )' copper will be found below.g This indicates that not only
the presence or absence of plants was looked for but also their physiological condition.
The text goes on to say that the essence (ching S ) of copper transforms itself into ma 6
and thung,7 words which literally mean' horses' and' boys', but which may well have
referred to names of plants no longer identifiable. h Similarly the Ti Ching Thu says
that' if the (leaves) of (a certain) plant are green, and the stalks red, much lead will be
found below ', i adding that the essence of lead and tin transforms itself into the' old-
woman', again perhaps a plant-name. Though we can hardly say what species were
meant, modern knowledge confirms most strikingly that the presence or absence of
metallic elements in the soil affects the appearance of plants. Exactly how far back
this accumulated knowledge goes is hard to determine, but another piece of information
occurs in the Thu Ching Yen I Pen Tshao (c. + 1120) which quotes i Chang Hua(c. + 290)
as saying k that' where the liao 8 (smartweed) grows abundantly, 1 there must be plenty
of haematite (yu y u liang;9 ferric oxide) below'. Moreover, the Shan Hai Ching, in
a Ch. 16, p . 3 b, tr. auct.
b PTKM, ch. 8, p. 8a; cf. de Mely (1), pp. xxvii, 19.
c Ch. 8, p. sa; cf. de Mely (1), pp. xxvii, 13. d YHSF, ch. 78, pp. 31aff.
e We are told by the Emperor Yuan of the Liang that in his time there were three manuals of this
o
kind, one by Shih Khuang : (obviously a pseudonym taken from the Chou period), a second by Pai
TS~," and a third by Liu Chia." Of these men nothing is now known (Chin Lou TZll, ch. 5, p. 21a).
A fragment of a Pai Tse Thll, mostly about spirits which lead miners to ore sites, is preserved in YHSF,
ch. 77, pp. s8aff. Chhen Ph an (lb) has discussed the Ti Ching Thu and related writings.
f In this it differs from two other books, also of the Liang, the Ti Ching'3 (Mirror of the Earth)
and the Thien Ching'4 (Mirror of the Heavens), which are almost entirely divinatory in character. What
survives of both will also be found in YHSF, ch. 78 .
g Quoted by Li Shih-Chen in PTKM, ch . 8, p. I2a; cf. de Mely (1), pp. xxvii, 22.
h About twenty Chinese plant names have the prefix ma; 6 cf. our 'horsetail'.
i Quoted by Li Shih-Chen in PTKM, ch. 8, p. 16b; cf. de Mely (1), pp. xxvii, 27.
j In its entry under haematite (ch. 2, p . I2a).
k We have not, however, been able to find the statement in the present version of the Po Wu Chill.
I Rs73, Polygonwll hy dropiper (ch . 2, p. Iza).
I ~ Z flli J :ttB%2 IIlI • 1if. !{q't ~ 6 .\1;
7 fti 811 Q jil1,~f.j{ 10 eili ~ 12 ~,
 25. MINERALOGY

spite of its usual ambiguity, seems to speak a of an association between gold ore and
hui-thang. Ib There is also a reference in Wen Tzu 2 to lush growth and drooping
branches in the neighbourhood of jade. c In general, therefore, we should not be far
wrong in thinking that this kind of empirical lore was growing steadily from the Han
time onwards until the Sui. Naturally there was magic in it as well as true knowledge,
for no plant could betray the presence of a mineral such as magnesium silicate, no
matter how much men might value it as jade.
We have now, finally, to glance at the present position of knowledge in the light of
which these achievements must be evaluated. When Jules Raulin, a great contemporary
of Pasteur, began the first successful experiments in the culture of the lower plants on
synthetic media, it became clear that they needed for their growth the presence of
many metallic and other elements, though only in traces. Javillier and Sch6pfer have
recently reviewed the wide repercussions of this work. The importance of 'trace-
elements' or 'oligo-elements' in all branches of biology may be seen from the books
of Brewer (I) and Stiles (I).d Plant diseases caused by deficiencies in these may be
diagnosed by inspection (Wallace, I). e But on the other hand modern research has
made clear that plants vary greatly in the extent to which they will accumulate
within themselves metallic elements present in the soil. The role of plants as biological
concentrators and indicators was first brought out in a classical lecture by the
Norwegian geochemist V. M. Goldschmidt in 1935. Starting from a curious
observation that certain coal ashes were extremely rich in germanium, it was found
that there is a circulation from subsoil to surface layers, with absorption of elements
by the plants and accumulation in their maxim ally transpiring organs, the leaves.
Later, from leaves undergoing decay there is a leaching process in which the most
soluble salts go down into the subsoil, while the less soluble ones remain above.
Nearly twenty elements are now known to participate in this Goldschmidt Enrich-
ment Principle, as it is called.! It will follow, therefore, that if there are rich deposits
of a certain element in or below the subsoil, this will accumulate in the soil itself and
in the plants which grow on it, and this process may reach a point which many plant
species may find intolerable, thus leading to oecological changes. But besides this,
there are active processes by which plants accumulate elements in their tissues, for
example, boron.g
During the past fifteen years this new information has been actively applied to
mineral prospecting, Swedish and Italian workers being in the forefront. The con-
a In the entry for Chung-Huang Shan in ch. 2.
b This combined plant name (if it is a combined one) is hard to identify. The hui could be a kind
of orchid (B II, 406), as de Rosny (I), p. 67, took it, or Ocimum the basil (B Ill, 60; R 134a). Thang
alone could be the wild pear (R432) or plum (R446) or hawthorn (R422).
c Cf. Piao I Lu, ch. 2, p. 7 a, quoting the Yun Chhi Yu I of the Thang. See also Hsun Tzu, ch. ]
p. 5 b (tr. Dubs (8), p. 36); Po Wu Chih, ch. I, p. 7 b.
d Cf. also a report (Anon., 4).
e Hence the interest of the old Chinese statements concerning the appearance, not only the presence
or absence, of plants in relation to minerals.
f Notably Au, Be, Zn, Cd, Sc, Tl, Ge, Sn, Pb, As, Mn, Co, Ni.
g For an excellent review of this subject see Rankama (I).
 25. MINERALOGY
tributions of Palmqvist & Brundin,a reviewed by Landergren (I), are regarded as of
particular merit.b Following the order of metals in which the medieval Chinese were
interested, we may glance at a few details, astonishing indeed in themselves. Silver
does not seem very prominent so far, but gold is known to accumulate in Equisetum
arvense and palustre, the horsetails, which may contain as much as 4 oz. AuJton. c
As regards copper, tin and zinc, there have been chemical analyses by Warren &
Delavault and Warren & Howatson of parts of various trees which may act as indi-
cators for copper deposits. Copper is specifically accumulated in Polycarpaea spiro-
stylis; and two other plants, Viscaria alpina and Melandrium dioecium, can endure
copper concentrations in the soil which leave them without competitors. c The 'zinc
pansy', Viola calaminaria, accumulates zinc up to 1 % of the ash, and flourishes in the
neighbourhood of its ores, but it is outdone by Thlaspi spp. which go as high as 16 %
of the ash. d Holosteum umbellatum, when growing on mercury-rich soils, actually
shows intracellular droplets of metallic mercury (Rankama & Sahama, I). Astragalus
spp. seem quite insensitive to selenium, otherwise a highly poisonous element. Lead,
mentioned by the old Chinese writers, accumulates in Amorpha canescens and Panicum
crusgalli (Sinyakova), but many families have no detectable traces. Nickel indicator
plants, such as Alyssum bertolonii, have been studied by Rankama (2) and Minguzzi &
Vergnano (I), following the classical work on cobalt accumulators of Bertrand &
Mokragnatz (I). Some of the Lycopodium species accumulate so much aluminium that
they were used traditionally in Europe as sources of mordant instead of alum, as well
as sources of yellow dye.e Of course in modern geobotanical technique it is necessary
not only to study the oecological distribution and the physiological condition of the
flora, but also to make chemical analyses of the plants, soils, waters, and even animals,
of the region.
In view of these facts it is remarkable that Chinese literature contains a long-standing
assertion that metals could actually be obtained from certain plants. The Wu Li Hsiao
Shih of + 1664 quotes f a passage from the Keng Hsin Yii Tshe of + 1421 saying that
the chhi of gold was present in the rape-turnip (man chhing;1 Brassica rapa-depressa,
R477), that of silver was present in a kind of weeping willow (shih yang liu 2 ), those of
lead and tin in mugwort (ai hao;3 Artemisia vulgaris, R9), chestnut, barley and wheat;
and that of copper in the Indian sorrel (san yeh suan; 4 Oxalis corniculata, R 367). In
at least one case practical use was made of such knowledge in the extraction of mercury,
as we shall see in a moment. It would be very interesting to put these old statements
to the test by modern methods.
One would think that miners in all civilisations must have acquired some empirical
knowledge of plant-mineral associations. But we have found no trace of medieval
a Though imperfectly available, owing, apparently, to their connection with the commercial firm
Svenska Prospektering Aktiebolaget.
b Geobotanical prospecting is in actual practical use for Cu, Ni, Sn, Cr and W.
C Rankama (I); Vogt & Bergh (I).
d Rankama (I); Robinson, Lakin & Reichen (I).
C Analyses by Hutchinson & Wollack (I).
f Ch. 7, p. nb.

I~W 2:?'1m~ 3;1t~ '3~M

 25. MINERALOGY

European ideas on the subject. Agricola says very little about it; he notes only the lie
of frost, and a certain 'sickliness' about trees or bushes. a Not till the Flora Saturnisans
of the German mining chemist J. F. Henckel (+ 1760) do we come upon the traces of
geobotanical prospecting. At first he seems not to go beyond Agricola, for with reference
to arid patches near mines he says (p. 66):

Je ss;ais qu'on attribue ces effets aux exhalaisons qui s'elevent des fentes des mines qui
detruisent tout ce que le terrein qui est au-dessus de ces fentes, et qu'elles traversent, peut
contenir de propre a la vegetation, empechent que les rosees ne fertilisent ces endroits,
comme les endroits voisins sur lesquels cette cause de destruction n'agit point; il ne faut
cependant pas adopter entierement les soups;ons des Mineurs.

But later he quotes 'un passage de Cluvier qui merite qu'on y reflechisse' (p. 254):

Nous croyons avoir raison de croire et de dire que chaque pi ante participe d'un metal
particulier; aussi les plantes peuvent-elles servir a faire connoitre les differentes especes de
mineraux qui sont dans la terre. Le saffranum ou le saffran batard indique ou il y a des
mines d'or; et le houx, ou il y a de l'alun. On voit au-dessus des filons des mines des plantes
qui ont quelque connexion avec ces mines qui y croissent tres-bien, tandis que d'autres ont
peine a y venir, et y deperissent. Le vitriol se trouve en grande quantite dans le chene et
dans les bigarades d'ou l'on peut aisement l'en retirer. Les Orientaux ss;avent faire du
salpetre avec une certaine espece d'osier.. ..

The reference is to the Passe-tems of Cluvier, i.e. Philip Cluverius ( + 1580 to + 1623),
the eminent German historical geographer. This is one of those points at which we
seem to be standing at the watershed between the old and the new in European
science, for while one sentence evokes the doctrine of signatures and the ancient
Kab balistical and 'Chinese' symbolic correlations (every plant corresponds to a certain
metal),b another indicates how Henckel and his contemporaries were in fact beginning
to open up the subject of plant biochemistry, especially in those analyses of the inorganic
constituents of plants, to which much of the Flora Saturnisans is devoted. It is note-
worthy that there are certain references to China in Henckel, especially discussion of
a plant found in that country which contained so much mercury that it would give
rise to an amalgam as soft as butter when ground with copper filings. c But the success-
ful pursuit of geobotanical prospecting in the European tradition would require a
special investigation.
a Hoover & Hoover (I), p. 38. It is interesting that the Jesuits, urged on by Li Thien-Ching, started
to make a translation of Agricola into Chinese in + 1639. Within a year eight chapters were presented
to the throne, but then for some reason the work stopped and the Chinese text was never published
(Bemard-Maitre (7), p. 462).
b Cf. Sect. 131 in Vol. 2, pp. 261fI.
c Pp. 196, 245 , 252. Though Henckel gave no Chinese reference, the texts are readily identifiable.
Li Shih-Chen (PTKM, + 1596, ch. 9, p. lob) quotes Su Sung as giving in the Pen Tshao Thu Ching
(about + 1070) a method for getting mercury from a kind of purslane, the ma chhih hsien I (Portulaca
oieracea, R554) by careful pounding, drying and autolysis. He could obtain 8 or 10 ounces from
10 catties of the dried plant. The account was quoted again in the Wu Li Hsiao Shih (+ 1664), ch. 7,
p. I2b, but Sung Ying-Hsing (Thien Kung Khai Wu, ch. 14, p. lob), supposing that the story referred
to tin not mercury, disbelieved it.
680 25. MINERALOGY

It would also be interesting to make a search of the Chinese literature in the light
of present knowledge of plant species which are known to be ore-indicators. None of
those, indeed, which have just been mentioned is the same as any of the plants
referred to in the texts, but the identification of the latter is perhaps too uncertain for
that to be significant. Conversely, if the plants which the Chinese seem to have used
could ever be identified with sufficient exactness, it would be interesting to examine
them in the field on the basis of modern knowledge. We can hardly follow the subject
further here, but enough has been said to make it evident that the medieval Chinese
observations were the forerunners of a vast and rapidly growing body of modern
scientific theory and practice. a To what extent this holds true, not only in geophysics,
but also in physics itself and throughout the realm of the technologies of the physical
world, will appear from the discussions collected in the following volume.

a Meanwhile the Chinese themselves do not always appreciate the acuity of their forefathers; for
example, in Phan Chung-Hsiang's otherwise excellent review of mod ern prospecting methods, geo-
botanical techniques are mentioned as if they were purely of modern Western origin. Even a special
(and admirable) monograph on geobotanical prospecting and indicator-plants, published by Hou
Hsiieh-Yii at Peking in 1952, is silent regarding the Chinese pioneers. However, after the publication
of a preliminary draft of the present sub-section two years later (Needham, 30), we were happy to see a
good account of the same material appear in Chinese (Yen Yii, 3).
 681

ADDENDA
ISRAEL AND KHA ZARIA

(to p. 575 above, and to Vol. 1, Sect. 7)

Insufficient justice was done in the first volume of this work to the part played by Israel in
the traffic of ideas and techniques between East and West. Opportunity may be taken to
repair the omission at this point.
For the + 9th century we have a considerable amount of information about the group of
Jewish merchants known as the Radhanites (al-Radhaniyah). According to Abo. al-Qasim ibn
Khurdadhbih (+825 to +912; Mieli (1), p. 79; Hitti (1), p. 384), in his Kita.b al-Masa.lik
w' al-Mama.lik (Book of Roads and Provinces) of + 846, the Radhanites travelled regularly
between China and Provence. Besides Arabic and Greek, they spoke Frankish, Slavonic,
Spanish and Persian. Journeying both by land and sea, they took eastwards eunuchs, girl
slaves, boys, brocades, furs and swords; returning with musk, aloes, cinnamon, camphor and
medicinal plants. Damascus, Oman, Hindustan and the (Jewish) Khazar kingdom in the
Crimea were among their way-stations. It will be remembered that this was in the latter
part of the Thang period, and that the Arab merchant Sulaiman al-Tajir, who wrote about
China, was Ibn Khurdadhbih's exact contemporary. That porcelain was among the wares
which the Radhanites brought back is very likely, since Thang fragments have been found
in Egyptian rubbish heaps dating from that time (cf. Sect. 6/ in Vol. 1, p. 129). But if we
judge from correspondences of dates, the Radhanites may well have been responsible for
other introductions. Independent lines of evidence point to the + 9th and + 10th centuries
as the time when the efficient collar harness (Sect. 27 d below) came from Chinese Central
Asia to Europe, and the only other efficient harness, the breast-strap type, had come not
very long before. Similarly, it is about this period that we have to look for the transmission
of the art of deep drilling from Szechuan to Artois (Sect. 37 below), and for the second
westward introduction of the crossbow (Sect. 30d below). The passage of Ibn Khurdadhbih
is translated in E. N. Adler (1), p. 2; and further information about the Radhanites will be
found in the works of Heyd (1), vol. 1, pp. 125 if., Mez (1), Rabinowitz (1), and Muntner (1),
pt. 2. Some have thought that the Radhanites took their name from their western head-
quarters in the Provenr;:al towns along the Rhone, but others derive it (no more plausibly)
from the name of the Persian town of al-Raiy, near modern Teheran, one of the key points on
the great east-west trunk road known as the Khurasan highway (cf. Fig. 32, in Vol. 1, p. 171 ,
and Hitti (1), p. 323).
In connection with the Radhanites mention must also be made of the Khazar kingdom,
for its Khan and many of its people accepted J udaism as their national religion about + 740.
The Khazars were a Turkic group (see Barthold, 1) related to the White (Ephthalite) Huns
(Grousset, 1) and to the Uighurs (Klaproth, 3). The words ketzer (heretic) and 'hussar '
probably derive from the Khazars, and the Karaim of Poland may be their descendants. They
occupied for many centuries the lands north of the Caucasus, including the lower valleys of
the Don and the Volga, as well as the westward outlying region of the Crimea. In this way
they had a strategic position on the trade routes, and merited the name which has been given
to them of 'the Venetians of the Euxine and the Caspian'. Although the Khazar kingdom
can be traced from the + 6th to the + 11th century, its period of greatness was between
682 ADDENDA
+ 640 and + 960. The Chinese knew of the Khazars as the Kho-Sa I branch of the Turks
(Hsin Thang Shu, ch. 221B, tr. Hirth (I), p. 56; Thung Tien, ch. 193, p. 1041.3; Wen Hsien
Thung Khao, ch. 339, p. 2659.2, both tr. Hirth (I), p. 83, also pp. 1044.3,2663.2 respectively).
One of the sources of their information was undoubtedly Tu Huan, the officer captured by
the Arabs at the battle of the Talas River (+751), who brought back information about the
Chinese technologists settled at Baghdad (cf. Vol. I, p. 236). Khazaria was in close trade
relations with Byzantium. Evidently we ought to know more about this interesting people ;
until recently the only monograph on the Khazars was in Hebrew (Poliak, I), but we now
have an excellent book in English (Dunlop, I). According to Dr A. N. Poliak (in a private
communication), Ibn al-Nadim (d. +995) says that Chinese was understood in Khazar lands,
and that the khanate used Chinese court etiquette. For the Khazar term tudun, governor, a
Chinese origin has been suggested (see Dunlop (I), p. 174), perhaps from tu thuan shih,2
imperial commissioner for provincial troops. The Khazars had an institution like the shogunate,
with a Beg as well as a Khaqan (Dunlop (I), p. 208). Arab geographers, Poliak tells us, speak
of mausolea suspended over rivers (see Sect. 28e below on suspension-bridges) though this
may be a misunderstanding for royal tombs excavated underneath flowing rivers; of syna-
gogues with pagoda-like towers, and of military flame-throwers (cf. Sect. 34 below), these last
perhaps really Arabic (cf. Poliak, 2). The Volga delta certainly produced rice. As an example
of the role which Khazaria may have played in scientific and technological transmissions, we
remember the embassy there of the great algebraist al-Khwarizmi between + 842 and + 847
(cf. pp. 107, 147 above).
The historian of science must also take note of the community of Jews established in
Khaifeng from the beginning of the + 12th century onwards (their first synagogue dated
from + 1163). They may well have started as Radhanites who settled in China. Throughout
the centuries they produced eminent physicians. About + 1415, one of their number, Chao
Yen-Chheng,3 was a close collaborator of the Ming prince Chou Ting Wang, who studied
pharmaceutical botany and maintained a botanic garden. Yen-Chheng seems to have been
part author with the prince of the famous Chiu Huang Pen Tshao (Famine Herbal) of + 1406,
and more certainly of the Phu Chi Fang 4 (Simple Prescriptions for Everyman), issued by the
same group. In + 1423 he was honoured by the emperor, and in rebuilding the synagogue
aided by the prince. One wonders whether there could have been any mutual influences of
Hebrew and Chinese science or medicine in this partnership, and one would like to know
something of Yen-Chheng's Hebrew library. At the end of the following century the Jewish
scholar Ai Thien s (+ 1573 to + 1605) visited Matteo Ricci (the story may be read in
Trigault, Gallagher tr. pp. I07ff.), and again in the early Chhing the community produced
an eminent physician, Chao Ying-Chheng. 6 Most of the information in this paragraph is due
to the researches of White & Williams (see esp. (I), vol. 3, pp. IIoff.).

KOREA
The conviction has developed in the minds of the author and his collaborators during the
writing of this book, that of all the peoples inhabiting the Chinese culture-area, the Koreans
were for many centuries those most interested in all kinds of scientific matters. In Section 20
we have noted (p. 302) Korean interest in Jesuit sundials in the 18th century, as well as a
remarkable astronomical clock from Korea (p. 389), and we have reproduced a drawing of a
Korean observatory tower of the + 7th century (Fig. 118) as well as a picture of a comet taken
 ADDENDA
from late Korean records (Fig. 184(a)). But there is abundant evidence from much earlier
times, as may be seen from the perusal of Ma Tuan-Lin's account of Korea (Kao-Chil-Li I)
in chapter 325 of the WbzHsien ThungKhao(c. + 1280;tr. HerveydeSt Denys, I). The people
were known to be fond of books and learning; there were schools at almost every crossroads.
In + 95 I they presented certain astrological-astronomical books, including one of the Chhan-
Wei, Hsiao Wei Tzhu Hsiung Thu 2 (Apocryphal Treatise on the Filial Piety Classic; Diagrams
of Male and Female (Influences)), the text of which had presumably been lost in China
(existing fragments are in YHSF, ch. 58, p. 58 a). In + 1016, the Korean ambassador, Kuo
Yuan,3 departed for home laden with calendrical books and a medical work Shbzg Hui Fang 4
(Glory-of-the-Sages Prescriptions). This was probably the work now known as Sheng Hui
Hsuan Fang. Koreans repeatedly took doctorates at the imperial university, e.g. Chin Hsing-
Chheng S in +980 and Khang Chien 6 in + 1021. In the latter year, the embassy requested,
and obtained, geographical books; and in + 1075 one of the Korean kings sent for physicians,
pharmacists, painters and sculptors. But towards the end of the + 11th century cultural
relations between China and Korea were impaired because the suspicion grew up that the
Koreans were coming to gather intelligence on behalf of the Chin (Jurchen) Tartars. Con-
sequently in + 1085 and + 1092 Korean embassies were not given all the books for which
they had asked, and already before + 1080 (as we saw in Sect. 22, p. 549) there was great
reluctance to provide them with maps which previously had been freely given. Mter the
retreat to Hangchow early in the + 12th century, scientific intercourse was reduced, but in
later times it revived again. We have studied above (pp. 554ff.) the outstanding achievement
of Korean cartographers about + 1400.
General histories of Korean literature (e.g. Trollope, I) regard the Yun Tai Rok,7 a
calendrical work by Tshui Chih-Yuan 8 (Choi Chi-Won +858 to +910), who was trained at
the Thang capital, as perhaps the oldest Korean astronomical book. No less famous, however,
is the Sip Chong Rok,9 written by Chin Chheng-Tse 10 (Kim Song-Taik) of the +llth century.
The register of strange celestial phenomena, Tyentung Sanguiko I I of + I 708, is an important
work. In the early nineteenth century, Korea produced two prolific astronomical writers, the
brothers Nan Ping-Che l 2 and Nan Ping-Chi 13 (Nam Pyeng-Chul and Pyeng-Kil). There
is a general history of science in Korea by Hung I-Py6ii (1).
I;g; -m~ 2 ~ ~.4t ntUiUll 3 ~1I}ij .; ~ ;t; :-h
6 [~~ ¥ ft M s-t€J,till Q -I- r.f Jlif
* 11
7

11 ~ lll: ~ ~1i;lt 12 J¥j*11i' 13 J¥j

 68 5

BIBLIOGRAPHIES
A CHINESE BOOKS BEFORE + 1800

B CHINESE AND JAPANESE BOOKS AND JOURNAL ARTICLES SINCE +1800

C BOOKS AND JOURNAL ARTICLES IN WESTERN LANGUAGES

In Bibliographies A and B there are two modifications of the Roman alphabetical

sequence : transliterated Chh- comes after all other entries under Ch-, and trans-
literated Hs- comes after all other entries under H-. Thus Chhen comes after Chung
and Hsi comes after Huai. This system applies only to the first words of the titles.
Moreover, where Chh- and Hs- occur in words used in Bibliography C, i.e. in a
Western language context, the normal sequence of the Roman alphabet is observed.
When obsolete or unusual romanisations of Chinese words occur in entries in
Bibliography C, they are followed, wherever possible, by the romanisations adopted
as standard in the present work. If inserted in the title, these are enclosed in square
brackets; if they follow it, in round brackets. When Chinese words or phrases occur
romanised according to the Wade-Giles system or related system, they are assimi-
lated to the system here adopted without indication of any change. Additional notes
are added in round brackets. The reference numbers do not necessarily begin
with (I), nor are they necessarily consecutive, because only those references required
for this volume of the series are given.
686

ABBREVIATI ONS
A Archeion AKML Abhandlungen f. d. Kunde des
AAA Archaeologia Morgenlandes
AAEEG Annuaire de l'Assoc. pour l'En- AM Asia Major
couragement des Etudes Grecques AMG Annales du Musee Guimet
A/AIHS Archives Internationales d' Histoire AMM American Mathematical Monthly
des Sciences (contin. of Archeion) AMN Archiv for Math. og Naturviden-
AAN American Anthropologist skab (Christiania/Oslo)
AAR Art and Archaeology (Washington) AMP Archiv d. Math. u. Physik
ABAW/MN Abhandlungen d. bayerischen Aka- AN Anthropos
demie d. Wissenschaften, Miinchetl ANHGN Abhandlungen d. Natllrhistorischell
(Math.-nat. Klasse) Gesellschaft zu Niirnberg
ABAW/PH Abhandlzmgen d. bayerischen Aka- ANP Annalen d. Physik
demie d. Wissenschaften, Miinchen ANS Annals of Science
(Phil.-hist. Klasse) ANSSR/AC Academy of Sciences of the
ACASA Archives of the Chinese Art Society U.S.S.R., Astronomical Circular
of America AOF Archiv j. Orientforschung
ACLS American Council of Learned APAW Abhandlllngen d. preuss. Akad.
Societies Wiss. Berlin
AD VS Advancetnent of Science (British APAW/MN Abhandlungen d. preuss. Akad.
Association, London) Wiss. Berlin (Math.-nat. Klasse)
AE Ancient Egypt AQ Antiquity
AEO Archives d'Etudes orientales (Up- ARAB Arabica
sala) ARC Agricultural Research Council
AGMNT see QSGNM (U.K.)
AGMW Abhandlungen z. Geschichte d. ARLC/DO Annual Reports of the Librarian of
Math. Wissenschaft Congress (Division of Orien-
AGNT see QSGNM talia)
AGSB Bulletin of the American Geo- ARSI Annual Reports of the Smith-
graphical Society sonian Institution
AGWG/MP Abhandlungen d. Gesellschaft d. ARUSNM AnnllalReports of the U.S.National
Wissenschaften z. Gottingen Museum
(Math.-phys. Klasse) AS/BIHP Kuo-Li Chung- Yang (now Clwng-
AGWG/PH Abhandlungen d. Gesellschaft d. Kuo Kho-Hsiieh) Yen-Chiu
Wissenschaften z. Gottingen Yuan, Li-Shih Yii-Yen Yen-
(Phil.-hist. Klasse) Chill So Chi-Khan (Bulletin of
AHAW/PH Abhandlungen d. Heidelberger the Institute of History and
Akadetnie d. Wissenschaften Philology, Academia Sinica)
(Phil.-hist. Klasse) AS/CJA Chtmg-Kuo Khao Ku Hsiieh Pao
AHOR Antiquarian Horology (Chinese Journal of Archaeology,
AHR American Historical Review Academia Sinica)
AHSNM Acta Historia Scientiarum Natura- ASAW/PH Abhandlungen d. Siichischen Akad.
lium et Medicinalium (Copen- Wiss. Leipzig (Phil.-hist. Klasse)
hagen) ASI Actualites scientifiques et indus-
AI Ars Islamica trielles
AIEO/UA Annales de l'Institut des Etudes ASPN Archives des Sciences physiques et
orientales (Universite d' Alger) naturelles
AJ Asiatic Journal and Monthly ASR Asiatic Review
Register for British and Foreign ASSB Annales de la Societe scientifique de
India, China and Australia Bruxelles
AJA American Journal of Archaeology ASTNR Astronomische Nachrichten
AJP American Journal of Philology ASTRO Astrophysics Journal
AJSC American Journal of Science ASTSN Atti d. Soc. Toscana d. Sci.
AJSLL American Journal of Semitic Lan- Nat.
guages and Literature AT Atlantis
AKG Archiv f. Kulturgeschichte AUL Annales de l'Universite de Lyon
 ABBREVIA TIONS
AUON Annali dell'Istituto Universitario BUA Bulletin de I' Universite de l' Aurore
Orientale di Napoli (Shanghai)
BUSNM Bulletin of the V.S. National
BA Baessler Archiv (Beitriige z. Museum
V6lkerkunde herausgeg. a. d. BV Bharaliya Vidya
Mitteln d. Baessler Instituts,
Berlin) C Copernicus: International Journal
BAN Bulletin of the Astronomical Insti- of Astronomy (Dublin and
tutes of the Netherlands Gottingen)
BAS Bulletin astronomique CA Chemical Abstracts
BAU Bulletin of Ankara University CAM Communications de l'Academie de
BBSHS Bulletin of the British Society for Marine (Brussels)
the History of Science CEN Centaurus
BBSSMF Bollettino di Bibliografia e di Storia CET Ciel et Terre
delle Scienze Matematiche e CH Chih-Hsiieh (Learning)
fisiche (Boncompagni's) CHER Chhing-Hua (University) Engineer-
BCGF Bulletin de la Commission geolo- ing Reports
gique de'Finlande CHHP Chhi-Hsiang Hsiieh Pao (Meteoro-
BCP Bulletin catholique de Pekin logical Magazine)
BCS Chung-Kuo Wen-Hua Yen-Chiu CHI Cambridge History of India
Hui Khan (Bulletin of Chinese CHJ Chhing-Hua Hsiieh Pao (Chhillg -
Studies, Chhengtu) Hua (Ts'ing-Hua University)
BEFEO Bulletin de l'Ecole franfaise de Journal)
l' Extreme Orient (Hanoi) CIMC/MR Chinese Imperial Maritime Customs
BG Bulletin de Geographie (Medical Report Series)
BGHD Bulletin de Geographie historique et CJ China Journal of Science and Arts
descriptive CLHP Chin-Ling Hsiieh Pao (Nanking
BGSA Bulletin of the Geological Society of University Journal)
America CLJ Classical Journal
BGTl Beitr. z. Gesch. d. Technik u. CLTC Chen-li Tsa Chih (Truth Miscellany)
Industrie (changed to Technik CMJ China Medical Journal
Geschichte BGTI/TG in CNCK Chhing-Nien Chung-kuo Chi Khan
1933) (Young China Magazine)
BIFAO Bulletin de l'Institut franfais CP Classical Philology
d' Archeologie Orientale (Cairo) CQ Classical Quarterly
BLSOAS Bulletin of the London School of CR China Review (Hong Kong and
Oriental and African Studies Shanghai)
BM Bibliotheca Mathematica CRAIBL Comptes Rendus de (,Academie des
BMFEA Bulletin of the Museum of Far Inscriptions et Belles Lettres
Eastern Antiquities (Stock- (Paris)
holm) CRAS Comples Relldus de l'Academie des
BMON Bulletin Monumental Sciences (Paris)
BMQ British Museum Quarterly CRAS/USSR Comptes Rendus de l'Academie des
BMRAH Bulletin des Musees royaux d'Art et Sciences (U.S.S.R.)
d'Histoire (Brussels) CREC China Reconstructs
BNGBB Berichte d. naturforsch. Gesell- CRR Chinese Recorder
schaft Bamberg CRRR Chinese Repository
BNI Bijdragen tot de taal- land- en CS Current Science
volken-kunde v. Nederlandsch- CSPSR Chinese Social and Political Science
Indie Review
BNLP Kuo-li Pei-phing Thu Shu Kuan CST/HIJ Chung-Shan Ta-Hsiieh Yii Yen Li-
Khan (Bulletin of the National Shih Yen-Chiu So Tsou Khan
Library of Peiping, Peking) (Sun Yat-Sen University Joumal
BOR Babylonian and Oriental Record of Linguistics and History)
BSEIC Bulletin de la Societe des Etudes CT Connaissance du Temps
indochinoises CTE China Trade and Engineering
BSG Bulletin de la Societe de Geo- CZ Chigaku Zasshi (Journal of the
graphie (cont. as La Geo- Tokyo Geographical Society)
graphie)
BSMF Bulletin de la Societe mathematique D Discovery
(de France) DHA Dock and Harbour Authority
BU Biographie universelle DUZ Deutsche Uhrmacher-Zeitung
688 ABBREVIATIONS

DWAW/PH Denkschriften d. k. Akademie d. ISP/WSFK I Shih Pao; Wen Shih Fu Khan

Wissenschaften, Wien (Vienna) (Literary Supplement of the
(Phil.-hist. Klasse) People's Betterment Daily)

EB Encyclopaedia Britannica JA Journal asiatique

EG Economic Geology JAOS Journal of the American Oriental
ENB Etlmologisches Notizblatt (Kgl. Society
Mus. f. Volkerkunde, Berlin) JATBA Journal d' Agriculture tropicale et de
END Endeavour Botanique appliqutfe
EOL Jaarboek; Ex Oriente Lux JBASA Journal of the British Astronomical
ERE Encyclopaedia of Religion and Association
Ethics (ed. Hastings) JCS Journal of the Chemical Society
EW East and West (Quart. Rev. pub. JDMV Jahresber. d. deutschen Math.
I stituto Ital. per il Medio e Vereins
Estremo Oriente, Rome) JEA Journal of Egyptian A rchaeology
EXP Experientia JEP Journal de l'Ecole (royale) Poly-
technique (Paris)
FEQ Far Eastern Quarterly JESL Journal of the Ethnological Society
FF Forschungen und Fortschritte (London)
FJHC Fu-Jen Hsiieh-Chih (Journal of JGPR Journal of Geophysical Research
Fu-Jen University, Peking) (formerly Terrestrial Magne-
FMKP Fortschritte d. Mineralogie, Kris- tism)
tallographie u. Petrologie JGSC Ti Li Hsueh Pao (Journal of the
FMNHP/AS Field Museum of Natural History Geographical Society of China)
(Chicago) Publications, Anthro- JHI J ournal of the History of Ideas
pological Series JHM J ournal of the History of Mathe-
FMNHP/GLS Field Museum of Natural History matics (Moscow)
(Chicago) Publications; Geo- JHOAI Jahreshefte d. osterreichischen
logical Leaflet Series archiioZ. Instituts (Vienna)
JHS Journal of Hellenic Studies
G Geimon (A rt Journal) JIN Journal of the Institute of Naviga-
GB Geibun (Arts Journal) tion
GHA Goteborgs H ogskolas Arsskrift JJAG Japanese Journal of Astronomy and
GJ Geographical Journal Geophysics
GM Geological Magazine JJHS Kagakushi Kenkyu (Japanese
GP Geophysics Journal of the History of
GR Geographical Review Science)
GTIG Geschichtsbliitter f. Technik, In- JMHP Jen Min Hua Pao (People's
dustTie u. Gewerbe Illustrated)
JMJ Japanese Meteorological Journal
HANL Harvard Astronomical Newsletter JMJP Jen Min Jih Pao (People's Daily)
HCLT Hui-Chiao Lun-Than (Review of JNES Journal of Near Eastern Studies
Muslim Affairs) JOSHK Journal of Oriental Studies (Hong
HH Han Hiue (Han Hsiieh); Bulletin Kong University)
du Centre d 'Etudes sinologiques JPH Journal de Physique
de Ptfkin JPOS Journal of the Peking Oriental
HITC Hsiieh I Tsa Chih (Wissen und Society
Wissenschaft) JRAI Journal of the R oyal Anthropo-
HITH Hsiieh I Thung Hsiin (Science and logical Institute
Art Correspondent) JRAM Journal f. reine u. angewa"dte
HJAS Harvard Journal of Asiatic Studies Mathematik (Crelle's)
HMSO Her Majesty's Stationery Office JRAS Journal of the Royal Asiatic
(London) Society
HORJ Horological Journal JRAS/B Journal of the (Royal) Asiatic
Society of Bengal
IC Islamic Culture JRAS /KB Journal (Transactions) of the Korea
IHQ Indian Historical Quarterly Branch of the Royal Asiatic
ILN Illustrated London News Society
IM Imago Mundi: Yearbook of Early JRAS/M Journal of the Malayan Branch of
Cartography the R oyal Asiatic Society
IPR Institute of Pacific Relations JRAS /NCB Journal of the North China Branch
ISIS Isis of the Roy al Asiatic Society
 ABBREVIATIONS
JRGS Journal of the Royal Geographical MC/TC Techniques et Civilisations (for-
Society merly Metaux et Civilisations)
JRSA Jounzal of the Royal Society of Arts MDGNVO Mitteilungen d. deutsch. Gesell-
JRSS Journal of the Royal Statistical schaft f. Natur- u. Volkskunde
Society Ostasiens
JS Journal des Savants MEM Meteorological Magazine
JSHB Journal suisse d'Horlogerie et Bi- MG Mathematical Gazette
jouterie MGSC Ti Chih Chuan Pao (Memoirs of
JUB Journal of the University of Bombay the Chinese Geological Survey)
JWCBRS Journal of the West China Border MJ Mining Journal, Railway and
Research Society Commercial Gazette
JWCI Journal of the Warburg and MM Mining and Metallurgy
Courtauld Institutes MMI Mariner's Mirror
JWH Journal of World History (Unesco) MMT Messenger of Mathematics
MN Monumenta Nipponica
KDVS/HFM Kgl. Danske Videnskabernes Sel- MPAW Monatsber. d. preuss. Akad. Wiss.
skab (Hist.-filo!. Medd.) Berlin
KDVS/MFM Kgl. Danske Videnskabernes Sel- MQ Modern Quarterly
skab (Math.-fysiske Medd.) MRAI/DS Memoires presentes par divers
KHCK Kuo-Hsiieh Chhi Khan (Chinese savants d l' Academie royale des
Classical Quarterly) Inscriptions et Belles Lettres
KHLT Kuo-Hsiieh Lun Tsung (Chinese (Paris)
Classical Review) MRAS/B Memoirs of the Asiatic Society of
KHS Kho-Hsiieh (Science) Bengal
KHSSC Kho-Hsiieh Shih-Chieh (Scientific MRAS/DS Mbnoires presentes par divers
World) savants d l' Academie royale des
KHTP Kho-Hsiieh Thung Pao (Scientific Sciences (Paris)
Correspondent) MRASP Memoires de l'Acad. rovale des
KKHTC K{fkogaku Zasshi (Archaeological Sciences (Paris) .
Miscellany) MRDTB Memoirs of the Research Depart-
KMO /SM Scientific Memoirs of the Korean ment of the T{fy{f Bunko (Tokyo)
Meteorological Observatory, MS Monumenta Serica
Chemulpo MS/M Monumenta Serica Monograph
KNVSF/T Forhandlinger d. kgl. Norske Series
Videnskabers Selskabs MSAF Memoires de la Societe (nationale)
(Trondheim) des Antiquaires de France
KR Korean Repository MSKGK Meiji Seitoku Kinen Gakkai Kiy{f
KSHP Kuo Sui Hsiieh Pao (Chinese (Reports of the Meiji Memorial
Classical Journal) Society)
KSP Ku Shih Pien (Essays on Ancient MSOS Mitteilungen d. Seminar> j. orien-
History) talische Sprachen (Berlin)
KVRS Kleine Veroffentlichungen d. Re- MSRLSB/S Mem. de la Soc. Roy. des Lettres et
meis Sternwarte des Sci. de Bohbne (Cl. Sci.)
MSRM Memoires de la Soc. Russe de
LN La Nature Mineralogie
LP La Pensee MUSEON Le Museon (Louvain)
MWR Monthly Weather Review
MA Man MZ Meteorologische Zeitschrijt
MAI /NEM Memoires de l'Academie des In-
scriptionset Belles Lettres (Paris), N Nature
Notices et Extraits des MSS. NA Nautical Almanac
MAL/FMN Memorie d. Accademia (r. now NALC Nova Acta; Abhdl. d. kaiserl.
naz.) dei Lincei (Cl. Sci. Fis. Leop.-Carol. deutscll. Akad.
Mat. e Nat.) Naturj. Halle
MAL/MSF Memorie d. Accademia (r. now NAP Nova Acta Acad. Petropol.
naz.) dei Lincei (Cl. Sci. Mor. NAT Nordisk Astronom. Tidskrijt
Stor. e Filo!.) NAW Nieuw Archief voor Wiskunde
MAN Mathematische Annalen NC Numismatic Chronicle
MBIS Miscellanea Berolinensia ad Incre- NCH North China Herald
mentum Scientiarum NCM North China Mail
MCB Melanges chinois et bouddhiques NCR New China Review
MCM Macmillmz's Magazine NGM National Geographic Magazine
69 0 ABBREVIA TIONS

NGWG/PH Nachrichten v. d. k. Gesellsch. PSA Proceedings of the Society of

(Akademie) d. Wiss. z. G6ttingen Antiquaries
(Phil.-hist. Klasse) PTMS Proceedings of the TokYo Mathe-
NQ Notes and Queries matico-Physical Society (cont.
NTBB Nordisk Tidskrift /Or Bok- och as Phys.-Math. Soc. Japan,
Bibliotheksvasen PPMST)
NW Naturwissenschaften PTRS Philosophxcal Transactions of the
Royal Society
o Observatory
OAA Orientalia Antiqua QBCB/C Quarterly Bulletin of Chinese
OAZ Ostasiatische Zeitschrift Bibliography (Chinese ed.; Thu
OE Oriens Extre11'lus (Hamburg) Shu Chhi Khan)
OLZ Orientalische Literatur-Zeitung QBCB/E Quarterly Bulletin of Chinese
OMO Osterreichische Monatschrift f. d. Bibliography (English ed.)
Orient QJGS Quarterly Journal of the Geo-
OR Oriens logical Society of London
ORA Oriental Art QJRMS Quarterly Journal of the Royal
ORR Orientalia (Rome) Meteorological Society of
ORT Orient London
OSIS Osiris QMSF Quaderni del Museo di Storia delle
Scienze, Firenze
PA Pacific Affairs QSGM/A Quellen u. Studien z. Geschichte d.
PAAAS Proceedings of the American Aca- Mathematik (Abt. A, Mathe-
demy of Arts and Sciences matik)
PAl Paideuma QSGM/B Quellen u. Studien z. Geschichte d.
PAPS Proceedings of the American Philo- Mathematik (Abt. B, Astrono-
sophical Society mie u. Physik)
PASP Publications of the Astronomical QSGNM Quellen u. Studien z. Geschichte d.
Society of the Pacific Naturwiss. u . d. Medizin (con-
PBA Proceedings of the British Academy tin. of Archiv f. Gesch. d.
PC People's China Math., d. Naturwiss. u. d.
PDM Periodico di Matematiche Technik (AGMNT) fonnerly
PGA Proceedings of the Geologists' Asso- Archiv f. d. Gesch. d. Naturwiss.
ciation (London) u. d. Technik (AGNT»
PGS Proceedings of the Geological
Society (London) RA Revue archeologique
PHR Philosophical Review RAA/AMG Revue des Arts asiatiques (Annales
PIAJ Proceedings of the Imperial Aca- du Musee Guimet)
demy, Japan RAL/FMN Rendiconti d. Accademia (r. now
PJ Pharmaceutical Journal naz.) dei Lincei (Cl. Sci. Fis.
PMASAL Papers of the Michigan Academy of Mat. eat.)
Science, Arts and Letters RAL/MSF Rendiconti d. Accademia (r. now
PMG Philosophical Magazine naz.) dei Lincei (Cl. Sci. Mor.
PMGP Papers in Meteorology and Geo- Stor. e Filo!.)
physics (Japan) RASC/} J ournal of the Royal Astronomical
PMJP Mitteilungen ausJustus Perthes' geo- Society of Canada
graphischer Anstalt (Petermann's) RASIM Memoirs of the Royal Astronomical
PNHB Peking Natural History Bulletin Society
POPA Popular Astronomy RASIMN Monthly Notices of the R oyal
PPMST Proceedings of the Physico-Mathe- Astronomical Society
matical Society ofJapan (Tokyo) RASION Occasional Notes of the Royal
(continuation of PTMS) Astronomical Society
PQ Philological Quarterly RCB Revue coloniale Belge
PRDA Priroda (Moscow) REI R evue des Etudes islamiques
PRIA Proceedings of the Royal Irish RGI Rivista Geografica Italiana
Academy RGM Revista General de Marina (Spain)
PRSA Proceedings of the Royal Society RGS Revue generale des Sciences pures et
(Ser. A) appliquees
PRSB Proceedings of the Royal Society RHM Revue d'Histoire des Missions
(Ser. B) RM Rejlets du Monde (Brussels)
PRSG Publicaciones de la Real Sociedad RQS Revue des Questions scientifiques
Geogrdfica (Spain) (Brussels)
 ABBREVIATIONS 69 1
RSISI Rivista Scientifico-Industriale delle SWAW/PH Sitzungsber. d. (osterreichischen)
principali Scoperte ed Invenzioni Akad. Wiss. Wien (Vienna)
jatti nelle Scienze e nelle In- (Phil.-hist. Klasse)
dustrie SWYK Shuo Wen Yueh Khan (Philo-
RSO Rivista di Studi Orientali logical Monthly)
SYR Syria
SA Sinica (originally Chinesische
Bliitter j. Wissenschajt u. Kunst) TAIMME Transactions of the American Insti-
SAM Scientific American tute of Mining and Metallurgical
SBE Sacred Books of the East Series Engineers (formerly T AIME)
SC Science TAPS Transactions of the American
SCI Scientia Philosophical Society
SCSML Smith College Studies in Modern TAS/B Transactions of the Asiatic Society
Languages of Bengal (Asiatick Researches)
SG Shinagaku (Sinology) TASJ Transactions of the Asiatic Society
SGZ Shigaku Zasshi (Historical Journal) of Japan
SHAW/PH Sitzungsber. d. Heidelberg Akad. TBGZ Tokyo Butsuri Gakko Zasshi
d. Wissenschaften (Phil.-hist. (Journal of the Tokyo College of
Klasse) Physics)
SHR Scottish Historical Review TCAAS Transactions of the Connecticut
SHTC Shih-Hsueh Tsa Chih (Historical Academy of Arts and Sciences
Journal) TCLP Ti Chih Lun Phing (Geological
SHST Ssu-Hsiang yu Shih-Tai (Thought Review)
and the Age; Journal of Che- TFTC Tung Fang Tsa Chih (Eastern
kiang University) Miscellany)
SIR Sirius TG/K ToM Gakuho, Kyoto (Kyoto
SJJ Seismological Journal of Japan Journal of Oriental Studies)
SK Sanjutsu Kyoiku (Mathematical TG/T ToM GakuM, Tokyo (Tokyo
Education) Journal of Oriental Studies)
SKY Sky and Telescope (formerly Sky) TH Thien Hsia Monthly (Shanghai)
SM Scientific Monthly (formerly P opu- THTC Ti Hsiieh Tsa Chih (Geographical
lar Science Monthly) Miscellany)
SMA Scripta Mathematica TIAU Transactions of the International
SPAW/PH Sitzungsber. d. preuss. Akad. Wiss. Astronomical Union
Berlin (Phil.-hist. Klasse) TIYT Trudy Instituta Istorii Yestestvo-
SPCK Society for the Promotion of znania i Tekhniki (Moscow)
Christian Knowledge (London) TM Terrestial Magnetism and Atmo-
SPMSE Sitzungsber. d. physik. med. Soc. spheric Electricity (con tin ued as
Erlangen Journal of Geophysical Re-
SPR Science Progress search)
SPRDS Scientific Proceedings of the Royal TMB Bulletin du Musee ethllogr. du
Dublin Society Trocadero
SR Shirin (Journal of History) TNH Toa no Hikari (Light of East
SS Science and Society (New York) Asia)
SSA Scripta Serica, Bulletin biblio- TNS Transactions of the Newcomell
graphique (Centre franco-chinois Society
d'Etudes sinologiques, Peking) TNZI Transactions of the New Zealand
SSE Hua-Hsi Ta-Hsueh Wen Shih Institute
Chi Khan (Studia Serica; West TOCS Transactions of the Oriental Cera-
China Union University Literary mic Society
and Historical Journal) TP T'oung Pao (Archives concernant
SSE/M Studia Serica Monograph Series I'Histoire, les Langues, la Geo-
ST Die Sterne graphie, I' Ethnographie et les
STTC Shih Ti Tsa Chih (Chekiang Uni- Arts de l' Asie Orientale,
versity Journal of History and Leiden)
Geography) TSBA Transactions of the Society of
SUHVS Skrifter utgifna af K. Humani- Biblical Archaeology
stiska Vetenskaps Samfundet i TSSC Transactions of the Science Society
Upsala of China
SWAW/MN Sitzungsber. d. (osterreichischen) TSYK Thu Shu Yueh Khan (Library
Akad. Wiss. Wien (Vienna) Monthly)
(Math.-nat. Klasse) TTB Tekn . Tidskr. Bergsvetellskap
69 2 ABBREVIATIONS
TTWT Tokyo Astron. ObseTV. Journal WNZ Wiener numismatische Zeitschrift
TWHP Thien Wen Hsiieh Pao (Chinese
Journal of Astronomy) YC Yu Chou (The Universe; Journ.
TYG T6y6 Gakuh6 (Reports of the of the Chinese Astron. Soc.)
Oriental Society of Tokyo) YCHP Yenching Hsueh Pao (Yenching
TYKK Thien Yel! Khao Ku Pao Kao University Journal of Chinese
(Reports on the History of Studies)
Agriculture)
Z Zalmoxis: Revue des Etudes reli-
UBHJ University of Birmingham His- gieuses
torical Journal ZA Zeitschrift f. Astronomie
UMN Unterrichtsbliitter f. Math. u. ZAE Zeitschrift f. angew. Entomologie
Naturwiss. ZASS Zeitschr. f. Assyriologie
UNESC Unesco Courier ZDMG Zeitschrift d. deutsch. morgen-
liindischen Gesellschaft
VAG Vierteljahrsschrift d. astrono- ZDPV Zeitschrift d. deutsch. Paliistina-
mischen Gesellschaft Vereins
VBW Vortriige d. Bibliothek Warburg ZGEB Zeitschrift d. Gesellschaft f. Erd-
VKAWA/L Verhandelingen d. Koninklijke kunde (Berlin)
(Nederl.) Akad. v. Wetenschap- ZMNWU Zeitschrift f. Math. u. Naturwiss.
pen te Amsterdam (Afd. Letter- Unterricht
kunde) ZMP Zeitschrift f. M ath. u. Physik
vs Varietes Sinologiques Series ZSF Zeitschrift f. SozialJorschung
 A. CHINESE BOOKS BEFORE +1800

Each entry gives particulars in the following order : It will be remembered (p. 68 5 above) that in Chinese
indexes words b eginning Chh- are all listed together
(a) title, alphabetically arranged, with characters; after Ch-, and Hs- after H-, but that this applies to
(b) alternative title, if any; initial word s of titles only.
(c) translation of title ;
Where there ar e any differences between the entries in
(d) cross-reference to closely related book, if any; these bibliographies and those in vo!. I , the informa-
(e) dynasty; tion here given is to be taken as ITI Or C correct.
(f) date as accurate as possible; References to the editions used in the present work, and
(g) name of author or ed itor, with charac ters; to the tshulIg-shu collection s in which books are avail-
(h) title of other book, if the text of the work n ow able, w ill be given in the final volume.
ex ists only incorpora ted therein; or, in special cases,
references to sinological s tudies of it ; ABBREVIATIONS
(i) references to translations, if any, given by the C/Han Former H an .
name of the tra nslator in Bibliography C; H /Han Later H an .
(j) notice of any index or concordance to the book if H /Sh u Later Shu (Wu Tai).
such a work exists; H /Thang Later Thang (Wu Tai).
(h) refe rence to the number of the book in the Tao J /C hin J urchen Chin.
Tsallg catalogue of Wieger (6), if appli cabl e; L /S ung Liu Sung.
(I) reference to th e number of the book in the Sa n N /Chou Northern C hou.
Tsallg (Tripi;aka) catalogues ofNanjio ( I) and Takakusu N/Chhi orthern Chhi.
& Watanabe, if applicable. N/Sung Northern Sung (before the remova l of the
capital to Hangchow).
Words wh ich assist in the translation of title. are added N/Wei orthern Wei.
in round brackets. S/Chhi Southern Chhi.
Alternati ve titles or explanatory addition;; to rh .. titles S/Sung Southern Sung (afte r the removal of the
are added in sq uare bracke ts. capital to Hangchow).

An Thien Lun :le 7C ~~ . Chang Tzu Chhuan Shu m:r ~ :'Jf-

Discourse on the Conformation of the Complete Works of Master Chang (Tsai)
H eavens. (d. + 1077) with commentary by Chu Hsi.
Chin, c. + 320 (prob. + 336). Sung (ed. C hhing) , editio princeps + 1719.
YU H si ~:;;. Chang Tsai.
(Fragment in YHSF, ch . 77.) Ed. Chu Shih :* fA & Tuan Chih-Hsi f&
Ao Yu Tzu Hsu Hsi So Wei Lun ~ ~ =f j}: SJt it. l!-r,.
~t ~ il~. Chen-La Feng Thu Chi Nt lIHt )!l. ± 11(, .
Whispered Trifles by the Tree-stump D escription of Cambodia.
Master. Yuan, + 1297.
Sung, c. + 1040. Chou Ta-Kuan m
ii II!..
Huang Hsi ~I'i 1ll\1. CJzeng Khai- Yang Tsa Chu !S5 Im r~ ~ ~ .
Chan Kuo Tshe Itm ~ );(t • Collected (Geographical) Writings of Cheng
R ecords of the W arring States. Jo-Tseng.
Chhin. Ming, c. + 1570 (first pr. 1932).
Writer unknown . Cheng J 0-T seng ~:(5 'it .
Chan Yuan Ching Yu ~ l1IlI iW ~ll. CJzeng Lei Pe" Tshao ~ ~ # 1¥- •
Tranquil Conversations by the Limpid Deep. Reorganised Pharmacopoe ia.
Yuan , + 14th century. N /S ung, + II08, enlarged + I II6; and
Pai Thing ~ £kE. J /Chin, + 1204.
Chang Chhiu-Chien Suan Ching i& ~ i~ .:m m: Thang Shen-Wei 'If tit ~ .
Chang Chhi u-Chien's Mathematical Manual. Cf. Humm el (13), Lung Po-Chi en (1).
N /Wei, or L /Sung or S/Chhi , between +468 Cheng Me,lg lE St .
and +486 Right Teaching for Youth [or, Intellectual
Chang Chhiu-Chien m ~ }It . Discipline for Beginners].
Chang Chhiu-Chien Suan Ching Hsi Tshao Sung, c. + 1060.
m ~ l!i ~ ~,~ *III~. Chang T sai i& ~ .
Detailed solutions of the Problems in Chang Chi Chung Chou Shu i& ~ rnI 19'.
Chhiu- Chien's Mathemat ical Manual. The Books of (the) Chou (Dynasty) found
Sui, late + 6th. in the Tomb at C hi.
Liu H siao-Sun ~f ~ tf. . See I Chou Shu.
 BIBLIOGRAPHY A

Chi Ho Yuan Pen *fiiJ mt *.

Elements of Geometry (Euclid's) [first six
Chin Lou Tzu ~;\'m f- .
Book of the Golden Hall Master.
chapters]. Liang, c. + 550.
Ming, + 1607. Hsiao I ~ j;ll.
Tr. begun by Li Ma-Tou (Matteo Ricci) (Liang Yuan Ti m 5tl *.)
:fIJ ~ • & Hsu Kuang-Chhi ~ P,{f •*'
Completed by Alexander Wylie & Li Shan-
Chin Nang Chhi Meng ~. 'if ~.
Brocaded Bag of (Mathematical Books) for
Lan (1857). the Relief of Ignorance.
ChiJan Yuan or Ming, + 14th centu ry.
See Chi Ni Tzlt. Writer unknown.
Chi Ni Tzu n m. f-. (In Yung Lo Ta Tien, chs. 16343-4.)
[=Fan Tzu ChiJan 1i£ f- ~t ~.] Chin Shih ~ lE..
The Book of Master Chi Ni. History of the Chin (Jurchen) Dynasty
Chou, -4th century. [+ 1I IS to + 1234].
Attrib. Fan Li (Chi Jan) 1i£ It (~t ~). Yuan, c. + 1345.
Chiang- Yin Hsien Chih tI: ~it !\li ~ . Tho-Tho (Toktaga) nIt nIt & Ouyang Hstian
Topography of Chiang-yin and its District f.i; r~j z·
[in Chiangsu Province]. Yin-Te Index, no. 35 .
Sung, + 1194 (continued in Ming and Chin Shu W!f .
Chhing). History of the Chin Dynasty [ + 265 to
Original writer unknown. +4 1 9].
Chiao Li Chiao Phing Shih Liieh ~ ~ JIIIJ :ztS Thang, + 635.
~~.
Fang Hstian-Ling liJ z m.
Materials on the Pacificatory Expedition to A few chs. tr. Pfizmaier (54- 57).
Southern Annam (Cochin China) during Ching-Chai Ku Chin Chu ID: ~ i!i 4' ~'iI: .
the Li (Dynasty). The Commentary of (Li) Ching-Chai (Li Yeh)
Ming, + 1551. on Things Old and New.
ChangAo ~~.
Chieh An Chi ~ 1ffi ~ .
Notes from the Fasting Pavilion.
Li Yeh '*
Sung, + 13th century.
lti.
Ching Chhu Sui Shih Chi WJ ~ t£ Dif !c.
Ming, c. + 1500. Annual Folk Customs of the States of Ching
wr ...... and Chhu [i.e. of the districts correspond-
Chin Kuei
Chieh Tzu Yuan Hua Chuan *
f- Rn ill Ri·
The Mustard-Seed Garden Guide to
ing to those ancient States: Hupei, Hunan
and Chiangsi].
Prob. Liang, c. + 550, but perhaps partly
Painting.
Chhing, + 1679.
Li Li-Ong (preface) *
~ m; .
Tsung Lin *
Sui, c. + 610.
tl1( •
See des Rotours (I), p. cii.
Wang Kai (text and illustrations) :E ~.
Ching Shih Ta Tien.
Chien Phing I Shuo 1ll'I ~ Wi ~ . See Yuan Ching Shih Ta Tien.
Description of a simple Altazimuth Quadrant
Ching Shu Suan Hsiieh Thiell Wen Khao *~
[astronomical instrument].
m:~;R~~.
Ming, + 161I. Investigations on the Astronomy and Mathe-
Hsiung San-Pa (Sabbathin de Ursis) rm 3- matics of the Classics.
:Jti. Chhing, + 1797.
Chien Wen Chi Jt M ~B. Chhen Mou-Ling p,\i ~ ~ .
Records of Things Seen and Heard . Ching Thien Kai *.m;R ~t .
Thang, + 800. Comprehensive Rhymed Catalogue of Stars.
Feng Yen it i1i{. Ming, p rob . + 1601.
Chih Fang Wai Chi ~i& 11 ~ *E. Li Ma-Tou (Matteo Ricci) :fIJ ~ If & Li
On World G eography.
Ming, + 1623.
Wo-Tshun '*
~ '#.
Ching Tien Chi Lin *il!!J\!. ~ ~ .
Ai Ju-Ltieh (Giulio Aleni) jt fft ~ . Collected Classical Fragments.
Chih Lin H sin Shu ~ ~ ~ 'i'F.
New Book of Miscellaneous Records
Chin, +4th century.
Chhing, c. + 1790.
Hung I-Hstian (ed.)
Chiu Chang Sllan Ching.
* M 1:lt.
Yti Hsi m tt. See Chiu Chang Suan Shu.
Chin Chhi Chii Chu W g J!; (.£ . Chiu Chang Suan Shu Jt ¥ m:
vBT .
Daily Court R ecords of the Emperors of the ine Chapters on the Mathematical Art.
Chin Dynasty. H /Han, + 1st century (containing much
Pre-Sui. material from C /Han and perhaps Chhin).
Liu Tao-Hui 1111 ill & . Writer unknown.
 BIBLIOGRAPHY A
Chiu Chang Suan Shu Hsi Tshao Thu Shuo Chou Li I I Chii Yao fin M'l ~ ifi ~ tr .
:h. 1it }I: wr *II! !¥- lm Jlt. Discussion of the Most Important Doubtful
Careful Explanation of the Nine Chapters on Matters in the R ecord of Rites of the Chou
the Mathematical Art, with diagrams. Dy nasty.
Chhing, c. + 1795.
Li Huang iJl.
Chiu C/wl1g Suan Shu Yin I
* :h. 1;t ~ wr tt *.
Chhing, + 1791.
Chiang Yung tL
Chou Pei Suan Ching
7'k .
m\Ill! ~ j:~ .
Explanations of Meanings and Sounds of The Arithmetical Classic of the Gnomon and
Words occurring in the Nine Chapters 0'1 the Circular Paths (of Heaven).
the Mathematical Art. Chou, Chhin and Han. Text stabilised about
Sung.
Li Chi * f/f.
Chiu Chia Chin Shu Chi Fen :h. * :sg. . * .
~
the - 1s t century, but including parts
which must be of the late Warring States
period (c. -4th century) and some even
Collected T ex ts of ine Versions of the pre-Confucian (- 6th century).
History of the Chin Dynasty . \Vriters unknown .
Thang. Chou P ei Suan Ching Yi'l I m\Ill! ~ i~ tt ~.
~ rAt
Ed. Thang Chhiu
Chiu HlIang Pen Tshao
Famine H erbal.
*-le Yit * .
(Chhing).
~
Explanation of Meanings and Sounds of
Words occurring in the Arithmetical Classic
of the Gnomon and the Circular Paths of
Ming, (+ 1395), + 1406. Hea ven.
Cho u Ting Wang (prince of the Ming) m Sung.
~ .=E. Li Chi ~ tIf.
Preserved in chs . 46-59 of Nung Cheng Chou Shu fIn~.
Chhiian Shu (q.v.). History of the (Northern) Chou Dynasty
ClziuJih Lu ~Ji; B ~. [ + 557 to + 581].
Daily Journal. Thang, +625.
Sung. Ling hu Te-Fen 1;- ~ ~ ~ .
Mr Chao m ~. Chu Fan Chih W:iN~.
(Kuan Pu 1 a i Te Ong; the Old Gentleman R ecords of Foreign Peoples.
of the Water-Garden who attained Success Sung , c. + 1225. (This is Pelliot's dating;
through Forbearance fti.!iBl iIlit f~ ~ .) Hirth & Rockhill favoured between + 1242
Chiu KlIng Hsing Chhi Li-Chheng :h. '8 :IT ~ JL and + 1258.)
~. Chao Ju-Kua m i'k ~.
Divination Table arranged according to the
Nine Palaces in which the Chess Pieces
Move.
Tr. Hirth & Rockhill (I).
Chii Mi Wei Shan Fu ~ *
~ \.lJ \lit.
Essay on the Art of Constructing Mou ntains
Thang or Wu Tai. with Rice [relief-maps] .
Writer unknown. Thang, c. +845.
(Tunhuang MS. S /6164.) Chiang Fang ~ ~Jj .
Chiu Thang Shu rE filr -", . Chu Shu Chi Nien 11 ,,*c fp .
Old History of the Thang Dynasty [+618 to The Bamboo Books [annals].
+9 06 ]. Chou, -295 and before, such parts as are
Wu T ai, +945. genuine. (Found in the tomb of An Li
Liu H sii 1Z1 Rij • Wang, a prince of the Wei State, r. -276 to
Cho K ellg Lu ~ ~ tlIt -245; in +28 1).
[sometimes Nail Tshun Cho Kellg Lu] . Writers unknown.
Talks (at South Village) while the Plough is Tr. E. Biot (3).
Resting. Ch" T z u Chhiian Shu :* ~ ~ 'ilf .
Yuan and Ming, + 1366.
Thao Tsung-I pliJ ilJi. * Collected Works of Master Chu [Hsi].
Sung (ed. Ming), editio princeps + 1713.
Clzou I.
See I Ching.
Choll I Tshan Thllng Chhi.
Chu Hsi :*~.
Ed. Li Kuang -Ti '*
*,.lth (Chhing).
Partial trs. Bruce (I); le Gall (I).
See Tshan Thung Chhi. Chu T z u Wen Chi *= ~ '"!I: ~ .
Chou Li m~,,-. Selected Writings of Master Chu [Hsi].
R ecord of the Rites of (the) Chou (Dynasty) Sung.
[descriptions of all government official Chu Hsi :* 1f..
posts and their duties]. Ed. Chu Yii :* 3t (Chhing).
C / Han, perhaps containing some material Chu Tzu Yii Lei :* ~ 7.1i- ~ .
from late Chou. Classified Conversations of Master Chu [Hsi].
Compilers unknown. Sung, c. + 1270.
Tr. E. Biot (I) . Chu Hsi :*: n.
 BIBLIOGRAPHY A
Chu Tzu Ya Lei (cont.) Chhi Chhiao Hsin Phu -b f!j ~ ~ .
Ed. Li Ching-Te ¥ i# ~ (Sung). New Tangram Puzzles.
Chu Yeh Thing Tsa Chi 11 ~ ~ *1t t~ . Chhing.
Miscellaneous Records of the Bamboo Leaf See Sang Hsia-Kho (1).
Pavilion. Chhi Hsiu Lei Kao -b ~ ~ fif.\ .
Chhing, + 17th century. Seven Compilations of Classified
Yao Yuan-Chih ~ % Z. Manuscripts.
Chuang shih Suan Hrueh lit: ~ ~ ,!f!. Ming, c. + 1530.
Mr Chuang's Treatise on Mathematics Lang Ying H~ ~ .
[geometry] . Chhi Ku Suan Ching lA i!l m:
iJll. •
Chhing, c. + 1720. Continuation of Ancient Mathematics.
Chuang H eng-Yang lit: "Sf ~ . Thang, c. +625.
Chuang Tzu lil: =f. Wang H siao-Thung :E '!1f. iAl.
[=Nan Hua Chen Ching.] Chhi Kuo Khao -b III ~.
The Book of Master Chuang. Investigations of the Seven (Warring) States.
Chou, c. - 290. Ming.
Chuang Chou lil: fill • Tung Yiieh 'Jli. il5t .
Tr. Legge (5); Feng Yu-Lan (5); Lin Yii- Chhi-tan Kuo Chih ~ ft r~ iil;..
Thang (I). Memoirs of the Liao [Chhi-tan Tartar
Yin-Te Index no. (supp\.) 20. Kingdom].
Chung Hsi Ching Hsing Thung I Khao Ijl ID! iJ! Sung and Yuan, mid. + 13th century.
£inl~~. Yeh Lung-Li ~ ~f j,~ .
Investigation of the Similarities and
Differences between Chinese and Western
Chhi Tung Yeh Yu ~ *
H \lIt .
Rustic Talks in Eastern Chhi.
Star-Names. Yuan , c. + 1290.
Chhing, + 1723. Chou Mi m*.
Mei Wen-Mi lfi:t i\1i.. Chhi Yao Hsing Chhen Pieh Hsing Fa -b III m
Chhang-an Chih Thu ~ '!i: i(I;; 11\1 •
Maps to illustrate the History of the City of
~ EIJ fi *.
The Different Influences of the Seven
Eternal P eace [Chhang-an (Sian), ancient Luminaries and the Constellations [lists
capital of China]. the hsiu and the stars in them; also gives
Sung, c. + 1075. t heir gods, diseases and remedies].
Li Hao-Wen * if :t . Thang, c. +710 (perhaps later in the +8th
Chhang-Chhun ChenJen Hsi Yu Chi ~ *.i1{. A century).
Jm j1ff 1l1!. . Ascr. I -Hsing - fT .
The Western Journey of the Taoist (Chhiu) TW/13 0 9·
Chhang-Chhun. Chhi Yao Jang Tsai Chiieh -b HI m
~ ill: ("(\/1;).
Yuan, + 1228. Formulae for avoiding Calamities according
Li Chih-Chhang *;G;"& . to the Seven Luminaries [astronomical text,
Chhao Shuo Wl ~ . giving planetary ephemerides from + 794,
Discussion of the (Sea) Tides. nakshatra (hsiu) extensions with ecliptic
Sung, early + 11th century. data, planetary names of the days of the
Chang Chiin-Fang Yt:ff m. Sogdian 7-day week, and associations of
Chhao Yeh Chhien Tsai :f}j H ~ it\: . planets with the five Chinese elements, with
Stories of Court Life and Rust ic Life. the seven stars of the Great Bear, etc.].
Thang, + 8th century, but much remodelled Thang, + 9th century, after + 806.
in the Sung. (Probably partly tr. from Sogd ian.)
Chang Tso ~:Il. Chin Chii-Chha ~ fJ!. ut; .
Chheng Chhu Thung Pien Suan Pao ~ ~l'< iAl ~ TW/1308 .
1!:1l· Chhiao Hsiang Hsiao Chi *.(~ W Ij~ tB .
Precious Reckoner for Mutually Varying Woodsmoke Perfume Jot"~mgs .
Quantiti es. Chhing.
Sung, end + 13th century. Ho Hsiu fJil ff'; .
Yang Hui ~ f.iII. C hhieh Y un -l:JJ fflt.
(In Yang Hui Suan Fa, q.v.) Dictionary of the Sounds of Characters
Chhi CMng Thui Pu -b i!& :J1t ~ . [rhyming dictionary] .
On the Motions of the Seven Governors
[planetary ephemerides prepared according
to the methods of the Muslim astronomers
Sui, +601.
Lu Fa-Yen r~
See Kuang Yiin .
* .
~

in China]. Chhien Han Shu iliJ m 'l!.~ .

Ming, + 1482. History of the Former Han Dynasty
Pei Lin J{ ott . [-206 to +24].
 BIBLIOGRAPHY A
Chhien Han Shu (cont.) Additional Green-Waves Memoirs.
H/Han (begun about + 65), c. + 100. Sung, + I 194.
Pan Ku 31E [lij and (after his death in +92) Chou Hui m tJIi.
his sister Pan Chao J1£ ug . Chhing Yii Chih Yil Shu ~~ f:M JJ: ffi o;l~ .
Partial tr~. Dubs (2), Pfizmaier (32-34, 37- Prayers for and against Rain.
5 I), Wylie (2, 3, 10), Swann (I). Han.
Yin-Te Index, no. 36. Writer unknown.
CMien Hsiang Li Shu ?.L $: III Vtir. Chhiung Thien Lut. ~ 7( WK1l.
Calendrical Science based on the Celestial Discourse on Heaven's Vault.
Appearances. Chin, c. +265.
H/Han, c. + 206. Yu Sung m~.
Tshai Yung ~!I!. & Liu Hung ;11 ~<. (Fragment in YHSF, ch. 77.)
(Preserved in later compilations.) Chhou Hai Thu Pien ~ ifiJ \li!5I ~ .
Chhien-Lung Fu Thing Chou Hsiell Chill ~ Ii: Illustrated Seaboard Strategy.
ft.fe?-li!J*-jffi· Ming, + 1562.
Chhien-Lung reign-period Geography of Cheng J 0-Tseng ~ =!i ft .
the (Chinese) Empire. Also attributed to Hu Tsung-Hsien m ~ i:i .
Chhing, + 1787.
Hung Liang-Chi *
~ "5 .
Chhih Hsill Liang Cke Hai Thang Thung Chih
Chhou Jen Chuan 1., A fqj:.
Biographies of (Chinese) Mathematicians and
Astronomers.
wJJ@;i'1iii'lffifiJJ}iilfijffi. Chhing, + 1799.
Historical Account of the Coastal Protection Juan Yuan ~Ji; jlj.
\Vorks of Chekiang Province, prepared by With continuations by Lo Shih-Lin n ±
Imperial Command. ~, Chu Kho-Pao r,{t i'iJ Wand Huang
Chhing, + I75r. Chung-ChUn }'( ft1! M .
Fang Kuan-Chheng 11 ~Jl. ffr. .
Chhih Pei Ou Than tIf1,::it f',J!, i1~ .
Chance Conversations North of Chhih
Chhu Hsileh Chi ¥l) *
(In Huallg Chhillg Ching Chieh, chs. I59ff.)
~i!: .
Entry into Learning [encyclopaedia].
(-chow). Thang, + 700.
Chhing, + I69r. HsU Chien ~ ~.
Wang Shih-Chen :£ ± »J.'i . Chhil I Shuo Tsuan ~ Illt ill!: ~.
Chhih Shui I Chell 'Jjf; 7~ i:ll ~ . Discussions on the Dispersal of Doubts.
Pearls Recovered from the Red River [the Sung, c. + 1230.
recognition of the value of ancient and Chhu Yung ~ iik.
medieval Chinese mathematics]. Chhu Tzhu ~ ~ .
Chhing, + I76r. Elegies of Chhu (State).
Mei Ku-Chheng m
~ nx; . Chou, c. - 300 (with Han additions).
Chhih Ya 'Jjf;~. ChhU Yuan Jiii J)'}.
Information about the Naked Ones [Miao and (& Chia I f{ ili,
other tribespeople). Yen Chi m ,I¥;,
Ming, + 16th or + r7th century. Sung Yu ,*::E,
Kuang Lu f$;~ nt . Huainan Hsiao-Shan itli m '1- Ut et al.) .
Chhin- Ting Ho Yuan Chi Lileh ik ~ fn1 ~ *c.
lilt. Partial tr. Waley (23).
See Ho Yuan Chi Liieh. CMil Wei Chiu Well ~Il i'ii lE r,fl.
Chhin-TingIHsiallgKhaoChkeng ix
~ $ ~~.IiX.. Old Matters Discussed beside the Wei
See I Hsiang Khao Chheng. River.
Chhin-Ting Ku Chin Thu Shu Chi Chheng ik)'E Sung, c. +1130.
I!i A,- \m. ~ nx; . Chu Pien *= 'ft..
See Thu Shu Chi Chkeng. Chhun Ch"iu ;{f ~~ .
Chhin-Ting Shou Shih Thullg Khao ik ~ ~ O} Spring and Autumn Annals [i.e. Records of
iIfi~. Springs and Autumns).
See Shou Shih Thung Khao. Chou; a chronicle of the State of Lu kept
Chhing Hsiang Tsa Chi 1t:ffi #it! ~c.. between -722 and -48r.
Miscellaneous Records on Green Bamboo Writers unknown.
Tablets. Cf. Tso Chuan; Kungyallg Chuall; Kuliang
Sung, early + 11th century. Chuall.
Wu Chhu-Hou ~ ~ J!f. . See Wu Khang (I); WU Shih-Chhang (I).
Chhing I Lu m·!!4 t\ .
Records of the Unworldly and the Strange.
Wu Tai, c. + 950.
Tr. Couvreur (I); Legge (Il).
ChhUll Chlziu Wei Khao I Yu .:} * tlf. ~ !!4 ~.
Apocryphal Treatise on the Spring and
Thao Ku 1l1J~. Autumn Annals; Investigation of Dis-
Chhillg Po Pieh Chih 'if.' 7&: El] ;E;. crepancies and Mistakes.
69 8 BIBLIOGRAPHY A
Chhun Chhiu Wei Khao I Yu (cont.)
C/Han, - 1St century.
Writer unknown.
Chhun Chhiu Wei Yuan Ming Pao ** t~ Jij
€it 1\}; •
Apocryphal Treatise on the Spring and
Autumn Annals; the M ystical Diagrams of
Cosmic Destiny [astrological-astronomical]
C /Han, c. - 1St century.
Writer unknown.
Chhung-Chen Li Shu *
Aiti If;f )".
Chhung-Chen reign-period Treatise on
(Astronomy and) Calendrical Science.
Ming, + 1635 (first form of the Jesuit
..
astronomical encyclopaedia).
See Hsin Fa Suan Shu.
Chhung H siu K o Hsiang Hsin Shu Jl! ~ 1f.
~
Revision of the New Elucidations of the
Heavenly B odies (by Chao Yu-Chhin).
Ming.
Wang Wei :£ ffI:.
Chhung Hsu Chen Ching l"\' Ja ~ j,l!.
See Lieh Tz u.
Erh Chheng Chhuan Shu .::: o1'l 5t fF .
Complete Works of the Two Chheng
Brothers [Neo-Confucian philosophers].
Contains: Honan Chheng Shih I Shu,
Honan Chheng Shih Wai Shu, I-Clzhuan I
Chuan, Erh Chheng Sui Yen, etc.
Sung, c. +1110, collected +1323.
Coli. Than Shan-Hsin nt
Ed. Yen Yii-Hsi 161 m~~
*
Chheng I tl mi & Chheng Hao tl f<1t .
'\J' (Yuan).
(Ming, + 1461).
Erh Ya m~.
Literary Expositor [dictionary].
Chou material, stabilised in Chhin or C /Han.
Compiler unknown.
Enlarged and commented on c. + 300 by Kuo
Pho ~It~.
Yin-Te Index no. (suppl.) 18.
Fa-Hsien Chuan
See Fo Kuo Chi.
*
1Iil m.
Fa-Hsien Hsing Chuan
See Fo Kuo Chi.
*1ft :IT foJ.
Fa Meng Chi if Il fr..
Tutorial Record.
Shu Hsi W.*
Chin, late + 3rd century.
(In YHSF, ch. 62.)
Fa Wei Lun if t1 il~.
Effects of Minute Causes [geomantic] .
Sung, c. + 1170.
Tshai Yuan-Ting ~ Jij )E .
Fa Yen * ~.
Admonitory sayings [in admiration, and
imitation, of the Lun yu].
Hsin, + s.
Yang Hsiung tIJ t4t .
Fa Yuan Chu Lin *
Tr. von Zach (5).
~$"* .
Forest of Pearls in the Garden of the Law
[Buddhist encyclopaedia].
Thang, + 668.
Tao-Shih (monk) * ill: .
Fan Thien Huo-Lo Chiu Yao ~ 7C !k. n. 7L 81 .
The Hord of Brahma and the Seven
Luminaries.
Thang, +874.
Attrib. to I-Hsing, but not by him.
TW/ I3 I I.
Fang-Chou Tsa Yen 1i iJll $1 ~ .
Reminiscences of (Chang) Fang-Chou.
Ming, + 1430 to + 1470.
*' Chang Ning ~ ~ .
Fang Yu Sheng Lan 1i!n Jlt ~'f .
Triumphant Vision of the Great World
[geography] .
Sung, + 1240.
Chu Mu K~ tl.
Feng Chhuang Hsiao Tu tI ~!. '1' Ill( .
Maple-Tree Window Memories.
Sung, early + 13th century (after + 1202).
Yuan Chhiung ~ ~ .
Feng Su Thung I Ji. ~ ;[fi. ~ •
The Meaning of Popular Traditions and
Customs.
H /Han, + 175.
Ying Shao I!@! {!jJ •
Chung-Fa Index no. 3.
Feng Thu Chi Ji. ± !B.
Record of Airs and Places.
Chin, + 3rd century.
Chou Chhu 00 ~ .
Fo Kuo Chi {;\; m 1fr.
[=Fa-Hsi€1lChuan or Fa-Hsien Hsing Chuan] .
Records of Buddhist Countries [also called
Travels of Fa-Hsien] .
Chin, c. +420.
Fa-Hsien (monk) * M.
Tr. Remusat (I), Beal (I), Legge (4), H. A.
Giles (3).
Fo Shuo Pei Tou Chhi Hsing Yen Ming Ching
{;\;:lt~4-h£~fir~,l!.
Satra spoken by a Bodhisattva on the
Delaying of Destiny according to the
Seven Stars of the Great Bear [contains
Western zodiacal animal cycles].
Thang.
Tr. unknown.
TW/ 1307.
Fo Tsu Thung Chi {;\; iiUI. i!C la.
Records of the Lineage of Buddha and the
Patriarchs.
Sung, + 1270.
Chih-Phan (monk) iG\ ~ .
N / 166I.
Fu Hou Ku Chin Chu fJ\ ~ 11 ~ it. .
Commentary of the Lord Fu on Things
New and Old.
 BIBLIOGRAPHY A
Fu Hou Ku Chin Chu (cont.)
H/Han, c. + 140.
Fu Wu-Chi 'fj( ~ .i!; .
(Only fragments, as in YHSF, ch. 73·)
Fu Tzu iW-::r .
Book of Master Fu.
Chin, +3rd century.
Fu Hslian iW-!A.
Hai Chhao Chi S/ntO HlJ Wl ~ iilt .
Collected Writings on the Sea Tides.
Chhing, + 178r.
Yli Ssu-Chhien (ed.) iii.W. ~.
Hai Chhao FIl i# WJlllt.
Essay on the Tides.
Thang, +850.
Lu Chao l1! '1'f.
Hai Ch/zoo Lun i# Wl ~~ .
Discourse on the Tides.
Wu Tai, c. + 900.
Chhiu Kuang-Thing ~ ~ lff; .
Hai Ch/zoo Thu Hsu i4iJ Wll;! Ft·
Preface to Diagrams of the Tides.
Sung, + 1025.
Yli Ching 4F- ijf.
H ai Ch/zoo Thu LUll i4iJ Wl \ml 1i~ .
Illustrated Discourse on the Tides.
Sung, + 1026.
Yen Su 11>~ ~.
Hai Han Wan Hsiang LIl i# iifi 7f, $: "".
The Multiplicity of Phenomena.
Ming.
Huang Jun-Yli JI( i~:E·
Hai KilO Wen Chien Lu i4iJ I'» rJll JL t'k .
Record of Things Seen and Heard about the
Coastal Regions.
Chhing, + 1744.
Chhen Lun-Chhiung ~ fIi'Ii jfnJ .
Hai Nei Shih Chou Chi i# pq -j- ¥J« tre .
R ecord of the Ten Sea Islands.
Alleged H an; prob. + 4th or + 5th century.
Attrib. Tungfang Shuo IIi 11 ~A .
H ai T ao Suan Ching i# Jb 1j: ~~ .
Sea I sland Mathematical Manual.
[Originally a supplement to the Chiu Chang
Suan Shu and known before the Thang as
Chhung Chha. The Sui bibliography also
has a Chiu Chang Chhll1lg Chha Thu
Jt.:¥ m: & mm·]
San Kuo, + 263.
Liu Hui ~l tit .
Hai Thao Chih ifiJ n:.¥ ;G;
[or Hai Chhiao Chih i4iJ ~ ;G;].
On the Tides.
Thang, c. + 770.
Tou Shu-Meng 'ft ~i1l ~ .
Hai Yao Pen Tshao i# ~ # ~.
Drugs of the Southern Countries beyond the
Seas [or Pharmaceutical Codex of Marine
Products].
Li Hslin (acc. to Li Shih-Chen) *
Thang, c. +775 (or early + loth century).
Jfij .
Li Hsien (ace. to Huang Hsiu-Fu) '* fi .
Preserved in Pen Tshao Kang Mu, etc.
Han Wu Ti Nei Chuan ~ it -m- P'l R'.
The Inside Story of Emperor Wu of the H an .
Chin, +4th century, or at least pre-Sui.
Anon. (as cr. Pan Ku), perhaps Ko Hung
~ l¥<.
TT/ 28 9·
Han Yu TllIIllg 00 ~ ii1i .
General Survey of the Universe [incl. Ko
Chih Tshao ;j;1f IJc ~ on astronomy and
Ti Wei tt!l~:tt: on geography].
Chhing, + 1648.
Hsiung Ming-Yli 1l~ Ij)j i!; & Hsiung Jen-
Lin 1l~ A~·
Ho Kuan TZIl li1J,~ la ::r.
Book of the Pheasant-Cap Master.
A very composite text, stabilised by + 629, as
is shown by one of the MSS. found at
Tunhuang. Much of it must be Chou
(-4th century) and most is not later than
Han (+ 2nd century), but there are later
interpolations, including a +4th- or + 5th-
century commentary which has become
part of the text and accounts for about a
seventh of it (Haloun (5), p. 88). It
contains also a lost' Book of the Art of
War',
Attrib. Ho Kuan T2u I:i&' la ::r .
TT/ II6r.
Ho Lin Yii LIl Q:~ ~ :E it .
J ade Dew from the Forest of Cranes.
Sung.
Lo Ta-Ching m;k. ~,'lI .
Ho Shuo Fang Ku Chi l'fiJ ~A M ti ~ .
Archaeological Topography of the Regions
North of the Yellow River.
Yuan.
Na-Hsin f:~ ~.
Ho Thu Wei Chi Yao Kou ruJ ~ t!i: ~ jj1! $fJ,
Apocryphal Treatise on the River Diagram;
Investigation of the Full Circle of the
(Celestial) Brightnesses.
C /Han, c. - 50.
Writer unknown .
Ho Thu Wei Klla Ti Hsiang M ~ ~1t ll'i tt!l $:.
Apocryphal Treatise on the River Diagram;
Examination of the Signs of the Earth.
C /Han, c. - 50.
Writer unknown.
Ho Yuan Chi l'fiJ ib;( re.
Records of the Source of the (Yellow) River.
Yuan, c. + 1300.
Phan Ang-Hsiao lm En ~ .
Ho Yuan Chi Liieh M ii;i le. !!It.
The Sources of the (Yellow) River, and a
History of our Knowledge of them
[published by Imperial Authority].
Chhing, + 1784.
Ed. by a number of scholars including
A-:VIi-Ta Ilnl ~ ill and Wang ien-Sun
:E:'.tffi.
 BIBLIOGRAPHY A
Honan ChMng shih I Shu rrr ~ q ~ m•. Huai Nan Thien Wen Hsun Pu Chu it m7i: 3t
Remaining R ecords of Discourses of the WI1 'fiIi tt.
Chheng brothers of Honan [Chheng I and Commentary on the Astronomical Chapter
Chheng Hao, + lIth-century Neo- in Huai Nan Tzu.
Confucian philosophers]. Chhing, + 1788.
Sung, + 1I68. Chhien Thang n:
lJlf .
Chu Hsi (ed.) *=
ri . Reprinted as Appendix (Pt. 6) to Liu W~n­
In Erh Chheng Chhllan Shu, q .v . Tien (z), Corn. Pr. Shanghai, 1923, 1926.
Honan Chheng shih Wai Shu rrr
~ q,l'1; *:;!I' . Huai Nan Tzu it i¥i =J- .
Supplementary Records of Discourses of the [=Huai Nan Hung Lieh Chieh.]
Chheng brothers of Honan [Chheng I and The Book of (the Prince of) Huai Nan
Chheng Hao, + I I th-century N eo-Con- [compendium of natural philosophy].
fucian philosophers]. C/Han, c. - 120.
Sung. Written by the group of scholars gathered by
Chu Hsi (ed.) *=
1t . Liu An (prince of Huai Nan) ~l ~ .
Partial trs. Morgan (I); Erkes (I); Hughes (I);
In Erh Chheng Chhilan Shu, q.\'
Chatley (I); Wieger (2).
Honzo-Wamyo # 1;i ~ :t .
Chung-Fa Index no . 5.
Synonymic Materia Medica with Japanese
Equivalents. TT/I 170.
Japan, +918. Huang Chhao Ching Shih Wen Pien ~ f}l £~ i!t
Fukane no Sukehito ~ fl *ID 1:: . 3t*".
Collected Essays by Chhing Dynasty officials
Hou Ching Lu ~ M l." . on Social, Political and Economic Problems.
Waiting for the Mackerel. [Contains many + 18th-century writings.]
Sung. See Ho Chhang-Ling (1).
Chao Te-Lin m ~ i:\. Huang Chhao Li Chhi Thu Shih ~.f)! ii~ ~ 111 :A;.
Hou Chou Shu ~ 11;1 'llf . Illustrated Description of Sacrificial Vessels,
See Chou Shu. Official Robes and Insignia, Musical In-
Hou Han Shu ~i i1i •. struments and Astronomical Apparatus
History of the Later Han Dynasty used during the Chhing Dynasty.
[+25 to +220]. Chhing, + 1759 and + 1766.
L /S ung, + 450. Ed. Tung Kao '!R WIi .
Fan Yeh m~. Huang Chhing Chih Kung Thu ~ lff ~ Jt !Ill .
The monograph chapters by Ssuma Piao Illustrated Records of Tributary Peoples in
Pl.~ ~. the time of the Chhing Dynasty.
A few chs. tr. Chavannes (6, 16), Pfizmaicr Chhing, + 1763 .
(52, 53)· Fu Heng WJ. ti .
Yin-Te Index, no. 41. Huang Chhing Ching Chieh ~ lff £~ f!j¥ •
Hu Shih Lun ~Jll. * .
~~
Discussion on Arcs and Sagittae.
Collection of (more than 180) Monographs
on Classical Subjects written during the
Ming, c. + 1550. Chhing Dynasty.
Thang Shun-Chih ~ ~Jn z.. See Yen Chi eh (1).
Hu Shih Suan Shu ~ * ;!Ji:
Calculations of Arcs and Segments.
v~r . Huang Tao Tsung Hsing Thu 1!t. ill *l 1[ II\l .
Star-Maps arranged according to Ecliptic
Co-ordinates [celestial latitudes and
Ming, + 1552. longitudes] .
Ku Ying-Hsiang i!l1!!!i ~ .
Chhing, + 1746.
Hua Ching. Tai Chin-Hsien (Ignatius Kogler) ~ ~~.
See Pi Chhuan Hua Ching.
Huang Yu Khao ~ ~ "!f .
Hua Man Chi m:
~ ~ . Geographical Investigations.
Painted Walls. Ming, + 1588.
Sung, + 1110. Chang Thien-Fu S£ 7i: tl[ .
Chang Shun-Min ~ fl:!;~. HunI i'!Ii.~.
Hua Yang Kuo Chih ~ rlllj Wil ~. On the Armillary Sphere.
Record of the Country South of Mount Hua H /Han, c. + I 17.
[historical geography of Szechuan down to Chang Heng S£ 1ti .
+ 138]. (Fragment in YHSF, ch. 76.)
Chin, +347. Hun Kai Thung Hsien Thu Shuo i'!Ii. ~ ~ J\!;; II\l ~ .
Chhang Chhii '& I'. On Plotting the Co-ordinates of the Celestial
Huai Nan Hung Lieh Chieh it WJ ~ r.!l m· Sphere and Vault [stereographic projections
See Huai Nan Tzu . for the astrolabe].
 BIBLIOGRAPHY A
Hun Kai Thung Hsien Thu Shuo (cont.) Liang or Chhen, mid +6th century.
Ming, + 1607.
Li Chih-Tsao '¥ Z. ~ .
Hun Thien Fu l!i;R \lit.
Ko Hung ~
Chlin ~~.
*
Attrib. to Liu Hsin ~I ~ (C/Han) and to
(Chin), but probably Wu

Ode on the Celestial Sphere. Hsi-Choll Yen Phu frt !/oI'1 ~Jl. ~ .
Thang, + 676. Hsichow Inkstone Record.
Yang Chiung ~ i:f,\j . Sung, + 1066.
Hun Thien Hsiang Shuo or Chu liI!;R ff- Wt (i-l:). Hung Ching-Po *);1:
i(r.
Discourse on U ranographic Models.
San Kuo, c. + 260.
Hsi-Hsia Chi Shih pen Mo
Rise and Fall of the Hsi-Hsia State.
lW;;: *3 :jf, ;4>: *'
W ang Fan :E ii. See Chang Chi en (1).

Hung Fan Wu Hsing Chuan *

(CSHK (San Kuo sect.) , ch. 72, pp. I a ff.)
~ Ji. :fr f!i..
Discourse on the Hung Fan chapter of the
Hsi Pu Thien Ko lW:!J;;R ~ .
The Western Song of the March of the
HeavellS.
Shu Ching in relation to the Five Chhing, + 18th century.
E lements. Writer unknown, but presumably a J esuit
C /Han, c. - 10. or a Chinese friend of the Jesuits .
Liu Hsiang ~! [iij . Hsi Shih Chi lW 1Jl! ;;~ .
Hu o Kung Chhieh Yao !k 1}} 11. ~. otes on an Embassy to the West.
Essentials of Gunnery. Yuan, + 1263 .
Ming, + 1643 . Chhang Te .~ ~. (Writer, Liu Yli ~! 1i~.)
Chiao Chu ;tit JfJJ' Hsi- Yang Fall Kuo Chih lW ft l& ~ iili\.
With the collaboration of Thang Jo-Wang Record of the Barbarian Countries in the
(J. A. Schall von Bell) 1I;:f!f?!. Western Ocean [relative to the voyages of
Huo Lung Ching 1"< ffi!. ~~ . Cheng Ho).
The Fire-Drake (Artillery) Manual. Ming, + 1434.
Ming, + '412. Kung Ch en 'iYl: ~ •
Chiao Yli ;W,:E 0

The first part of this book, in three sections,

Hsi- Yang Hsin Fa Li Shu lW ft ~ Jff :;If .
Treatise on (Astronomy and) Calendrical
*
is attributed fancifully to Chuko Wu Hou Science according to the New Western
(i.e. Chuko Liang), and Liu Chi ; 1 ~ Methods.
(+13II to + 1375) appears as co-editor, Chhing, + 1645 (second form of the J esuit
really perhaps co-author.
astronomical encyclopaedia).
The second part, also in three sections, is See Hsin Fa Suan SIll/.
attributed to Liu Chi alone, but edited, A part of this title was conserved in the
probably written, by Mao Hsi-Ping "f; :l\% *= + 1726 reprint in TSCC, Lifa tien, chs. 5 [-
in + 1632. 72 and 85-88, as Hsin Fa Li Shu.
The third part, in two sections, is by Mao
Hsi Yu Chi.
Yuan-I .:if: j\; @ (fl. + 1628) and edited
See Chhang-Chhun Chen Jen Hsi YIl Chi.
by Chuko Kuang-J ung ~/'l ~ :Jt. :'l'k whose Hsi Yii Chi.
preface is of + 1644, Fang Yuan-Chuang See Seng Hlli-Seng Shih Hsi Yii Chi; and Ta
1Y j\; JtI: & Chung Fu-Wu £I iX if\'; . Thang Hsi Yii Chi.
Hsi Cheng Keng- Wu Yuan Li i!!! hl: dt lp- 5t 1ft.
Yuan Dynasty Calendar of the K ~ng-Wu Hsi Yu Lu lW m
t~.
Record of a Journey to the West.
Year (+ 1210) made during the Western
Expedition (of Chingiz Khan) . Yuan, + 1225 .
Yuan (before the conquest of China), Yehlli Chhu-Tshai 1I~ $ ~ ;f;t 0

c. + 1220. Hsi Yii Thu Chi lW lJ1l4 ~ wc..

Yehlli Chhu-Tshai JIlt ~ ~ ;f;t . Illustrated Record of Western Countries.
(Now only in chs. 56 and 57 of the Yuan Shih.) Sui, +61 0.
Hsi Chhi Tshung Yii i!!! r£ B 'ffi . Phei Chli ~~.
Western Pool Collected Remarks. Hsi Yii Wen Chiell Lu lW ~ rif.) Jt t~.
Sung, + 11th century. Things seen and Heard in the Western
Yao Khuan m)to Countries.
Hsi Chhing Ku Chien i!!! It 1i eo Chhing, + 1777.
Chhun Yuan Chhi-shih-i Lao-jen *If III -h
Hsi Chhing Catalogue of Ancient Mirrors
(and Bronzes) . T - ~ A. [The 71-year-old Gentleman
Chhing, + 1751. of the Cedar Garden.]
Liang Shih-Cheng ~ t.f lE . Hsia Hsiao Cheng ;;: Il~ lE 0

Hsi Ching Tsa Chi i!!! Jj( *It i1e. Lesser Annuary of the Hsia Dynasty.
Miscellaneous Records of the Western Chou, between -7th and - 4th centuries.
capital. Writers unknown.
702 BIBLIOGRAPHY A
Hsia Hsiao ChOng (cont.) Sung.
Incorporated in Ta Tai Li Chi, q .v. Fu Kung if. ~ .
Tr. R . Wilhelm (6), Soothill (5). Hsien Chhuang Kua I Chih M Wf m !If; mf. .
Hsiahou Yang Suan Ching ;!I( ~ ~ • ill!.. Strange Things seen through the Barred
Hsiahou Yang's Mathematical Manual. Window.
L/Sung or Chhi, + 450 to + 500, or perhaps Sung.
early + 6th century. Lu Ying-Lung ~ l!! it.
Hsiahou Y ang ~ ~ ~IJ. Hsien Pin Lu fifX. Jl t\.
Hsiang Chieh Chill Chang Suan Fa Tsuan Lei Record of All the Guests.
w~:Jt.1ji:~1£.\iji· Ming, +1590.
Detailed Analysis of the Mathematical Rules Lo Ylieh-Chhiung H B ~.
in the Nine Chapters and their Hsien-Shun Lin An Chill fifX. 11 ~ '!i ;E; .
Reclassification. Hsien-Shun reign-period Topographical
Sung, + 1261. Records of the Hangchow District.
YangHui • • • Sung, + 1274.
Hsiang Chung Chi r.tll JP ihl.
Records of Hunan.
Chhien YUeh-Yu m ~ 'b:. .
Hsin-Chai Tsa Tsu ,(,l:s!f *I 7J1.
Chin, c. +375. Miscellanea of (Chang) Hsin-Chai.
Lo Han H~.
Hsiang Ming Suan Fa W IjJJ ~ *. Chhing, c. + 1670.
m
Explanations of Arithmetic.
Yuan and Ming, + 14th century.
Chang Chhao
Hsin Fa Li Shu ;m * lifj.
1ff •.
See Hsi- Yang Hsin Fa Li Shu.
Perhaps Chia H~ng n ¥; also attrib. An
Chih-Chai *:.!I: ~ and Ho Phing-Tzu
Hsin Fa Piao I ;m * ~ !If; .
Differences between (the Old and) the New
fiiJ~T. (Astronomical and Calendrical) Systems.
(In Yung-Lo Ta Tien, chs. 16343-4.)
Chhing, + 1645.
Hsiang Wei Hsin Phien ~ ~1t;m ~. Eventually incorporated in Hsin Fa Suan Shu,
New Account of the Web of Stars. q .v.
Ming, early + 16th century.
Thang Jo-Wang (J. A. Schall von Bell) 11;
Wang Kho-Ta :E PI)c.
Hsiao-An Hsin Fa IIjf ~ ~ 1£.
(Wang) Hsiao-An's New
~~.
Hsin Fa Suan Shu ~ * ~ !f .
Treatise on Mathematics (Astronomy and
(Astronomical) Methods.
Calendrical Science) according to the New
Ming, + 1643. Methods.
Wang Hsi-Shan :E W, tel.
Hsiao Hsiang Thing Yu Lu ~ r.tll m f:ij tit<.
Chhing, + 1669, + 1674. This encyclopaedia
was first issued in the Ming (+ 1635) as
Listening to the Rain at Hsiao-hsiang.
Chhung-Chbz Li Shu (q.v.), then in the
Chhing.
Chhing (+ 1645) as Hsi- Yang Hsin Fa Li
Chiang Yli tc!: . Shu (q.v.).
Hsiao Hsiieh Kan Chu /J~ t$~ *It ~ .
Thang J 0-Wang (J. A. Schall von Bell) 11;
Valuable Observations on Elementary Know-
ledge.
:fi' !i!, T~ng Yli-Han (J ohann Schreck
Sung, + 13th century. (Terrentius» W :IS. i!iSi, Lo Ya-Ku (James
Wang Ying-Lin :E I!f!\ G. Rho) H $ f&, Lung Hua-Min (Nicholas
Longobardi) mi. \iJ 1l!;, Hsli Kuang-Chhi
Hsiao Tai Li Chi.
See Li Chi. ~ '1f:.lif, Li Chih-Tsao '* Z ~, Li
Thien-Ching ,*;R ill! and others.
Hsiao Wei Tzhu Hsiung Thu '.If.!1t at ~ &\I.
Apocryphal Treatise on the Filial Piety Hsin I Hsiang Fa Yao ~ IN $: *
New Design for an Armillary Clock.
~.
Classic; Diagrams of Male and Female
(Influences). Sung, + 1094.
C/Han, - 1st century. Su Sung l* ~.
Writer unknown. Hsin Kho-Lou Ming ;m ~Ij 00 it .
Hsieh Chhuan Chi t:!- )1\ #! . Inscription for a New Clepsydra.
Hsieh River Record. Liang, + 507.
Sung. Lu Chhui ~ 'fj .
Su Kuo Jl i&! . Hsin Lun ;m i!~ .
Hsieh Lueh I{ ~ . New Discussions.
Monograph on the Varieties of Crabs . H /Han, c. + 20.
Sung, c. + II85. Huan Than ;Hi II .
Kao Ssu-Sun i'i:i 1J;.( ~ • Hsin Pien Tui Hsiallg Ssu Yen ;m ~ ti !1: 119 ]l.
Hsieh Phu I{!I. Newly Revised Reader with Four Characters
Discourse on Crustacea (cf. Hsii Hsieh Phu). to the Line and Pictures to match. [The
 BIBLIOGRAPHY A
Hsin Pien Tui Hsiang Ssu Yen (cont.) Hsiu Yao I Kuei 1'ii III f& t1L.
oldest printed illustrated children's primer The Tracks of the Hsiu and Planets.
in any civilisation.] Thang, c. +710.
Ming, + 1436. I-Hsing - ~T .
Compiler unknown . TW/ 13 0 4·
Hsin Shu ;ffi~. Hsu Hsi So Wei LUll.
New Book. See Ao Yii Tzu Hsii Hsi So Wei Lun.
C /Han, - 2nd century, but the present text Hsii Hsia-Kho Yu Chi ~ lit lff Jrf ~i'. .
may be partly Thang or pre-Thang. Diary of the Travels of HsU Hsia-Kho.
Chia I rI'iiir. Chhing, + 1776 (written + 1641).
Hsin Thang Shu ;ffi m 'I!f . Hsu Hsia-Kho ~ r£ lff .
New History of the Thang Dynasty Hsii Hsieh Phu i!il. 'M ~.
[+618 to +906J. Continuation of the Discourse on Crustacea
Sung, + 1061. (cf. Hsieh Phu).
Ouyang Hsiu ~ f$'J ~ & Sung Chhi SIC iim. Chhing.
Partial trs . des Rotours (I); Pfizmaier (66- Chhu J en-Huo iN A fit ·
74)· Hsii Hsing Shui Chill Chien.
Yin-T~ Index, no. 16. See Lei Shih-HsU & Yu Ch~ng-Hsieh (1) in
Hsin Thien Lun UJf ~ ij;'li . Bibliography B.
Discourse on the Diurnal Revolution (of the Hsii Hung Chien Lu ~[/ -qJ. ~1\ t".
Heavens). The Mass of Records (General History of the
San Kuo, c. + 250. Middle Ages, from the beginning of the
Yao Hsin mftf . Thang dynasty) continued.
(In YHSF, ch. 76.) Chhing, + 1699.
Hsing Chha SMng Lan J[ fl ~ 'irt . Sun Yuan-Ping continuing the work of Shao
Triumphant Visions of the Starry Raft .
[Account of the voyages of Ch~ng H o,
whose ship, as carrying an ambassador, is
Ching-Pang U(S ~,'l! JI;·
Hsii Ku Chai Chhi Suan Fa ij{ I!i :lit ~ ~
Continuation of Ancient Mathematical
*.
thus styled.] Methods for Elucidating the Strange
Ming, + 1436. (Properties of Numbers).
Fei Hsin R fir . Sung, + 1275.
Hsing Ching m. j! . Yang Hui ~ :G1l.
The Star Manual. Hsii Po Wu Chih t.1l r.~ Mo ;E; .
A pre-Thang compilation of Chou and Han Supplement to the R ecord of the Investigation
star-catalogu es, probably with later addi- of Things (cf. Po Wu Chih).
tions (now incomplete). Sung, mid + 12th century.
Shih Shen :5 If! , Kan T~ 1t ~ , Li Shih *:5.
Wu Hsien !J!.. ~ et al. Hsii Shih Shuo *'il. i!t Wt.
TT/ 28 4· Continuation of the Discourses on the Talk of
Hsing Shui Chin Chien lr 7~ ~ i! . the Times.
Golden lVl irror of the Flowing Waters See Shih ShilO I-Isin Yii.
(cf. Hsii Hsing Shui Chin Chien). Sung, c. + 1157.
Chhing, + 1725 .
Fu Ts~-Hung 1t'i ~ *'
Hsiu Chen Thai Chi Hun Yuan Thu ®:]A.:k t1i
I<hung Phing-Chung fL ~ 1"~ .
Hsiian-Chi I Shu ~ ~ ill i1!!; .
Records of Ancient Arts and Techniques
ilt5tlQ11 . [lit. of the Circumpolar Constellation
Veritable Restored Chart of the Supreme Template].
Pole and the Original Chaos. Chhing.
Sung. Chieh H sUan ~~ ~ .
Hsiao Tao-Tshun jffif ill tf. . Hsiian Chullg Chi Z q. We. .
TT/ q6. Mysterious M atters.
Hsiu Chung Chi fib q. ~t!. . Date uncertain, pre-Sung, perhaps + 6th
Sleeve Records. century.
Liang, c. + 500. Mr Ku o ~1I.Ef;.
Shen Y 0 ¥): *'~ .
Hsiu Fang So Chih ®: iiJj fj'( ~.
Hsiian-Ho Fellg Shih Kao-Li Thll Ching ~ l\l .$
~ i'i:iim~ j!~·
Brief Memoir on D yke R epairs. Illustrated Record of an Embassy to Korea
in the HsUan-Ho reign-period.
Chhing.
Li Shih-Lu *i!t f~ .
Hsiu Yao Ching ~~ II7l! j~.
Sung, + 1 124 (+ I 167).
H su Ching ~ RH. .
Hsiu and Planet Sutra. Hsiian-Ho Po Ku Thu ~ l\l mI!i 11\.
See Well-Shu -Shih-Li Phu-Sa . .. , etc. [=Po Ku Thu Lu, q.v.]
 BIBLIOGRAPHY A
Hsiian-Ho Po Ku Thu (cont.)
HsUan-Ho reign-period Illustrated Record
of Ancient Objects. [Catalogue of the
archaeological museum of the emperor
Hui Tsung.]
Sung, +IIII to +1125.
Wang Fu .:E mm or !Iil(, et al.
Hsiian-Ho Shih Phu 'j[;m;o :m..
HsUan-Ho reign-period Treatise on Stones.
Sung, c. + 1122.
T su Khao mU. ~ .
Hsiieh Chai Chall Pi ~ ~ 1~ ~.
Glancing into Books in a Learned Studio.
Sung, + 13th century.
Shih Sheng-Tsu 1i!. Uii mll .
Hsiieh Li Hsiao Pien ~ fff '1' ~ .
Minor Disputation on Calendrical Science
[an answer to the Li TsM and Li Yuan,
q.v.].
Ming, + 1631.
Thang Jo-Wang 0. A. Schall von Bell) m The Antheap of Knowledge [Miscellaneous
'i\'~ .
Hsiin Tzu r,o =f .
The Book of Master HsUn .
Chou, c. -240.
HsUn Chhing 1/.1 ffi .
Tr. Dubs (7).
I ChaD Liao Tsa Chi ~ ~ :f!: ~ ill!..
Miscellaneous Records from the I-Chao
Cottage.
Sung, + 12th century.
Chu I *=~.
I Ching £ ~.m..
The Classic of Changes [Book of Changes].
Chou with C/Han additions.
Compilers unknown.
See Li Ching-Chhih (1, 2); Wu Shih-
Chhang (I).
Tr. R. Wilhelm (2); Legge (9); de Harlez (I).
Yin-Te Index no . (Suppl.) 10.
J Ching t¥ ~~.
Treatise on Arts and Games.
San Kuo (Wei), + 3rd century.
Hantan Shun 1I\l $Ii 'f!j. .
J Chou Shu ~ fm ~ .
[= Chi Chung Chou Shu.]
Lost Books of the Chou (Dynasty) .
Chou, - 245 and before, such parts as are
genuine. (Found in the tomb of An Li
Wang, a prince of the Wei State, r. - 276
to -245; in +281).
Writers unknown.
J Chuan JJJ f!)j;·
Explanations of the (Book of) Changes.
N /Wei, c. +490.
Kuan Lang Im AA .
J Hsiang Khao ChMng f& ~ ~ ~ .
The Imperial (Astronomical) Instruments
[official description].
Chhing, + 1744; enlarged + 1757 to contain
the Chhien-Lung star-catalogue.
Tai Chin-Hsien (Ignatius Kogler) ~ i!!i ~ ;
Pao Yu-Kuan (Anton Gogeisl) ~ 1): 1f ;
Liu Sung-Ling (August in von Hallerstein)
fl *1 tit. and Fu Tso-Lin (Felix da Rocha)
i.ilJ.11" ~.
I Ku Yen Tuan ~ 11 ilii f& .
New Steps in Computation .
J /Chin (Yuan), + 1259.
Li Yeh '$ It.
J Lung Thu £ ff\!. 1m1 .
The Dragon Diagrams of the (Book of)
Changes .
Wu Tai, c. + 950.
Chhen Thuan ~ tw- .
I Shu Kou Yin Thu £ l/ik £fJ ~ III .
The Hidden Number-Diagrams in the
(Book of) Changes Hooked Out.
Sung, early + loth century.
Liu Mu 131!f:t .
I Shu Pien ~ v~r ii .
Essays].
(The first character is usually pronounced
e, moth; but here should be read i, ant.)
Chhing, c. + 1770, but not published till
+ 19th century.
Wang Ming-Sheng .:E ~~ ~.
I Thu Ming Pien £ IIil lj)jm.
Clarification of the Diagrams in the (Book
of) Changes [historical analysis].
Chhing, + 1706.
Hu Wei M ¥\11.
I Tsung Chin Chien ~ ~ :fG: i! .
Golden Mirror of Medicine (compiled by
Imperial Order).
Chhing, + 1743.
Ed. O-Erh-Thai (Ortai) ;tI W ~ .
I Wei Chhien Tso Tu £ ~ ~t m 1l .
Apocryphal Treatise on the (Book of)
Changes; a Penetration of the Regularities
of Chhien (the first Kua).
C /Han, - 1st century.
Writer unknown.
I Wei Ho Thu Shu £ t~ tnJ \i!llJij[.
Apocryphal Treatise on the (Book of)
Changes; The Numbers of the River
Diagram.
H /Han.
Writer unknown .
I Wei Thllng Kua Yen £~.¥ ~ 11' ~ .
Apocryph al Treatise on the (Book of)
Changes; Verifications of the Powers of
the Kua.
C /Han, - 1st century.
Writer unknown.
I WII Chih ~ M1l ;~ .
Memoirs of Marvellous Things.
San Kuo.
HsUeh YU iWi ~l .
I Yin £ 1f.
Dictionary of the Original Sounds of Words
in the (Book of) Changes.
 BIBLIOGRAPHY A
I Yin (cont.) Hui-Chiao (monk) 11. ~ .
Chhing, + 1667 (in Yin Hsiieh Wu Shu). TW/ 2 °59·
Ku Yen-Wu III ~ lit. Keng Hsill Yii Tshe Yt;>f::E JlJr •
I Yu Thu Chih Jt ~ ',";\1 ~ . Precious Secrets of the Realm of K eng and
Illustrated Record of Strange Countries. Hsin [i.e. all things connected with metals
Ming, c. + 1420 (written between + 1392 and minerals, symbolised by these two
and + 1430); pr. +1489. cyclical characters. On alchemy and
Compiler unknown. pharmaceutics. Keng-Hsin is also an
Cf. Moule (4) ; Sarton (1) , vol. 3, p. 1627. alchemical synonym for gold].
(A copy is in the Cambridge University

I Yllan
Library.)
~~.
Ming, + 1421.
Ning H sien Wang (prince of the Ming)
~ :E.
*
Garden of Strange Things. Khai Fang SIzIlO Bn 11 ;Dt.
Pre-Sui, prob. + 5th century. Theory of Equations of Higher Degrees.
Liu Ching-Shu 1Z! it ;J1. • Chhing, end + 18th centu ry.
Ichidai Yaki - fl': ~ ~i'. . Li Jui af- i!t .
Essenti als of the History of an Age [a brief Khai-Pao Pen Tslzao Bn 1ll ;>\>. ~.
history of the emperors, from Ingyo Khai-Pao reign-period Pharmacopoeia.
(+412 / +453) to Hanazono (+1309/ Sung, c. +970.
+13 18)]. Li u Han ~I ~ & Ma Chih .f!;~ .
Japan, + 14th century. Khai- Yuan Clzan Ching ilf~ 5G ~ f,~.
Writer unknown. The Khai-Yuan reign-period Treatise on

Jih Hua (Chll Chia) Pen Tshao 8 ~ W ;>\>. .!if..

M aster Jih-Hua's Pharmacopoeia (of All the
* Astrology (and Astronomy).
Thang, + 729.
(Some parts, such as the Chiu Chih
Schools). (Navagraha) calendar, had been written as
Sung, c. +970. early as + 7 18.)
Ta Ming fJih-Hua T zu] Ij}j . '* ChhUthan H si-Ta ~ Ri l'l; ~.
Jih W ell LIl 8 rIil ~'k. Khao Ku Thu ~ ti ~ .
Daily otes. Illustrations of Ancient Objects.
Yuan, c. + 1380. Sung, + 1092.
Li Chhung af- m' . Lu Ta-Lin g '*
~1;\ .

Kaisan-ki Komoku '* m: t'la

;W4 § .
Comprehensive Summary of Integration
Khao Kung Chi ~ I ~r..
The Artificers' Record [a section of the
Chou Li, q.v.].
[early calculus]. Chou and Han, perhaps originally an
Japan, + 1687. official document of Chhi State,
Mochinaga Toyotsugu M ik ~ ~ & Ohashi incorporated c. - 140.
T akusei 1\. m
~ '111. Compiler unknown.
Kan Ying Ching fii: I!f! ~'ll . Tr. E . Biot (I).
On Stimulus and Response (the Resonance Cf. Kuo Mo-J o (1); Yang Lien-Sheng (7).
of Phenomena in ature). Khung Tshung Tzu fL 1'& f .
Thang, c. + 640. The Book of Master Khung Tshung.
Li Shun-Feng *- n
)£.. Ascr. H /Han, prob. later.
Kan Ying L ei T shllng Chih !it. ~ ~ t:£ ii!i. Attrib. Khung F u fL ifl' .
Record of the Mutual Resonances of
Things.
Khung Tzu Chia Yii
Table Talk of Confucius.
fL f * W-.
Chin, c. +295. H/Han or more probably San Kuo, early
Chang Hua y, ~. + 3rd century (but compiled from earlier
Kao Hou Meng Chhiu ~ f!. ~ *' sources) .
Investigation of the Dimensions of the Ed. Wang S u :E i.f.i .
Universe. [Celestial and terrestrial Partial trs. Kramers (I); A. B. Hutchinson(I);
cartography.] de Harlez (2).
Chhing, c. + 1799. Ko Chih Ching Yuan ~:ill: mrl1..
Hsu Chhao-ChUn ~ fJ! ft. Mirror of Scientific and Technological
Kao-Li Thu Chillg. Origins.
S ee Hsiian-Ho Feng Shih Kao-Li Thu Ching. Chhing, + 1735.
Kao Seng Chuan it 1~ ~ . Chhen Yu an-Lung ~ 5G niL
Biographies of Outstanding (Buddhist) Ko Chih Ku Wei.
Monks [especially those noted for See Wang J en-ChUn (1).
learning and philosophical eminence]. Ko Chih Tshao ~ n: f¥..
Liang, between + 519 and + 554. Scientific Sketches.
 BIBLIOGRAPHY A
Ko Chih Tshao (cont.) Kuai Shih Tsan tl:6 ~ .
Ming, + 1620 [+ 1648]. Strange Rocks.
Hsiung Ming-Yii ljij ~. rm Chhing, + 1665.
Ko Hsiang Hsin Shu 1(;: ~ ~ tf . Sung Lo SIC ¥.
New Elucidation of the Heavenly Bodies. Kuan Khuei Chi Yao i' Q ~ -1l:.
Yuan. See Thien Wen Ta Chheng Kuan Khuei Chi
Chao Yu-Chhin m 1X.. £It . Yao.
Revised by Wang Wei of the Ming as the Kuan Shih Lu 1ll:6 tlIt.
Chhung Hsiu Ko Hsiang Hsin Shu, q.v. On Looking at Stones.
KoKu YaoLun ~t'l~~~. Chhing, + 1668.
Handbook of Archaeology. Kao Chao ~ ~\<, .
Ming, + 1387. Kuan Tzu 1f T .
Tshao Chao fj ug • The Book of Master Kuan.
Ko Yuan Lien Pi Li Thu Chieh !§111B.l ~ .It '9!1 Chou and C /Han. Perhaps mainly compiled
III ~$. in the Chi-Hsia Academy (late -4th
Explanation of the Determination of century) in part from older materials.
Segment Areas (using infinite series). Attrib. Kuan Chung 1f 1'1' .
Chhing, before 1800, but pub. 1819. Partial trs. Haloun (2, 5); Than Po-Fu et al.
Tung Yu-Chheng iilti ~ . m Kuang Ya Jf# fl .
Ko Yuan Mi Lii Chieh Fa
Quick Method for Determining Segment
tU IfiJ !it' $ t! *' Enlargement of the Erh Ya; Literary
Expositor [dictionary].
Areas (using infinite series). San Kuo (Wei), +230.
Chhing, + 1774. Chang I m iit .
Ming An- Thu ljij tJ;: lJm . Kuang- Yang Tsa Chi JIi \lIJ $I tc.
Ku Chin Chu t'l ~ i:t . Collected Miscellanea of (Master) Kuang-
See Fu Hou Ku Chin Chu. Yang (Liu Hsien-Thing).
Ku Chin Chu t'l ~ '!fit . Chhing, c. + 1695.
See Ching-Chai Ku Chin Chu. Liu Hsien-Thing ?Z1\lR ~ .
Ku Chin Lii Li Khao t'l ~ W P ~ . Kuang Yii Thu 1ii ~ 11\1.
Investigation of the (Chinese) Calendars, Enlarged Terrestrial Atlas.
New and Old.
Ming, c. + 1600.
Yuan, + 1320.
Chu Ssu-Pen *
,w, #.
m. *
First printed, and the word Kuang added,
Hsing Yiin-Lu fflS ~ ~/} .
Ku Chin Suan-Hsiieh Tshung Shu t'l ~ 1[.
~ t!F .
* by Lo Hung-Hsien
c. + 1555).
7'a (Ming,

See Liu To (1). Kuang Yiin !Si tit.

Enlargement of the Chhieh Yiin; Dictionary
Ku Kho Tshung Chhao t'l tU ft1 &,y . of the Sounds of Characters.
Collection of Ancient (Thang and Sung)
Inscriptions. Sung.
(A completion by later Thang and Sung
Ming, + 14th century.
Thao Tsung-I ~~J ~ fIll.
Ku Suan Chhi Khao t'l m: ~ ~. Lu Fa-Yen et al. ~1l
Kuei Chhien Chih
~.
tIIi m' iit.
*
scholars, given its present name in + 101 I).

Enquiry into the History of Mechanical

Computing Aids. On Returning to a Life of Obscurity.
Chhing, c. + 1700 (in Li Suan Chhiian Shu, J /Chin, + 1235.
q.v.). Liu Chhi ~l roB .
Mei Wen-Ting ~:;:. $ . Kuei Hai Yii Heng Chih ~ m~ w z..
Ku Wei Shu t'l ~ :tF . Topography and Products of the Southern
Old Mysterious Books. Provinces.
[A collection of the apocryphal Chhan-Wei Sung, + II75.
treatises.] Fan Chheng-Ta "f[ ~ *.
~ ~ :/ift ~ .
Ed. Sun Chio 1*-
Kua Ti Chih tli ill! ;t; .
(Ming).*
Date uncertain, in part C /Han. Kuei-Hsin Tsa Chih
Miscellaneous Information from Kuei-Hsin
Street (in Hangchow).
Comprehensive Geography. Sung, late + 13th century, perhaps not
finished before + 1308.
Thang, +7th century.
Wei Wang-Thai ~a:E
(Fragments reconstituted by Sun Hsing-
*. Chou Mi tm!it'.
See des Rotours (I), p. cxii.
Yen in + 1797.) Kuei-Hsin Tsa Chih Hsii Chi ~?F:/ift ~ ij{ 11! .
Kua Ti Hsiang. :Miscellaneous Information from Kuei-Hsin
See Ho Thu Wei Kua Ti Hsiang. Street (in Hangchow); First Addendum.
 BIBLIOGRAPHY A
Kuei-Hsin Tsa Chih Hsii Chi (cont.) H/Han, between +80 and +105, though
Yuan, + 1308. the earliest pieces included may date
Chou Mi r.n W. from the time of the Analeets (c. -465 to
See des Rotours (I), p. cxii. -45 0 ).
Kuei Thien Lu fill r:Il t1J< · Attrib. ed. Tai Sheng ~ ~.
On Returning Home. Actual ed. Tshao Pao 'IY '!.l.
Sung, + 1067. Trs. Legge (7); Couvreur (3); R . Wilhelm (6).
Ouyang Hsiu rJ\ ~ ~ . Yin-Te Index no. 27.
Kung Chhi Shih Hua ~ m1\¥ ~. Li Fa Hsi Chhuan 1ff it: ~ fW..
River-Boulder Pool Essays [literary History of Western Calendrical Science
criticism]. (and Astronomy).
Sung, + II68. Chhing, + 1656.
Huang Chhe :1Il m:. Eventually incorporated in Hsin Fa Suan
Kungsun Lung Tzu !];: l% lit!. =J- • Shu, q.v.
The Book of Master Kungsun Lung Thang Jo-Wang (]. A. Schall von Bell) 7l/;
(cf. Shou Pai Lun).
Chou, -4th century.
*~. e
Li Hai Chi #i it! .
Kungsun Lung !];: m mL . The Beetle and the Sea [title taken from the
Tr. Ku Pao-Ku (I); Perleberg (I); Mei Yi- proverb that the beetle's eye view cannot
Pao (3). encompass the wide sea-a biological
Kungyang Chuan !];: ~ m. book].
Master Kungyang's Commentary on the Ming, late + 14th century.
Spring and Autumn Annals. Wang Khuei :£ ~.
Chou (with Chhin and Han additions), late
- 3rd and early - 2nd centuries.
Li Hsiang Khao ChMng If *' ~ J&; •
Compendium of Calendrical Science and
Attrib. Kungyang Kao IJ;:; ~ 7r. , but more Astronomy (compiled by Imperial Order)
probably Kungyang Shou IJ;:; ~ • • [based on the work of Cassin i and
See Wu Khang (I). Flamsteed; part of the Lii Li Yuan Yuall,
Kuo Yii !fJ W-. q.v.].
Discourses on the (ancient feudal) States. Chhing, + 1713 (+ 1723).
Late Chou, Chhin and C/Han, containing Ed. Mei Ku-Chheng ~ ~ J&; & Ho Kuo-
early material from ancient written
records.
Tsung {iiJ!fJ *.
Cf. Hummel (2), p. 285; Pfister (I), pp. 647,
Writers unknown. 64 8 , 653·
Li Sao =tt It .
Lan Chen Tzu tQ Nt =r. Elegy on Encountering Sorrow [ode].
Book of the Truth-through-Indolence Chou, e. 295.
Master. Chhti Yuan Jru fijt.
Sung, between + I I I I and + I I 17.
Li Shih A-Pi-Than Lun Jf.. i!!: l!Pl Eft. ~~.
Ma Yung-Chhing .If,; '"k ~ . Lokasthiti Abhidharma Sastra; Philosophical
Lao Hsiieh An Pi Chi ~ ~ ~ !J 1!~ . Treatise on the Preservation of the World
Notes from the Hall of Learned Old Age.
[astronomical].
Sung.
India, tr. into Chinese + 558.
Lu Yu Mn~. Writer unknown .
Lei Kung Yao Tui tit!];: ~ It .
Answers of the Venerable (Master) Lei con- Li shih I Shu ~: .ff; ill •.
Mathematical Remains of Mr Li (]ui).
cerning Drugs.
Perhaps L /Sung, at any rate before N/Chhi. Chhing, + 1765 to + 1814; printed + 1823 ·
Prob. by Lei Hsiao 'M !}IX. Li Jui i!j"qjt.
Later attrib. Lei Kung, legendary minister of Li shih Yao Lu ~.ff; ~ t1J<.
HuangTi. Mr Li's Record of Drugs.
Comm. by Hsti Chih-Tshai ~ Z. ;t . San Kuo (We i), e. +225.
Lei Phien n .. . Li Tang-Chih !'f. 'M z..
Dictionary of Character Sounds. Li Suan Chhiian Shu ffl JI: :1i\: ~ •
Sung, + 1067. Complete Works on Calendar and
Ssuma Kuang m ~ 'jt.. Mathematics.
Li Chi i~ llt!. . Chhing, + 1723.
[=Hsiao Tai Li Chi.] Mei Wen-Ting ~"5C lI\l,.
r
Record of Rites compiled by Tai the m:
Li Suan Shu Mu m ~ 13 .
Younger]. Mathematical Bibliography.
(Cf. Ta Tai Li Chi.) Chhing, + 1723.
Ascr. C /Han; e. -701- 50, but really Mei Wen-Ting ~"5C m~ .
 BIBLIOGRAPHY A
Li Tai Chung Ting I Chhi Khuan Chih Fa Thieh Thang, + 9th century.
!!jHt.l\1I.f!1l:f~~*~,Ii · Wang Chhi :£ ~.
Description of the Various Sorts of Bronze
Bells, Cauldrons, Temple Vessels, etc. of
Ling Hsien 11 m.
The Spiritual Constitution (or Mysterious
all Ages. Organisation) of the Universe [cosmo-
Sung, + 11th century. logical and astronomical].
Hslieh Shang-Kung ~ fpJ '1)J • H /Han, c. + 118.
Li Tai Lun Thien ~ 1t 1!~ 7C . Chang Heng m 1tr .
Discussions on the Heavens in Different (In YHSF, ch. 76.)
Ages.
Ling Nan I Wu Chih ~ i¥i ~ ~ i5\ .
Chhing, + 1790.
Record of Strange Things South of the
Yang Chhao-Ko tI!J tJi ~.
Passes.
Li Tai Thung Chien Chi Lan ~ 1t i! i!. ~ 'it,
Thang, early +9th century.
Essentials of History.
Meng Kuan iili rg .
Chhing, + 1767.
Lu Hsi-Hsiung (ed.) \'tii ~ Jl~ . Ling Thai Pi Yuan 11 ~ ~ ~ .
Li Thi Liieh lit" U. III . The Secret Garden of the Observatory
An Account of Astronomy and Calendrical [astronomy, including a star list, and
Science. State astrology].
Ming. N /Chou, c. + S80.
Wang Ying-Ming :E ~ ijIj . Revised in Sung and much probably added
Li Tshe 11 m. in Ming; two different books circulate
under this title and authorship.
Calendrical Measurements.
Yli Chi-Tshai ~ ~ ;t .
Ming, + 1631.
Wei Wen-Khuei
Chhien _ *~.
1II1::re III
& Wei Hsiang- Ling Wai Tai Ta ~ * 1t~.
Information on What is Beyond the Passes
Li Yuan rJ ji; . (lit. a book in lieu of individual replies to
Origins of Calendrical Science. questions from friends).
Ming, + 1631.
Wei Wen-Khuei
Chhien _ *~.
_::re ti & Wei Hsiang-
Sung, +1178.
Chou Chhli-Fei 1M * ~F .
Liu-Chhiu Kuo Chih Liieh ~ ~ ~ i5\ III .
Liang Chhi Man Chih m ri ii i5\. Account of the Liu-Chhiu Islands.
Bridge Pool Essays. Chhing, + 17S7.
Sung, + 1192. Chou Huang f;\'I ~.
Fei Kun _tt. Liu Ching Thien Wen Pien ;'; f.~ 7C :se 1$.
Liang Shan Mo Than m III ~~. Treatise on Astronomy (and Calendrical
Jottings from Two Mountains. Science) in the Six Classics.
Ming. Sung, c. + 127S.
Chhen Thing ~ ~ . Wang Ying-Lin :E ~ M.
Liang Shu mff . Liu Ching Thu "ft. illll.
History of the Liang Dynasty [ + S02 to
Illustrations of Objects mentioned in the Six
+ SS6]. Classics.
Thang, + 629. Many editions, the first in Sung, c. + IISS.
Yao Chha m ~ and his son Yao Ssu-Lien
Yang Chia • qt .
m.w. l¥. Lo-Fou Shan Chih JI 7f- tlJ i5\ .
Liang Ssu Kung Chi m 119 IJ;: U .
Tales of the Four Lords of Liang. History and Topography of the Lo Fou
Mountains (north of Canton).
Thang, c. +69S.
Chhing, + 1716 (but based on older
Chang Ylieh m ID!: •
histories).
Lieh Tzu ?IJ =f-.
[= Chhung Hsii Chen Ching.] Thao Ching-I IlM ik ~.
The Book of Master Lieh. Lo Shu Wei Chen Yao Tu i.&., *It ti 1IIl!t ·
Chou and C /Han, - sth to - 1st centuries. Apocryphal Treatise on the Lo Shu
Ancient fragments of miscellaneous Diagram; Examination of the Measured
origin finally cemented together with (Movements) of the (Celestial) Brilliances.
much new material about + 380. Han.
Attrib. Lieh Yli-Khou ?IJ lIP: ;a . Writer unknown.
Tr. R. Wilhelm (4); L. Giles (4); Wieger (7). Lo- Yang Chhieh Lan Chi i.& ~ 1!lII :c ltn.
TT/663· Descri;>tion of the Buddhist Temples of
Lin Chio Chi • 1fl #! . Loyang.
The Unicorn Horn Collection (of N /Wei, c. + S30.
Examination Essays). Yang Hsiian-Chih ;tJb w z..
 BIBLIOGRAPHY A
Lou-Kho Fa iJii ~tl 1£ . Lu Shan Chi ! ill ~i!. .
Treatise on the Clepsydra. Description of Mount Lu (near the Poyang
N /W ei, c. +440. Lake).
Li Lan ~~. Chhen Shun-Yti ~-li Jl; iitl·
Lou-Kho Fu iJii ~lJ nt. Lu Shih ~3-.!l!..
Ode on the Clepsydra. The Peripatetic History [a collection of
Chin, c. +295. fabulou s and legendary material put
Lu Chi IIi tm • together in the style of the dynastic
Lou Shui Chuan Hun Thien I ChilL iJii 7.1t mill histories, but containing much curious
~i1ijfiiJ· information on techniques].
M ethod for making an Armillary Sphere Sung.
revolve by means of water from a a ri>.
Clepsydra [perhaps only a part of the
Hun I, to which it is attached in YHSF,
Lo Pi
Lii Shih Chhun Chhiu g.l!<
Master Lti' s Spring and Autumn Annals
* .~

ch. 76]. [compendium of natural philosophy].

H /Han, c. + 117. Chou (Chhin), - 239.
Chang H eng ~ itf . Written by the group of scholars gath ered
Lii-Chai Shih Erh Pien m~"if, % 11. by Lti Pu-Wei g ~~ .
Instructions and Miscellaneous Information Tr. R. Wilhelm (3).
for the Use of Children of his own Chung-Fa Index, no. z.
Family by (Sun) Lti-Chai.
Sung, + 1205.
Lu Thang Shih Hua ~ ~ t>¥ i8 .
Foothill Hall Essays [literary criticism].
Sun I 1ffi~.
**
Ming, +1513.
Lii Ho-Shu W en Chi g;m >liit :se 1:11 .
Li Tung-Yang II~.
Collected Writings of Lti W en (Lti Ho-Shu).
Thang, c. +850.
Lun Heng ~~ itf.
Discourses Weighed in the Balance.
Lti Wen g i,lll..
H /Han , + 82 or + 83.
Lu I Chi '-1ft!J1< ~ . W ang Chhung :£ 1C.
Strange M atters.
Tr. Forke (4).
Sung.
Chung-Fa Index no. I.
Tu Kuang-Thing ft 'JI:. $! .
Lii Li Chih ~ .H z. . Lun Yii W:t mt.
Memoir on the Calendar. Conversations and Discourses (of Confucius)
[perhaps Discussed Sayings, Normative
H /Han, + 178.
Liu Hung ;1 & Tshai Yung
(In Hou Han Shu, ch. 13.)
* ~ GL. Sayings, or Selected Sayings]; Analects.
Chou (Lu), c. - 465 to -450.
Lii Li Yuan Yuan :f\! mIX!! i!i\ . Compiled by disciples of Confucius
Ocean of Calendrical and Acoustic Calcula- (chs. 16, 17, 18 and 20 are later
tions (compiled by Imp erial Order) interpolations).
[includes Li Hsiang Khao Chheng, Shu Li Tr. Legge (2); Lyall (z); Waley (5); Ku
Ching Yiin, Lii Lit Cheng I, q .v.]. Hung-Ming (I).
Chhing, + 17z3; printing probably not Yin-Te Index no. (Suppl.) 16.
finished before + 1730. Lun Yiieh Shih ~~ A it.
Ed. Mei Ku-Chheng ~ *It Jil(; & Ho Kuo- On Lunar Eclipses.
Tsung fiiJ ~ *.
Cf. Hummel (z), p. z85; Wylie (I), pp. 96ft".
H /Han, + zoo.
Liu Hung ; 1 *.
Lu-Ling I Wu Chih p! ~ !J1< M1l z.. (In Hou Han Shu, ch. p. 17a.)
Strange Things of Lu-Ling.
Sung.
Lung-Chhiian Hsien Chih
Local Topography of Lung-chhtian
IZ,
1* * l\li: z. .
Writer unknown. (Chekiang).
Lii Lii Cheng I ~ g lE ~ . Chhing, + 176z.
Collected Basic Principles of Music Ku Kuo-Chao (ed.) D ~ ll«.
(compiled by Imp erial Order) [part of Lii
Li Yuan Yuan, q.v.]. Ma-Ku Shan Hsien Than Chi Jt'!i t!i ill fUllfl ~.
Chhing, + 17z3. Notes on the Altars to the Immortals on
Ed. Mei Ku-Chheng ~ ~ Jil(; & Ho Kuo- Ma-Ku Mountain.
Tsung fiiJ Wl
Cf. Hummel (z), p. z85.
*' Thang, c. +760.
Yen Chen-Chhing f.A ~ ~ .
Lii Lit Hsin Lun ~~ g ~ ~~ . Man Shu ~;;g;.
New Discourse on i\1usic and Acoustics. Book of the Barbarians [itineraries].
Chhing, c. + 1740. Thang, c. + 862.
Chiang Yung 7I j1<.. Fan Chho In N4.
710 BIBLIOGRAPHY A
Me Chi. Fly-Whisk Conversations of the Scholarly
See Mo Chi. Guest.
Meigetsuki !I.Il 11 'l!a.
Moonlight Diary [from + 1192 onwards].
Sung, c. + 1080.
Pheng Chheng W *.
Japan, c. + 1200.
Fujiwara no Sadaiye ~ );1. )'E*
called Teika (+ I 162/ + 1241).
commonly
Mo-Teng-Chia Ching • ~ 1!JU il! .
Matangl Sutra(?); The Book of MlItangI
[contains astrological details and a list of
Meng Chhi Pi Than 1I!f- ~ ~~ . hsiu with the number of stars in each].
Dream Pool Essays. Ascr. San Kuo. c. + ZZ5, but actually must
Sung, + 1086; last supplement dated + 1091. be approximately + 8th century.
Shen Kua ~ foli . Supposedly tr. from Sanskrit, Chu Lii-Y en
Meng Liang Lu ~ ~ ~" . ~~~.
The Past seems a Dream [description of the N/645, TW/ I30o.
capital, Hangchow]. Mo Tzu (inc!. Mo Ching) !!!:r .
Sung, + IZ75. The Book of Master Mo.
WU Tzu-Mu !k M4:§:. Chou. - 4th century.
Meng Tzu ~ T . Mo Ti (and disciples) m
tll.
The Book of Master Meng (Mencius). Tr. Mei Yi-Pao (I); Forke (3) .
Chou, c. - 290. Yin-Te Index no. (Supp!.) Z1.
Meng Kho ~ fil . TT/ II6z .
Tr. Legge (3) ; Lyall (I) . Mu Thien Tzu Chuan ~ 3R ~:r .
Yin-Te Index no. (Supp!.) 17. Account of the Travels of the Emperor Mu.
Min Shui Yen Than Lit. Chou. before -Z45. (Found in the tomb of
See Sheng Shui Yen Than Lu. An Li Wang, a prince of the Wei State.
Ming Huang Tsa Lu ljIJ ~ *It tlk. r . -276 to -Z45; in +281.)
Miscellaneous Records of the Brightness of Writer unknown.
the Imperial Court (of Thang Hsiian Tr. Eitel (1); Cheng Te-Khun (z).
Tsung).
Thang, +855. Nan Chhi Shu m 'f!f ff .
Cheng Chhu-Hui ~~ ~ ~ . History of the Southern Chhi Dynasty
Ming I Pieh Lu ~ ~ El] t\ . [ +479 to + 501]'
Informal Records of Famous Physicians. Liang, + 5zo.
Before Liang, perhaps San Kuo or Chin. Hsiao Tzu-Hsien m:r l\fi .
Comm. by Thao Hung-Ching (c. + 500) Nan Chou I Wu Chih i¥i ~Ii :lftl ~ ;E; .
~ru *~ . Strange Things of the South.
Ming I Thien W en Shu ljIJ ~ 3R " 1!f . Chin. + 3rd or + 4th century.
m.
Astronomical Books translated (by Imperial
Order of the) Ming.
Ming, + 138z.
Wan Chen 7Ji,
Nan Fang Tshao Mu Chuang I¥! 1'1 r,t *
Records of the Plants and Trees of the
1IX.
Tr. Hai-Ta-Erh m:il ~ (alternatively Hei- Southern Regions .
Ti-Erh m Ill] ~). Chin. + 3rd century.
Chi Han #i ~.
Ming Shih 1]1] Jl.!..
History of the Ming Dynasty [ + 1368 to Nan HaD Shih Hua i¥i lfi 1Ii¥ \it.
+ 1643]. Essays of the Retired Scholar Dwelling by
Chlling, + 1739. the Southern Moat [literary criticism].
Chang Thing-Yii 3.\i ~ :E et al. Ming, + 1513.
Ming Thang Ta Tao Lu ljIJ R: jc ;It t\ . Tu Mu tI1S~.
Studies on the Great Tradition of the Ming Nan Hu Chi ~~ mI •.
Thang [the cosmological temple, astro- Southern Lake Collection (of Poems).
nomical observatory, and emperor's Sung, + 1210.
ritual house, of antiquity]. Chang Tzu 3.\i ~ .
Chhing, c. + 1736. Nan Hua Chen Ching fYi $ .i!t il! .
Hui Shih-Chhi ;I; ± ~ . See Chuang Tzu.
M o Chi iAA ta . Nan I I Wu Chih m ~ J!:: ~ ;E;.
Things Silently Recorded [affairs of the Strange Things from the Sou thern Borders.
capital city]. H /Han, end +znd century.
Sung, + 11th century. Yang Fu ~~.
Wang Chih :E lJ . Nan-Ni-Chi-Shih-Fu-Lo-Thien Shuo Chih Lun
Mo Ching !!! ~l! . Ching lit 11ft lft i« a~; G 3R ~ jt • i! ·
See Mo Tzu. Manual of the Chih Cycle, spoken by Nan-
Mo Kho Hui Hsi !l ~ ~ J1P . Ni-Chi-Shih-Fu-Lo-Thien [astrological
 BIBLIOG R APHY A 7I I
Nan-Ni-Chi-Shih-Fu-Lo-Thiell Shuo Chih LUll Mnemonic Rhyme of the Seven Stars of the
Chillg (COllt.) Great Bear and their Tracks.
and geomantic text, which includes the Thang, c. +710.
European zodiacal animal cycle]. I-Hsing - IT.
Sung, c. +985. TW/ 13 0 5·
Tr. (from Sanskrit?), Fa-Hsien it 'tt . Pen Tshao Kong Mu # ~ ~ §.
TW/ 13 12. The Great Pharmacopoeia.
Non Shih ~.!1!.. Ming, + 1596.
History of the Southern D ynasties [Nan Li Shih-Chen '*B.\' ~ •
Pei Chhao period, +420 to + 589]. Paraphrased and abridged tr. Read &
collaborators (1-7) and Read & Pak (1)
Thang, c. + 670.
Li Yen-Shou '*
~ if..
Nall T shun Cho Keng Lu 1¥i tt ~ ~ t",·
with indexes.
Pen Tshao Pieh Shuo # If!. .!Jll lllt.
See Cho Keng Lu. Informal Remarks on the Pharmacopoeia.
Nung Cheng Chhiian Shu n il'X 5t m: . Sung, + 1090.
Complete Treatise on Agriculture. Chhen Chheng ~ fir.. .
Ming. Composed, + 1625 to + 1628 ; Pen Tshao Shih I # '!ji.. ~ ii'l.
printed, + 1639. Omissions from Previous Pharmacopoeias.
Hsii Kuang-Chhi ~ '1t ~ . Thang, c. +725.
Ed. Chhen Tzu-Lung ~::F lJiL . Chhen Tshang-Chhi ~ ~ t.f .
NlmgShu n~. Pen Tshao Yell I # 'fjf. m- ~ .
Treatise on Agriculture. The Meaning of the Pharmacopoeia
Sung, + 1 149; printed + 1154. Elucidated.
Chhen Fu (Taoist) ~ J. Sung, + 1116.
NungShu ~ ff . Khou Tsung-Shih 1fa ~ ~ .
Treatise on Agriculture. TT1761.
Yuan, + 1313. Phei Wetl Yiin Fu 1Jl:5C flit iff .
Wang Chen :E ~Lli . Encyclopaedia of Phrases and Allusions
arranged according to Rhyme.
Pao Phu T zu fu tl (*1') ::F. Chhing, + 1711.
Ed. Chang Yii-Shu SIt:E:t!f et al.
Book of the Preservation-of-Solidarity
Master.
Chin, early +4th century.
Phie1l Tzu Lei Piell ~ * Mi ~ .
Collection of Phrases and Literary Allusions.
KoHung It*. Chhing, + 1728.
Partial trs. Feifel (1, 2); Wu & Davis (2); etc. Ed. Ho Chhuo {iiJ ~ et al.
TT/ 117 1- 11 73· Phu Chi Fallg '1fj ~ 11.
Pei Chhi Shu ::Ib 'If !:!f . (Simple) Prescriptions for Everyman.
History of the 1 orthern Chhi Dynasty Ming, c. + 1410.
[+ 550 to + 577]. Chu H siao (Chou Ting Wang) :*: fw.i ,
m
Thang, + 640.
Li T e-Lin '* ~ ~ and his son Li Pai-Yao
assisted by Chao Yen-Chheng
and others.
m n.
1:tt ~

*a~· Pi Chhuall Hua Chillg fl> :ffi

A few chs. tr. Pfizmaier (60). The Mirror of Flowers [horticultural and
Pei Chou Shu ::Ib m i'f . zoo technic manual].
See Chou Shu. Chhing, + 1688.
Pei Shift ::Ib.!1!.. C hhen Hao-Tzu ~ t:~ ::F.
History of the Northern Dynasties [Nan *- .
Pi Li Tui Shu Piao it i§lJ 1tj' tk
Pei Chhao period, + 386 to + 581]. Logarithm Tables with Explanations.
Thang, c. + 670. Chhing, + 165 0.
Li Yen-Shou '* g t:'¥. Hsiieh Feng-Tsu ii~.mJ. lii'F .
Pei Shih Chi ::Ib {~ lli!.. Pi Nai Shall Fang Chi.
Notes on an Embassy to the North. See Pao Chhi-Shou (1).
J/Chin and Yuan, + 1223. Pi Shu Chiell Chih.
Wukusun Chung-Tuan ~ is' 1ffi fo1' ~ . See Yuall Pi Shu Chien Chih.
Pei Thallg Shu Chhao :IG ~ :t!f &,y . Pi Shu Lu Hua ~ ~ ti ~ .
Book Records of the orthern Hall Conversations while Avoiding the Heat of
[encyclopaedia]. Summer.
Thang, c. + 630. Sung, c. + 1150.
Yii Shih-N an m ill: m· Yeh Meng-Te ~ ~ {~.
Pei TOll CMi Hsillg Nien Sung I Kuei ::Ib:4-b Piao I Lu *- ~ ti.
£ ~ ~i1i WA tJL· Notices of Strange Things.
7 12 BIBLIOGRAPHY A
Piao I Lu (cont.) Record of Western Countries, by the monk
Ming. Hui-Seng.
Wang Chih-Chien :E ~ ~ . N/Wei, c. + 530.
Pien Cheng Lun m JE ~~ . Hui-Seng (monk) ~ &=..
Preserved in ch . 5 of Lo-Yang Chhieh Lan Chi,
Discourse on Proper Distinctions.
q .v.
Fa-Lin *
Thang, c. + 630.
r.M>.
Po Ku Thu Lu tlY ti ~ t~ .
Tr. Beal ( I); Chavannes (3).
Sha-Chou Thu Ching ¥:1> 1'li am f~ .
See Hsilan-Ho Po Ku Thu. Topography of Shachow [Tunhuang].
Po Wu Chi t~ 4?l1 ~a. Thang.
Notes on the Investigation of Things . Writer unknown.
H /H an, c. + 190. Tr. L. Giles (8, 9).
Thang Meng (b) m ~. Shan Chii Hsin Hua JlJ J!; ~ ~ .
Po Wu Chih t~ 4?l1~. Conversations on Recent Events in the
Record of the In vest igation of Things (cf. Mountain Retreat.
Hsil Po Wu Chih). Yuan, + 1360.
Chin, c. +290 (begun about +270). Yang Yti t·lh fj% •
Chang Hua ~ ~ . Tr. H . Franke (2).
Po Ya Chhin fa ~ ~. Shan Hai Citing JlJ #HllI. .
The Lute of Po Ya [legendary lutanist, Classic of the Mountains & Rivers .
G / I662]. Chou and C /Han.
Sung, + 13th century. Writers unknown.
Teng Mu IfI) 4:!l:. Partial tr. de Rosny (I).
Pu-Li Kho Than ?t ID. rIt; ~. Chung-Fa Index, n o. 9.
Discussions with Guests at Pu-li. Shan Ho Liang Chieh Khao.
Sung, c. + I I 10. See Thien Hsia Shan Ho Liang Chieh Khao.
Chhen Chhang-Fang ~ ~ 11. Shang Shu Shih Thien fIit:t'!f fl ~ .
Pu Thien Ko ;It ~ ~ . Discussion of the Astronomy in the Shang
Song of the March of the Heavens Shu section of the Historical Classic.
[astronomical] . Chhing, + 1749 to + 1753.
a .:: .
Sui, end +6th century.
Wang Hsi-Ming :E
Tr. Soothill (5).
* I.!IJ .
Sheng P ai-Erh §
Shang Shu Wei Khao Ling Yao flit ' Cl *:If: :IJ 1li
111·
Apocryphal Treatise on the Shang Situ
Samguk Sagi ~ ~, £ \M. Section of the Historical Classic; Investi-
History of the Three Kingdoms (of Korea) gation of the Mysterious Brightnesses.
[Silla (Hsin-Lo), Kokuryo (Kao-Chti-Li) C/Han, - 1st century.
and Pakche (Pai-Chhi) - 57 to + 936]. Writer unknown.
Korea, + 1145 (imperially commissioned by ( ow contained in Ku Wei Shu, chs. I and 2.)
King Injong), repr. + 13 94, + 1512. She- Thou-Chien Thai- T z u Erh-shih-pa Hsiu
Kim Pu-Sik (Chin Fu-Shih) ~ 'il fA. m
Ching 1f liJi ~ ::k. .:r .:: -I- /\. f~ .
San Fu Huang Thu ~ fill ,q" !Ill . 8ardillakan;a-vadana siltra(? ) [contains list
Description of the Three Districts in the of hsiu with number of stars in each.]
Capital (Chhang-an ; Sian).
Chin, late + 3rd century, or perhaps H /Han.
Attrib. to Miao Chhang-Yen 1B /! ~ .
San Kuo or Chin, c. + 300.
Tr. from Sanskrit, Chu Fa-Hu ~
(Dharmarak~a).
* \lli
San Kuo Chih ~ ~ iil:.. N /646, TW/ I3 0 I.
History of the Three Kingdoms [ + 220 to Shen Hsien Chuall jfit\I fIll m.
+280]. Lives of the Divine Hsien. (Cf. Lieh Hsien
Chin, c. + 290. Chuan and Hsil Shen Hsien Chuan.)
Chhen Shou ~ ~ .
Yin-Te Index, no. 33.
San Tshai Thu Hui .:::: ;t IIll @'.
*.
Chin, early +4th century.
Attrib. Ko Hung ~
Shen I Ching ~;t\l ~ f~ (or Chi W B).
Universal Encyclopaedia. Book of the Spiritual and the Strange.
Ming, + 1609. Ascr. Han, but prob. +4th or + 5th century.
Wang Chhi :E 1JT. Attrib . Tungfang Shuo JIt 11 ~A .
San-Yil Chui Pi :::: ~ It ftE .
Long-Winded Discussions at San-yti.
Shen NUlIg Pen T shao Citing jj;1~ ~ * lif. k.! .
Pharmacopoeia of the Heavenly Husbandman
Ming, late + 16th century. [no longer exists as a separate work but
Tu Ang l1I!n . forms the b as is of all subsequent pharma-
Seng Hui-Seng Shih Hsi Yil Chi 11;t;!E fJ! i!!f ceutical compendia].
~tB . H /Han, c. + 2nd century.
 BIBLIOGRAPHY A

Shen Nung Pen Tshao Ching (cont.) Shih Liao Pe1l Tshao i; ~ 7\1: W. .
Reconstituted and commented by Miu Hsi- The Nutritional Medicine Pharmacopoeia.
Yung (+ X625); see Shell Nung Pen Tshao Thang, c. + 670.
Ching Suo Meng Shen j i ~lt .
Shen Nung Pbl Tshao Ching Su rot\! ~ 7\1: w.~.ll! Shih Lin Kuang Chi mt+: 13i ~l',.
ifi!c. Guide through the Forest of Affairs
Commentary on the Text of the Pharma- [encyclopaedia).
copoeia of the Heavenly Husbandman. Sung, between + 1I00 and + x25o; first pr.
+ x3 2 5·
Ming, + X625.
Miu Hsi-Yung ~ * m.
Shell Tao Ta Piell Li Tsung Suan Hui rot\! ill: '* Chhen Yuan-Ching ~ % fiJI.
(A Ming edition of + 1478 is in the
t\iii1ff~#T-e-. Cambridge Unive rsity Library.)
AssemDly of Computing Methods connected Shih-Lin Yen Yu :6 t+: ~p~ ~fr.
with the Calf:ndar. Informal Conversations of (Yeh) Shih-Lin
Ming, + X55S.
Chou Shu-HsUeh rnJ i£
Sheng Chi Tsung Lu M ~ *!t/, &'i·
*. (Yeh Meng-Te).
Sung, + x x36.
Yeh Meng-Te ~ w: 1fl..
Imperial Medical Encyclopaedia (issued by See des Rotours (x), p. cix.
authority). Shih Phin ;P"~.
Sung, c. + xI I x. Hierarchy of Stones.
Ed. twelve physicians. Ming, + x6x7.
Sheng Hui Hsiian Fang ~;;g ~ 11 . Yu ChUn 'DP m.
Glory-of-the-Sages Choice Prescriptions. Shih Shuo Hsin Yii ilt illt ;\'# ~li-.
Sung, + X04S.
Ho Hsi-Ying fPJ * ~.
Sheng Shou Wan Nien Li M r":f {if, £f- m.
New Discourse on the Talk of the Times
[notes of minor incidents from Han to
Chin). Cf. Hsii Shih Shuo.
The Imperial Longevity Permanent L ISung, + 5th century.
Calendar. Liu I-Chhing. ;! ~ ~
(One of the books in the Calendrical Opus, Commentary by Liu HsUn ;\ ~ (Liang).
Li Shu JH ';!f .) Shih Su 'il<¥ ifiIf .
Ming, + X595.
Chu Tsai-Yu (prince of the Ming)
ijlf .
'*
l!Z
Studies on the Book of Odes.
Thang, c. + 640.
Khung Ying-Ta fL}Jt it .
Sheng Shui Yen Than Lu filii 7~ ~~ ~ 107<· Shih Tzu F::;-.
Fleeting Gossip by the River Sheng. The Book of Master Shih.
Sung. Ascr. Chou, - 4th century; probably + 3rd
Wang Phi-Chih :E!N.'iI Z. or 4th century.
Shih Chi 1f.. L'.. Attrib. Shih Chiao F 1~.
Historical R ecords [or perhaps better: Shih Wu Chi Yuan :l:]} ~ *e. J#. .
Memoirs of the Historiographer(-Royal); Records of the Origins of Affairs and Things.
down to - 99). Sung, c. + xoS5.
C /Han, c. -90 [first pr. c. + 1000). Kao Chheng 7lr 71<- •
Ssuma Chhien I'fl.~ i!i, and his father Shih Wu Lun H,f f1l ~~ .
Ssuma Than m .~ ~ . Discourse on Time [calendrical).
Partial trs . Chavannes (x); Pfizmaier (X3-36); San Kuo, c. +237.
Hirth (2); Wu Khang (x); Swann (x), etc. YangWei mw .
Yin-Te Index, no . 40. Shih Yao Erh Ya ;p ~ Hi~.
Shih Chia Chai Yang Hsin Lu T ~ ;1!!- :It' ;\'# t>'j;. Synonymic Dictionary of Minerals and Drugs.
Interpretations of the New by the Old; Thang, +SrS.
Miscellaneous Notes from the Shih-Chia Mei Piao W~.
Study. TTIS94·
Shou Shih Li I Ching ~ R,f 1ff ~~ ~JlI: .
Chhing, c. + x790.
Chhien Ta-Hsin £~
Shih Ching 'i\;f Ml. .
'* oft . Explanations and Manual of the Shou Shih
(Works and Days) Calendar.
Book of Odes [ancient folksongs). Yuan, + X2S0.
Chou, -9th to - 5th centuries. Kuo Shou-Ching ¥!I ~ 1>it (with many
Writers and compilers unknown. colleagues and assistants).
Tr. Legge (S); Waley (r); Karlgren (14). (Now only in chs. 52, 53, 54, 55 of the }'UGn
Shih I Chi n-i:l! \lE . Shih.)
Memoirs on Neglected Matters. ShOll Shih Tlllmg Khao ~ D;f Ni. 1t .
Chin, late +3 rd or +4th century. Complete Investigation of the 'Works and
Wang Chia :E},"{.. Days (published by Imperial Order)
 BIBLIOGRAPHY A
Sholl Shih Thung Khao (cont.) Ming.
[treatise on agriculture, horticulture Yeh Ping-Ching ~ 3IC wk .
and all related technologies]. Shu Tu Yen tk.5t m- .
Chhing, + 1742. Generalisations on Numbers.
Ed. O-Erh-Thai (Ortai) ~~ 1# ~. Chhing, + 1661 and + 1721.
Sholl Shou Wu Yo Yuan Fa N ~ 3i. mIl:lI it: . Fang Chung-Thung 17 q, ilfi.
Shu Wu I Ming Su J.ff.ltm ~ ~ ifiIt.
The Received Method of Drawing the
Circles of the Five (Sacred) Mountains . Disquisition on Strange Names for
Thang or Wu Tai. Common Things.
Writer unknown. Ming.
(Tunhuang MS. S/3750.) Chhen Mou-J en ~ ~ t:.
Shu CMng Chi ill tiE llB. Shu Yu Chou Tzu Lu ~ l]t rn 'f1 £.! .
Records of Military Expeditions. Complete Description of Foreign Parts.
Chin, + 3rd or + 4th century. Ming, + 1520.
Kuo Yuan-Seng ~\I ~ ~. Yen Tshung-Chien m 1;'£ 1i1\ .
S hu Ching ." k~ . Shui Ching 7l't ~ill. .
Historical Classic [Book of Documents] . The Waterways Classic [geographical
The 29 ' Chin Wen' chapters mainly Chou (a account of rivers and canals].
few pieces possibly Shang); the 21 'Ku Ascr. C /Han, prob. San Kuo.
W en ' chapters a 'forgery ' by Mei Tse ~ Attrib. Sang Chhin ~ $Jc .
~Ji, c. + 320, using fragments of genuine Shui Ching Chu 7l't k~ it. .
antiquity. Of the former, 13 are considered Commentary on the Waterways Classic
to go back to the - loth century, 10 to the [geographical account greatly extended).
- 8th, and 6 not before the - 5th. Some N /Wei, late + 5th or early + 6th century.
scholars accept only 16 or 17 as pre- Li Tao-Yuan IIJI ill: jlj.
Confucian. S hui Tao Thi Kang 7l't ill: m ;WtJ.
Writers unknown . Complete Description of Waterways.
See Wu Shih-Chhang (I); Creel (4). Chhing, + 1776.
Chhi Shao-Nan 'If ~ I¥i .
Shu Hsiieh ~ *.
Tr.Medhurst( I); Legge(l, 10); Karlgren(I2) .

Mathematical Astronomy.
Shun- Yu Lin-An Chih 7$ ifiti ~ '!l: iil:. .
Shun-Yu reign-period Topographical
Chhing, c. + 17 50. Records of the Hangchow District.
u:7"k. Sung, c. + 12+5.
Chiang Yung
S hu Hsueh Thung Kuei
Rules of Mathematics.
m: *
ilIi. fJL . Shih t Ml1il'll.
Shuo Fu ;nt '#\~ .
Ming, + 1578. Florilegium of (Unofficial) Literature.
Yuan, c. + 1368.
Ko Shang-C hhien l<ii ffit i!i .
Shu I Chi ~ ~ llB.
Records of Strange Things.
Thao Tsung-I ~.lJ *
See Ching Phei-Yuan (I).
fi'ii .

Liang, early + 6th century. Shuo Wen.

Jen Fang 1f: B~.
See des Rotours (I), p. ci.
See Shuo Wen Chieh Tzu.
Shuo Well Chieh Tzu IDt.:51: W~ *.
Analytical Dictionary of Characters.
Shu Li Ching Yun ~:IJ. t~ fl.
Collected Basic Principles of Mathematics H /Han, + 12I.
(compiled by Imperial Order) [Part of Hsu Shen "ff ~iI\ .
Lu Li Yuan Yuan, q .v.]. So-Nml Wen Chi 1fr i¥i .:51: ~ .
Collected Writings of (Cheng) So-Nan
Chhing, + 1723 .
(Cheng Ssu-Hsiao).
Ed. Mei Ku-Chheng ~ ~ JiX; & Ho Kuo-
Tsung 1nJ ~ *.
Cf. Humm el (2), p . 285.
Yuan, c. + 1340.
Cheng Ssu-Hsiao ~p is, 1i .
Sou S hen Chi rtlmt\lllB.
S hu Shll Chi I ~ vUi liB ill. Reports on Spiritu al Manifestations.
Memoir on some Traditions of Chin, c. + 348 .
Mathematical Art. Kan P ao T 1!1 .
H /H an, + 190 (?).
HsU Yo ~ f£..
Shu Shu Chiu Chang tk ~ ::It :!it .
Sou Tshai I Wen Lu !!l *
Partial tr. Bodde (9) .
~ lli:l £.If< .
Collection of Strange Things Heard.
Mathematical Treatise in ine Sections. Sung.
Sung, + 1247. Yung H cng 7)<. -7.
Chhin Chiu-Shao ~::It ffB . Ssu Ch/lOo Well Chien Lu gg M Im JL 11.
Shu Ssu Shuo Ling , fi~ iDt n- . Record of Things Seen and Heard at Four
Discussions of a Bibliographer. Imperial Courts.
 BIBLIOGRAPHY A
Sw Chhao Wen Chien Lu (cont.) Sung.
Sung, early + 13th century. Yii Mou 1[; ~ .
Yeh Shao-Ong ~ *3 ~. Sui Chhii Yii Thu Chih m;; ~ 11\ ~ .
Sw Men Ching I1Q r'1 m. Records and Maps of the Districts of the
(Astrological) Manual of the Four Gates Empire of the Sui (Dynasty).
[distribution of the hsiu among the four Sui, c. +600.
palaces]. Ed. Yii Shih-Chi &1t 1!.t iI: & Hsli Shan-
Thang, c. + 780. Hsin ~f- '* .e,..
Tr. (probably from Sogdian) Ching-Ching Sui Chu Chou Thu Ching Chi m i1f \ltl1Il k! •.
:JlI: ~ (Adam the Nestorian). Collection of Local Topographies and Maps
Ssu Min Yueh Ling 11.9 li; JI ~. of the Sui Dynasty.
Monthly Ordinances for the Four Sorts of Sui, c. + 600.
People (Scholars, Farmers, Artisans and Ed. Lang Wei-Chih HB i1 z. .
Merchants). Sui Hsi Yii Thu.
H /Han. See Hsi Yii Thu Chi.
Tshui Shih .m ~ . Sui Shu m•.
Ssu Yuan Yii Chien I1Q Jij :E i:i . History of the Sui Dynasty [+ 581 to + 617].
Precious Mirror of the Four Elements Thang, + 636 (annals and biographies);
[algebra]. + 656 (monographs and bibliography).
Yuan, + 1303. Wei Cheng III It et al.
Chu Shih-Chieh :* 1!.t ~ . Partial trs . Pfizmaier (61-65); Balazs (7,8);
Suan Ching Shih Shu • f~ T •. Ware (I).
The Ten Mathematical Manuals. Sui- Yin Man Lit !lI! ~ li "" .
Collected and issued, Sung, + 1084. (Chhen) Sui-Yin's Random Observations.
Ed. Tai Chen ti 1! (Chhing). Sung, late + 13th century.
Printed in the Palace Collection, Wu Ying Chhen Sui-Yin • !i1i ~ .
Tien Chli Chen Pan Tshung Shu iit ~ Sun Tzu Suan Ching ~ T 1J: iJi!. .
~ ~ ~ Illi M t!f + 1794· Master Sun's Mathematical Manual.
Also pub. separately by Khung Chi-Han San Kuo, Chin or L /Su ng.
fL iil im about + 1760. Master Sun (full name unknown) I! T .
Cf. Hummel (2), p. 697.
Suan Fa Chhu Yung Pen Mo • * m~
Alpha and Omega of Simple Calculations.
*. #
Sung Chhuang Pai Shuo *~ if 11 ~ .
A Hundred Observations from the Pine-tree
Window.
Sung, late + 13th century.
mnr. Sung, + 1157.
* **'
Yang Hui
Li Chi-Kho ~ PT .
Suan Fa Chhiian Neng Chi $. :1£ it~ • .
Record of' D o-Everything' Mathematical Sung Hui Yao It ~.
History of the Administrative Statutes of
Methods.
the Sung Dynasty.
Yuan or Ming. + 14th century.
Sung.
Chia Heng J( ¥ .
Chang Te-Hsiang • f!J. w..
Suan Fa Thung Pien Pen Mo • *
(In Yung-Lo Ta Tien, ch. 16343 /4.)

Alpha and Omega of the Mathematics of

*.
;!Ii ~ # Sung I Min Lu * ~ B; "".
Sung Officials who refused to serve the
Mutually Varying Quantities. Yuan Dynasty.
Sung, end + 13th century. Ming, + 1479.
Chheng Min-Cheng f} ~ iJ& .
Yang Hui m" . Sung Shih * lE..
(In Yang Hui Suan Fa.)
Suan Fa Thung Tsung • * *1t ~.
Systematic Treatise on Arithmetic.
History of the Sung Dynasty [ + 960 to
+ 12 791 .
Ming, + 1593. Yuan, c. + 1345.
Tho-Tho (Toktaga) JI5t nft & Ouyang
Suan Hsiieh Chhi Meng ;w: *
Chheng Ta-Wei f}:}( 1rr. .
'if ~ . Hsiian rJ\ IWJ "!Z. .
Yin-Te Index, no. 34.
Introduction to Mathematical Studies.
Yuan, + 1299.
Chu Shih-Chieh :* 1!.t flit .
Sung Shu * ff .
History of the (Liu) Sung Dynasty [ + 420
Suan Hsiieh Hsin Shuo • * ~ ~.
A New Account of the Science of
to +478].
S/Chhi, + 500.
Calculation (in Acoustics and Music). Shen Yo ¥,t kf.J.
Ming, + 1603.
Chu Tsai-Y li (prince of the Ming) :* ~ 111'.
Sui-Chhu Thang Shu Mu ~ %11 ~ ff ~.
Sung Ssu-Hsing Tzlt- Wei Shu *
A few chs. tr. Pfizmaier (58).
mlit T • t!f .
Book of the Astrologer (Shih) Tzu-Wei of
Cata:ogue of the Books in the Sui-Chhu Hall . the State of Sung.
 BIBLIOGRAPHY A
Sung Ssu-Hsitlg Tzu- Wei Shu (cont.)
Chou, early - 5th century.
Shih Tzu-Wei .!l!. ~ ~.
Sung Ssu Tzu Chhao Shih *
gg =J- j"1} J.':i .
Selections from the Writings of the Four
Sung (Neo-Confucian) Philosophers
[excl. Chu Hsi].
Sung (ed. Ming, + 1536).
Ed. Lii Jan g ti1l- .
Sung Yuan Hsiieh An *j{; ~ ~ .
Schools of Philosophers in the Sung and
Yuan Dynasties.
Chhin g, c. + 1750.
HuangTsung-Hs i ~It
Wang 5tillll.~ .
* ~ & Chhiian T su-
Ta Chhing Hui Tien :k i'fi' it !.~.
History of the Administrative Statutes of
the Chhing D ynasty.
Chhing: Isted. + 1690; znd +1733;
3rd +1767; 4th +18 18; 5th + 1899.
Ed.Wang An-Kuo :E '!l: \W,l and many others.
Ta Chhing I Thunl< Chih :k 'Ifi - t1t it- .
Comprehensive Geography of the (Chinese)
Empire (under the Chhing dynasty).
Chhing, c. + 1730.
Ed. Hsii Chhien-Hsii eh ~ ~t ~.
Ta Fang Teng Ta Chi Ching :k n *t$
Mahii-vaipulya-mahii-sa1[lnipiita Siitra
~ 1'- .
[includes calendrical and Western
zodiacal animal cycle material, association
of planets with hsiu, etc.]'
N /Chou or Sui, between + 566 and + 585 .
T r. from Sanskrit, Na-Lien-Thi-Yeh-She
m
1l~ ill! l{~ 1: (Narendrayasas).
N /6 I; TW/397.
T a-Kuan Ching Shih Cheng Lei Pen Tshao :k I!!.
fJ! JJ!. ~1i ~ JI>:. 1lt.
Ta-Kuan reign-p eriod Reorganised
Pharmacopoeia.
See Chellg Lei Pell Tshao.
Ta Ming Hui Tien :k ljij ~ !Jl!..
History of the Administrative Statutes of
the Ming Dynasty.
Ming, 1st ed. +1509, znd ed. +1587.
Ed. Shen Shih-Hsing $ D;f'l1' et al.
Ta Ming I Thullg Chih :k ljij - Ut it-.
Comprehensive Geography of the (Chinese)
See Legge (7).
Tr. Douglas (I); R. Wilhelm (6).
Ta Thang Hsi Yii Chi :k 11f ~ l:!>1 t.c..
Records of the Western Countries in the
time of the Thang.
Thang, + 646.
Hsiian-Chuang (monk) ~ ~ .
Ed. Pien Chi m t1l! .
Tr. Julien (I); Beal (z).
Ta Yen Hsiang Shuo :k 'i fi ~r IDt .
Explanation of Indeterminate Analysis
[algebra]
Sung, c. + I 180.
Tshai Yuan-Ting ~ j{; JE.
Ta Yuan I Thung Chih 7'- 51:; - M: ;G; .
Comprehensive Geography of the (Chinese)
Empire (under the Yuan Dynasty) .
Yuan, c. + 1310.
Editor not known.
Tan Chhien Tsung Lu :J'I- i~ ~ t~ .
Red Lead Record.
Ming, + I54z.
Yang Shen t-RJ tlft .
Tan Fang Chien Yuan :J'I- n i! ~ .
Original Mirror of Alchemical Preparations.
Sung, + 11th century.
Tuku Thao !ii 1lII. i€1 .
TT/9 I8 .
Tao Te Ching ill ~ kJ! .
Canon of the Tao and its Virtue.
Chou, before - 300.
Attrib. Li Erh (Lao Tzu) ,*:If. (;;f3 =J-).
Tr. Waley (4); Chhu Ta-Kao (z); Lin Yii-
Thang (I); Wieger (7); Duyvendak (18);
and very many others.
Tao Tsang ~ M .
The Taoist Patrology [containing 1464
Taoist works].
All periods, but first collected and printed
in the S ung. Also printed in J /Chin
(+ II86 to + II9I), Yuan, and Ming
(+ 1445, + 1598 and + 1607).
Index by Wieger (6), on which see Pelliot's
review.
Thai Hsiian Ching *
Yin-Te Index no . Z5.
~ f~ .
Canon of the Great Mystery.

m* .
Empire (under the Ming dynasty). C/Han, c. + 10.

Ed. Li Hsien
Ta Pao Chi Ching
'** .m
Ming, c. +1450 (+I461?).
~
W fJ!.
Yang Hsiung
Thai I Chin Ching Shih Ching
fJ! .
* Z. ::itm :it

Mahiiratnakiita Siitra. The Golden Mirror of the Thai-I (Star); a

Tr. + 541. Divining Board Manual.
N /z3; TW/3lo. Thang.
Wang Hsi- Ming :E ~f ljij .
Ta Tai Li Chi :k ~ !Ii~ ·flC. .
Record of Rites (compiled by Tai the Elder).
(Cf. Hsiao Tai Li Chi; Li Chi.)
Thai Pai Yin Ching *i3 F>~ f~ .
Canon of the White (and Gloomy) Planet
Ascr. C /Han, c. -70/ - 50 but really (of W ar; Venus) [treatise on military
H /Han, between +80 and + 105. affairs].
Attrib. ed. Tai Te ~ ~ ; in fact probably ed.
Tsh ao Pao 'If[ '!.l'Ii •
Thang, +759.
Li Chhiian '* .
~
 BIBLIOGRAPHY A
Thai-Phing Huan Yii Chi * ~ It '¥ ~~. Chhing, + 1723.
-'C
Thai-Phing reign-period General Descrip-
tion of the world [geographical record].
Sung, +976 to +983.
Hsii Wen-Ching
Thien Hsiieh Hui Thung
~
7C
Towards a Thorough Understanding of
* f!r. im..
t~

Yiieh Shih ~.!1!. .

Thai-Phing Yii Lan * ~ li'!IJ
Thai-Phing reign-period Imperial
'it .
Astronomical Science.
Chhing, + 1650.
Hsiieh Feng-Tsu n; l! if\;. .
Encyclopaedia [lit. the Emperor's Daily Thien Kung Khai Wu 7C I 00 !\m .
Readings]. The Exploitation of the Works of Nature.
Sung, +983.
Ed. Li Fang * Rn.
Some chs. tr. Pfizmaier (84-106).
Ming, + 1637.
Sung Ying-Hsing ~ £. *
Thien Mou Pi Lei Chheng Chhu Chieh Fa al ~
Yin-Te Index no . 23 . J:I:.~j*~~tl* .
Thai- Tshang Chou Chih *: tr jot\ ~.
Practical Rules of Arithmetic for Surveying.
Topography of Thai-tshang (Chiangsu). Sung, end + 13th century.
Ming, c. + 1500. Yang Hui Wi *li .
Ed. Chhien Su-Lo &l!!i ~ .
Than Chai Thung Pien m..
Miscellaneous Records of the Candid
im. *'" .
(In Yang Hui Suan Fa.)
Thien Pu Chen Yuan 7C ~
True Course of Celestial Motions.
Chhing, c. + 1646.
.1ft 1J!..

Studio.
Sung, c. + 1220.
Mu Ni-Ko (Nicholas Smogolecki) ~ Wo 00
& H siieh Feng-Tsu ~ Jl\. JM; •
Hsing Khai fflS tn. •
Thien Ti Jui Hsiang Chih 7C it!! J1M ~ ~.
Thang Chhiieh Shih JiJ I1Al .!1!.. Record of Auspicious Phenomena in the
Thang Memorabilia. Heavens and the Earth.
Wu Tai, + loth century.
Thang, c. + 666.
Kao Y en-Hsiu ~ JJ; (;ic.
Shou-Chen (monk) ~.Ift .
Thang Hui Yao mt" ~. Thien Tui 7C:ff.
History of the Administrative Statutes of Answers about Heaven.
the Thang Dynasty. Thang, c. + 800.
Sung, +96I. Liu Tsung-Yuan ~ ~ 5ii .
Wang Phu :£ ~.
Thang P en Tshao JiJ ~ ~ .
Thien Wen 7C r., .
Questions about Heaven [ode].
Pharmacopoeia of the Thang Dynasty. Chou, c. - 300.
(Cf. the Hsin Hsiu Pen Tshao, q.v.) Chhii Yuan .m.t 1J!..
Thang, + 660.
Ed. Su Kung
Thang Shu.
~ '* . Tr. Erkes (8).
Thien Wen Chih ~ -'C lil;;.
On the Heavens. [A memorial preserved in
See Chiu Thang Shu and Hsin Thang Shu. the Chin Shu, History of the Chin
Thang Yii Lin r.lf m ~ . Dynasty.]
Miscellanea of the Thang dynasty. H /Han, c. + 180.
Sung, collected c. + I 107. Tshai Yung ~ gj, .
Wang Tang :£ 1I. Thien Wen Lei ~ -'C ~ .
Thieh Wei Shan Tshung Than ~ mtlt ~;m. Collection of (Old) Astronomical Writings.
Collected Conversations at Iron-Fence Chhing, c. + 1799.
Mountain. See Wylie (I), p. IOI.
Sung, c. + I II5. Thien Wen Lu 7C -'C ~ .
Tshai Thao ~ ~ . Resume of Astronomy.
Thien Ching ~ m. S /Chhi or Liang, c. + 500.
Mirror of the Heavens. Tsu Keng-Chih lM!. afi Z·
Liang, + 6th century. (Fragments in Khai-Yuan Chan Ching.)
Writer unknown. Thien Wen Liieh 7C r.ll ~.
Thien Hsia Chiin Kuo Li Ping Shu ~ T fit m Explicatio Sphaerae Coelestis.
*'1Ijiij fF .
Merits and Drawbacks of all the Countries
Ming, + 1615.
Yang Ma-No (Emanuel Diaz) ~ ~ ~.
in the World [geography]. Thien Wen Ta Chheng Kuan Khuei Chi Yao 7C
Chhing, + 1662. ~;k~i'QfJt~·
Ku Yen-Wu il{ ~)it. Essentials of Observations of the Celestial
Thien Hsia Shan Ho Liang Chieh Khao ~ T tlt Bodies through the Sighting Tube.
i'PJ\ifjJlt:?f. Chhing (incorporating Sung and Yuan
An Investigation of the Two Regions of the material), + 1653.
Earth [a study of the fen yeh system]. Huang Ting 1i JlIl..
 BIBLIOGRAPHY A
Thien Wen Ta H siang Fu ;R ~ 7;: ~ !lit. Thung Clzih Lii.eh iifi. ;E; III .
Essay on the Great Constellations in th e Compendium of Information [part of
Heavens. Tlzung Clzih, q.v.].
Sui or Thang, early +7th century. Tlzung Hsuan Clzen Clzing iifi. '!A if(. f~ .
Li Po * 1M.
Thien W en Ya o Lit ;R ~:! ti.
See Wen Tzu.
Tlzung Su Wen ilIi. ~ ~.
Record of the Most Important Astronomical Commonly Used Synonyms.
Matters. H /Han or Chin.
Fu Chhien nil rji.
Thang, c. + 664.
Li Hng (prince of the Thang) * m. .
Thien-Yuan Li Li Chhii.an Shu ;R jt 1ft J3!. 1e • .
Tlzung Tien iifi. ~ •
Comprehensive Institutes [reservoir of
Complete Treatise on the Thien- Yuan source material on political and social
Calendar. history).
Chhing, + 1682. Thang, c. +812.
Hsil Fa ~ ft. Tu Yu ft.1G.
Thien Yuan Yii. Li Hsiang I Fu ;R jt ::E 1ff ~ Thung WetZ Suan Clzilz IPJ ~ 1,1 tri.
~l.Iit. Treatise on European Arithmetic [lit.
Essay on (Astronomical and Meteorological) Combined Languages Mathematical
Presages. Indicator].
Ming, + 1425 (never printed). Ming, + 1614.
Chu Kao-Chih :* 1.!i tIl!i (emperor of the Li Ma-Tou (Matteo Ricci) *IJ ~ :. & Li
Ming). * :z. it .
(MS. in Camb. Univ. Library.)
Thou Lien Hsi Tshao iT£ If{ *1Il1f!.
Chih-Tsao
Thung Yuan Suan Fa ilIi.!lit ~
Origins of Mathematics.
*'
The Mathematical Curtain Pulled Aside. Ming, + 1372.
Yuan, c. + 1355. Yen Kung m~!i.
Writer unknown. (In Yztllg-Lo Ta Tien, ch. 16343 /4.)
Ti Clzing :tt!l~.
*
(In Yung-Lo Ta Tie7l, ch. 16343 /4.)
Thu Ching Phz Tshao lIM Mi !if..
See Pen Tshao Thu Ching and Thu Ching
Mirror of the Earth.
Liang, + 6th century.
Yen I Pen Tshao in the Addenda to this Writer unknown.
Bibliography, p. 723. Ti Clzing Tlzu :tt!l ~ lIM .
Thu Hsiu Chen Chii.n Tsao-Hua Clzih Nan ± ~ Illustrated Mirror of the Earth.
!f(.~· ~ ·H:t~m. Liang, + 6th century.
Guide to the Creation, by the Earth's Writer unknown.
Mansions Immortal. Ti Wei :tt!l *~.
See Tsao-Hua Chih Nan.
Thu Hsiu Pen Tshao ± frI * 11-.
The Earth's Mansions Pharmacopoeia.
Outlines of Geography.
Ming, + 1624 (pr. + 1638 and + 1648).
Hsiung Jen-Lin !m A ~ .
See Tsao-Hua Chih Nan. Ting Chu Suan Fa T §: ~ *.
Thu Shu Chi Chhetzg lE ~ !lX; • Ting Chil's Arithmetical Methods.
Imperial Encyclopaedia. Yuan, + 1355.
Chhing, + 1726. Ting Chil T §: .
Ed. Chhen Meng-Lei J(!l! .~ 'oft et al. (In Yztllg-Lo Ta Tien, ch. I6343 /4.)
Tongguk Yeji Seungnam *!J;Xl ~ :!tiJ 111i ~'t.
*'
Index by L. Giles (2).
Thu Shu Pien tm t,;i.
On Maps and Books [encyclopaedia).
Geographical Vista of the Eastern Kingdom
(Korea).
Ming, + 1562, + 1577, + 1585 . Korea (Choson) begun c. + 1470, finished
Chang Huang ¥ li!'( . + 153 0 .
Thui Pu Fa Chieh :Jt:!J' * 14~ .
Analysis of Celestial Motions.
S6 Ko-Jong ~}ii If.
Tsao-Hua Clzlzien Chlzui )1f 1t ~ ii!.
Chhing, + 1750. The Hammer and Tongs of Creation [i.e.
Chiang Yung n: 'k. ature].
Thung-Clzlzi Hsien Clzilz ~ ~ fi ;E; . Ming, c. + 1430.
Brief otes from Thung-chhi [ethnography ing Hsien Wang (prince of the Ming)
of tribal peoples] . ~~ -E.
Chhing, + 17th century. Tsao-Hua Clzilz Nan i! 1t J:\j ~q
Chhen Ting 1!il1l1~ . [= Tlzu Hsiu Pen Tslzao].
Tlzung Clzih iai;E; . Guide to the Creation [i.e. Nature]'
Historical Collections. Thang, Sung or Ming.
Sung, c. + I I So. Thu Hsiu Chen Chiln (the Earth's Mansions
Cheng Chhiao ~5 t!~. Immortal) ± frI tl.\. ;fr' .
 BIBLIOGRAPHY A
Tsao-Hua Chih Notl (cont.) Kuliang Chuan but, unlike them, probably
(Preserved only in quotations as in PTKM.) originally itself an independent book of
Tsao-Hua Ching. history.
See Tung-Hsiian Ling-Pao Chu Th£ell Shih- Attrib. Tsochhiu Ming ti. liB I]Il .
Chieh Tsao-Hua Ching. See Karlgren (8); Maspero (x); Chhi Ssu-
Tsao-Hua Ching Lun Thu ~ 11: JJlI r.~ &l\l . Ho (x); Wu Khang (x); Wu Shih-Chhang
Illustrated Discourse on the Creatioll Canon . (x); Eberhard, Muller & Henseling.
Ming. Tr. Couvreur (x); Legge (Il); Pfizmaier
Chao Chhien m ',ll. (X-12).
Tshan Thung Chhi ~ If1J ~. Tso Chuan Pu Chu ti. m 'AA tt .
The Kinship of the Three; or, The Commentary on Master Tsochhiu's
Accordance (of the Book of Changes) wi th Enlargement of the Chhun Chhiu.
the Phenomena of Composite Things. Chhing, + x7x8.
H {Han, + X42. Hui Tung ;t; tilt .
Wei Po-Yang tl\ fB r~. Tu Chheng Chi Sheng ~ ~ *r. .
~
Tr. Wu & Davis (x). The Wonder of the Capital [Hangchow].
Tshan Thung Chhi Khao I ~ I<iJ ~ ~ It . Sung, + X235 .
A Study of the Kinship of the Three. Mr Chao tff ~ .
Sung, + 1197. (Kuan Pu Nai Te Ong, The Old Gentleman
Chu Hsi (originally u sing pseudonym Tsou of the Water-Garden who achieved
Hsin) :*: ~ (~~rr). Success through Forbearance i1! 001 iitit
Tshe Liang Fa I rUIJ li! it: ~ . f!1- ~).
Essentials of S urveying [trigonometry] . Tu Hsing Tsa Chih !ii rill:a ;G;.
Ming, + 1607. Miscellaneous Records of the Lone Watcher.
Li Ma-Tou (Matteo Ricci) *IJ ~ JIf & H sU Sung, + x x76.
Kuang-Chhi ~ 1t iitf . Tseng Min-Hsing tt lit n' .
Tshe Liang I Thung m:it ~ I<iJ . Tu I Chih !ii JP; ~ .
Similarities and Differences (between Things Uniquely Strange.
Chinese and European) Surveying Thang.
Technique [trigonometry].
Ming, + x63 I.
Li Jun g *
7L.
Tu-Li- Yu-Ssu Ching t~ *IJ ~ NI j,m. .
H su Kuang-Chhi ~ 'Jt i;!{-. Th e Tu-Li-YU-Ssu (Astrological) Manual
Tshe Suan 5l( m:. [probably two separate works combined).
On the Use of the Calculating-Rods.
Chhing, + X744.
T ai Chen ~~.
Thang, c. + 800.
Tr. from the Sogdian, ChhU-Kung
Tu Shih Fang Yu Chi Yao ~.!l:!.11 ~ *c
J'
1];: .
~ .
Tshe Thien Yo Shuo tall 3R ;\'(.J ;jl: .
Essentials of Historical Geography.
Brief D escription of the Measurement of
Chhing, + x667.
th e Heavens.
Ku Tsu-YU JilI roll. m.
Ming, + 1628.
T eng YU-Han (Johannes Terrentius, i.e. Tu- Yang Tsa Pien ;It r~J :a t\i.
The Tu-yang Miscellany.
J ohann Schreck) Ji'K:E 1!r.1 •
Tshe Yuan H ai Ching rUq IlJ1 iti m. Thang, end + 9th century.
Sea Mirror of Circle Measurements. Su E it1 ~J},.
J/Chin (Yuan), + 1248. Tuan-Chhi Yen Phu ~ ~ liJ!. ~.
Li Yeh *- It. Tuan-chhi Inkstonc Record.
Sung, c. +lx35.
Tshe Yuan Hai Ching Fen Lei Shih Shu iKli [1]
mm3t~f.l\Wr.
Writer unknown.
Classified Methods of the Sea Mirror of Tun-Huong Lu ~ ~~ tlft .
Circle Measurements. Record of Tunhuang [local topography).
Ming, + 1550. Thang.
Ku Ying-Hsiang U I!f!\ ~F . Writer unknown.
Tso Chua" ti. m· Tr. L. Giles (8, 9).
Master Tsochhiu's Enlargement of the Chhun Tung Hsi Yang Khao JIt ~ U ~ .
Chhiu (Spring alld Autumn Annals) Studies on the Oceans East and West.
[dealing with the period -722 to -453]. Ming, + 1618.
Late Chou, compiled between - 430 and Chang Hsieh ~ ~ .
- 250, but with additions and changes by Tung-Hsiao Shih Chi ~fri11!= ·foif ~ .
Confucian Scholars of the Chhin and Han, Poems by Visitors to the Tung-Hsiao
especially Liu Hsin. Greatest of the three [Taoist Temple at Hangchow].
commentaries on the Chhul! Chhiu, the Yuan, + 1302.
others being the KU1lgyallg Chl101l and the Meng Tsung-Pao ~ ~ 1t .
720 BIBLIOGRAPHY A
Tung-Hsuan Ling-Pao Chu Thien Shih-Chieh Wen Hsien Thung Khao 5C J:k ~ ~ .
Tsao -Hua Ching i\lil"!i. tK 1lf W 7C ill: !Jf- Comprehensive Study of (the History of)
~1U~. Civilisation.
Creation Canon; The Origin of all Heavens Sung, begun c. + 1254, finished c. + 1280,
and all Worlds: a work of the Tung- but not published until + 1319.
Hsilan Scriptures of Ling-Pao Chiln Ma Tuan-Lin .% rn\J 111..\.
[second person of the Taoist Trinity]. A few chs. tr. Julien (2); St Denys (I).
Perhaps Thang. Wen Hsin Tiao Lung ;t .r" elft ff'li. .
Writer unknown. On the Carving of the Dragon of the
TT/3 I8 .
Tung Kung Ku Shih * -g Mc :$.
Stories of the Eastern Palace.
Literary Mind [literary criticism, earliest
book]; or, Anatomy of the Literary Mind.
Liang.
C/Han, b efore - 48. Liu Hsieh ~! q,,~. .
Chang Ch hang ~ ~ . Wen Hsiian 3t ~ .
Tung Ming Chi ~1iil ~ lie. . General Anthology of Prose and Verse.
Light on Mysterious Things. Liang, + 530.
Ascr. H an; prob. + 5th or + 6th century. Ed. Hsiao Thung (prince of the Liang) ~ tit .
Attrib. Kuo Hsien ~!I lilK .
T Ullg-Pho Chhuan Chi or Chhi Chi
(-1:; ~).
*
lJf ~ ~
Wen-Shu-Shih-Li PllIl-Sa chi Chu Hsien so Shuo
Chi-Hsill71g Shih Jih Shall-0 Hsiu Yao
Ching ;t J! eiji ;fOIJ '!'f ~ & W fill m ;m 5
The Seven Collections of (Su) Tung-Pho ~ 0.18 ~~~ 9mf.ll! .
[i.e. Collected Works]. Sutra of the Discourses of the Bodhisattva
Sung, down to + lIOI, but put together Manjusri and the Sages on Auspicious and
later. Inauspicious Times and Days, and on the
Su Tung-Pho ii! *
lJf .
Tung Thien Clthing Lu (Chi) if,ij 7C ffi ff< (~).
Good and Evil Hsiu and Planets [includes
the planetary names of the days of the
Clarification of Strange Things Sogdian 7-day week, the Western zodiacal
[Taoist]. animal cycle, etc.]. Short title: Hsiu and
Sung, c. + 1240 Planet Sutra.
Chao Hsi-Ku m ~ ItS . Tr. Thang, +759.
Tr. Pu-Khung (Amoghavajra) ~ ~ .
Wamy6-Honz6. With commentary by Yang Ching-Feng ~
See H onz6-Wamy6. :f.l: /i., +7 64.
Wan Chhing Lou Thu Pien "fiSt ~ ~ Im ~. / 1356; TW/ I299·
Study of (Star-) Maps from the Myriad Wen Tzu ~:r .
Bamboo Tablet Studio. [ = Thung Hsuan Chen Ching.]
Chhing, c. + 1740. The Book of Master Wen.
Shao Ang-Hsiao ~m r;, ~. Han and later, but must contain pre-Chhin
Wall Yung Cheng T sun/? Pu-Chhiu-Jen Chhuan material; probably took its present form
Pien 7Ji, mJ[*~ * A~*i. about +380.
The' Ask TO Questions' Complete Attrib. Hsin Yen :$ liJf or n .
Handbook for General Use. Wu-An Li Suan Shu Mu ill ~ 13 U tf §.
Ming, + 1609. Bibliography of Mei Wen-Ting's (Wu-An's)
Yil Wen-Thai 1k ;t ~ . Mathematical Writings.
Wei Lueh ~a ~ . Chhing, + 1702.
Memorable Things of the Wei State (San Mei Wen-Ting m ~ $.
Kuo) . Wu Chltuan Lit ~ Afr tlft.
San Kuo (Wei) or Chin, + 3rd or +4th Account of a Journey by boat to Wu [from
century. Chhengtu in Szechu an to Chiangsu].
Yil Huan fH. fi{ . Sung, + I 177 .
Wei Liieh *~ ~. Fan Chheng-Ta MW;;*-.
Compendium of Non-Classical Matters. WU Ching Lei Pien 3i t.:~ $.il .,,' .
Sung, + 12th century (end). Classified Infonnation on the Five Classics.
Kao Ssu-Sun ~ 1U ffi . Chhing, + 1673.
Wei Shu ~~ . Chou Shih-Chang ).'.1 ilr *1';: .
History of the (Northern) W ei Dynasty Wu Ching Suan Shu 3i k.'l1 :)J VP! .
[ + 386 to + 550, including the Eastern Ar ithmetic in the Five Classics.
W ei su(;cessor State]. T/Chhi, + 6th century.
N /Chhi, + 554, revised + 572. Chen Lu an fi ~ .
Wei Shou lla 1& . Wit Citing TSlmg Yao ~ ill! ~. W.
See Ware (3). Collection of the most important Military
Onc ch. tr. Ware (I, 4). Techniques (compiled by Imperial Order).
 BIBLIOGRAPHY A 7 21
Wu Ching Tsung Yao (C07It.) Chin?
Sung + 1040 (+ 1044). Anonymous.
Ed. Tseng Kung-Liang 11 iJ:: ~.
Wu Chiin Chih ~ mt;&;. Yang Hui Suan Fa W; ~ it;. nr
Topography of the Suchow Region Yang Hui's Methods of Computation.
(Chiangsu). Sung, + 1275.
Sung, + 1192; addenda, + 1229. Yang Hui ~:!ili.
Fan Chheng-Ta W, ~ :}( . Yao Tien ~!l\!-.
Wu Chung Shui Li Shu ~ qr 7j'( ;jiIJ '\\f. The Canon of Yao.
The Water-Conservancy of the Wu District. (A chapter of the Shu Ching, q.v.)
Sung, + 1059. Yeh Huo Pien l!lf!~ *Iii .
Shan 0 fi!.~. Memoirs of a Mission Achieved in the Wilds
Wu Hsing Hsing Tu Chieh :li £ fi .I1t I>l~. [an embassy to Samarqand + 1368 to
Analysis of the Motions of the Five Planets. + 1398].
Ming, + 1640. Ming, c. + 1400.
Wang Hsi-Shan :E rf#l.m Shen Te-Fu ~ 1i. r.t .
Wu Li Hsiao Shih ~ J.'I!. '1' ~ . Yeh Kho Tshullg Shu mf rp; ~ ~ .
Small Encyclopaedia of the Principles of Collected Notes of the Rustic Guest.
Things. Sung, + 1201.
Chhing, + 1664. Wang Mou :E m.
Fang I-Chih 11 f.l ~ . Yen Fan Lu wr ~ it.
Wu Li Lun ~ JJ. ;i~ . Extension of the String of Pearls on the
Discourse on the Principles of Things Spring and Autumn Annals [on the meaning
[astronomical]. of many Thang and Sung expressions].

Yang ChhUan >tllI

Wu Li-Pu Shih Hua
*.
San Kuo, end + 3rd century.

~ WI~ $ 1i¥ lit .

Sung, + I 180.
Chhcng Ta-Chhang f~ j( ~ .
See des Rotours (1), p. cix.
On the Principles of Poetry, by Mr Wu, of Yen Phu TiJ!.~.
the Ministry of Rites. Inkstone Record.
Yuan, early + 14th century. Sung, late + loth century.
Wu Shih-Tao tfi; Cili itt . Shen Shih ~ 1± or Su I-Chien lJ g, 1I1i •
Wit Li Thung Khao 3i ii~ ~ ;!f . Yen Shih ~ I.t.
Comprehensive Investigation of the Five On Inkstones.
Kinds of Rites.
Chhing, + 1761.
Chhin Hui-Thien ~"j [11 •
MiFu *
Sung, c. + 1085.
'itf.
Tr. v. Gulik (2).
WuLu tfi;U,. Yen Tan Tzu ~ ft :r .
Record of the Kingdom of Wu. (Life of) Prince Tan of Yen (d. - 226) [a more
San Kuo, + 3rd century. extensive version of the biography of
Chang Pho m fJJ . Ching Kho (q.v.) in Shih Chi, ch. 86,
!Vu Pei Chih iit fill ;&;. apparently containing some authentic
Treatise on Armament Technology. details not therein].
Ming, + 1628. Probably H /Han, +2nd century.
Mao Yuan-I ~ 5G Ili. Writer unknown.
Wu Pei Pi Shu 1ft filii f>!> '11.'. Tr. Cheng Lin (1).
Confidential Treatise on Armament Techno- Yen Thieh Lun ~ ~ ~~ .
logy [a compilation of selections from Discourses on Salt and Iron [record of the
earlier works on the same subject]. debate of - 81 on State control of commerce
Chhing, late + 17th century (repr. 1800). and industry].
Shih Yung-Thu 1ilii ik !i;!\. C/Han, c. - 80.
Wu shih Pen Tshao tfi; Jl:; ;>\1:. .Q:. Huan Khuan ;fti Jt .
Mr Wu's Pharmaceutical Codex. Partial tr. Gale (I); Gale, Boodberg & Lin.
San Kuo (Wei), c. +225. Yen Tzu Chhun Chhiu ~:r l{} ,*.
Wu Phu tfi; ~ . Master Yen's Spring and Autumn Annals.
!Vu Tshao Suan Ching :li W l1 ~~ . Chou, prob. -4th century.
Mathematical Manual of the Five Govern- Attrib. Yen Ying ~ ~.
ment Departments. Ying Hai Lun.
Chin, +4th century.
Compilers unknown.
Wu Yo Chelt Hsing Thu :li ilk ff~ l@ . n.
See Chang Tzu-Mu (1).
Ying Tsao Fa Shih *
it it; ;a: .
Treatise on Architectural Methods.
Map of the True Topography of the Five Sung, + 1097; printed + 11°3; reprinted
Sacred Mountains. + II45·
722 BIBLIOGRAPHY A
Ying Tsao Fa Shih (cont .) Yii-Ting Li Hsiang Khao Chheng t\lJ)iO 11 ~ ~
Li Chieh ,*~. Jil(;.
Ying Yai Sheng Lan ~ iJI ~ 'It . See Li Hsiang Khao Chheng.
Triumphant Visions of the Boundless Ocean Y u- Yang Tsa Tsu ~ ~ ~ ffl..
[relative to the voyages of Cheng Ho]. Miscellany of the Yu-yang Mountain (Cave
Ming, + 1451. [in S.E. Szechuan] .
Ma Huan .Il(; liJ:. Thang, + 863.
Re-written (before + 1500) by Chang Tuan Chh~ng-Shih 1& Jil(; ~ .
Sheng (b) m ¥t-.
Yo- Yang Feng Thu Chi ffi r~~ ~ ± we..
Customs and Notable Things of Yo-yang
Yii Yin Wen Ta 3i. 1f r.o *.
See des Rotours (I), p. civ.

Jade-Sound Questions and Answers.

[in N. Hunan]. Sung.
Sung. Hu Chhuan m ~.
Fan Chih-Ming m: it lYi . Yuan-Chhun Thang Pi Chi.
Yii Chien ;ro; fiI'i . See Yuan-Shun Tlzang Pi Chi.
Allegorical Essays. Yuan Chien Lei Han rJilj J! ~ lJl<i .
Sung. The Deep Mirror of Classified Knowledge
Shen Tso-Che ~ it ~ti . [literary encyclopaedia; a conAation of
Yii-Chih Lii Lii. Chbzg 1 tnI ~ ~ ;S lE ~ . Thang encyclopaedias].
See Lii. Lii CJzeng 1.
Yii-Chih Shu Li Ching Yiin tnI ~ ~ J! t1i f,i .
See Shu Li Ching Yii.n.
Chhing, + 1710.
Ed. Chang Ying ~ * et al.
Yuan Ching Shih Ta Tien jt f.ll! tit -};. ~ .
Yii. Hai :E #iJ . Institutions of the Yuan Dynasty.
Ocean of J ade [encyclopaedia]. Yuan, + 1329 to + 1331.
Sung, + 1267 (first pr. Yuan, + 1351). Partly reconstructed and ed. Wen Thing-
Wang Ying-Lin :E I!! g. Shih (1916) :se~ ~\.'; .
Yii Kung ~ Jil . Cf. Hummel (2), p. 855.
The Tribute of Yu. Yuan Ching Shuo ~ m IDt.
(A chapter of the Shu Ching, q .v.) The Far-Seeing Optick Glass [account of the
Yii Kung Chui Chih i% It it ~\'I . telescope].
A Few Points in the Vast Subject of the Ming, + 1626.
Tribute of Yii. [geographical chapter in the Thang Jo-Wang (J. A. Schall von Bell) ~
Shu Ching]. 'ii ~.
Chhing, + 1697 and + 1705. Yuan-Ho Chiil! Hsien Thu Chih % ~l fR I\l*- 11
Hu Wei m r\'l. m; .
Yii. Kung Shuo Tuan ji'Ii; It ;Dt UIi . Yuan-Ho reign-period General Geography.
Discussions and Conclusions regarding the Thang, +814.
Geography of the Tribute of Yii. Li Chi-Fu '*"5 lfl .
Sung, c. + 1 160. Yuan Pi Shu Chien Chih jt fi,Z> :(If M m; .
FuYin ~Ij~ . Collection of Official Records of the Yuan
Dynasty.
Yii Thang Chia Hua 3i. ~ 'S ~8. Yuan, c. + 1350.
Noteworthy Talks in the Academy.
.Wang Shih-Tien :E ± !Ill; & Shang Chhi-
Yuan, + 1288.
Ong ~ ~~.
Wang Yun :E tilI. Yuan Shih jt l1!..
Yii Thu ~ 1J;l. History of the Yuan (Mongol) Dynasty
Terrestrial Map. [+ 1206 to + 1367] .
Yuan, + 1320.
Chu Ssu-Pen :* ,w, # .
See Kuang Yii Thu.
Sung Lien *
Ming, c. + 1370.
ilIlt et al.
Yin-Te Ind ex, no. 35.
Yu Ti Chi SJzeng rn it!! *e. n~. Yuan-Shun Thang Pi Chi m ~A ~ ~ ~e..
The Wonders of the World [geography]. Pen Jottings from the Yuan-Shun Hall
Sung, + 1221. [notes on the classics].
Wang Hsiang-Chih :E ~ Z. Chhing, late + 18th century, but not printed
Yii Ti Tsung Thu ~ it!! ~, ~ . until 1838.
General World Atlas. Yao Fan RJl;lili.
Ming, + 1564. Yiieh Chhiao Shu ~ Ii.t 'll.~ .
Shih Ho-Chi l1!. m . ~~ The Peaks of Annam [geography].
Yii-Ting 1 H siang Khao ChJzeng {}jJ):E fii ~ ~ Ming, + 1540.
Jil(; ; later re-issued as Chhin- (f.X Ting 1 Li Wen-Hng *:se Ill.
Hsiang Khao Chhbzg. Yiieh Chiieh Shll ~ *E. 1!f.
See 1 Hsiang Klzao ChJzellg. Book of the Former State of Yueh.
 BIBLIOGRAPHY A
Yiieh Chiieh Shu (cont.) Yiin Slzih Chai Pi Than 1b'l:O ~ ~ 1l'Ji .
H/Han, c. + 52. Jottings fro'Tl the Sounding-Stone Studio.
Writer unknown, ehhing, early + 17th century.
Y iieh Ling JJ ~. Chiang Shao-Shu ~~,[{.!l' .
Monthly Ordinances (of the Chou Dynasty). Yung Chheng Shih Hua t'*!ffi. 'i,'f \it .
Chou, between -7th and - 3rd centuries. Plantain City (Fuchow) Essays [literary
Writers unknown. criticism].
Incorporated in the Hsiao Tai Li Chi and Chhing, + 1732.
the Lii Shih Chhun Chhiu, q.v. Hang Shih-ChUn m
ilt U.
Tr. Legge (7), R. Wilhelm (3). Yung-Lo Ta Tien 7"k ~ *- ~ .
Yiin Chhi Yu I ~ l$, 1J:. ~~ . Great Encyclopaedia of the Yung-Lo reign-
Discussions with Friends at Cloudy Pool. period [only in manuscript].
Thang, c. +875. Amounting to 22,877 chapters in 11,095
Fan Lli m
t(l. volumes, only about 370 being still
Yiin Chi Chhi Chhien ~ 'i! -b Ai. extant.
Seven Bamboo Tablets of the Cloudy Ming, + 1407.
Satchel [a great Taoist collection]. Ed. Hsieh Chin M~ m.
Sung, + 1025. See Yuan Thung-Li (1).
Chang Chlin-Fang SE: Jl' J}}. Yiinnan Thung Chih ~ mw ~ .
TT/I020. Local Topography of Yunnan.
Yiin Lin Shih Phu ~ 4* :0 ~. Chhing, + 1730.
Cloud Forest Lapidary. Ed. O-Erh-Thai (Ortai) ~ m~ .
Sung, + 1133. Yiiyang Kung Shih Phu 7fl!. f!ld !J:: :0 ~.
Tu Wan tt ttr. Treatise on Stones by the Venerable
Yiin Lu Man Chhao ~ ~ i'!l: t~ . Yliyang.
Random Jottings at Ylin-lu. Sung, end + IIth century.
Sung, + 1206 (referring to events of about Yliyang Kung 1~ f~ 1]:;.
+ 1 170 onwards).
Chao Yen-Wei ifi i1: f~.

ADDENDA TO BIBLIOGRAPHY A
Pen Tshao Thu Ching # ~ ~ ~,~
The Illustrated Pharmacopoeia.
Sung, c. + 1070 (presented + 1062).
Su Sung 1It\"!.'.Q .
Now contained only as quotations in the Thu
Ching Yen I Pen Tshao (TTI761) and later
pharmacopoeias.
Thu Ching Pen Tshao !i;l] t.'ll ;>\>: tt- .
See Pbz Tshao Thu Ching.
The name belonged originally to a work pre-
pared in the Thang (c. + 658) which by the
11th century had become lest. Su Sung's
Pen Tshao Th" rhing was prepared as a
. replacement. The name Thu Ching Pen
Tshao has often been applied to Su Sung's
work, but wrongly.
Thu Ching Yen I Pen Tshao ~i] f'!' lff ~\ -1\1:. tt- .
The Illustrated and Elucidated Pharma-
copoeia.
Largely a conflation of the Pen Tslzao Yen 1
and the Pen Tshao TllIl Ching but with
many additional quotations.
Sung, c. + 1120.
Khou Tsung-Shih ~[);. ~ llk! .
TT1761.
 B. CHINESE AND JAPANESE BOOKS AND JOURNAL
ARTICLES SINCE + 1800

Anon. (1). period of the Southern Sung Dynasty.

Hsia Chiang Thu Khao ~ tr. ~ ~ . (One of four presented by Huang Shang in
Illustrations of the (Yangtze) River Gorges. + II9 0 1+ II94·)
In Hsia Chiallg Chiu S eng Chhllan Chih, q .v. TGIT, 1940, II, 39.
Late 19th century. Abstr. MS, 1942, 7, 366.
Anon. (2). Aoyama, Sadao (8) 'i'f Ltl lE tfr .
Hsia Chiang Chill Seng Chhuan Chih ~ tr. Rikkyoku-an Shozo no Y ochizu 1I.i tsuite ~
rt ~Afriilf.· WlP I~ IW it u) f.'I!! f1!! ~ It- -? It, -C .
Record of the (Yangtze) River Gorges On an Atlas (entitled Yu Ti Thu) possessed
Lifeboat Service. by the Rikkyoku-an Cloister (one of those
Late 19th century. made by Huang Shang in + I 193).
Anon. (5). TYG, 1955,37,471 .
Tsui Ku Lao ti Thien Wen Thai 1&'~ 5/5
(il] 7C !SC f, Chang Chhi-YUn (1) (ed.) m;tt K~ •
The Oldest Astronomical Observatory. Hsu Hsia-Kho hsien-seng Shih Shih San Pei
HCH, 1956 (no. 10), 39. ChOll Nien Chi Nien Khan ~ &'1 ~ :$t:;
Anon. (6). ~ i11i t!l: ~ a
ibn !f- *B ~ 71J.
Seiyo Kohan Nihon ChizllChiki jlLj if. 11 Illi Essays in Commemoration of the 300th
8 *:!ill~m. Anniversary of the Death of HsU Hsia-
Early Printed Maps and Atlases of Japan Kho (+1586 to +1641) [11 contributors].
made in Western Countries, 1552 to 1840. Chekiang Univ. Res. Inst. Hist. and
Tenri (University) Central Library. Geogr. Publications No. 4 : Tsunyi, 1942.
Photo Series, No. 4.
Tenri, Nara, 1954.
Aoyama, Sadao (1) W IlJ :<E ~.
Chang Chien (1) j i ~.
Hsi-Hsia Chi Shih Pen Mo ~ ·~Oc. :u~ 7\(
Rise and Fall of the Hsi-Hsia State.
*.
Kochishi Chi::u Nado no Chosa 1;:!ill ~ f1!! c. 1830.
IW~ (7) ir.lt!l:. Chang Hui-Chien (1) ~& ~ ~IJ .
In Search of Old Geographical Works and Li Shih-Chen f. II:j; l.t .
Maps. Biography of Li Shih-Chen ( + 15 181+ 1593;
TGIT, 1935,5 (Suppl. vol.), 123. the great pharmaceutical naturalist).
Aoyama, Sadao (2) '.tt IlJ ~ ~. Jen Min Pub. House, Shanghai, 1954, repr.
Gendai no Chizll 12i tsuite jt; 1\; (7) .l1l!. mH It- 1955·
~ 11' -C . Chang Hung-Chao (1) ¥ P..lt ill.
On Maps of the Yuan Dynasty. Shih Ya :O~.
TGIT, 1938, 8, 103. Lapidarium Sinicum; a Study of the Rocks,
Aoyama, Sadao (3) 'Ill' IlJ :<E ~. Fossils and Minerals as known in Chinese
Ri-cho 1Ii okerll 1Iisan no Chosen Zenzu ni Literature.
tsuite '*
Wl It- 11: I't 6 .= ~ (7) Wl ~ ~ Chinese Geo!. Survey, Peiping: 1st ed. 1921,
u:m It- ~ It, -C . 2nd ed. 1927.
On a Few General Maps from Korea, of the MGSC (ser. B), no . 2.
Yi (Li) Dyn asty. Crit. P . Demieville, BEFEO, 1924,24,276.
TGIT, 1939, 9, I-t3· Chang Li-Chhien (1) j i ff,'- =f.
Aoyama, Sadao (4) 11" IlJ ~ ~ .
Sodai no Chizll to sono Tokushoku
:t1!lli\ilck(7)-if~.
* ~ (7)
'Tung Hsi Yang Khao' chullg chih Chen Lu
* ~ ff- ~ Its Z &1- ~If .
The Compass-Bearings in Studies on the
The Maps of the Sung Dynasty and their Oceans, East and West.
Characteristics. TFTC, 1945,41 (no. 1),49.
TGIT, 1940, II , 415 . Chang Tun-Jen (1) ~ ~ t:.
Aoyama, Sadao (5) 11" tIt :<E ~ . , Chhi Ku Suan Ching' Hsi Tshao *ft -l; ~:
Nallso ]1l1l.yil no Sekkoku Chirizu 1Ii tSllite f~ ~1Il~.
m * am
1$ ii'tti (7) 1i ~IJ ~ JJ. It- ~ 11' -C .
Concerning the General Map of China
Analysis of the Methods of the Continuation
of Ancient Mathematics.
carved on stone in the Shun-Vu reign- 1801.
 BIBLIOGRAPHY B
Chang Tun-Jen (2) ~ j~ 1::. Chou Chhing-Chu (1) rnJ '(IT i!.t .
Chhiu 1 Suan Shu *-
~ ~ . Wo Kuo Ku Tai Wei Ta ti Kho-Hsiieh Chia;
On Indeterminate Analysis [mathematics]. Tsu Chhung-Chih .fx m -,!; 1t W 7::' t'll] ;f!t
c. 1801. m*;ifi[l'\' Z·
Chang Tzu-Mu (1) ~ § <t:t. A Great Chinese Scientist; Tsu Chhung-
Ying Hai Lun ~ #ll ~~. Chih (mathematician, engineer, etc.).
Discourse on the Boundless Sea (i.e. Essay in Li Kuang-Pi & Chhien Chtin-Hua
ature). [An attempt to show that many (q.v.), p. 270.
post-Renaissance scientific discoveries had Peking, 1955.
been anticipated in ancient and medieval Chou Kuang-Ti (1) To';] >Jt Ji!!.
China.] Hsin Hsillg ~ E. .
c. 1885 . Novae.
Chang Yin-Lin (3) ~ ~ G. YC, 19+5 , IS, 35·
'Chiu Chang' chi Liallg Hall chih Shu Hsiieh Chu Fang-Pu (1) "J'j*= lil1I .
jr.~lkm~Z1li~~ · Chia Ku Hsiieh (Wen Tzu Pien) If! 'W' *;;:.
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Chang Yin-Lin (4) ~ ~ G· Chu Kho-Chen (1) ~ PT till.
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ti-1 Wei Ta Kho-Hsiieh Chia; Chang yii Shih-Chien .:: -I- i\ ~ ;jg, iK( Z :It!l -zJi
Heng *~ 5t ~~ .:: ill: *C rl:l1 ~ 11 ~ - 'fit 9i! ~ r.11 .
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Chang H eng; Our first Great Scientist twenty-eight H siu.
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TFTC, 1925, 2I (no. 23), 89. Chu Kho-Chen (2) ~ PT !j .
Chang Yti-Che (1) ~ tF tf . Erh-shih-pa Hsiu Cltlti- Yuan chih Shih-Tai
Chung-Kuo Ku Tai Thien- Wen Niao Khall
Ifl ~ 111\;; 7C ~ .It Iij .
yii Ti-Tien .:: -I- i\ ~ ;jg, ~ Z
:It!lU .
1t ~~ "*
Bird's-eye view of Ancient Chinese On the Date and Place of Origin of the
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YC, 1946, I6, 17. SHST, 1944, no. 34, 1.
Chang Yung-Li (1) ~ 71<. Jl.. Chu Kho-Chen (3) ~ ill till .
SMng Ching chung chih Yuall Chou Li ~ LUll i Sui-Chha ting , Shang Shu (Y ao
t,~ Ifl Z [lJ rnJ $. Tien) , Ssu Chung Chung Hsillg chih Nien
On the Determinations of TT in Ancient Tai f.~ 0. iIJ. 21 ~ flit ~ !,.l\!. gg 1'~ Ifl
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CLTC, 1943, I, 267. Calculation of the Date of the Yao Tien
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:t
Chung Hsi Hsing Ming Khao
~.
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~ is ft *
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The Most Important Contributions of
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~1;ft~~iE..
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JMJP, 1954, 27 Sept.
Chu Shih-Chia (1) *= ± ~.
Sung Yuan Fang-Chill Khao
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* 5t 11
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Chu Shih-Chia (2) *= ± ;S'* .
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YCHP, 1936, 20, +21 .
Chu Shih-Chia (3) *= ± ;;{; .
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Union Catalogue of the Local Topographies
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Chu Shih-Chia (4) *= ± E .
Fallg-chih Mu-Lu ~
11 iir. § t~·
*
Kuo-Hlli Tlw-Shu-Kllan Tsang Chullg-Kuo
~ ff G1l' iil4 tp
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iir. .
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Chu Wen-Hsin (2) *="5C t¥. .
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iE..
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iir.~.
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~HUHIT·
m
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Ku Chhall-Wei Shu Lu Chieh Thi 1; ~ Vt
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The Origin of the Name Chhan-Wei (Weft
~ .
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 BIBLIOGRAPHY B
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n
lit :f;J;.
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m l1 * .If...
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Chung-Hsi Suan-Hsiieh Ta Chheng Jtl ~ 1.1
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18 39.
Chhen Wen-Thao (1) i!*:?iC !~.
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~ ~~~~ f.~.
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Nihon Siigaku-slzi 8 * *
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~ ~.
Chou and Chhin periods.
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'Chi Ho Yuan Pbl' j\llan Wen I Pen Pa '-ll Bukkoku Rekisho-hen ffl1 ~ If? ~ ~ .
-fiiJ lJjt*lWi:?iCm*~· On the Astronomy and Calendrical Science of
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AS{BIHP, 1931,2 (no. 3),281. Kyoto, 1810.
Chheng Hung-Chao (1) f'l ~f!~ ~a .
'Hsia Hsiao Cheng' Chi Shuo ;g: ~J' lE ~ Fan Wen-Thao (1) 1'I1:?iC !.~.
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Kua *
it ~ ~ a~ # **;
~:A: 18.
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Chung-Kuo Nan- Yang Chiao-Thung Shih
r.pm i¥i if: ~ ia1 .If.. •
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Hou Hsueh-Yu (1) ~
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~. * ~l'l m~ ~"" .
=
'1"11 ,,'~
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ifi Jil. {J(J U~ ~
,,1< lit WUH
!;fi!. M
\ijJ
*c.
~ i!l;( nlJ
* f* . Chhien ~ A JlIl *'.& ~ Z iU .
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m
On the Identification of Strong Discrete Shang people, with Notes on its South-
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*
~ il~ .

Canton, 1820.
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the Tso Chuan. Kenkyu no Kinjo ~ j l l'M It. 1f.: tt ~ .x
TYG, 1912,2, 2S, ISI; 1919,9, 155. ~~ 7<: ::t ~ 11!. li}f '?t; 0 ill AA:.
Iijima, Tadao (6) iOC.!'l; .'J:, :Jc . Die heutige Situation der Studien zur
• Shu Ching', • Shih Ching' chih Thien- Wen chinesischen Astronomiengeschichte in
Li Fa ff f~ .~ m: z 7<: ::t!f1 *. Japan.
Astronomy and Calendrical Science in the
Historical Classic and the Book of Odes.
KHS, I92S, X3, IS.
SGZ, 1945,56,96.
Kanda, Kiichiro (1) iiiljl JIJ *-
, Sangai-Kyo' yori mitaru Shina Kodai no
Jl~.

Iijima, Tadao (7) lW.!'l; .'J:, *-. Sant<akll Siihai llJ i4lJ t~ B ]I IJl. P Jo- .x ~~
Shina no Koreki to Rekijitsu Kiji .x ([)
~~ ti 1-t .; llJ tlU'd¥ .
t!1M:!:/ff01iB$. Mountain Worship in Ancient China as seen
Calendars and Calendrical Expressions in in the Classic of Mountains and Rivers.
Ancient China. SG, 1922, 2, 332.
TYG, 1929, x7 (no. 4), 449; x8 (no. I), SS. Kanda, Shigeru (1) jj;1\I JIJ 1Jf. .
Imamura, Akitsune (1) ~ tt lj)J ti. Nihon Temmon Shiryo 8;41:. ~ ::t 11!. *It .
1800-Nen mae no Jishinkei =f ,i\ -If ~ AA Japanese Astronomical Records (of Eclipses,
o it!! 1% gt. Comets, etc.).
A Seismograph of Eighteen Hundred Years Tokyo, 1935.
Ago.
In Shina Bunka Danso :Jt ~~ ::t 11:. t4 ftl.
Kanda, Shigeru (2) mljl JIJ 1Jf. .
Taiyo Kokuten no Toyo ni okeru Kiroku
m
*
Tokyo, 1942.
Ishida Mikinosuke (1) :6 EEl Z Wl .
• Tu-Li- Yil-Ssu Ching' to sono ltsubun ~
*' lIGi !Il~ 0 lit ff: It. 1f.: tt 0 Jet.~.
Catalogue of Sun-spots observed throughout
the Ages in China and Japan.
;j'IJ $: !I1i t~ ~ k 0 ~ ::t. TTWT, 1933, x (I), 37.
The Tu-Li- Yit-Ssu Ching and its Fragments
Kanda Shigeru (3) iiiljl EE11Jf. .
[astrological manual of the Thang
showing Iranian influence].
Hoki oyobi sono Ruisho ni tsuite Tit a ;& v:
k fJ) ~R tt. "? It- -C
In ToyO-shi Ronso JIl ff 11!. W~ ~. The Oldest Japanese Almanacs and Similar
Commemoration volume for Haneda Toru,
Books.
p. 49 ~ Efl "1f-. JJHS, 1952 (no. 23), 21.
KyoUi, 1950.
Kao Lu (1) ~ lB· .
Jao Tsung-I (1) m * M.
Chhang-sha Chhu Mo Shih Chan Shen Wu
Chung-Kuo Li Shih shang ti Jth Shih
1ft 11!. J: ~~ 8 ~!h.
q. till
Eclipses Recorded in Chinese History.
Thu Chiian Khao-Shih :k ~ ~ l£; ~ ~
KHSSC, 1941, XO, 327.
iiiljl@Jmm~~f.l·
A Study of an Astrological (and Calendrical) KatO Heizaemon (1) 110 Rf. ~ 1i. fti F1.
Diagram [on silk, with pictures of strange Wasan no Gyoreshiki Tenkai ni tsuiteno Kento
beings], from a tomb of the Warring ifll 11. fJ) W ~IJ A M nn .::: ;yk ~ fJ) ~ ilt .
States period (Chhu State) at Chhangsha. On the Expansion of Determinants in
JOSHK, 1954, x, 69. J apanese Mathematics.
Jen Chao-Lin (1) 11:: ~\:. g. TMJ, 1939, 45, 33 S.
• Hsia Hsiao Cheng' Chu ][ ,1- lE tt. Ko Li-Phu (A. W. Grabau) (1) :tt ;j'IJ tv- .
Commentary on the Lesser Annuary of the Chung-Kuo Ti-Chih Shih 1'\1~ it!! tt 11!..
Hsia Dynasty. History of Geology in China.
Before IS20. Shanghai, 1924.
Jung Keng (2) '4!f. 1Jf:. Ku Chieh-Kang (8) G 'Ili. ~Ij .
m ~ :5C tTt.
Han Chin Wen Lu
Han Inscriptions on Bronzes.
Historical Institute Monographs, no. 5.
Chhan-Jang Chhuan-Shuo Chhi Yii Mo
Chia Khao j!j! ill m
ii1t ~ 1f.: i!! ~
A study of the Mohist Origin of the
* .
Acad. Sin. Peiping, 193 I. Legendary Abdications (of the ancient
emperors). [Contains the view that the
Kaetsu, Denichiro (1) 1m ~ m- Jl~. Yao Tien chapter of the Shu Ching was
SuanFa YuanLiKuaNang ~*I!lIJ!l!.ISn. written as late as the Han.]
(Tr. of San/po Yenri (Enri) Katsuno.) KSP, vol. 7 (pt. 3), 30--109.
Comprehensive Discussion of Circle Theory Kuo Mo-Jo (3) ~iI l;t( =is.
Computations. Chia Ku Well Tzu Yen-Chiu qt 'It !It: *
IS51 ; preface, IS53. ~Jf 'l"E .
Tr. IS74. Researches on the Characters of the Oracle-
 BIBLIOGRAPHY B 73 1
Kuo Mo-Jo (3) (cont .) A Further Study of the Explicative Texts
Bones [including astronomical and in the Book of Changes.
calendrical data]. LHP, 1947, 8 (no. I), I and 169.
2 vols. Peiping, 1931.
German abstract by W. Eberhard, OAZ, Li Jui (1) *
1st.
Li Shih Sllan-Hsueh I Shu *.If;;)l!!j! ~
1932, 8, 225. :{1J.
Kuo Pao-ChUn (1) ~lt 1l ~. Collected Works of Li Jui (mathematician,
Hsun-hsien Hsin-tshun Ku Tshan Mu chih
Chhing Li m!\IN: '$ ft 1i ~ ~:z
n'I Jt . + 1768 to + 1817).
Contains seven treatises on as many ancient
Preliminary Report on the Excavations at
calendars from early Chou to the middle of
the Ancient Cemetery of Hsin-tshun
the + 5th century.
village, HsUn-hsien, Honan.
Juan Yuan ed. & pr. 1823.
TYKK, 1936, I, 167.
Li Kuang-Pi * Jt ~ & Chhien ChUn-Hua n
Lai Chia-Tu (1) tu &.*
'Thien Kung Khai Wu' chi chhi Chu chi;
;fi" ~it¥ (1) (ed.).
Chung-Kuo Kho-Hsueh Chi-Shu Fa-Ming ho
Sung Ying-Hsing 7C I rm !I'm lit ~t :If ;a-; Kho-Hsueh Chi-Shu Jen Wu Lun Chi I:tJ
;;!;Uf!\£.
The Exploitation of the Works of Nature and
~ ·n
ft;.
* *'"
!X Vlii'ft a)j 'fIl *!X Vlii.A!Ito g~
its Author; Sung Ying-Hsing. Essays on Chinese Discoveries and Inventions
Essay in Li Kuang-Pi & Chhien ChUn-Hua in Science and Technology, and on the
(q.v.), p. 338. Men who made them.
Peking, 1955. San Lien Shu Tien, Peking, 1955.
Lao Nai-HsUan (1) §} 7'J 'iti. *- j(; r~ & Lai Chia-Tu tit
Ku Chhou Suan Khao Shih (continued as
Hsu Pien) 1i ~ ~ ~ f.l (*,.lkl).
Li
*
Kuang-Pi
Jjf. (1).
Han Tai ti Wei Ta Kho-Hsueh Chia; Chang
Investigation into the History of the
Ancient Computing-Rods.
*'" *;
Heng fIi: it tl'.J i:ft: "k
A Great Scientist of the Han Dynasty;
~ ~& itT.

1886. Chang Heng (astronomer, mathematician,

Lei HsUeh-Chhi (1) 'lit ~ tlt. seismologist, etc.).
Ku Ching Thien Hsiang Khao 1i tJl! 7C 1A Essay in Li Kuang-Pi & Chhien ChUn-Hua
~. (q.v.), p. 249.
Investigation of Celestial Phenomena as Peking, 1955.
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1825.
Li Chao-Lo (1) *
~~ i';.
Li Tai Yu Ti Yen Ko Hsien Yao Thu ~
Yuan Thien Thu Shuo IIlJ 7C lIi\I Wt •
Illustrated Discussion of the Fields of
Heaven.
i-t!1t:lt1!.m·~OO:~Im· 1819, with Supplement, 1821.
Historical Atlas of China.
Li Nien (1) * f,ij.
Li Chao-Lo (2) *
1838, repr. 1879.
~~ f!.
Heng H sing Chhih-Tao Ching-Wei Tu Thu
Chzmg-Kuo Shu-Hsueh Ta Kang I:tJ Wllk
~ .:k~.
Outline of Chinese Mathematics.in History
ti £ !f; ~ kJl! *.1;: Jjt ~. (vo!. I only appeared).
Map of the Fixed Stars according to
Corn. Press, Shanghai, 1931.
Equatorial Co-ordinates (Right Ascension
*
fIA~ •
m: *
Li Nien (2)
and Declination).
Chung-Kuo Suan-Hsueh Shih Wl *
18 55.
Li Chao-Lo (3) *
~~ i';.
Huang Ch/wo I Thung Ti Yu Chhuan Thu
lE..
A History of Chinese Mathematics.
Corn. Press, Shanghai, 1937.
~tJj -*Jt:lt1!.!1t~Im·
Comprehensive Atlas of the Chhing Li Nien (3) ~.'*
Chung-Kuo Suan-Hsueh Hsiao Shih I:tJ 1i!I
Dynasty.
~ ~ 'J- lE.,
Peking, 1832.
Li Ching-Chhih (1) *m
iW,.
, Chou l' Klla Ming Khao Shih Jl1I ~ it- ~
Brief History of Chinese Mathematics.
Corn. Press, Shanghai, 1930.
~~. Li Nien (4) ~ '* .
A Study of the Names of the sixty-four Chung Suan Shih Lun Tshung I:tJ If. lE. ga
Hexagrams in the Book of Changes. ~.

Li Ching-Chhih (2) *m
LHP, 1948, 9 (no. I), T97 and 303.
lilt .
, Chou l ' Shih Tzhu Hsu Khao Jl1I ~ ~ ~
Gesammelte Abhandlungen U. die
Geschichte d. chinesischen Mathematik.
3 vols. 1933-5; 4th vo!. (in 2 parts), 1947.
~ *it· Corn. Press, Shanghai.
73 2 BIBLIOGRAPHY B

Li Nien (5) ~ * .
Tsui Chin Shih Nien Lai Clumg Suan Shih
The Work of Chinese Historians of
(Chinese) Mathematics [with a register of
Lun Well Mu-Lu l\l ili -t- .if-
i~~§t~·
*
I:fl 1,1- ll! them].
KHS, 1928, I3, 785.
Bibliography of Papers on the History of Li Nien (15) ~ * .
xr. *
San-shih Nien Lai chih Chung-KIIO Suall-
Chinese Mathematics during the last ten
years.
HITH, 19+8, IS, 16.
Hsiieh Shih ~ .if- -r
Z I:fl ~1 * ll! .
Thirty Years' Progress in Resea rches into the
Li Nien (6) *~. Hi story of Chinese Mathematics.
KHS, 1947, 29, 10r.
Shu Mu-Lu (Hsu) Piell
m:
*'
Li Nien so Tshang Chll1lg-Kuo Suan-Hsiieh
~ 1Yr ~ I:fl m Li Nien (16) ~. *
,~H'Hlt~d*il) i\ii .
Catalogue of [.H8] Chinese Mathematical
Books in the Library of Li Nien.
Hsien Slzuo I:flll *
Chullg Suan Chia chih Yuall Chui Chhii
Z Illl it !HI *l~ .
History of the Development of Conic
KHS, 1920,5,418,525; 1925, IO (no. 4); Sections in China.
1926, n, 817; 1933, I7, 1005; 1934, IS, KHS, 1947, 29, 115.
Li Nien (17) ~. *'
1547·
Li ien (7) ~ *' .
Tunhllallg Shih Shih Li-Chheng Suan Ching
Jih Suan Thuo- Yuan Clzou Shu B
Poi] Vilr.
Wii Ill! m:
!l~ ~ :n ~ :it lit ~'H,'lI . (Eighteenth and Nineteenth Century Chinese
and) Japanese Work on the Perimeter of
The MS. Mathematical Table recovered
from the Tunhuan g caves [S (930 BM). Ellipses.
BNLP, 1935,9,39; QBCB(C, 1939 (n.s.), KHS, 1949, 3I, 297.
Li Nien (18) ~. '*
I, 386.
Li Nien (8) ~.*'
Shang Ku Chung Suan Shih .t. 1i I:fl ll!. m:
I-Ssu-Lan Chiao y ii Chung-Kuo Li Suan
chilz Kuan-Hsi 111tJi l»i f( ~ I:fl mI1f :)'I:
Ancient History of Chinese Mathematics. ZIm% .
KHS, 1944,27, 16. Islam in relation to Chinese Mathematics
Li ien (9) *~. and Calendrical Science.
Chu Suan Chih Tu Khao ~ 11 jfilJ Jl{ ~ . HCLT, 1941,5 (nos. 3 and 4).
History of the Abacus. Li Nien (19) '*
~.
Erh-shih-pa Nien Lai Chung Suan Shih
YCHP, 1931, I (no. 10),2123.
Reprinted in Li Nien (4), vo!. 3, p. 38. Lun- Wen Mu-Lu .:: -r /"\
.if- * I:fl m:
JJ!.
Li Nien (10) ~.*
Chung-Kuo Suan-Hsiieh Liieh Shuo I:fl ~
li~ ~ § t-¥t.
Bibliography of Papers on Chinese
m:~II/}IDt.
Mathematics during the past 28 years
Aspects of Chinese Mathematics. (i.e. since 1912).
QBCB(C, 1940 (n.s.), 2, 372.
Li Nien (11) ~. *
KHS, 1934, IS, 1135.
Cf. Li Nien (5); Li Nien & Yen Tun-
Chllng Suan Chia chih Chi Shu Lun
* Z~lUt 1i~ .
I:fl m: Li
Chieh (1).
Nien (20) ~'* .
Chung-Kuo Ku Tai Shu-Hsiieh Shih-Liao
On the Treatment of Series by Chinese
Mathematicians. I:fl a11i -I\'; ~ .!!lll! *"" .
Materials for the Study of the History of
KHS, 1929, I3, 1139, 1349. Ancient Chinese Mathematics.
Reprinted in Li Nien (4), vo!. 3, p. 197.
Chung-Kuo Kho-Hslieh Thu Shu I Chhi
Li ien (12) *~. Kung-Ssu (Chinese Scientific Book and
Chllng-KIlO SlIan-Hsiieh Slzih Yii Lu ~\l m
m: * ll! ~ t.! .
Instrument Co.), for Science Society of
China, Shanghai, 1954.
Additional Remarks on the History of Li Nien (21) '+' 11*\ •
Mathematics in China.
KHS, 1917, 3, 238.
Chung Suan Shih Lun Tshung I:fl n ll! ~~ ~
Li Nien (13) ~.*'
Tui Shu chih Fa-Ming chi chhi Tung Lai
(second series).
Collected Essays on the History of Chinese
Mathematics, vo!. I, 1954; vo!. 2, 1954;
:Iff!ll1:Z~lYJ1lt. ;!r31i* . vo!. 3, 1955; vo!. 4, 1955 ; vo!. 5. 1955.
The Discovery of Logarithms and their Sci. Pub. House, Peking.
Transmission to China and Japan. Li ien & Yen Tun-Chieh (1) '*~, An ~! fM.
KHS, 1927, I2, 109 ; and two later papers in Khang-chan i iai Clllmg SI/an Shih L,nz Wen
same vo!.
Li Nien (14) '*
~.
Mu-iu 1ft ¥J1 ~ *I:fl 11: ll! liili :5C Ij t~
Bibliography of Papers on the History of
.
Chllllg Suan Shih chih Kung Tso I:fl ll! m: Chinese Mathematics during the period of
Z I ft:. the Second World War.
 BIBLIOGRAPHY B 733
Li Nien & Yen Tun-Chieh (1) (cont.) Liu Chao-Yang (3) 1I! ¥Jl1Wi •
Thien- Wen Hsiieh S hih Omall Hao ?<: ~ ~
* '*
QBCB/C, 1944,5 (no. 4), 51.
Li Shan-Pang (1) ~rl. .lE. lJ; -'I} .
Ni Shih Ti Chel! I Yuan Li chi She Chi Current Studies in the History of (Chinese)
Chih Tsao Ching Kuo ~ j\ ft!! ~ ~ IJ'/. Astronomy [exposition and criticism of the
J!,& ~ lft~ iH.'! ii!!I. views of T. lijima].
The Principle and Plan of a (War-Time) CST/HLJ, 1929, nos. 94--6, 1-69.
Horizontal Seismograph, and how it was Cf. Eberhard (10).
constructed. Liu Chao-Yang (4) ~! ~Jl i.& .
GM, 1945, no. 3 . , Shih Chi (Thien Kuan) , Chih Khao JJ! \le.
Li Shih-ChhUan (1) *;p
~~ .
?<: 'fr ;E; ~ .
Investigations on the Authenticity of the
Yii Tso Thu :E 11: ~ . Thiell Kllan (astronomical) Chapter of the
Illustrations of Jade-Working Techniques.
Historical R ecords.
In Bishop, Bushel!, Kunz et al. (I), q.v.
(with transl. by Bushell), ew York, 1906. CST/HLJ, 1929, nos. 73-4, 1-60 .
Liu Chao-Yang (5) ~I ¥Jl F-Ci .
Li Shih-HsU & YU Cheng-Hsieh (1) ¥ i!t 1+ , Yin Li Yii Lun }j~ I~ ~ 1i~ .
fit lE~. F urther Studies in the Yin (Shang) dynasty
Hsii Hsing Shui Chin Chiel! *'it fT 7~ ~ mt . Calendar.
Continuation of the Golden 1'.1.irror of the YC, 1946, 16, 5.
Flowing Waters. Chao-Yang (6) 111 tJ! 1Wi.
18 3 2 •
Li Ssu-Kuang (1) *
QJ,l1f;..
Liu
Chou Chilli Li Fa Khao m t lJ I1f
The Calendar of the Early Chou Period.
* ;IJ.

'Tshallg Sang Pien Hila' ti Chieh-Shih q,n SSE/M (ser. B), no. 2, 1944.
~ ~ 1t.J iY-J Wf, f.l. (rev. W. Eberhard, OR, 1949,2, 179.)
An Elucidation of the Phrase' Changing Liu Chao-Yang (7) 1I! tJl lie; .
from Blue Sea to M ulberry Groves '. Wan Yin Chhallg Li ~ h'l!: :E:.: 1ft ·
T zh u-hsing Local Government, Tzhu-hsing. Chronology of the late Yin (Shang) Period.
1942 . SSE/M (ser. B), no. 3, 194-5.
Li Thao (1) * ra.
Wei-Ta ti Yao -Hsiieh Chia Li Shih-Chen Liu
(rev. W. Eberhard, OR, 1949,2, 183.)
Chao-Yang (8) 1I( ¥Jl i~.
Yin Mo Choll ChhuJih Yiieh Shih Ch/zu Khao
wj(Il~~~*l"ay~.
The Great Pharmacologist Li Shih-Chen
(+ 1518/ 1593) (biography), 20 pp.
~ *Ri] t;J fJ ) J ft VJ ;IJ .
On the Eclipse Records of the Late Yin
Peking, 1955. (Shang) and Early Chou Periods.
Li Tso-Hsien (1)
Ku Chhiian Hui i!i
*
1t£ ~t.
6f!i.*-
BCS, 1944,4, 85; 1945, 5, I.
(rev. A. Rygalov, IIH, 1949, 2,432.)
Treatise on (Chinese) Numismatics. Liu Chao-Y ang (9) 1I! ~Jl FJ}·
18 59. , Hsia Shu' Jih Sllih Khao bt ~ B ft ;IJ .
On th e So lar Eclipse in the lisia Shu (Sect ion
Lin Chhing (1) G ~.
of th e Ilis/ orical Classic).
Hung Hsiieh Yin- Yua n Thu Chi i~ ~ L§ ~
BCS, 1945, 5 , I.
Ilm tr. . Liu Chao-Yang (10) ~!~}j i~; .
Illustrated Record of Memories of the Events Tshllllg Thiell- TVbz Li Fa Thlli Tsh€ ' }' ao
which had to happen in My Life.
Tien' chih Piell Chi1eng Nien Tai ~ 7C
18 49.
See Hummel (2), p. 507. ~ 1ft *m tllJ ~ ~\!. Z *" Tb., If- it .
The Use of Modern Astronomical Methods
Liu Chao-Yang (1) ~! M i~. in determining the Date of the Yao Tien
Chia Ku Wen chih Jih Erh Kuan Tshe Chi Lll chapter in th e Ilistorical Classic.
m
If! 'It ~ Z 11 ;ijj: Ill. ~l'. £lit · YCHP, 1930 (no. 7).
Mention of the Solar Corona on the Oracle- Liu Feng-Wu (1) 1I! ~ Ji..
Bone Inscriptions (Shang dynasty).
YC, 1945, IS , 15·
Liu Chao-Yang (2) ~I ¥Jl IIg;.
Hili Chiao Thu /Ili-yii ChUl1g-Kllo Li Fa ti
KlIl/g-I-lsiell [!jJ 4X fiE :ti 1t: !:p ~ If
it ~.
* D~J

Oppolzer chi Schlegel y ii Kiilmert so Tlllli Contributions of Islam to Chinese

Suan chih H sia Tai Jih Shih Oppolzer Calendrical Science.
,& Schlegel ~ Kiihllert Err tit 1,1- Z ~ it CNCK, 194-4-, I , 240.
B ~. Liu Fu (1) 114 ijr .
On th e Calcu lations of Oppolzer, Schlegel Hsi Hem Shih-Tai ti Jilt Kuei ~ iJ.i ~ it
and Kuhnert concerning dates of eclipses il~ 0 %.
in the Hsia dynasty. S un-Dials of the Western Han Period .
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Liu Hsien-Chou (1) ~'flll i'ffi.
Chung-Kllo Chi-Hsieh Kung-Chheng Shih-
Liao I'Jl ~ ~ ~ I '1'1 1t n.
Materials for the History of Engineering in
China.
CHESJ, 1935 , 3, and 4 (no. 2), 27·
Reprinted Chhinghua Univ. Press, Peiping,
1935. With supplement.
CHER, 1948, 3, 135·
Liu Ming-Shu (2) 11;:g"i'J!. .
Cheng Ho Hang Hai Shih Chi chih Tsai Than
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Further Investigations on the Sea Voyages of
Cheng Ho.
BCS, 1943, 3, 131.
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Liu Ping-Hsuan (1) It t* iHi.
Chung-Kuo Tai Shu Ming Chu 'I Ku Yen
Tuan' Phing Chieh I'Jl ~ f;; it ;:g l\' ~
J!i iiln~ W 11- .
Discussion and Explanation of the noted
Chinese algebraical Work New Steps in
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TFTC, 1943, 39, 33·
Liu Than (1) ~t if!:.
Lun Hsing Sui Chi Nien il~ J€. ~ *2. if. .
On the Jupiter Cycle and the Calendar.
Acad. Sinica History Institute Pub.
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Liu To (1) (ed.) ~I ~.
Ku Chin Suan-Hsiieh Tshung Shu J!i ~ •
"d~ 'If .
Collection of Ancient and Modern
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Suan-Hsueh Publishers, Shanghai (?), 1898.
LiuTo(2) ~I~ .
Jo-Shui Chai Ku Chin Suan-Hsiieh Shu Lu
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Jo-Shui Studio Bibliography of
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Math. Bookshop and Pub. Co., Shanghai,
18 9 8 .
Liu Tshao-Nan (1) t?f it m·
'Chou Li "Chiu Shu '" Chieh f;'iJ ii~ r;lt. ~J
W~·
What were the ' Nine Calculations' in the
Record of Rites of the Chou (Dynasty)?
ISP/ WSFK, 1944, no . 19.
Liu Wen-Tien (2) ~I"!JI!. .
Huai Nan Hung Lieh Chi Chieh flt m i!i i!l
• ffl1{o·
Collected Commentaries on the Huai Nan
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Corn. Press, Shanghai, 1923, 1926.
Liu Yen (1) 1> Al'l.
Heng Hsing Chhih-Tao Ching-Wei Tu Thu
*
ti £ 1J; *,~ *~ J)t rm .
Map of the Fixed Stars according to
Equatorial Co-ordinates (Right Ascension
and Declination) .
18 51.
Lo Fu-I (1) a
iiilii ~.
Chhuan Shih Ku Chhih Thu Lu ~ 1!t J!i J{
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Lo Shih-Lin (1) a
± $.
Suan-Hsiieh Pi Li Hui Thung • ~ 11:. m
~W.
Rules of Proportion and Exchange.
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Lo Theng-Feng (1) "Jm ml. .
I Yu Lu ~ iJli t~.
The Pleasant Game of Mathematic Art.
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Ma Chien (1) .\fi; ~.
Hui Li Kang Yao Iill JI;f ;\fo1 ~.
Brief Survey of the Muslim Calendar.
Chung-Hua, Peking, 1950, 2nd ed. 1955.
Contains details of traditional Muslim
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Jamal aI-Din, and reproduces (with
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Haig's Comparative Tables of Muhammedan
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Ma Heng (1) .Il; ~.
, Sui Shu (Lii Li Chih) , Shih-wu ring Chhih
m 'If W M ~ -I- Ji t¥ J{ .
The Fifteen different Classes of M easures as
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Ma Kuo-Han (1) (ed.) .m; lWl ~.
Yii Han Shan Fang Chi I Shll .:E ru
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The Jade-Box Mountain Studio Collection of
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Mao I-Sheng (1) ;Jf W. ~.
Chung-Kuo Yuan Chou Li Liieh Shih I'Jl I
1BJf;'iJ$~1t,
History of the Determinations of TT in China.
KHS, 1917,3,411.
Masuda, Tadao (1) ~ EEl :~. t;.jf .
Sodai no Chizu to Minzoku Undo
it!! ml ~ .Il'd~ i!E t1J .
*
f;; q:;
On S ung Maps in relation to the Political
Situation of the Times .
SR, 1942, 27, 65·
Meng Wen-Thung (1) ~,,~ .
Chung-Kuo Ku Tai Pei Fang Chhi-Hou Khao
Liieh I'Jl ~ J!i {~ :i:. 11 j\, ~ ;g. 11/} .
On the, Ancient Climate of North China.
SHTC, 1930,2.
Mikami, Yoshio (1) ~ J: iN x. .
Chung-Kuo Suan-Hsiieh chih The-Se r-ft Wl
m:~Z.if~·
Special Characteristics of Chinese
Mathematics.
 BIBLIOGRAPHY B 735
Mikami, Yoshio (1) (C01lt.) Rules for the Measurement of Circle
Orig. pub. in Japanese, TYG, 1926, xS (no. 4); Segments during the Chhing Dynasty.
x6 (no. 1). TYG, 1930, x8, (no. 3), 301, (no. 4), 439·
Tr. into Chinese by Lin Kho-Thang ;f* # Mikami, Yoshio (10) :::. J: iii :*.
~. Kijo-ka Kakko ftir ~ ijJ.: f{j ~ .
Com. Press, Shanghai, 1934. A Study of the History of the Division Table
Mikami, Yoshio (2) :::. J: .J"li:*. in Verse for the Abacus.
Shina Shiso Kagaku; Sugaku jt: 1:1 ~ ,1£ :t\"{ ; SK, 1937, no. 177.
#~ (~~). Mikami, Yoshio (11) :::. J: ?i *-.
Science in China; Mathematics. Iwanami
Koza Lectures !is ut 1l1If Iili .
In Toyo Shiso collection m: u .W, Wj.
ShakuSfl 110 19i *
So Grn Sugakujo ni okerll ElIdan oyobi
~ ~ ~ J: K. 1t: 11" 6
i1i( ~ li v: f~ jl~ Q.) M "fit.
Trends of Oriental Thought, vol. 2. The Significance of the Yen-Tuan and
Tokyo, 1934. Shih-So Methods of solving Equations in
Mikami, Yoshio (3) :::. J:. iii :*. the S ung and Yuan Dynasties.
Wasan-shi Kenkyu no Seika :m m: J1!. 1iJf ~ SK, 1937, no. 179.
Q.)r£~. Mikami, Yoshio (12) :::. J: ~ :*.
:Yly Studies in Japanese Mathematics. Shina Kodai no Sagakll :It}j~ 1:1 {t Q.) ~ !!J .
JJHS, 1951 (no. 19),33· Ancient Chinese Mathematics.
Mikami, Yoshio (4) :::. J: iii :*. MSKGK, 1932, no . 37.
Loria Hakushi no Shina S17gaku Ron Mikami, Yoshio (13) :::. J: ~ *.
Loria t~ ± Q.) X. 1111 li& ~ 1l~. 'Shahi Sankyo' no T em11l0nsetsu rnJ!l!{! ~ itl
Dr Loria on Chinese Mathematics. Q.) 7C :5C illt .
TYG, 1923, X2 (no. 4), 500. On the Astronomical Theory of the Chou Pei
Mikami, Yoshio (5) :::. J: ~ :*. Suan-Ching (Arithmetical Classic of the
'Chujin den' -ron-Azcasete van I·Ue-shi no Gnomon and the Circular Paths of Heaven).
Shosetsu 0 HyOSll 1::1 A fW. il~ - {J~ ~ TBGZ, 19II (no. 235), 241.
-c van H ee .J!; Q.) EH il:lt ~ ~'ll T . Mikami, Yoshio (14) :::. J: ~ :* .
Criticism of van H ee's Account of (Juan Ancient Mathematics of the Liu-Chhiu
Yuan's) Biographies of (Chinese) Mathe- Islands.
maticians and Astronomers. TNH, 1916, xx (no. 9).
TYG, 1927, x6 (no. 2), 185; (no. 3), 287. Mikami, Yoshio (15) :::. J:. i& :*.
III
Mikami, Yoshio (6)

1l11:£J. Q.) ~
:::.

M K.
J:

!m
~:*.
Yenri (Enri) no Hatsu1llei lIi Kansllru Ronsho
T l> ll~m·
llldo no siigaku to Sltina to no Kankei ~p
Q.) ljl1{ ~ ! jt: 11~ ! Q.) U!J
The Relations of Indian and Chinese
*.
A Study of the Invention of the' Circle- Mathematics.
Principle'. TNH, 1917, X2 (no. 6), 15.
SGZ, 1930, 4 x (nos. 7-10); TBGZ, 1931, Mikami, Yoshio (17) :::. J: ~ *.
nos . 472-5. Nihon Boenkyo-shi B# ~ ill mlE. .
Mikami, Yoshio (7) :::. J: ~;}C . L 'Histoire du Telescope au J apon.
Seki Kowa to Bibungaku IijJ ~ iffi ! ~ 3t TBGZ, 1936, nos. 534, 535.
!iL
Seki Kowa and the Differential Calculus.
Mikami, Yoshio (18) :::. J: itl *.
Wakan Sligaku-shijo ni okeru Senrnl1 oyobi
TBGZ, 1931, no. 480; 1934, no. 510. Gunji no Kankei ifll i~~ nll ~ lE. J: K. 1t:
Mikami, Yoshio (8) :::. J: ~:*. 11" 6 ~1Q 1liL ll< v: "ijI ~ Q.) !OM f,f. .
Seki Kowa no Gyoseki to Kei-Han no Sanka Influences of War and Military Affairs on the
narnbini Shina nO Sampo to no Kankei History of Mathematics in China and
Oyobi Hikaku [ij) ~ ifll Q.) ~ Hi: ! 1rt .Jjj{
Q.) ;),1.
1~ !\iX.
*
!1l!. K. jt: 1111 Q.) ~: 7-~ ! Q.) ~ 1~d;t
Japan.
SK, 1937, no . 182.
Mikami, Yoshio (21) :::..t ~ *.
The Achievements of Seki K6wa and his Wasanshi Ke71kyu1!O Seika
Relations with the Mathematicians of ifll :1t ~ "!if! ~ (/) 1&. m.
Osaka and Kyoto and with the Chinese M y Studies on Japanese Mathematics
Mathematicians. (posthumously published).
TYG, 1932, 2 0 (no. 2), 217, 543, 2X (no. I), JJHS, 1951 (no. 19),33.
45, (no. 3),352, (no. 4), 557, 22 (no. I), 54. Miu YUeh· (1) ~ ~j.
Mikami, Yoshio (9) :::. J: ~:*.
Shin-cho Jidai no Katsuenjutsu no Haltatsu ni
Li Yeh Li Chih Shih I
The ncertainty about the correct
"'" IS * i'ii f~ 11lt.
ame of
Kansuru Kosatsu m·:M ~ {I:; Q.) '1;11 Il11 ~ Li Yeh [great + 13th-century
Q.) it it K. ~ T 6 ~ J;~ . mathematician].
An Investigation ot the Development of TFTC, 1943, 39, 41.
 BIBLIOGRAPHY B
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* it!! JJ. .!! *
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TG/K, 1937, 8, 118.
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*,~,# . , Kashosei' Seishoron ~ 'J' JE £ ~ ll~.
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GB, 1920, :n, I. TG/K, 1941, IZ , 209.
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Nakayama, Heijiro (1) qt J./J "f
Koshiki Shina Kyokan Enkaku
fill . * ti j.~ ::It 1J~
The Solar Eclipse recorded in the Shih Ching
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TG/K, 1936, 6, 204.
~IUJ;Hfl'1I~: . Noda, ChCiry6 (9) it~ III ,~, *i.
On Ancient Chinese Mirrors. [Includes
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38r , 465.
Ogawa, Takuji (1) ,J' )1\
Kinsei Seiyo Ko/sii Izen no Shina Chizu ni
* M·
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Shina Rekishi Chiri Kenkya
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Mikami Yoshio Hakushi to sono Gyoseki
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Temmon Rekiho 7'::t M
(Ancient Chinese) Astronomy and
*. 'E k f1.) ~IH'lt 3 J:. ~
1:'1 tit·
1\l B:. ~ it ll~ ~ *
Calendrical Science. Life and Work of Or Yoshio Mikami
In A History of Chinese Science and
Economics ::It 1J~ # *
f! lff JJ!., vol. 8 of
Chinese History and Geography ::It 1J~ ill!
[historian of mathematics], 1875-195 0,
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JJHS, 1951, (No. 18), 1,9·
JJ.JM JJ!.** . Ong Wen-Hao (1) m-:t lmt·
Tokyo, 1942. Chung-Kuo Shan Mo Khao qt W tlJ J!Ji\ ~ .
Noda, ChCiry6 (4) lt~
Toyo Temmongaku-shi Ronso
JJ!.1l~~.
III ,~, ;!fff.
lit 'If 7': :t * Investigation of the Mountain R anges in
Chinese History (from the Yii KUl1g
chapter of the Historical Classic onwards).

Ong Wen-Hao (1) (cont.)
KHS.
Ong Wen-Hao (2) * 3t
Kallsu Ti Chen Khao (and Piao)
~ .
fi ~ (~).
A Study of Earthquakes in Kansu Province
(with a Register of their Recorded
Occurrences from -780 to + 1909).
KHS, 1922,6, 1079, 1197, J201; J923,7, 105.
i* Jt
Pao Chhi-Shou (1)
Pi-Nai Shall Fang Chi ~ llJ
~.
~.
Pi- Ta i Mountain Hut Records [on three-
dimensional magic squares].
c. 1880.
Phan Chung-Hsiang (1) lM' I! KiF.
Tsbl Yang Clthii Hsiin Chao Chill Situ Kuallg
Mo ;g tl ~ ~ tt ~ JI1 i\!I Jim.
How Modern Pro<pecting for Gold Deposits
is carried out.
KHTP, 19SI, 2, 13S.
Sang Hsia-Kho (1) ~ r ~ .
Chhi Chhiao Hsin Phu -h t!j *Ii ~ .
New Tangram Puzzles.
1813, 181S, many editions.
Sekino, T ., Yatsui, S., Kuriyama, S., Oba, T .,
Ogawa. K. & Nomori. T. (1) IUl ff Ji. ;
:& ;It- ~ - ; ~ llJ f~ -; Ij'.\!l; ti 5' ;
Ij- JI\ ~ j'"f; ff 'if rul.
Rakllryo-grm Jidai no Iseki
CD\lil(.
Archaeological Researches on the Ancient
Lo-Lang District (Korea); I vo!. text,
I vo!. plates.
Sp. Rep. Serv. Antiq. Govt. Gen, Chosen,
1925, no. 4, and 1927, no. 8.
Shen Wen-Hou (1) ~ 3t ~.
Hsing Tltu m.
\;l.
Celestial Atlas (with markings in both
Chinese and Western identifications).
Preface by Shih Yen-Han ::6 ~ ~.
Fukien Meteorological Survey ~;li}£ 1!r ff.t
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A Field Investigation of the Traditional Sites
11" ~ it!!
of Settlements of the Chou People.
AS/ BIHP, 1949,208, 91.
Shinjo, ShinzQ (1) *Ii ~, ~ ~.
Chung-Kuo Shang Ku Thien- Wen 'Il w;! J:
"i!1::JC 3t.
Chinesische Astronomie (Antike).
Chinese translation by Shen HsUan ~ m.
Com. Press, Shanghai, 1936.
Shinjo, Shinzo (2) *Ii!J£, *Ii ~ .
* m
Kanshi Gogyo-setsrt to Sellkyoku Reki T;lt:
3i ff ;Dt 1: ;tQ Il'i JH .
The (ancicllt) Chuan-HsU Calendar and the
Systems of the Cyclical Characters and the
Fivc Elements.
SG, J922, 2, 387, 49S.
Shinjo, Shinzo (3) *Ii!J£, ~ ~ .
Tung Yang Thiell-Wbl Hsiieh Shih Yen-Chiu
1\!#::JC3t~.!Eli}f~.
Researches on the History of Astronomy in
East Asia.
Tokyo, 1929.
Chinese translation by Chhen Tsun-Kuei
~ ~ tJ&.
Nat. Sci. Soc., Shanghai, 1933.
Shinjo, Shinzo (4) ~!J£, ;tUi ~ .
Shina Jodai no Rekiho ;It: ij~ J: f~
Calendrical Science in Ancient China.
CD fff *'
G, 19J3, 4, 666, 743; (no. 7 onwards), 16,
183·
~ rR :mI ~ oft Shinjo, Shinzo (5) ;tUi!J£, ;tUi ~ .
Futatabi • Saden', • Kokugo' no Seisaku
Nendai 0 ronzu N rf 1i. ~ wa ;fi CD J:l
it: &f. ~ l: ~rili 10.
Further Remarks on the Date of Compilation
of the Tso Chuan and the Kuo Yii
[astronomical and calendrical evidence].
G, 1920, 11, 619.
Shinjo, Shinzo (6) ;tUi lJ&, *Ii *' .
Kandai ni mietaru Shoshu no Rekiho 0 ronzu
~ ~ It. Jt z. *
k Q iilf f't CD Po
On the various forms of Calendar System
l: W~ -r.

~filj.
found in the Han Period.
Yung-an, 1940. G, 1920, 11, 701, 78S, 966.
Shih Chang-Ju (1) ::6 ~ :lm. Sun Hai-Po (1) i*- #lJ i.!It .
Yin-Hsii tsui chin chih Chwrg- Yao Fa-Hsien Chia Ku Well Piell EjJ 'It 3t *foi .
Fu Lun Hsiao Thun Ti- TshenR ~ 1& m: On the Oracle-Bone Writing.
ift z. !l! ~ tl J)t Ilf·t ~rili 1\- It!. it!! In' . Peiping, 1934.
The Most Important Recent Discoveries at Sun Wen-Chhing (1) i*- 3t 1f.
Yin-HsU (Anyang), with a Note on the 'Chill Chang Suall Shll' Phien Mu Khao
Stratification of the Site. ft~m:Wr~B~.
ASICJA, 1947 (no. 2). A Study of the Chapter Headings in the Nine
Shih Chang-J u (2) ::6 I1;i. :lm . Chapters 011 the Mathematical Art.
Honan Anyang Hou-Kang ti Yin Mo mm CLHP, 1932,2, 321.
:tH~ ~t ImI a~ );~ ~ . Sun Wen-Chhing (2) 1,f.:se 1f .
Burials of the Yin (Shang) Dynasty at Hou- Chanf[ Heng Chu Shu Nien Piao ~ ~ W
Kang, Anyang. ~~*.
ASIBIHP, 1948, 13, 21. Chronological List of the Writings of Chang
Shih Chang-Ju (3) ::6 Ia ~. Heng [eminent mathematician and
Chltuall-Sltuo chung Chou Tu ti Shih-Ti astronomer of the +2nd century].
Khao-Chha m
a5t 'Il m!lI a~ J.'( it!! ~ ~. CLHP, 1932, 2, 10S.
 BIBLIOGRAPHY B
Sun Wen-Chhing (3) J,f.:!It 'jlf . Than Chhi-Hsiang et al. (1) il:jt MI.
Challg Heng Niell Phu ~ ~ ~ ~. Kuo-Li Peiping Thu-Shu-Kuan Fang-chih
Chronological Biography of Chang Heng. Mu-Lit m 1l. :Ib 2\'- IMi! tir 11 ;G; § tftt .
CLHP, 1933, 3, 331. Catalogue of the Local Topographies in the'
Sun Wen-Chhing (4) M: " W. National Library at Peiping.
Chang Heng Nien Phu ~ 1lf .1f. ~ . Peiping, 1934 (Suppl. 1936).
Life of Chang Heng [enlargement of (3)]. Thang Jun g-Tso (1) m
~ 1'1': .
Corn. Press, Shanghai, 1935; 2nd ed. Yii Shuo 35: illt .
Chungking, 1944. Discourse on Jade.
Sung Ching-Chhang (1) *);l; l! . In Bishop, Bushell, Kunz et al. (I), q.v. (with
Shtt Shu Chiu Chang Cha Chi lJlj(. fL :Q: transl. by Bushell), New York, 1906.
*L 1iB. Thung Shih-Heng (1) 1i! ill: "¥.
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Sections (of Chhin Chiu-Shao, + 1247). 1ft 1t ~ll'~ ff~~ - 'rot lE·
1842. Historical Atlas of China.
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, Yuall Chillg Shih Ta Tien' Thu Ti-Li Khao
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!U!- IIi1 :!ill l.'¥. ;If ~ .
Change in the Form of Chinese Mathematical
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Information contained in the Institutions of
JJHS, 1953 (no. 26), 13 .
Takeda, Kusuo (2) JP;; rEI iffi ~ .
the Yuan Dynasty.
In Pheng-Lai HsiialZ Ti-Li Hsiieh Tshung-
Seiritsu nO Katei Ij)j 1t lJlj(
* WC ~ r£ 1l. er);t& t~.
er) * *
Mindai Silgaku nO Toku-shitsu; 'Sampti Ttisti'
1'( j }): Situ ~ ~ !\if :!ill :£!11. ~ ~ :@f .
Ting ChhU-Chung (ed.) (1) T If)( .'1;), •
The Character of Chinese Mathematics in the Pai Fu Thang Suan-Hsueh Tslzung-Shu a
Ming Dynasty; the Process of Formulation ~~1,i~~f.f.
in the Sttan Fa Thung Tsung. White Hibiscus Hall Collection of Ancient
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Ttizen Sent Isuramu Bunka no IssokulIlen ni See van Hee (5).
tsuite
iJliJUIi
*
rrii ~ 6 -f ;;<. , A " it er.> -
It. ~! v' "c.
Ting ChhU-Chung (2) T lfJ( ~, •
Ssu Hsiang Chia Ling Hsi Tshao I1Y ~ illi
About an Aspect of Islamic Culture moving ~*IU~.
Eastwards [on the astronomical instruments Explanation of the Detailed Steps in Sample
of Jamal ai-Din and their identification]. Calculations (according to the method of)
SGZ, 1942, 53, 401. the Four Elements.
Tasaka, Kodo (2) fII;!1it!il! ~. c. 1870.
Seiyo Rekihti 110 Ttizen to fuifui Rekiho nO Ting Fu-Pao T ~Iii il & Chou YUn-Chhing
UlIllllei j!§ ff. fff
er.> i)H; f.r .
er.> * *
Nr ~ [!i] [!i] Jff * JiiJm 1f (1).
Ssu Pu Tsung Lu Thien W&! Pien I1Y ffli **'
The Introduction of European Astronomy to £If,.7C ~ ~.
China, and the Muslim Calendar-makers. Bibliography of Astronomical Books to
TYG, 1947, 31 (no . 2), 141. supplement the Ssu Khu ChhiialZ Shu
Teng Yen-Lin !l'li 1fT ~ & Li Nien (1) *m encyclopaedia.
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Peiping Ko Thu-Shu-Kuan so Tshang ChUl1g-
T"
Kuo Sua.n-Hsiieh Shu Lien-Ho Mtt-Lu ;It
2\'-~ ~\11H'R
~l ti·
IYr ~ q. mm: ~~~~
Ting Wen-Chiang (1) tI:.
Biography of Sung Ying-Hsing
(author of the Thiel! KUlIg Khai Wu,
*
1!!l\ Jil

Union Catalogue of Chinese Mathematical Exploitation of the Works of Nature).

Books in the libraries of Peiping. In the Hsi Yung Hsuan Tshllnf! -Shu ed.
Library Association of China, Peiping, 1936. Thao Hsiang if j* ~~ n ,
~SJ ffil ·
Ref. A. W. Hummel, ARLC/DO. 1937, 179. 1929.
Thai-HsU (abbot) k ~ & Chhen-Khung (monk) Tuan Fang roll 1i and collaborators.
m: gg. Thao Chai Tshang Shih Chi ~;\'J ~ ~ ;fi liB.
Chin- Yiin Shan Chih ~, ~ LlJ ;G; . Description of Inscribed Stones in the Studio
Record of the Cloud-Gird led Mountain (Museum) of the Thao Family.
(Temple) [in Szechuan north of Chung- Peking, 1909.
king]. Tung Thung-Ho (1) 'it.' IOJ ti1~.
Han-Tsang College of Buddhism, Chungking, 'Chhielt Yiin Chih Chang Thu' Chllng Chi-Ko
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 BIBLIOGRAPHY B 739
Tung Thung-Ho (1) (cont.) A New Interpretation of the phrase' the year
The Problem of the Authorship of the has 366 days' in the Yao Tie1l (chapter of
Tabular Key to the Dictio1lary of the SOllnds the Historical Classic).
of Characters . SSE, 1940 (repr. 1949), I , 24.
ASIBIHP, 1946, 17, 193· Tung Tso-Pin, Lin Tun-Chen & Kao Phing-
Tung Tso-Pin (1) mi'f; f{. Tzu (1) rti 1~ :a,
~'.n t€i, i'lr ~ f- .
Yi1l Li Phu ~~ lff*. Chou Kung Tshe Ching Thai Thiao Chha Pao
On the Calendar of the Yin (Shang) Period.
Academia Sinica, Lichuang, 1945.
Kao JliI I.k iKIJ )?: §f iJ:J I'l: W
Report of an Investigation of the Tower of
*.
(Prelim. notes ASIBIHP, 1936, 7, 45; SSE, Chou Kung for the Measurement of the
1941, 2, 1.) Sun's (Solstitial) Shadow.
See also Tung Tso-Pin (6). Corn. Press (for Academia Sinica),
Crit. K. Yabuuchi (13). Chhangsha, 1939.
Tung Tso-Pin (z) "lc i'f; it .

m"*
TU1lllllang Hsieh-Pbl Thang Ta-ShIm Yuan Ueta, J. (1) ..t III ~.
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ji;&f.~ff:lf:· li}f JE.
A Study of the Tunhuang MS. Calendrical Investigations on the Star Manual of Shih
Fragment of the Ta-Shun reign-period of (Shen).
the Thang Dynasty (+ 890).
QBCBIC, 1942, 3 (no. 3), 7-
Toyo Bllnko ROllso, no. 12
Tokyo, 1929-
ff. ~ W ~~ )'tl. *
Tung Tso-Pin (3) 1t( i~ ~ .
Yi" Tai Yueh Shih Khao M 1~ JJ it :If:. Wada, Y. (1) ;fI1 III *If ff;-
On the Lunar Eclipses of the Yin (Shang) Seiso Ei-so R yocho 110 SokU-Il-ki 1lt ~ ?!i:.
Period. iilllI'liiWlZmffil/jf·
ASIBIHP, 1950,22, 139. Korean Rain-gauges from the Reigns of
Tung Tso-Pin (4) ~i i~ j'l. Sejong (+ 1419 to + 1450) and Yongjo
Yin Tai chih Li-Fa Nung-Yeh y u Clzhi- (+ 1725 to + 1776).
Hsiang 1ft 1-1;; Z fff*~ ~ ~ 1r1
The Calendar in relation to Agriculture and
*' JMJ, 1911, no. 3.
Ch.inese resume KHS, 1916,2, 582.
Climate in the Yin (Shang) Period. Wang Chen-To (1) :E j/& t1\.
SSE, 1946, 5, 1. Han Challg Heng HOIl-Feng Ti-Tung I Tsao-
Germ. resume, W. Eberhard, OR, 1949, 2, Fa chih Thui- Tshe ffi ~ 1lr il* ~ ill! W1
18 5. iili~*Z.J1tiaIJ.
Tung Tso-Pin (5) 1t( W Jt . A Conjecture as to the Construction of the
Yin Wen Wu Ting Shih Pu Tzhu chung I Hsun Seismograph of C hang Heng in the Han
Chien chih Chhi-Hsimlg Chi-Lu D~ ~ ~ Dynasty.
J IJ;f I' ~~ I:fI - iO r,1l Z *i.aumt'k. YCHP, 1936, 20, 577.
Meteorological Records of Ten-Day Periods Wang Chen-To (6) :E tlii t1\.
contained in Oracle-Bone Inscriptions from
Ti-Tung I ill! Wli&.
the time of the Yin (Shang) King, Wen Wu (Chang Heng's) Seismograph.
Ting. JMHP, April 1952.
CHHP, 1943, 17, no. 17·
Tung Tso-Pin (6) m :a .
i~ Wang Chih-Chhun (I)
KilO Chhao Jou Yuan Chi
:E Z
gf: ill li~.
*'m Wl
Yin Li Phu Hou Chi 1ft 1ff ~~ lfB-
Supplementary Notes to the Yill Li Phu (1). Record of the Pacification of a Far Country
ASIBIHP, 1948, 13, 183. [his ambassadorship to Russia].
c. 1890.
Tung Tso-Pin (7) '«i i~ :i!l .
Chou Chin Wen chung' Seng-Pa', 'Sw-Pa' Wang Ching-Hsi (1) 1£ I.lx ~!?:.
Khao r.J ~ ~ I:fI &: 1hHE ~ ~ . Kho-Hsiieh Fang-Fa Man Than tl ~111
On the Terms' Seng-Pa' and' Ssu-Pa' ~~ r:z~.
(Phases of the Moon) in Bronze Inscrip- Random Discussions on Scientific Method .
tions of the Chou Period. Corn. Press, Chungking, 1940, repr. 1944.
Fu Ssu-Nien Commemoration Volume, Wang Hsien-Chhien (1) (ed.) :E?\:; tlf:.
p. 139 lW· ~ .f~ f.: !tIi ±f. 5t; &: *c
~ ~ Hllallg Chhing Chillg Chieh Hsu Pien ~ 111
#! . ~Otl~·
k!!l
Nat. Taiwan University, Taipei, Formosa, Continuation of the Collectio1l of Monographs
195 2 . on Classical Subjects written during the
Tung T so-Pin (8) 1[( 1~ :fr . Chhing Dynasty.
Chi San Pai yu Liu Hsiin yu Liu Jih' Hsin 1888.
Khao 0 ~ W if.i ;, iO if.i "j, El ~ ~. See Yen Chieh (1).
740 BIBLIOGRAPHY B

Wang I-Chung (1) :E H 4l . Wu Chheng-Lo (2) ~ *- i~.

'Shall Hai Chillg' Thu yii Wai-Kuo Thu IlJ Chlmg-Kuo Tu Liang Heng Shih Ij:I \!l Jjt
#Jj k.'l! Im ~ ?'I- li£I IW . lil: 1ti 1iI!. .
The Pictures of the Classic of Mountains and History of Chinese Metrology [weights and
Rivers in relation to analogous Pictures in measures].
the Literatures of other Countries. Corn. Press, Shanghai, 1937.
STTC, 1937, I, 23. Wu Chhi-Chhang (1) ~ ~t ~ .
Han i-chhien rUng Hsil1g Fa-Hsien Tzhu Ti
Wang Jen-Chtin (1) :E {:: fi: .
Ko Chih Ku Wei ~:fx
Scientific Traces in Olden Times.
i!1 ~ . Khao i;Xi J.i.l AA ti ft ~ m.
~.
A Study of the Identification of the Fixed
*m
1896. Stars known before the Han.
Wang Kuo-Wei (2) :E ~;l:fu. CLTC, 1943, I (no. 3), 273·
Yill Pu Tzhu so chiell Hsien Kung Hsien Wang
Khao. ~ i' ~¥ Err Jt :$\". /];: :$t :E :IJ .
Wu Chhi-Chhang (2) ~ ~ ~.
Sung Tai chih Ti-Li Hsiieh Shih
i1I!~. ~1iI!..
* f~ Z.
Information about the ancient kings and
rulers on the Oracle-Bones. History of Geography in the Sung Period.
In Kuan Thang Chi Lin WJI. ~ 1t! f*. KHLT, 1927, I , 37.
In Hai-ning Wang Ching-An hsien-seng I Shu Wu Ta-Chheng (1) ~ *- ~ .
#iJ ~ :E iW :t.c :$t ~ ill fJ: . Chhiian H el1g Tu Liang Shih Yen Khao m
48 vols. 1ti Jlf:!B: lir Q~.
Corn. Press, Chhangsha, 1940. An Investigation of (Ancient Chinese)
Weights and Measures.
Wang Kuo-Wei (3) :E ~ iUf1. 1894; repr. 1915.
, Seng Pa, Ssu Pa' Kltao ~ 1Wi 9£ ~ :IJ. Wu Ta-Chheng (2) ~ *- rn .
Investigation of the terms' Seng Pa' and
Ku Yii Thu Khao i!1:E R\\l ~.
'Ssu Pa' (phases of the moon), and the Investigation of Ancient Jade Objects.
Seven-Day Week System (in the Chou
1889; repr. 1919.
Dynasty).
In Kuan Thang Lin Chi ml ~ 1t! f* . iI pq lit.
mrn 11 * 1iI!.
Yabuuchi, Kiyoshi (1)
Wang Yung (1) :E 1Iff . Zui Ta Rekihashi no Kenkyfi
Chung-Kuo Ti-Li Hsiieh Shih 4l ~ it!! :£! Q.) liJf :9E .
~1iI!. . Researches on the Calendrical Science of the
History of Geography in China. Sui and Thang Periods.
Corn. Press, Chhangsha, 1938. Tokyo, 1944.
Wang Yung :E IIIf & Mao Nai-Wen (1), ~ J7 Yabuuchi Kiyoshi (2) if pq 'it; .
:t o Chilgoku no Temmongaku Ifl ~ Q.) 5'i: :t ,If .
Kuo-Li Peiping Thu-Shu -Kuan Chung- Wen (Introduction to the History of) Chinese
Yii Thu Mu-Lu ~:rE.:iG ~ Im ff tJl 4l Astronomy.
Koseisha, Tokyo, 1949.
:t~~ IH.~ .
Catalogue of the Chinese Maps in the Crit. Yang Lien-Sheng, HJAS, 1951, I4, 671.
National Library at Peiping. Yabuuchi, Kiyoshi (3) iI pq m.
Peiping, 1933. Sfigaku ~*.
History of Chinese Mathematics (to the
Wei Chti-Hsien (2) fW ~ ~.
Shu Mu Tzu 1Jll1: § *.
Finger-Reckoning in Ancient China.
Thang).
In A History of Chinese Science and
Economics jl ~~ # ~ l.'l! *11l!. .
SWYK, 1943, 3, 93· Vol. 8 of Chinese History and Geography Jt
Wei Chti-Hsien (3) fW ~ ~. *-
1l~ :It!! ~. ff! 1iI!. >* .
Ku Shih Yen-Chiu i!11i1!. liJf ~ . Tokyo, 1942.
Studies in Ancient History [researches and Yabuuchi Kiyoshi (4) il pq 'it;.
discussions on the interpenetration of Chiigoku no Tokei Ifl ~ Q.) IW n .
Indian and Chinese civilisations before Ancient Chinese Time- Keepers.
the Chhin Dynasty]. JJHS, 1951, (no. 19), 19.
Shanghai, 1934. Yabuuchi , Kiyoshi (5) & pq 'ffl .
Wen I-To (2) r.a -
~. Chiigoku ni okeru Isuramu Temmongaku Ifl m
'Thien Wen' Shih Thien 5'i: r.:J f.J 5'i: . 1t.~t1"6 ..fA7A 5'i:~*.
On the Cosmology of the Thien Wen The Introduction of Islamic Astronomy to
(Questions about the Heavens, by Chhti China (in the Yuan Dynasty).
Yuan, c. -300). TG/K, 1950, I9, 65.
In Wen I-To Chhiian Chi ~ ~ #l. Im - Yabuuchi, Kiyoshi (6) li pq fli.
Khaiming, Shanghai, 1948, vol. 2, p. 313. Ta ' Kaigen Senkya' chu no Seikya mflt, 5G
Repr. from CHJ, 1936,9 (no. 4) . ~ k.'l! 4l Q.) 1[ iJl!. .
 BIBLIOGRAPHY B 741
Yabuuchi, Kiyoshi (6) (cont.) Yabuuchi, Kiyoshi (16) itl pq m.
Asuka & Nara Jidai no Shizengaku ~.It
The Star Catalogue in the Khai- Yuan Chan
Ching (Treatise on Astrology and
Astronomy) of the Thang.
*o ~ 1t~.
*
Ji{ ~ ~ 0 €::I f't.Lf!\- !~H~ .It Ji{ ~ ~

TG/K, 1937, 8, 56. The Natural Sciences in the Asuka Period

Yabuuchi, Kiyoshi (7) i.i pq rA'. (+ 593/+628) and the Nara Period (+710/
Ryo Kan Rekiho-Ko m * .
~ r.fo ~
On the Calendar Reforms of the Former and
+7 84).
Art. in Asuka & Nara Jidai no Bunko, p. 101.
Later Han Dynasties ( - 104 and + 85). Tokyo, 1950 (?).
TG/K, 1940, 11, 327. Yabuuchi, Kiyoshi (17) Il pq 'li'f·
Kinsei Chugoku ni tsuta-erareta Seiyo
Yabuuchi, Kiyoshi (8) Ill*! rli.
In ShU yori Zui ni itaru Shina Rekiho-shi Temmongaku ill 1!t IP ~ tc.. f!;!j; Z Eo> tt-
m: *
J;';1 J: J) ~a It. ~ 0 ji: 1l~ If}
A History of Chinese (Astronomy and)
ll!..
1c ~U7C~!jL
The Introduction of Western Astronomy into
(Seventeenth-century) China.
Calendrical Science from the Yin (Shang)
and Chou Periods to the Sui Dynasty. JJHS, 1955, (no. 32), IS·
Yabuuchi, Kiyoshi Il pq ffi
TG/K, 1941, X2, 99. & Noda, ChUryo (1) 1t~!f1 J~, ;ff.
Yabuuchi, Kiyoshi (9) • pq fft· 'Kansho (Ritsurekishi) ' no Kenkyu ~.:if
To-dai Rekiho ni okeru Fu Jitten Getsuri Jutsu
m- ft JI * It. 1R- ~ 0 :!V 8 RI! JJ ~1H.i .
The Calendar in Thang Times and the
ftf~Oli}f~.
Researches on the Calendrical chapters of the
History of the Former Han Dynasty.
making of Ephemerides for Sun and Moon Kyoto, 1947.
Motions. Yang Shou-Ching (1) ~!;)' il.
TG/K, 1943, x3, 189· Li Tai Yii Ti Thu ~ ft ~ :it!! ~ •
Yabuuchi, Kiyoshi (10) Il pq n'f. Historical Atlas of China.
Sodai no Seishuku $le ft 10 £ ~ .
Descriptions of the Constellations in the
Sung Dynasty.
191I.
Yao Chen-Tsung (1) * *.
m
'Hou Han Shu' I Wen Chih ~ ~ ~ fi :se
TG/K, 1936, 7, 42. ~.
Yabuuchi, Kiyoshi (11) (ed.) i.i pq m. The Bibliography in the History of the Later
, Tenko Kaibutsu' no Kenkyu 7i: I M @J 0 Han Dynasty.
liJf ~. 18 95 .
A Study of the Thien Kung Khai Wu (The
Exploitation of the Works of Nature,
Yao Ming-Hui (1) m
Wl i1li.
Chung-Ktto Fa-Ming Ti Yuan Shuo IP ~
+ 16 37). jtWl:it!!l!Dlilt.
Tokyo, 1953. On the Chinese discovery of the Roundness
Chinese tr. of the eleven critical essays, by of the Earth.
Su Hsiang-Yu et aI., Chung-Hua Tshung- TLHTC, 1915, 6 (no. 5).
Shu Wei Yuan Hui, Taipei, 1956. Yao Pao-Hsien (1) m
llf ~.
Yabuuchi, Kiyoshi (12) if pq 'ffi. Chung-Kuo Li Shih shang Chhi-Hou Pien
Shina Sugakushi Gaisetsu ji: llB ~ "" ll!. jft Chhien chih i Hsin Yen-Chiu IP IlIil fflll!.
lilt. ..t. ~~~l!iz -~li}f!1'e·
Outline of Chinese Mathematics. A New Study of Climatic Changes in Chinese
Kyoto, 1944. History.
Yabuuchi, Kiyoshi (13) Il pq 'It;.. CST/HLJ, 1935, x, I.
Indai no Rekiho ~ ft 01.1 *.
The Calendar of the Shang (Yin) Period (an
English resume, CIB, 1937, x, 39.
Yeh Te-Lu (1) ~ ~ ~.
essay review of Tung Tso-Pin's Yin Li Chhi Yao Li Ju Chung-Kuo Piao -I:i III If}
Phu). A IP ~~.
TG/K, 2X , 217. On the coming to China of the' Seven
Yabuuchi, Kiyoshi (14) Il pq 'lIT· Luminary' Calendars [Persian and
To So Rekiho-shi m- *
SiC 1ft ll!..
Calendrical Science in the Thang and Sung
Manichaean elements in Chinese calen-
drical science during the Thang period].
Dynasties. FJHC, 1942, 11, 137.
TG/K, 1943, x3, 491. Yeh Thang (1) ~ ~.
Yabuuchi, Kiyoshi (15) i.i pq 'if!. Heng Hsing Chhih-Tao Chhiian Thu fi £
Gen Min Rekiho-shi jG lj)j JIi1 ~ * .
Calendrical Science in the Yuan and Ming
~i!t~IfiI·
Complete Map of the Fixed Stars, based on
D ynasties. Equatorial Co-ordinates.
TG/K, 1944, x4, 264. 18 47.
742 BIBLIOGRAPHY B
mtlll j{;.
Yeh Yao-Yuan (1)
Chung Hsueh !/! * (chapters) .
Mechanics and Dynamics.
In Chung-Hsi Sllan-Hsiieh Ta Chheng r.p ~
1,1 l}1 *- nX, .
Complete Textbook of Chinese and Western
Mathematics (and Physics).
Thung-Wen, Shanghai, 1889.
Yen Chieh (1) (ed.) m~ .
Huang Chhing Ching Chieh ~ fri kil! f!l¥.
Collection of (more than 180) Monographs
on Classical S ubj ects written during the
Chhing Dynasty.
1829; 2nd ed. Keng S h en Pu Khan, 1860.
Cf. Wang Hsien Ch ien (1).
Yen Kho-Chlin (1) (ed.) AI'! PI :It}.
Chhiian Shallg-Ku San-Tai Chhin Han San-
Kuo Lilt Chhao Wen ~ J: 11 ~ {~ ~ iJi
~r~/,:m3t.
Complete Collection of Prose Literature
(including Fragments) from Remote
Antiquity through the Chhin and Han
Dynasties, the Three Kingdoms and the
Six Dynasties.
Finished 1836; published 1887-93.
Yen Tun-Chieh (1) AI'! iZ ~.
'Suan Hsiieh Chlti Meng' Liu Chhuan Khao
U~~~'im(W:~·
History of the Fortunes of the Introduction to
Mathematical Studies (by Chu Shih-Chieh,
+ 12 99).
TFTC, 1945,41, 31.
Yen Tun-Chieh (2) AI'! it fM.
Chu- Yen Han Chien Suan Shu Jli
m:. ~.
The Mathematical Writings on the Han
bamboo tablets discovered at Chli-yen
(Edsin Gol).
CLTC, 1943, I, 315.
Yen Tun-Chieh (3) AI'!~.t ~.
Chhou Suan Suan-Phan Lun ~ m: m: ~ 1i~.
A Discussion on the History of the Counting-
Rods and the Abacus.
TFTC, 1944, 4 1 , 33·
Yen Tun-Chieh (4) Ct'l ~ ~ .
Shanghai Suan-Hsueh Wen Hsien Shu Lueh
..t. i.fll 1,'HiHiC ~ ~"* .
(Old Chin ese) Mathematical Books in
Shanghai.
KHS, 1939, 23, 72.
Yen Tun-Chieh (5) AI'! R ~ .
Tsu Keng Pieh Clluan roll QtI Ell r:JJ;.
Biography of Tsu Keng-Chih ( + 6th-century
mathematician).
KHS, 1941, 25, 460.
Yen Tun-Chieh (6) m
iZ ~.
Sung Yuan Suan-Hsiieh Tshung Khao 71\: j{;
m:~ i'Gi~.
Investigations into the Origins of the
Mathematics of the Sung and Yuan
D ynasties.
KHS, 1947, 29, 109.
Yen Tun-Chieh (7) m
t,Z ftjt .
Ou-Chi-Li-T€' Chi Ho Yuan Pen' Y uan Tai
Shu Ju Chung Kuo Shuo ~ ~ .!It H}· ~
1iiJ Jjj{ # j{; 1"IU~i A r.p ~~.
On the Coming of Euclid's Geometry to
China in the Yuan Dynasty.
TFTC, 1943, 39 (no. 13), 35·
Yen Tun-Chieh (8) m R ~.
Sui Shu Lu Li Chih Tsu Chhung-Chih chih
Yuan Lii. Chi Shih Shih ~ ~ TU iil;; ill
#ZZIlll$~B!jl:f.ll.
What the History of the Sui Dy nasty records
about Tsu Chhung-Chih's calculation of
the Value of 'TT.
HITC, 1933, IS (no. 10).
Yen Tun-Chieh (9) mR~.
Sung Y uan Suan Shu yii. Hsin Yung Huo-Pi
Shih Liao 71\: j{; m:
:f.~ !Ii! w JlI £t mJE
t1·
The Relation between the use of Paper
Money in the Sung and Yuan Dynasties
and the Mathematical Books of that time.
ISP/WSFK, 1943, no. 38.
Yen Tun-Chieh (10) .!it t.t ~.
Hui Li Cilia Tz u Khao l!!l IfI m ::r .
~
Discu ssion of the Sexagenary Calendar
System among the Muslims.
KHS, 1949, 31, 291.
Yen T un-Ch:eh (11) .!it t!! ~.
ChinI-Wei- Yuan Li Tou Fen Khao ~ Z
~ txf !ill
* j{; 1ff 4 3t ~.
Investigation of the I-Wei-Yuan Calendar of
the (Jurchen) Chin Dynasty.
TFTC, 1945, 41, 30.
Yen Tun-Chieh (12) .!it f.t fM.
With comments by Lu Shih-Hsien 1((. it
]t.
Pei Chhi Tung Hsun Ching Y uan-Wei Chia
Yill Yllall Li Chi Nien Khao ;It ~ 1If jIf1:
!ll~ j{; if;. lfllil jG Tt Q¥~ .
Study of the Chia-Yin-Yuan Calendar of the
Northern Chhi Dynasty prepared by Tung
HsUn and Cheng Yuan-Wei (+ 575).
CH, 1945, 33, 14·
Yen Tun-Chieh (13) m~'z fM .
Kuei Chu Chuan m ~{l. ~ .
Han Bricks with Designs of Compasses and
Carpenters' Squares.
SWYK, 1941, 3 (no. 4), 63.
Yen Tun-Chieh (14) m~.t m.
Chung-Kllo Ku Tai Shu-Hsiieh ti Chhbtg-
Chiu If! li?i 11 it §it ~ al] It. ~.
Contributions of Ancient and Medieval
Chinese Mathematics.
Chung-hua Chhlian Kuo Kho-Hslieh Chi-
Shu Phu-Chi Hsieh-Hai.
Peking, 1956.
YenYli (3) ~~ .
Chung-Kuo Ku-Tai kuan-yii Chih-Wu Chih
 BIBLIOGRAPHY B 743
Yen Yu (3) (cont.) Essay in Li Kuang-Pi & Chhien ChUn-Hua
shih Kuang Tshang ti Chi Tsai It> ~i ";!i" (q.v.), p. 324.
oft lUl .t'Hili !J:to lrt m~ ~ B'.J Wl'.!I;£ . Peking, 1955.
A Note on the Use of Plants as Ore-Indicators Yin Tsan-HsUn (1) ;p" ~ ~.
in Ancient China. Chllng-Kuo KU-Se,lg- Wu Hsiieh chih Ken-
Essay in Li Kuang-Pi & Chhien ChUn-Hua Miao It> ~ 1:l- 1:. Itm ~ Z fR Ea .
(q.v.), p. 163. The Beginnings of Palaeontology in China.
Peking, 1955. TCLP, I2, 63.
Yen Yu (5) !* .
~
Shih-lill Shih-Chi ti Wei Ta Kho-Hsiieh Chia;
Yu Phing-Po (1) -t.i 2f fa .
Chhin Han Kai Yiieh Lun ~ t!fi, i& A ~;?j .
Li Shih-Chen -r f> i!t *i'. B~ W*- # !'}~ On the Calendar Reforms of the Chhin and
*;~iJ;f~. H an Dynasties.
A Great Scientist of the + 16th century; Li CHJ, 1937, 12, 435.
Shih-Chen (pharmaceutical naturalist).

ADDE DA TO BIBLIOGRAPHY B
ftli. f8 ~.
Anon. (8) (ed.).
Chllng-Kllo Ti-Chen TZll-Liao Nien Piao
It> ~ itln£ ~ ~ ¥- i:& .
Lung Po-Chien (1)
Hsien Tshun Pen Tshao Shu Lu
::!f 1i·
~:{i * ~

Register of Earthquakes in Chinese Recorded Bibliographical Study of Extant Pharma-

History (- 1189 to + 1955). copoeias (from all periods).
2 vols., Kho-HsUeh, Peking, 1956. Jen Min Wei Seng, Peking, 1957.
Chhien Pao-Tsung (7) $1 ~ ~ . Ting Fu-Pao & Chou YUn-Chhing (2) T lii'.l ~ ,
ShOll Shih Li Fa Liieh Lun ~ n,j; ~
On the Shou Shih Calendar of Kuo Shou-
*
~ ~;?j. JW) ~ It·
SSll Pll Tsung Lll Sllan Fa Pien I1Y 'Im it ti
Ching (+ 1281). ~i'ld\i.
TWHP, 1956, 4 (no. 2), 193. Bibliography of Mathematical Books to
Hung I-Pyon (1) W <H ~. supplement the SSll Khll Chhiian Shtl
Chosen Kagakushi M ~ # £.. *
A History of the Natural Sciences in Korea.
encyclopaedia.
Corn. Press, Shanghai, 1957.
Tokyo, 1944. Yang Khuan (4) mn ·
Hsi T se-Tsung (3) ffr. ~ *.
S eng I-Hsing Kllan Tshe Heng-Hsing Wei Chih
Chung-Kuo Li-Tai Chhih Tu Khao It>
ft R JJf.~.
l1'Ji.l N
ti Kung- Tso 1ft - TI W! iUtl iN. 1[ 1i'r. lit i'JlJ A Study of the Chinese Foot-Measure
If-F. through the Ages.
On the Observations of Star Positions [and Corn. Press, Shanghai, 1938 ; revised and
Proper Motions] by the monk I-Hsing amplified ed. 1955.
( + 683 to + 729) [and on the date of the
Hsing Ching).
TWHP, 1956, 4 (no. 2), 212.
744

C. BOOKS AND JOURNAL ARTICLES IN

WESTERN LANGUAGES

ABETTI, G. (I). The History of Astronomy. Sidgwick & Jackson, London, 1954, tr. by B. B. Abetti from
the Italian original Storia dell'Astronomia (rev. W . M. H. Greaves, N, 1955, 176, 323).
ADAMS, F . D. (I). The Birth and Development of the Geological Sciences. Bailliere, Tindall & Cox,
London, 1938.
AoLER, E. N. (I) (ed.). Jewish Travellers. Routledge, London, 1930. (Broadway Travellers Series.)
AoNAN AoIVAR, A. (2). La Science chez les Turcs Ottomans. Maisonneuve, Paris, 1939.
AliLENIUS, K. (I). 'En Kinesisk Varlskarta frim 17 Arhundradet' (Verbiest's map ca. + 1680). SUHVS ,
1904, no. 8 (4).
AliMAD, NAFIS (I). The Muslim Contribution to Geography. Muhammad Ashraf, Kashmiri Bazar,
Lahore, 1947.
AHRENS, W. E. M. G. (I). Mathematische Spiele. In Encyklopiidie d. math. Wiss. vo!. I (2), pp. 1081 ff.
Teubner, Leipzig, 1900-4. Separate, enlarged, edition, Teubner, Leipzig, 191 I. 3rd ed. 1916.
AIRY, G. B. (I). 'Comparison of the Chinese Record of Solar Eclipses in the Chun-Tsew [Chhun Chhiu]
with the Computations of Modern Theory.' RASIMN, 1884,24, 167.
ALLEN, C. W. (I). Astrophysical Quantities. Univ. of London Press, London, 1955.
ALLEN, J. (I). Scale Models in Hydraulic Engineering. Longmans, London, 1947.
ALLEY, R. (4). 'The Tai-kou; some Notes on the Clothing Hook of Old China.' EW, 1956,7, 147.
ALMAGIA, R. (I). 'La Dottrina della Marea nell'Antichita classica e nel Medio Evo.' MAL IMN,I905,
1947·
AMBRONN, L. (I). 'Die Beziehungen der Astronomie zu Kunst und Technik.' Art. in Astronomie, ed.
J. Hartmann. Pt. rn, Sect. 3, vo!. 3 of Kultur d. Gegenwart, p. 566. Teubner, Berlin & Leipzig, 1921.
AL-ANDALusI, YAf!.Y'A AL-MAGHRIBI (I). Risiilat al-Khita wa'l-lghur (On the Calendar of the Chinese
and Uighurs). MS.
ANDRADE, E. N. DA C. (I). 'Robert Hooke' (Wilkins Lecture). PRSA, 1950,201,439. (The quotation
concerning fossils is taken from the advance notice, Dec. 1949.) Also N, 1953, 171, 365.
ANDREWS, M. C. (I). 'The Study and Classification of Mediaeval Mappae Mundi.' AAA, 1926, 75,61.
ANDREWS, W. S. (I). Magic Squares and Cubes. Chicago, 1908.
ANON. (3). 'Alum Works at Peh-Kwan.' NCM, Shanghai, 1917.
ANON. (4). 'Significance of Trace Elements in Plants and Animals.' N, 1947, 159, 206 .
ANON. (25). Les Instruments de Mathbnatiques de la Famille Strozzi faits en 1585-1586 par Erasmus
Habermehl de Prague. [Sale catalogue.] Frederik Muller, Amsterdam, 191 I.
ANON. (26). 'The Days of our Years; has the time come to change our present Calendar?' UNESC,
1954, 7 (no. I), 28.
ANON. (27) (ed.). The World Encompassed; an Exhibition of the History of Maps, held at the Baltimore
Museum of Art . ... (Catalogue.) Waiters Art Gallery, Baltimore, 1952.
ANON. (28). 'Report on the past twenty-five years' work in Japan on the History of Chinese and
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 GENERAL INDEX
by MURIEL MOYLE

NOTES
(I) Articles (such as 'the', 'al-', etc.) occurring at the beginning of an entry, and
prefixes (such as 'de', 'van', etc.) are ignored in the alphabetical sequence. Saints
appear among all letters of the alphabet according to their proper names. Styles
such as Mr, Dr, if occurring in book titles or phrases, are ignored; if with proper
names, printed following them.
(2) The various parts of h yphenated words are treated as separate words in the
alphabetical sequence. It should be remembered that, in accordance with the
conventions adopted, some Chinese proper names are written as separate
syllables while others are written as one word.
(3) In the arrangement of Chinese words, Chh- and Hs- follow normal alpha-
betical sequence, and a is treated as equivalent to u.
(4) References to footnotes are not given except for certain special subjects with
which the text does not deal. They are indicated by brackets containing the
superscript letter of the footnote.
(5) Explanatory words in brackets indicating fields of work are added for Chinese
scientific and technological persons (and occasionally for some of other cultures),
but not for political or military figures (except kings and princes).

A-erh-jo-pa-la (algebra), 53 'Action contrary to Nature', 196

A-Ho-Ma (Muslim official in Mongol service), 661 'Action is easy but knowledge difficult', 165
A-Lao-Wa-Ting (Muslim gunner), 49 Adam (Nestorian priest), 204
A-Iei-man-i-a (Germany), 555 Adams, F. D., 591, 602, 6II, 622
A-Tan. See Aden Adding-machines, 73-4, 155
Abacus, 4, 30,46,51,65,69,72, 74ff., 107, I l l , Addition, 62, 149
140, 152, 541 algebraic, 46
etymology, 79 of fractions, 8 1
technical terms, 74 ff. Aden, 558, 559, 560
Abhidharma-koia, 568 Adjustment of armillary sphere during nigh
Abraham of Memmingen (ft. 1422), 162 observations, 364, 365
Abrasives, 666-8 Adler, E. N., 681
Abrasives Depot, Ta-thung, 667 Administration, 166
AbrG, I:fafi~-i (cartographer, d . + 1430), 564 Administrative Statutes of the Chhing Dynasty
Abstraction, 156 See Ta Chhing Hili Tien
Academia Sinica, 282, 367 'Advisory inclining vessels', 327, 329
Academies Aeronautics, prehistory of, 477 (i)
Chi-Hsia, 195 (f) Aeroplane, 441
Han-Lin Yuan, 49, 191, 365 navigation, 377, 378, 590
Account of Foreign Countries in the time of the Aethiopia, 313
Wu Kingdom. See Wu Shih Wai Kuo Chuan Aetites, 652 ff.
Account of the River Systems of the Western Afghanistan, 522
Regions. See Hsi Ya Shlli Tao Chi Africa, 530, 555, 562, 563, 564
Account of the Travels of the Emperor Mu. See triangular shape of, 552, 555
Mu Thien Tzu Chuan Agate, 643, 671
'Accountants' forms (Chinese numerals), 5 Agathodaemon of Alexandria, 528
Accounting, 75, 166ff. Agglomeration. See Condensation and dispersion
Acephali, 505 (a), 506 Agrarian bureaucracy, See Bureaucracy
Acetic acid, 617 Agreeable Talks in the Jade Hall. See Ya Thang
Acoustics, 161 (c) Chia Hila .
Acrobats, 321 (c) Agricola, Georgius (+ 1490 to + r555), 154, 604,
Actinolite, 643, 655 649, 650, 672, 679
'Action at a distance', 223, 384 (d), 415, 634, 675 Agriculture, 189,282,284 (b), 362,402,451
 INDEX
Agrippa of Nettesheim (+ 16th century), 61 Altar of Heaven, Peking, 257
Ahlenius, 585 Altazimuth, 301, 369, 381
AJ:unad (son of Ibrahim the astrolabist of I~fahiin), Altitude of a star (definition), 179
376 Alum, 611, 637, 642, 643, 651, 652, 653 fr., 675,
Ahrnes Papyrus, 81, 137 67 8
Ai (technical term in astronomy and physics), 415 Aluminium
Ai haD (mugwort), 678 oxides, 668
Ai-Hslieh. See Isa Tarjaman plant accumulators of, 678
Ai Thien (Jewish scholar, + 1573 to + 1605), 682 sulphate, 653
Ainu. See Tribal peoples Alunite, 653
Air-pump, 451 Alyssum bertolonii, 678
Air thermometer, 466 Amazon (river), 483
Airs, Waters and Places, 464 Ambassadors, their contribution to literature on
Airy, G . B., 417 foreign countries, 511
Alabaster, 314 Amber, 652
Albertus Magnus (c. + lZ6o), 647 America, 583 (e)
Albi, + 8th-century map at, 531 Amerindians, 69, 215 (f), 397
Alchemical-mineralogical doctrine of the genera- Amethyst, 643
tion of metals in the earth, 641 Amicable numbers, 54, 55
Alchemy and alchemists, 159, 171,323, 5Il, 519, Amida (explorer, + 1782), 585
522,637-8,642,643,644,645,65 1,654,67 1 Amiens, 579
and geology, 598 (f) Ammonites, 6lZ, 616, 617, 618
and the School of Naturalists, 641 Ammonium alum, 653
Aldebaran, 270, 427 Ammonium chloride. See Sal ammoniac
Aleni, Giulio (Jesuit cartographer, fI. + 1623), Ammonius (Byzantine astronomer, c. + 500), 376
583 (h), 584 Amne Machin range, 523
degli Alessandri, Alessandro (£I. + 1520), 6Il Amoghavajra (Indian astronomer). See Pu-
Alexander the Great, 205, 409, 493 Khung
'Alexander Romance', 656 Amorpha canescens, 678
Alexandria, 225, 377, 526, 555 Amphisbaena (double-headed animal), 473 (e)
Alexandrian chemists, 654 Amulets, 663
Alexandrians, 82, 292, 314, 315, 321, 329, 340 An (Chin emperor + 397 to + 419), 71
Alfonso the Wise (king of Castile), 328, 329, 340, An-Feng, prince of. See Kao Yen-Ming
353, 354, 647 An hsii. (lunar eclipse), 414
Algebra, 3,9, 16,23-4,26,27,3 1,37,3 8,41,43, An Kuo-Lin (Korean), 302
46,47,51,53,66,90,91,94,96, 106, 107-8, An Li Wang. See Hsiang Wang
112 fr., 147, ISO, 151-2, 156, 205, 329, 382, An ma tzu (confidential weight numerals), 5 (i)
394, 395, 399, 43 8 , 447, 45 8 An Thien Lun (Discussion on the Conformation
derivation of the word, 113 of the Heavens), 200-1, 206, 220
Algebraic symbolism, slow in developing in 'An-Tun' embassy, 174
Europe, 114-15 Analysis, 161
Algebrista, 113 (i) Analysis of Celestial Motions. See Thui Pu Fa
Algol in Perseus (variable star), 429 Chieh
AIhidada, 368 Analysis of the Motions of the Five Planets. See
AIidade, 238, 268, 339, 340, 377, 574 Wu Hsing Hsing Tu Chieh
Alley, R., 517 (a) Analytic geometry. See Geometry
Alligation problems, 45, 122 Analytical Dictionary of Characters. See Shuo
AIligator, 464 Wen Chieh Tzu
Allium fistulosum, 675 (h), 676 Anaphoric clock, 366, 376fr.
Alloys, 122 Anathumiasis, 469, 636
assaying of, 672-3 Anaxagoras (b. - 500), 410, 625
Almagest (Ptolemy), 174, 268, 269, 340, 417 Anaximander of Miletus ( - 6th century), 469, 503
AImandine garnets, 668 Anaximenes, 625
Aloes, 680 Andalusia, 378
Alpha and Omega of the Mathematics of Mutually Andersson, 660
Varying Quantities. See Suan Fa Thung Pien Andrade, E. N. da C., 6Il
Pen Mo Andrews, M . C., 529
Alphabet, its application to numeral notation, 11, Andronicus of Cyrrha (c. -150), 478
13, 149 Anemometer, 478-9
Alphabets, possible derivation from lunar man- Angkor Thorn, 568
sion symbols, 239 (g) Angkor Vat, 568
Altair, 252, 253 Anglo-Saxon chronicles, 483
and Vega (myth), 282 Animal cycle, 405-6
 INDEX
Animals, 504, 510
fossil, 614 ff.
miraculous, 56
in the sun and moon, 413 (h)
symbolic, 240 (a)
Annam, 552
Annual Customs of Ching and Chhu. See Ching
Chhu Sui Shih Chi
Annulus, 25, 98
Answers about Heaven. See Thien Tui
Answers of the Venerable (Master) Lei concerning
Drugs. See Lei Kung Yao Tui
Antacids, 651
Antarctic zone, 180
Antares, 242, 250, 411, 424, 429
and Orion (myth), 282
Antheap of Knowledge; miscellaneous essays. See
I Situ Pien
Anthoniszoon, Adriaan (+ 16th century), 101,
102
Anthropocentrism, 223, 224
Anthropology, 513
Anti-Kythera machine, 339 (e), 366
Antigonus of Carystos (c. -200),493
Antioch, c1epsydra at, 318
Antiphon (- 5th century), 141
Antipodes, 218, 438, 529, 531 (a)
Antiquary-Royal (Sung Hsiin), 534
Antiseptics, 663
d'Anville (geographer), 586
Anxiety about the solar path, 188 (d)
Anyang
jade objects found at, 665
oracle-bones, 95, 242, 409, 467, 473
Aoyama, Sadao, 547, 555
Aparagoyana (continent), 568
Apennine mountains, 599
Apianus , Peter (+ 16th century), 47, 134, 372,
43 1, 432
Apocryphal Treatise on the Filial Piety Classic;
Diagrams of Male and Female (Influences).
See Hsiao Wei Tzhu Hsiung Thu
Apocryphal Treatise on the Lo Shu Diagram;
Examination of the Measured (Movements)
of the (Celestial) Brilliances. See Lo Shu Wei
Chen Yao Tu
Apocryphal Treatise on the River Chart; Examina-
tion of the Signs of the Earth. See Ho Thu
Wei Kua Ti Hsiang
Apocryphal Treatise on the River Chart; Investi-
gation of the Full Circle of the (Celestial)
Brightnesses. See Ho Thu Wei Chi Yao Kou
Apocryphal Treatise on the Shang Situ Section of
the Historical Classic; Investigation of the
Mysterious Brightnesses. See Shang Shu
Wei Khao Ling Yao
Apocryphal treatises on prognostications. See
Chhan- Wei Shu
Apollonius Dyscolus (grammarian, + 2nd cen-
tury), 656
Apollonius of Pergamon (mathematician, fl. - 220),
91, 102, 107, 198 (k)
Apparatus for Rotating an Armillary Sphere by
80 5
Clepsydra Water. See Lou Shui Chuall Hun
Thien I Chih
Apparent diurnal rotation of the heavens, 179
Aqua regia, 672
Aquarids, 433
Aquarius, 271, 273
Aquinas, St Thomas, 166
Arabia, 457, 559, 560, 653, 654, 656
Arabic alchemy, 654, 671
Arabic astronomy, 171, 176, 184, 208, 252, 257,
267,288,296,309,311,312,34°,353,357,
370 , 372, 375, 377, 378, 379, 382 , 389, 428,
45 8
Arabic compartment-drum devices, 328
Arabic geography, 513, 521, 533, 549, 55 1, 555,
556, 561 ff., 574, 587, 589, 681
Arabic mathematics, 55, 61, 64, 65, 68, 69, 80,
82, 107, 108, 109, 113, 118, 125, 137, 147,
148, IS0, 155
Arabic merchants, 512
Arabic scholars, confusion of the names of, 89 (f)
Arabs, 49-50, 53, 89, 90, 162,299, 381,469,525,
655, 656, 659
Arakawa, H., 436
Aratos (-315 to -245),201,382
Arbalest, 575
Arc, 25, 39, 51, 97, 109
Arc-sagitta method, 39
Arcadia, 656
Archaeological Topography of the Regions North
of the Yellow River. See Ho Shuo Fang Ku
Chi
Archimedes (c. - 225), 34 (a), 87 (b), 88 (k), 101,
141, 145, 158, 161 (c), 339 (e)
Architects, 37
Architecture, 160 (e), 332
Arctic zone, 180
Arcturus, 252, 270, 411
Areas, measurement of, 33, 34, 42, 52, 97, 142, 144
Arenarius ('sand-grain reckoner'), 87 (b), 88 (k)
d'Arezzo, Ristoro (c. + 1250), 603
Argyros, Isaac (Byzantine monk, + 14th century),
147
Aries, 273
First Point of, 179, 181, 270
Arim (Arin), 563 (b)
Aristagoras of Miletus (c. - 500), 503 (d)
Aristarchus of Samos (c. - 260), 108, 225
Aristotelian elements, 159,439 (b)
Aristotelian theory of 'exhalations' , 469, 636-'7,
640
Aristotelian-Ptolemaic world-view. See Ptole-
maic-Aristotelian world-view
Aristotle, 93, 161, 172,227,401,409,427,440,
444,462,469,483,493,602,625,626,636-'7,
64 1,652,658
Aristyllus, 270, 340
Arithmetic, 54, 442
binary, 12 (b), Ill, 141
sexagesimal, 82, 146
Sumerian and Babylonian, 82
Arithmetic in the Five Classics. See Wu Ching
Suan Shu
806 INDEX
Arithmetica, I 13 Astrology and astrologers, 12, 24, 50, 124, 190,
Arithmetical Classic of the Gnomon and the Cir- 191, 193, 198, 200, 202, 203, 207, 208, 263,
cular Paths of Heaven. See Chou Pei Suan 264,274,276,278,283,333,362,378 (a), 397,
Ching 39 8 , 4 02 , 4 0 4, 4 10 , 426, 436, 442, 443, 465
Arithmetical progressions. See Progressions 475, 494, 545, 625, 639 (d)
'Armenian borax', 662 Babylonian, 254, 255, 273
Armillary rings, 218, 238, 268, 301, 339, 358, 383, European, 172
57 1 Indian, 239 (d)
Armillary sphere, 191, 193-4, 208, 216 (c), 217, Persian, 204, 257
218, 268, 270, 298, 301, 318, 327, 333, 334, Roman, 215
339 ff., 368, 37 0 , 373, 379, 381, 415, 450, 451, 'Astronomer-Royal', xlv, 189 ff., 191 ff., 207, 384
45 8 , 478, 574, 633, 634 Astronomers, 3, IS, 48, lOO, lOS, 167, 175, 186,
computational, 359, 360, 361 , 365 18 9, 19 1, 193, 197, 522, 523
demonstrational, 343, 349, 350, 360, 365, 383, Indian, 148, 175, 202, 228, 267 (a), 270
384, 3 86 , 38 9 Muslim,208
ecliptic, 379, 438, 45 I Old Babylonian, 149
equatorial, 379, 450, 452 Persian, 110,204
most primitive type, 343 Seleucid Babylonian, 205
observational, 343, 349, 350, 361, 362, 365, 383, Astronomia Europaea sub Imperatore Tartaro-
384, 386 Synico Cam Hy (Khang-Hsi) appellato, ex
three-nest system, 343 Umbra in Lucem Revocata (1687), 454
'Arrow-bundle method', 55 Astronomiae Instauratae Mechanica (+ 1598),341,
Ars Conjectandi, 141 342, 376
Ars Magna, 90 Astronomical Bureau, 49, 191, 192,202, 325, 384,
Arsenic 386, 419, 43 I, 456, 628, 632
sulphides, 638, 641, 65 I Astronomical clocks. See Clocks
white, 652 Astronomical coordinate system in cartography,
Arsenious acid (phi), 637, 641 545
crystals, 648 Astronomical Department (Thien Wen Yuan) of
Arsenolite (yii), 637, 640, 643, 651 the Han-Lin Academy, 191
Art of Numbring by Speaking-Rods: Vulgarly Astronomical instruments, 48, 176, 177, 192, 193,
termed Nepeir's Bones, 72 199,200,209,218,23 1,264,268,270,284 ff.,
Artemisia vulgaris, 678 310,369,442,443,447,450-1,458
Arthasastra, 669 Astronomical observations, 177, 181, 182, 190,
Arthropods, 612, 619 192,225, 229, 231, 245-6, 247, 248, 251, 262,
Artisans, 153, 155, 158, 160, 161, 634. See also 264, 268, 270, 288 ff., 427, 432, 443
Higher artisanate Astronomical observatories
Artists, 593 ff. Chan Hsing Thai, Kyungju, Korea, 297
Artois, 680 Chou Kung's Tower, Yangchheng, 291 (b), 296,
Aryabhata (Indian mathematician, b. +476), 300
34 (a), 88, 102, 108, 122, 147, 149 Imperial, 191, 193, 369, 545
Arym, 563 (b) Indian, 296, 300
Asbestos, 613, 652, 655 ff., 667, 669 Japanese, 447
mineral nature of, 660, 662 Kuan Hsiang Thai, Peking, 300, 352, 378, 379,
theories as to origin and nature of, 658 ff. 382 , 3 88 , 423, 45 1-4
Asbestos cloth, 656-7 Loyang, 385
Ashurbanipal (Babylonian king), 254, 314 Maraghah, Persia, 50, 105, 296, 370, 372, 373 ,
Asia, 527, 530, 544, 556, 564 375, 377, 378, 3 82 , 634
Asia Minor, 653 Ming Thang, 189
Asoka (Indian king), 10 Paris, 182, 183, 430, 544
Asphalt, 602 Pulkovo, 372 (e)
Assembly of calendar experts (- 104), 302, Purple Mountain, Nanking, 367, 451 (f)
320 Samarqand, 50, 68 (a), 296
Assembly of Computing Methods connected with Astronomical records, Chinese, 409ff.
the Calendar. See Shen Tao Ta Pien Li failure of the Jesuits to make use of, 447
Tsung Suan Hui Astronomical Star Prognostication. See Thien
Assyria, 314, 423 Wen Hsing Chan
Astragalus spp., 678 Astronomical symbolism, 252 (c)
Astringents, 653 Astronomy, 12, 19,21,29,35,37,48,50, 101, 107 ,
Astro-compass, 378 108, 109, 1I0, 120, 148, 157, 158, 160, 167,
Astrolabe, 179, 268, 301, 339 (e), 368, 370, 374, 168,499, 537, 544, 564, 569, 633, 682
375-6 , 377, 381 , 437 Chinese, antiquity of, 176; and European con-
with gear-wheels, 339 (e), 362 (c) trasted, 172-3, 229, 257, 340, 341, 366; and
 INDEX

Astronomy (contd.) Bacon, Francis, 155

Japanese contrasted, 447; lack of theory, 220, Bacon, Roger (+ 1214 to + 1292), 162
223; 'official' character of, 171, I86ff., 410, Bactria, 395 (d)
476; part played by the Jesuits, 437 ff.; polar Baculum. See Jacob's staff
and equatorial character of, 172-3, 257, 306, Badakshan, 672
338, 375, 377, 438, 458; reliability of records, Baddeley, J. F., 583
417 ff., 426, 427 (e); and security regulations, Baghdad, 54.4, 681
193-4; and State-religion, 189 Bagrow, L., 537
European, 172, 443 Baikal, Lake, 293
physical, 458 Bakhshali MS., 119 (b)
positional, 179, 181, 183, 197 (b), 270, 458 Balance, the, 317, 326, 332, 575
spherical, 178, 181 Balance-wheel, 3 I 5
Astronomy of Buddha's Country. See Bukkoku Ball, Rouse (2), I I I
Rekisho-hen 'Ball arithmetic', 76-8, 140
Astronomy, Officially Translated by order of the Ball-valve, 317
Ming. See Ming I Thien Wen Shu 'Ballad of Sir Patrick Spens', 422
Atharvaveda, 254 Ballistics, 166 (e), 167
Athens, 309, 315, 478 Balls, recording by means of dropping, 630- 2
Atlantic Ocean, 583 Bamboo, 464
Atlas Sinensis (+ 1655), 586 Bamboo Books chronology, 455
Atmidodestera, 469 Bamboo drill, 668
Atmosphere, absence of in outer space, 222 Bamboo-rat, 464
Atmosphere of the earth. See Earth's atmosphere Bamboo-shoots, fossil, 614
'Atomic' definition of the geometrical point, 91-2, Bamboo tablets from Chii Yen, 64
143 Bamboo tubes, 333 (c), 352 (c)
Atoms and atomism, 92, 141-2, 143, 151 (d), 157, Band & Band, 607
601 (b) Banka Island, 11
in Western European (Renaissance) thought, Banque des Argentiers, 80
167 (d) Baranovskaia, L. S. (I), 110
'Auction by the candle', 330 (c) Bark cloth, 658, 661
Augsburg 'Great Quadrant', 296 Barley, 678
St Augustine, 507 (a), 531 (a), 659 Bamard's Star, 270
Aurora Borealis, 190 (d), 200, 436, 482-3 de Barros, Joiio (ft. + 1563), 585
Ausgleichungsrechnung, 124 (a) Barrow, 142
Averroism, 161 Barthold, W., 681
Avicenna. See Ibn Sina ben Barzillai, Judah ( + 12th century), 142
Axes. See Neolithic axes Basaltic columns, 593
Azimuth, 159, 180,267,301, 30 5, 353, 375, 39 8 Basanite, 672
Azores, 555 al-Ba~ri, ibn Wahb, 565, 587
Aztecs (Amerindian people). See Cultures Bastian, A., 473
Azurite, 640, 643 Batavia, 662
Bat, 619
Baade, W., 426 'Bat-stone' (pienfu shih), 619
al-Ba'albaki, Qu~ta ibn Luqa (d. +922), 1I8 Bate, John (+ 17th century), 328
Baas-Becking, L. G. M., 642 al-Battani, Ibn Jabir ibn Sinan (+ 858 to + 929),
Babylon, 409 108
Babylonia and the Babylonians, 550, 569, 582, Battle of the Talas River, 536, 681
589, 590, 602, 637 Battle-pictures, 536-']
cuneiform texts, 16, 113, 149, 254, 256, 313, Battles of the pygmies with the cranes, 505
43 0,620 Bean curd, 651
Babylonian astrology, 273 Beatus Libaniensis (Spanish priest, d. + 798), 529,
Babylonian astronomy, 149, 171, 173, 176, 177, 587
186,205,212,228,246, 254 ff., 259, 309, 329, de Beauvais, Vincent (c. + 1246), 639
38 2, 394, 395, 39 6 , 397, 399, 4 0 7, 4 08 , 410, Beckmann, 329
4 11 ,42 0 Bede the Venerable, 68, 69, 493-4
influence on Indian astronomy, 395 (e) van Beek, A., 310
Babylonian clepsydras, 313, 315, 322 The Beetle and the Sea. See Li Hai Chi
Babylonian mathematics, 13, 15, 16,64,69,81,82, Behaim, Martin (+ 1492), 374
96,99,107,113,114,115,123,150,151,205 Bellifortis, 162
Babylonian sighting-tube, 332 Bellows, 222
Babylonian wheel-maps, 568 Belt-hook, 668
Bacchylides, 672 Benares, 300
Backstaff, 574 Benoist, Michel (Jesuit cartographer), 45 I , 586
808 INDEX

Berger, H., 592 Boils, 654

Berlage, H. P., 626 Boke of Ydrography, 532
Bernard, Claude, 158 Boil, F. (4), 405
Bernard-Maitre, H., 443, 584, 585 Bolos of Mendes (- 2nd century), 639 (e, g)
Bernier, Frans;ois, 228 Bombay, 559, 560
Bernoulli, 141 de Boodt (+ 1550 to + 1632),646
Berossos (- 3rd century), 301, 309, 395 (c), 408 Book of the Barbarians. See Man Shu
Berry, A., 184 Book of Changes. See I Ching
Berthelot, M., 637, 639, 645 Book of the Former State of Yileh. See Yiieh
Bertrand, G. & Mokragnatz, H., 678 Chiieh Shu
Berzelius, 59 I Book of Geography. See Ti Li Shu
Bestiaries, 59 I, 636 Book of (Magic) Properties. See Kitiib al-
Bettini, Mario, 379 Khawiin
Bezold, C. (I), 254, 273 Book of Master Chi Ni. See Chi Ni Tzu
Bhaskara (+ 12th-century Indian mathematician), Book of Master Chuang. See Chuallg Tzu
64, 88, 91, 96, 141, 147 Book of Master Fu. See Fu Tzu
Bhojadeva inscriptions, 10 Book of Master Hsiln. See Hsiin Tzu
Bibliography in Seven Sections. See Chhi Liieh Book of Master Lieh. See Lieh Tzu
Bielenstein, H., 418 Book of Master Meng. See Meng Tzu
Biernatzki, K. L., I, UI Book of Master Mo. See Mo Tzu
Bilfinger, M., 314 Book of Master Wen. See Wen Tzu
Binary arithmetic. See Arithmetic Book of Odes. See Shih Ching
Bindu. See Dot Book of the Preservation-of-Solidarity Master.
Binomial coefficients, 133 ff., 137 (a) See Pao Phu Tzu
Binomial theorem, 47, 133 fr., 147 Book of (the Prince of) Huai Nan. See Huai
Biochemistry, 672 Nan Tzu
Bio-geochemical prospecting. See Prospecting Book of the Remedy. See Kitiib al-Shifii
Biographies of Famous (Buddhist) Monks. See Book of Roads and Provinces. See Kitiib al-
Kao Seng Chuan Masiilik w'al-Mamiilik
Biographies of Mathematicians and Scientists. Book of Sharp Sector Figures. See Kitiib al-
See Chhou Jen Chuan Shakl al-Qattii', 109
Biological sciences, 206 Book of Strange Spiritual Manifestations. See
Biology, 181, 510, 634, 677 Shen I Ching
Greek, 119 Book of the Ta Yen Calendar. See Ta Yen Li Shu
history of, 507 Book of the Truth-through-Indolence Master.
Biot, E., I, 20, 21, 184, 300, 425, 430, 432, 433, See Lan Chen Tzu
463, 482, 644 Book-keeping, 166
Biot, J. B., I, 173, 183,242; (1),246; (4), 229, 234, Bookworms, 621
239, 247, 253; (5), 52, 55; (6), 52, 252; (IS), Bootes, 250, 251,252, 272
593 Borax, 662 fr.
Biotite, 648 Borneo, 284 (b)
Bird Star. See Niao hsing Boron, 677
Birds Botanic gardens, 162 (i), 68 I
fossil, 621 Botany, 636, 643, 675
non-inflammable, 659 (d) pharmaceutical, 681
Bird's-egg analogy, 217, 218 Bottles of rock crystal, 666
Bird's-Eye Map, 538, 576 Boundaries, 292, 501, 534, 542
Biringuccio (d. + 1538), 154 Bouvet, Joachim (Jesuit cartographer), 585
Biquadratic equations. See Equations Bowl sundial, 301, 309
al-Birlini, Abu al-Rai\:tan, 140 (a), 252, 612, 620, Bows, 505
622 Boyle, Robert, 378 (a), 391 (a), 439 (b)
Bishop, H. R., 748 Boym, Michael (Polish Jesuit), 444, 445
Black, J. Davidson, 621 Brachiopods, 612, 614, 615, 616, 617
' Black ashes' (hei hui), 602 Bradwardine, Thomas (+ 1290 to + 1349), 162
Black-clothed People, 513 Brahe, Tycho, 172, 220, 266, 268, 270, 296, 301,
Black Tortoise (northern ' Palace'), 242 34 1, 342, 35 0 , 352, 366 , 372, 37 6 , 377, 378,
Blagden, C . 0., 560 379, 426, 4 27, 428, 43 8 , 445, 446, 454, 457
'BIas' and 'Gas', 642 (b) Brahmagupta (Indian mathematician, c. + 630),
Blubber, 657 34 (a), 90, 102, 119 (b), 146, 147
Blue Dragon (eastern 'Palace'), 242 'Brahmin books', 88, 148, 202, 207
Blue Pagoda temple, 331 Brahmins, 568, 587
Bobrovnikov, N. T., 429 Brandis, Lucas, 549, 550
Bodde, D., 535 Brassica rapa-depressa, 678
 INDEX 80 9
Braunmiihl, A., 108 Bureau of Astronomy and Calendar. See Astro-
Brazing, 662 nomical Bureau
Breast-strap harness, 681 Bureaucracy, 153, 167, 168, 186, 192, 193, 230,
Brelich, H., 649 273, 286, 5 18, 534
Brethren of Sincerity (semi-secret society), 260, Confucian, 191,418
60 3 influence on the development of SCIence in
Bretschneider, E. (I), 643; (2), 522, 523, 669; China, 167
(4), 524 Bureaucratic government and mathematics. See
Brewer, H. C ., 677 Mathematics and bureaucratic government
Brhaspati-cakra (Jupiter cycle), 251 Biirgi, ]., 43
Bricks, 95 Burma, 510, 665
Bridges, 516 Burmese, 507
Brief Description of the Measurement of the Burning-mirrors, 227 (b), 661
Heavens. See Tshe Thien Yo Shuo Burtt, E. A ., 158
Brief History of Chinese Mathematics. See Bushell, S. W., 663
Chung-Kuo Suan Hsiieh Hsiao Shih al-Bu.zjani, Abu'I-Wafa' (+ 940 to +998), 108,
Brief Notes from Thung-Chhi. See Thung Chhi 296
Hsien Chih Byrd, Admiral, 365 (b)
della Briga, Melchior, 454 Byzantine empire, 61, 309, 376, 561, 575, 587
Bright Palace (cosmological temple), 58, 189, Byzantium, 296, 526, 682
3 08
Britain, 3 13, 527 Cable, M., 607
Britannia, 520 Cacciatore, 635
British Isles, 584 Caerulean Heavens, 640
British Museum, 517, 567 Caerulean Sea, 640
Brocades, 680 Cajori, F. (2), I, IS; (3), 15 1 ; (5), 471
' Brocken Spectre', 477 (c), 596 Calcareous tufa, 614
Broken bamboo, problem of the, 27, 28, 147 Calcite crystals, 593 (d), 612 (b), 648
Bromehead, C. E. N ., 592, 652 Calcium, 617
Brongniart, A., 644 acetate, 617
Bronze age, 667 lactate, 617
Bronze bowl planisphere, 279 magnesium silicate, 655
Bronze-founders, 159, 365 silicate, 668
Bronze standard measures, 24 sulphate, 651
Brown, B., 281 Calculating machines. See Adding-machines
Brown, Lloyd A., 579 Calculating-rods. See Counting-rods
Brundin, N., 678 Calculation of Integration and Equation. See
Brunelleschi (+ 1377 to + 1446), 154 Hisiib al-Jabr w' al-Muqiibalah
Bruno, Giordano, 222 (b), 440 Calculations of Arcs and Segments. See Hu Shih
Bubble water-level, 353 (c) Suan Shu
Budapest, 555 Calculus, 103, 141 if., 155
'Buddha Light' nimbus, 477, 596 Calendar reform, 200, 247, 259, 443-4, 447 (a)
Buddhist abbeys, 596, 661 Calendars, 19, 20, 35, 37, 49, 123, 125, 175, 186,
Buddhist pilgrims, 5 I I 194-6,202,203,204,209,247,287,293,294,
Buddhists and Buddhism, 27, 30, 33, 35, 37, 87, 310,356,381,391,392,421,446,447 (a), 449,
88, 144, 149, 153, 166, 175, 202, 203, 204, 542
221 , 228, 257-8, 282-3, 308 , 323 , 324, 350, and State power, 193
457, 477 (i), 4 8 2, 4 8 9, 5 13, 5 19, 544, 545, Calendrical Manual based on the Jupiter Cycle.
565-8, 581, 589, 602, 610, 670 See Chi Yuan Li Ching
astronomical texts, 202, 258 (a), 283 (b) Calendrical Measurements. See Li Tshe
preoccupation with innumerable worlds within Calendrical science, 3, 4, 29, 35, 37,42,48,5 1,69,
a single drop of water, etc., 145 (a) 97, 101, 107, 109, 120, 124, 125, 148, 152,
Building technology, 158 167, 168, 171, 172, 176, 185, 189, 191, 192,
Bukkoku Rekisho-hen (The Astronomy of Bud- 193 , 202, 203, 207, 253, 293, 339, 361, 362,
dha's Country), 457 382,390 if. , 400, 404, 406, 410, 456, 457, 682
Bulling, A. (I), 398 importance of, for an agricultural economy, 189
Bulrush roots, fossil, 614 Japanese , 391 (d)
Bumstead sun-compass, 365 (b) nothing to choose between Ptolemaic and
Bunbury, E. H., 532 Copernican system for calendar-making, 446
Bundahifn, 253 (a) and sexology, 390 (c)
al-BUni, Abu-I-'Abbas, 61 Calendrical Science based on the Celestial Ap-
' Bur' (early Renaissance mineralogical term), 642 pearances. See Chhien Hsiang Li Shu
Burak, 662 (c) Calicut, 558
8ro INDEX

Calligraphic traditions and techniques, 593 Celestial globe, 192,208,264,278,3°9,318,327,

Callippus of Cyzicos (fl. - 370 to - 330), 186,406, 358,360,362,363,366,367,374,382 ff., 450,
40 7 452
Callisthenes, 409 technical terms, 383
Cambodia, Il, 12, 5Il, 568, 610 (e), 658 Celestial law-giver, denial of, 153
Cambrensis, Giraldus, 494, 520 Celestial mechanics, 172, 394
Cambridge University Library, 31-2, 50, 513 Celestial motions, 123-4, 214
Camden, William (+ 1551 to + 1623),520 the Celestial sphere, theory of, 200, 212, 216, 223,
Camels, 607 234, 3 8 3
Camera obscura, 299 Cellini, Benvenuto, 154,472
Cammann, S. (2), 308 Censers, 580 if.
Camphor, 680 Censorinus, 402 (b)
Canals, 26, 99, 153, 167, 189, 325, 514, 515, 57 8 , Central American civilisation, 663
621 Central 'Palace' (circurnpolar region), 198, 200,
Cancer, Tropic of. See Tropic of Cancer 208, 240
Canon of the Virtue of the Tao. See Tao Te Centre of the earth. See Earth
Ching Centrifugal cosmogony. See Cosmogony
Canopus, 274 Centrifugal pump, 160
Canton, 183, 292, 312, 519 Cephalopods, 612, 617, 618, 619
Arab colony at, 565, 587 Cepheus, 336
clepsydra at, 324 Ceramics, 159,651,652
Cantor, M., 15 I; (I), I, 121 Ceremonies. See Rites and ceremonies
Capella, Martianus (fl. +470), 529 Cesi Academy, 444
Capitalism and the development of modern van Ceulen (+ 17th century), 102
science, 166, 168, 189 (h), 437 Ceylon, 531, 533, 55 8
Capricorn, Tropic of. See Tropic of Capricorn Cha-Ma-Lu-Ting. See Jamal ai-Din
Carbon, 6°9, 651 Chahar province, 297
Carbonate, 617 'Chaldea', 205, 395
Carborundum, 668 Chalmers, J. , 184, 25 1
Cardan, Jerome (+16th century), 90, Ill, 125 Champa. See Chan- Chheng and Cultures
Cardan suspension, 314 (d), 387 Chan- Chheng (Champa), I I, 557, 558
Cardinal point system, 240 Chan Hsing Thai (observatory tower), at Kyungju,
Carpenter's square, 22, 23, 93, 95 Korea, 297, 682
Carrying-over process, 63 Chan Kuo Ts/ze (Records of the Warring States).
Cart-axles, 608, 609 535
Cartesianism, 77, 107, 125 Chance Conversations North of Chhih-chou. See
Carthage, 526 Chhih Pei Ou Than
Cartographic survey, 518 Chancellor, Richard (c. + 1552), 296 (a)
Cartography, 88-9, 90, 106, 438 (a), 497 if., 508, Chang (hsiu), 248, 271
5 12,5 14,5 21 Chang (resonance period), 406, 407
local, 517-18 Chang (river), 501
Carus, P., 310 Chang Chan (+320 to +4°0),92
Carvers, 664 Chang Chhang (d. -48), 581
Cassini, J. D. (+ 1678), 182, 366,446,448, 544 Chang Chhao ( + 17th-century mathematician), 60
Cassiopeia, 428 Chang Chheng. See Gerbillon, J ean Franc;:ois
Cassirer, E. (I), 167 Chang Chhi-Yiin, 524
Cast iron, 349, 481 (a) Chang Chhien (- 2nd-century traveller and ex-
Castelli, Benedetto, 471 plorer), 321, 5Il, 522, 523, 535, 549
del Castillo, Bernal Diaz, 514 Chang Chhiu-Chien (mathematician, A. +468).
Casting-counters, 80 33, 36, 40, 122, 138, 146
Catalan map (+ 1375), 556 Chang Chhiu-Chien Suan Ching (Chang Chhiu-
Catalogue of the Books in the Sui- Chhu Hall. See Chien's Mathematical Manual), 33, 35, 123.
Sui-Chhu Thallg Shu Mu 138, 147
Cathay, 118 (b) Chang Chou-Yuan (astronomer, +7th century),
Cathay and the Way Thither, 174 421
'Cattle problem', 34 (a) Chang Chiin-Fang, 419 (a)
Caucasus, 681 Chang Heng (c. + 100, astronomer and mathe-
Cavalieri, 141, 142, 144, 145 matician), 20, 100, 104, 106, 199, 200, 206,
Cavalli, Atanasio (+ 1785), 635 (a) 216 if., 226, 264 ff., 269, 318, 320, 321, 343.
Caves (tung), 6°5, 606, 614 350, 355, 35 6 -7, 359, 360, 361, 364, 366, 384.
Cayley, H., 665 38 6, 38 7, 389, 4 14, 423, 440 (d), 478, 498.
Celestial atlas, 282 5 2 7, 533, 537 if., 54 1, 54 2 , 55 1, 579, 587,
Celestial cartography, 276 ff., 364, 456 626 if.
 INDEX
Chang Hsieh ( + 17th-century geographer), 512
Chang Hsing-I, 661
Chang Hua (+232 to + 300), 471, 612, 657,
67 6
Chang Huang (Ming scholar), 224, 565
Chang Hung-Chao, 434, 592, 608, 614, 619, 620,
645, 653, 654, 664, 668, 673, 675
Chang I (c. + 5th century), 673
Chang Meng-Pin (astronomer, c. + 570), 394
Chang Ning (+ 1430), 661
Chang Pho (+ 3rd century), 658
Chang Shou-Chieh (Thang commentator), 608
Chang Shui (river), 604
Chang Ssu-HsUn (clock-maker, + 979), 350, 386
Chang Ssu-Ku, 422
Chang Sui. See I-Hsing
Chang Tsai ( eo-Confucian philosopher), 222-3,
224, 492
Chang Tshang (mathematician and minister of
State, H. - 165 to - 142), 24, 25
Chang Tzu (poet, + 13th century), 601, 638
Chang Tzu-Hsin (astronomer, c. + 570), 394
Chang-yeh (Ganchow), 543
Chang Yin-Lin (3), 24, 118
Chang Yti-Che (1), 185
Chang YUeh (calendar expert, + 8th century), 203,
660
Chang Yung-Li (1), 99
Chao (sister of Chao Ta), 538 (c)
Chao (State), 195
Chao chha (' calling the differences '), 48, 123, 125
Chao-Chhing (capital of the provinces Kuangtung
and Kuangsi), 583
Chao Chi-Jen, 580
Chao Chtin-Chhing (Later Han commentator), 19,
20, 24, 95-6, 103, 147
Chao Fei (Astronomer-Royal of the Northern
Liang, + 437), 204
Chao Hsi-Ku (+ 13th century), 613
Chao Hun (Calling Back the Soul ( - 3rd-century
poem», 305
Chao Ju-Kua (+ 13th-century geographer), 512
Chao of Yen (king), 657
Chao Shih-Shu. See Chao Chi-Jen
Chao Ta-Hsien, 422
Chao Te-Lin, 470
Chao Tho (minister of State, c. -215),71
Chao-Wa. See Java
Chao Wen Kuan (College of the Glorification of
Literature), 415
Chao yao (Twinkling indicator), 250
Chao Yen-Chheng (member of J ewish community
at Khaifeng, c. + 1415), 682
Chao Ying-Chheng (physician, early Chhing), 682
Chao Yu-Chhin (astronomer, c. + 1300), 102, 208
Chara, 614
Charcoal, 609, 610, 651
hygroscopic properties of, 470--1
de Chard in, 464
Chariot-axles, 95
Charlemagne, 282
de la Charme, 452
Charms, 567, 621
8II
Chatley, H. (I), 224, 261, 436; (5),227; (8),184;
(9), 182; (10), 194; (loa), 246; (11), 212;
(12), 252; (14), 314; (15, 20), 408; (22),
484
Chavannes, E ., 420, 544; (I), 204, 274, 404; (7),
405; (8), 278, 551; (9), 303, 304; (ID), 497
526, 53 8 , 547
Chekiang, 3 I I, 549, 605
Chekiang Thing pavilion, 492
Chelido dasypus, 617
Chemical analysis, 674, 678
Chemical combination, 480
Chemical industries, 651
Chemical substances, 605, 645
Chemical technology, 642
Chemical theories of the formation of minerals and
metals, 639
Chemistry, 158, 159, 323, 639, 643, 654, 663, 672
Chemistry and mathematics. See Mathematics
and chemistry
Chen (technical term in geomancy and cosmo-
graphy), 542
Chen-chiang, 548
Chen HsUan-Thu (Later Han scholar), 4
Chen-Kuan reign-period, 544
Chen-La Feng Thu Chi (Description of Cam-
bodia), 5 I I
Chen Luan (mathematician, H. + 570), 20, 29, 30,
33, 35, 58, 59,76, 121, 185,205 (g), 310, 600
Chen yii (jade), 664
Cheng (distillation), 468 (c)
Cheng Chhiao (+ 12th-century astronomer), 206,
207, 281
Cheng Chhu-Hui (+9th century), 38
Cheng Chin-Te (2), 72
Cheng Chung (commentator, H. + 89, d. + T [4),
25
ClzengJang an (Direction-Determining Table), 370
Cheng Ho (+15th-century admiral), 511, 513.
522, 556 ff., 577
Cheng HsUan (commentator, + 127 to +200),
25, 87, 94, 2 19, 22~ 334, 57 1
Ch big i (Rectifying Instrument), 370
Cheng Jo-Tseng (+ 16th-century geographer).
5 16 ,559
Cheng Lei Pen Tshao (Reorganised Pharmaco-
poeia), 613, 618, 644, 647
Clzeng li i (Verification Instrument), 369
Cheng Ssu-Hsiao (d. + 1332), 493, 650-1
Cheng Te-Khun, 504, 596 (c); (2), 507 ; (4),
464
Chesneaux, J., 450 (d)
Chess, 139, 541, 542
Chess-men, 305, 542
Chessboard, 107
problems, 139
Chessboard (scacchero) method of multiplication ,
63
Chestnut, 463, 649, 678
Chevalier, S., 454
Chha-na (k~a~7a 'atomic' instants of time), 60[
Chhan- Wei SllIl (apocryphal treatises on pro-
gnostications), 57, 58, 199, 225, 468, 568
812 INDEX
Chhang (normal regularity of heaven), 216
Chhang-an (modern Sian), 33, 385, 478
historical map of, 547
Chhang-an Chih, 547
Chhang Chhli (+4th-century geographer), 517
Chhang-Chhun Chen-Jen Hsi Yu Chi (Western
Journey of the Taoist Chhang-Chhun), 522
Chhang-Chhlin Hall conference (c. + 525), 221
Chhang-Io, Fukien, 557
Chhang Te (diplomat, + 1259), 523
Chhangchow, 433, 514·
Chhangsun Wu-Chi, 101, 201
Chhao Chhung (astronomer, f1. + 402), 350
Chhen (dynasty), 264, 328, 385
Chhen (astronomical term), 249-50
Chhen Chheng (pharmaceutical naturalist, f1.
+ 1090),648
Chhen Chieh (Chhing mathematician), 24
Chhen Cho (astronomer, c. +310),198,200,207,
262, 263, 264, 281, 383, 387
Chhen Hao-Tzu (horticulturist, f1. + 1688), 154
Chhen Hsiu (prefect of Yangchow), 549
Chhen HSlian-Ching (calendar expert, + 8th cen-
tury), 203
Chhen Kao-Yung (1),472
Chhen Khun-Chhen (geographer, + 12th cen-
tury), 521
Chhen Kuan-Sheng (1), 584
Chhen Lun-Chhiung(geographer, +18th century),
517
Chhen Miao (Astronomer-Royal of the Wu State),
3 84, 38 7
Chhen Mou-Jen (Ming writer), 661
Chhen Mou-Ling (+ 18th-century astronomer),
18 5
Chhen Phan, 57, 610
Chhen Phing (minister of State, d. - 178), 71
Chhen Shih-Hsiang, 264 (c)
Chhen Shun-Yli (+ 11th-century geographer), 519
Chhen Ta (I), 472
Chhen Thang (assistant of Kan Yen-Shou), 536
Chhen Thing (+ 14th century), 223, 479, 601
Chhen Thuan (Taoist), 59
Chhen Ting (+ 17th-century scholar), 510
Chhen Tsai-Hsin, 47
Chhen Tsu-Shou (+ 17th-century cartographer),
55 6
Chhen Tsun-Kuei, 185; (3), 234, 282; (4), 431;
(5, 6), 186
Chhen Tzu (semi-legendary astronomer), 21
Chhen Wen-Thao, 436
Ch hen Yin-Kho (2), 106
Chhen Yuan (3), 551
Chheng (High King of the Chou), 503
Chheng (' integration '), 165
Chheng-Hua reign-period, 430
Chheng I-Chhuan (+ 1033 to +1108), 163,164,165
Chheng Kao, 604
Chheng Ming-Tao (+ 1032 to + 1085), 165, 166
Chheng Po-Shun (magistrate of Chin-chheng),
618
Chheng Ta-Wei (Ming mathematician), 5 1,52,60,
75, 7 8 , 79
Chhengkung Hsing (hermit), 27
Chhengtu, 515, 614
Chhi (dynasty), 101, 264, 520
Chhi (State), 195, 197, 358, 609, 619
Chhi (fortnightly periods), 310, 311, 322, 357, 359,
4 0 4,4 0 5
Chhi (pneuma, subtle matter, matter-energy),
217, 222, 223, 411-13, 415, 467, 468, 469,
471,480,481, 490, 624, 626, 634, 636 fI., 650
Chhi Cheng Thui Pu (On the Motions of the
Seven Governors), 50
Chhi-chhli Shan, 597
Chhi chi (' interstice-volumes '), 142
Chhi Chun Thu (Specifications (or Calibration) of
Scientific Instruments), 358, 633
Chhi Fa (The Seven Beguiling Tales), 485
Chhi Heng Thu (diagram of seven declination
circles), 19, 21, 256-']
Chhi Ku Suan Ching (Continuation of Ancient
Mathematics), 36, 37
Chhi Liieh (Bibliography in Seven Sections), 24,
28
Chhi Meng (Later Han cosmologist), 219
Chhi Shao-Nan (+ 18th century), 516
Chhi-shih-i Lao-jen (Manchu geographer), 655
Chhi-tan Tartars. See Tribal peoples
Chhi Tung Yeh Yii (Rustic Talks in Eastern
Chhi), 611, 633, 671
'Chhi Yao' books, 204 fI.
Chhi Yao Hsillg Chhen Pieh Hsing Fa (The Dif-
ferent Influences of the Seven Luminaries
and the Constellations), 204
Chhi Yao Jang Tsai Chlleh (Formulae for avoid-
ing Calamities according to the Seven Lumi-
naries), 396
Chhi Yao Li calendar (+755),204
Chhi Yao Li Shu Suan Ching (Mathematical
Treatise on the Seven Luminaries Calendar),
20 5
Chhiao Hsiang Hsiao Chi (Wood smoke Perfume
Jottings), 634
Chhibber, H. L., 665
Chhieh-Chhih Mountain, 661
Chhieh Hu Shih, 190,319
Chhieh Yiill (Dictionary of Sounds), 107
Chhieh Ytlll Chih Chang Thu, 107
Chhien Chung-Shu (2), 441
Chhien Han Shu (History of the Former Han
Dynasty), 19, 28, 58,71, 106, 138, 186,200,
302, 401, 4 18 , 420, 425, 467, 508 , 535, 53 6,
602, 621, 665
Chhiell Han Shu, i Wbl chih, 24
Chhien-Hsiang calendar ( + 206), 20, 42 I
Chhien Hsiang Li Shll (Calendrical Science based
on the Celestial Appearances), 247
Chhien Lo-Chih (Astronomer-Royal of the (Liu)
Sung, +435), 201, 263, 264, 383, 384,385,
3 8 7, 3 8 9
the Chhien-Lung Atlas of China, 586
the Chhien-Lung emperor, 451, 510
Chhien-Lllng Fu Thing Cho" Hsien Chih (Geo-
graphy of the Empire), 586
Chhien niu. the H erd-boy (star), 245, 251
 INDEX
Chhien Pao-Tsung, 2, 3; (1), 20,36, 100, 123; (2),
119; (3), 118; (4), 393
Chhien Thang (+ 18th-century mathematician),
102
Chhien-Thang (river), 483, 484, 485, 486, 487,
4 88 , 4 8 9, 49 0 , 492
Chhien Wei-YUeh, 183, 185
Chhih Hsiu Liang CM Hai-Thang Thung Chih
(Historical Account of the Coastal Protection
Works of Chekiang Province, prepared by
Imperial Command), 517
Chhih Pei Ou Than (Chance Conversations orth
of Chhih-chou), 619
Chhih Shui I Chen (Pearls recovered from the
Red River), 53
Chhih-Yu chhi. See 'Standard of Chhih-Yu'
Chhin (dynasty), 5, 8, 25, 95, 148, 199, 242, 248,
3 82 ,47 6 , 5 0 7, 534, 535, 539, 54 1, 62 5
Chhin (State), 195
Chhin Chiu-Shao (+ 13th-century mathe-
matician), 10, 40-1, 42, 43-4, 45, 55, 86, 87,
120, 121, 122, 127, 133, 141, 162 (e), 472,
577, 57 8
Chhin-ling mountains, 515, 597
Chhin Shih Huang Ti (first emperor), 56, 71, 72,
84,3 14,43 2 ,535
tomb of, 582
Chhin-Ting Ho Yuan Chi Liieh. See Ho Yuan
Chi Liieh
Chhin Wu-Yang (assistant of Ching Kho), 535
Chhing (dynasty), 18,24,27,44,82, 122, 123, 173,
187, 191, 194, 281, 3 0 7, 393, 44 2 , 455, 457,
466, 509, 514, 525, 549, 5 80 , 619, 624, 634,
643, 645, 682
Chhing-ChMng (mountain), 566
Chhing-chou. See Kyungju
Chhing-ChUn (monk and geographer, + 1328 to
+ 139 2 ), 55 1, 554
Chhing Dynasty Illustrated Records of Tributary
Peoples. See Huang Chhing Chih Kung Thu
Chhing Yii Chih Yii Shu (Prayers for and against
Rain),467
Chhing-Yuan reign-period, 422
Chhinghai province, 662
Chhiu Chhang-Chhun (Taoist, ft. + 1221), 293,
416-17, 522-3
Chhiu Kuang-Thing (c. +900),490
Chhiung Thien Lun (Discourse on the Vastness of
Heaven), 201, 2II
Chhiwu Huai-W~n (metallurgist, ft. + 550 to
+ 57 0 ),7 8
Chhou Hai Thu Pien (Illustrated Seaboard
Strategy), 516-17
Chhou Jen Chuan (Biographies of Mathematicians
and Scientists), 3, 37, 152
Chhu (State), 195
prince of, 503
Chhii (river), 485, 488
Chhu Hsiieh Chi (Entry into Learning), 326, 61 I
Chhii I Shuo Tsuan (Discussions on the Dispersal
of Doubts), 323
Chhu Kuang-Hsi (poet, + 8th century), 601
Chhu Tzhu (Elegies of Chhu), 71
Chhii Yuan (poet, -4th century), 198, 206, 218,
222, 230, 485-6
Chhu YUeh Ku, 603
Chhu Yung (c. + 1230), 224, 323
ChhU.a n Chin (Korean geographer, + 15th century),
279 (d), 554,556
Chhiian Nung Fu, 17
Chhuchow, 6 I 3
Chhui Hung Chhiao. See Drooping Rainbow
Bridge
Chhun Chhiu (Spring and Autumn Annals), 250,
4 I I , 420, 42 I, 468
Chhun-Shen, Lord of, 195
Chhung-CMn Li Shu (Chhung-Ch~n Reign-
Period Treatise on (Astronomy and) Calen-
drical Science), 447, 449
Chhung-Ch~n Reign-Period Treatise on (Astro-
nomy and) Calendrical Science. See Chhung-
Chen Li Shu
Chhung Chha (The Method of Double Dif-
ferences), Last chapter of Chiu Chang Suan
Shu, q.v.
Chhung chha method. See Method of Double
Differences
ChhUthan Chuan ( + 8th century), 203
Chhiithan Hsi-Ta (astronomer, ft. +718), 12,37 ,
88, 148, 175, 203, 263-4, 266
Chhiithan Lo (Indian calendar expert, +7th cen-
tury), 202-3
ChhUthan Yen (Indian astronomer, + 8th cen-
tury), 203
Chi (hsiu) , 245, 249, 273
Chi (instrument), 334 (d)
Chi (province), 501
Chi (technical term for the Jupiter cycle), 402 ,
406, 625 (a)
Chi chhi ('piled-up chlli'), 221
Chi-choll Feng Thu Chi (Customs of the Province
of Chi), 510
Chi Ho Yuan Pen (Elements of Geometry), 106
Chi-Hsia Academy, 195 (f)
Chi hsing (' Summit star'), 262
Chi Jan (natural philosopher, c. - 350), 647
Chi-hang (nexus of connections in Nature), 216
Chi Ni T z u (Book of Master Chi Ni), 218, 402 ,
43 6 , 467, 605, 643, 647, 653
Chi-Tu. See Ketu
Chi-wei (piled-up particles, paramii1,lu, 'atoms '),
601
Chi Yen (alternative name of Chi Jan), 656
Chi Yuan Li Ching (Calendrical Manual based on
the Jupiter cycle), 207
Chia H~ng ( + 14th-century mathematician), 32
Chia Hsien (mathematician, c. + I roo), 41, 68,
125, 136, 137, 146
Chia-hsing (city), 479
Chia I (Han poet), 84, 603
Chia-ju, 503
Chia Khuei (astronomer, ft . +85), 200, 287, 343
Chia Kun g-Yen, 286
Chia Liang Hu standard measure, 100
Chia Tan (cartographer, + 8th century), 88,
520, 525 (e), 54 1, 543-4, 547, 579
 INDEX
Chia-Thai reign-period, 422
Chia tzu system (recurrent 60-day cycle), 82
Chiallg (ginger), 675
Chiang (river). See Yangtze River
Chiang Chi (astronomer, c. +400), 227,420,479
Chiang Fang (cartographer, +9th century), 582
Chiang Seng-Pao (c. + 550), 508
Chiang Shao-Yuan, 504
Chiang shih (ginger-stone), 606
Chiang-yin Hsien Chill (Topography of Chiang-
yin and its District [in Chiangsu Province)),
5 18
Chiang Yu-Jen. See Benoist, Michel
Chiang Yung (+ 18th-century scholar), 59, 456
Chiangsi, 653
Chiangsu, 548
Chiao Li Chiao Phing Shih Liieh (Materials on the
Pacificatory Expedition to Annam during the
Li Dynasty), 512
Chiao shih chou (eclipse cycle), 421
Chiao Yil (gunner, ft. + 1412), 154
Chiaochow (modern H anoi), 292, 293
Chiayeh Chi (Indian astronomer, c. +788), 202,
20 3
Chiayeh Chih-Chung (Indian astronomer, c.
+708 ),202
Chiayeh Hsiao-Wei (Indian scholar, +7th cen-
tury), 37, 202
Chiayilkuan, 524
Chieh (the last High King of the Hsia), 503
Chieh, Master, 660-1
Chieh An Man Pi ( otes from the Fasting
Pavilion), 74
Chieh-Tzu Yuan Hua Chuan (Mustard-Seed
Garden Guide to Painting), 596
Chien (lord of Chao), 487
Chien (astronomical technical term), 256
Chien i (Simplified Instrument), 369, 370, 372,
375, 377, 378
Chien Kuan Shu (indeterminate analysis), 122
Chien Piling I Shuo (Elementary Explanations of
Astronomical Instruments), 446
Chien Phing Wang (prince of the Liu Sung
Dynasty, ft. + 4oH), 638
Chien Wen Chi (Records of Things Seen and
Heard), 490
Chill. See Magical mushrooms
Chih (series of twelve characters in the sexa-
gesimal cyclical system), 396, 398
Chih (defile), 501
Chih Chang Thu (historical map), 549
Chih chhu method (of solving simultaneous linear
equations), 116
Chih-Chih (Hun leader), 536
Chih chio shih (' straight-horn stone', Ordovician
limestone), 619
Chih-Chun reign-period, 33 I
Chih Fang Wai Chi (On World Geography),
583 (h), 584
Chih-Ho reign-period, 427
Chih Kung Thu (Illustrations of the Tribute-
Bearing Peoples) , 508
Chih-li (cutting or grinding stones), 666
Chih nil (the Weaving girl, star), 245, 25I, 276
Chih-Phan (+ 13th-century monk), 566
Chih-Phing reign-period, 433, 618
Chih-Yuan reign-period, 419
Childbirth, 652
Children's primer, oldest illustrated printed, 75 (d)
Chilindre, 302 (c)
Chin (dynasty), 33,41,71,221,226,322,504,514,
520, 538, 539, 543, 566, 602, 603, 615, 621,
657, 668, 670, 673
Chin (State), 41
Chin (radical for all metals and alloys), 641
Chin-chheng, 618
Chin Chheng-Tse (Korean scholar, + I I th cen-
tury), 683
Chin Chhi Chii Chu (Daily Acts of the Chin
Emperors), 670
Chin Chil-Chha (+9th century), 396
Chin Hsing-Chheng (Korean scholar, + 980), 683
Chin-hua Shan, 614
Chin kang (diamond), 667, 670
Chin Kuei Ching (Golden Box Manual), 396
Chin Sha Chiang (river), 525
Chin Shan temple, Jun-chow, 434
Chin Shih (History of the Chin (Tartar) Dynasty),
667
Chin Shih-Heng (Korean ambassador, + 1399).
554
Chin Shu (History of the Chin Dynasty), 29, 193,
197, 198,201,292,359,390,400,431,475.
476, 538, 601
Chin Tartars. See Tribal peoples
China. medieval European knowledge of, 525
Chinchow, 222
Chinese astronomers
at Maraghah, 375 (d)
at Samarqand, 417 (b)
Chinese coastline, 586
Chinese-Arab intellectual contact, 53, 105
Chinese-European intellectual contact. 128, 522
Chinese-Indian intellectual contact, 146-9, 254
Chinese influence on Europe in the Mongol
period, 128 (a)
Chinese-Islamic intellectual contact, 68 (c)
Chinese-Mesopotamian intellectual contact, 82,
14 6
Ching and wei (technical terms for warp and weft,
and later for celestial and terrestrial co-
ordinates, such as latitude and longitude),
216, 541
Ching of the moon, 492
Ching-Chai Ku Chin Chu (Commentary on
Things Old and New), 133,478
Ching Chhu calendar ( + 237), 392
Ching Chhu Sui Shih Chi (Annual Customs of
Ching and Chhu), 282
Ching-Ching. See Adam
Ching-,hou Chall (The Chingchow Astrological
Compendium), 201 (f)
Ching Fang (diviner, - 1st century), 227, 41 I .
4 14. 433. 47 0 • 483, 626
Ching jtug (cosmic wind), 223
Ching ju (Shadow Definer), 369. 370
 INDEX
Ching-hsing ('earth-shine'), 419, 422-3
Ching Kho (would -be tyrannicide), 534-5
Ching Shu Suan-Hsiieh Thien- Wen Khao (In-
vestigations of the Astronomy and Mathe-
matics of the Classics), 185
Ching thien ('well-field' system), 106, 541
Chinghiz Khan, 293, 380, 416, 522
Chinyang, College at, 78
Chio (hsiu), 232, 233, 239, 251
Chiu Chang Suan Ching. SeeChiu Chang Suan Shu
Chiu Chang Suan Shu (Nine Chapters on the
Mathematical Art), 19, 20, 24 ff., 34, 35, 36,
40, 55, 63, 66, 68, 8r, 82, 85, 86, 87, 89, 96,
97,99,100,114, lIS, II8, 122, 123, 126, 127,
133, 137, 14 6 , 147, 149, 150, 153
Chiu- ChhGan . See Suchow
Chiu Chih (Navagraha) calendar, 12, 175, 203
Chiu Huang Pen Tshao (Famine Herbal), 682
Chiu Ko (Nine Songs), 218
Chiu Kung Hsing Chhi Li-Chhling (Tabulation of
Data in the Calendar of the Nine Palaces in
which the Chess Pieces Move), 107, 542
Chill piao hsiian (Nine Suspended Indicators), 370
Chiu Thang Shu (Old History of the Thang
Dynasty), 124, 274, 434, 544, 545
Cho Khlg Lu (Talks (at South Village) while the
Plough is Resting), 492, 669, 672
Cho Shui (river), 604
Choi Chi-Won. See Tshui Chih-Yuan
Choi Yoo-Chi. See Tshui Yu-Chih
Chokuyen, Ajima (Japanese mathematician,
+ 1739 to + 1798), 145
Cholagogue, 654
Chou (dynasty), 5, 8, r9, 25, 82, 83, 87, 159,
196 ff., 207, 286, 291, 313, 322, 332, 334, 397,
404,411,433,436,464,503- 4,507,534,539,
569, 570, 624, 625, 656, 665, 668
Chou (State), 213, 501, 503
Chou (the last High King of the Shang), 503
ChOll (' circular paths of the heavens '), 19
Chou ChhG-Fei (+12th-century geographer), 512,
61 7
Chou chih (' gazetteers '), 5 I 7
Chou Ching, 305
Choll Fen (astronomical expert), 264
Chou Jih-Yeh (astronomer, c. 1080),349
Chou Kung (duke of Chou), 121 ff., 174, 177,213,
247, 290
Chou Kung's Tower, 296-'7, 300
Chou Li (Record of the Rites of Chou), 25, 94, 99,
189, 190,231,286,290,291,292,319,321,
33 6 , 4 6 7, 476, 534, 54 2 , 57 0 , 571
Chou Mi (scholar, c. + 1290), 633-4, 654, 671
Chou Pei theory. See Kai Thien theory
ChOll Pei Suan Ching (The Arithmetical Classic of
the Gnomon and the Circular Paths of
Heaven), 19 ff., 81, 95, 96, 99, 104, 108, 137,
147, 199,211,212,227,256,257,261,284,
29 0 , 29 1, 3 00 , 30 7, 33 2 , 337, 4 0 6
Chou Pei Suan Ching Yin I (Explanation of
meanings and Sounds of Words occurring in
the Arithmetical Classic of the Gnomon and the
Circular Paths of Heaven), 19
81 5
Chou Pei Suan rulers, 74
Chou Shu-HsGeh (+ 16th-century mathemati-
cian), SI, 105, 143
Chou Ta-Kuan (counsellor of the Chinese am-
bassador in Cambodia, + 1297), SI I
Chou Ting Wang (Ming prince), 682
Chou Tshung (astronomer, + 1050), 350
Chou YGeh (The Revolutions of the Moon),
chapter in the I Chou Shu, q.v.
Chou YGn-Chhing, 186
Christian Topography, 513, 530
Christianity, 172, 449, 53 I, 564
Chromium compounds, 664
Chronology, 173, 183, 184, 404, 455
compartmentalised, 157 (c)
Chronometer, 543, 545
Chrysolite, 655
ChG (river), 501
Chu Chhin-Tse, 422
Chu ChhGan. See ing Hsien Wang
Chu Chiill Thu Su Wu Chhan Chi (Record of the
Soils, Customs and Products of all the
Provinces), 518
Chu Fan Chih (Records of Foreign Peoples), 512
Chu Hsi (Neo-Confucian philosopher), 194,221.
222, 224, 228, 262, 416, 549, 580, 598, 601,
603 , 6II, 612, 615, 620, 622
Chu Hsiao (prince of the Ming, ft. + 1382 to
+ 1425), 162 (i)
Chu Kan, 508, 510
Chu Kac -Chih (Ming emperor and meteorologist,
+ 142 5), 475
Chu Kho-Chen (I), 234, 242, 249, 253, 259, 4 0 4;
(2), 464, 470, 478; (3), 4 6 5, 472; (4), 4 6 3, 4 6 5;
(5), 463; (5), 185; (7), 184
Chii Mi Wei Shan Fu (Essay on the Art of Con-
structing Mountains with Rice), 582
Chu Ming-Yu, 661
Chu Mu (geographer, + 13th century), 521
Chu niao. See Red Bird
Chu Shih (c. + 563), 328
Chu Shih-Chia (1),518; (J, 4), 5 19
Chu Shih-Chieh (+ 13th-century algebraist), 3,
41, 46-7, 52, 86, 87, 125, 127, 129, 13 I, 134,
135, 13 8
Chu Ssu-Pen (cartographer, + 1273 to + 1337),
162 (e), 524, 55 I ff., 563
Chu Tsai-YG (Ming prince), 20
Chu Tzu Chhiian Shu (Collected Works of Chu
Hsi), 400, 598
Chu Wen-Hsin, 185; (1), 391; (2),420; (4), 417,
433, 435; (5), 233, 27 6
Chu Yell Thing Tsa Chi (Miscellaneous Records
of the Bamboo Leaf Pavilion), 614, 655
ChG Yen (buried city at Edsin Gol), 64
Chuan HsG (legendary emperor), 214
Chuang Tzu, 612
Chuang Tzu (The Book of Master Chuang), 56,
69,9 2
Chuang Tzu-I, 487
Chiieh (an unidentified mineral, perhaps realgar),
64 0
Chui Shu, 35, 101, 123, 153
816 INDEX
Chuko Liang( +3rd-century general and inventor), , farmer's clock', 320
508 first appearance in China, 3 I 5
Chfunolo family, 203 flower-pot shape of vessels, 325 (I)
Chun wang (rectangular grid), 539, 541, 576 'inflow type', 313, 315, 320
Chung Hsi Ching Hsing Thung I Khao (Investi- oldest printed picture of, 326
gation of the Similarities and Differences 'outflow type', 313, 315- 17, 322
between Chinese and Western Star- ames), steelyard, 317-18, 323, 326, 327
18 5 'stop-watch', 318, 326, 327
Chung-Kuo Shu-Hsueh Ta Kang (Outline of technical terms, 325
Chinese Mathematics in History), 2 'wheel clocks', 318, 319
Chlmg-Kuo Suan-Hsueh Hsiao Shih (Brief His- Clepsydra carriages, 327
tory of Chinese Mathematics), 2 Clepsyd ra Technique. See L ou Kho Fa
Chung-Kuo Suan-Hsueh Shih (A History of Climata (areas between parallels), 527, 530
Chinese Mathematics), 2, 3 Climate
Chung-Kuo Suan-Hsueh The-Se (Special Charac- Chinese, 462 ff.
teristics of Chinese Mathematics), 2 supposed influence on human beings, 464
Chung i, a chapter of Lieh TZIl (q.v.) Climate-maps, 530, 531, 562
Chung-Phing reign-period, 425 Climatic pulsations, 465
Chllng Suan Shih Lun Tshung (Gesammelte and political disturbances, 472
Abhandlungen G. d. chinesischen Mathe- Clock-drive, 349, 359 ff., 458
matik),2 Clock face, 377
Chung Thien-Chu Kuo Thu (Illustrated Account Clocks, 329
of Central India), SIr astronomical, 155 (a), 360, 362, 363, 387, 389-
Chung Tzu-Lu, 486 90, 682
Chungking, 276, 592 drum-, 328
Ciampini, 662 mechanical, 202 (a), 313, 319, 329, 331, 350,
Ciboule onion (tshung plant), 675 360, 366
Cicero (- 106 to -43),440 (d) metal weight-driven, 366
Ciermans, Johann , 73 pendulum, 329, 389
Cinnabar, 637, 638 (b), 639, 640, 642, 643, 649, water-. See Clepsydra
65 1,674 water-driven mechanical, 318,319, 328,366,387
crystalline form, 648-9 Clockwork, 208, 318,339,360,362, 364,365, 366,
Cinnamon, 680 38 3, 3 8 7, 38 9, 452
the Circle, 21, 22, 23, 24, 94, 97, 98, 99, 102 Cloud Forest Lapidary. See Yiin Lin Shih Phll
division into 360°, 82, 381 Clouds, 190, 200, 284, 419, 464, 467, 468, 469,
division into 3651:°, 86, 203 481, 63 6
inscribed in right-angled triangle, 44, 47, 129 classification, 470
measurements, 51,144 technical terms, 470
obsession of European astronomers for, 460 Cluverius, Philip (+ 1580 to + 1623), 679
segments, 48, 5 I, 98 Coal, 602, 609, 652
Circle-principles (yuan li or enri), 145 Coast, C hinese, 516, 517
Circle segment areas, 39 (d), 145, 147 Coastal protection, 517, 559
Circles of the celestial sphere, 176, 178 Cobalt, plant accumulators of, 678
Circular saw, 668 (b) Cobaltiferous ore, 65 I
Circumnavigation, as proof of earth's sphericity, Cocheouking. See Kuo Shou-Ching
499 Cochin,55 8
Circumpolar constellation template, 336-8 Cockcrow Temple, 367 (d)
Circumpolar stars. See Stars Codex of St G all, 333
Cities, 519, 521 Coedes, G . (2), I I
plans of, 547 'Coefficient array' (thien Yllan shu), 45
Clams, 600, 617 Coins, 335, 382
Classic of the Mountains and Rivers. See Shan casting of, 582
Hai Ching Colebrooke, H. T., 252
Classification systems (of minerals), 636, 641ff., 647 Collar h arness, 681
Classified Methods of the Sea Mirror of Circle Collectanea Rerum Memorabilium, 505
Measurement. See Tshe Yuan Hai Ching Collected Basic Principles of Mathematics. See
Fen Lei Shih Shu Shll Li Ching Yiin
Clavi us, Christopher (Jesuit), 444, 447 (a) Collected Conversation s at Iron-Fence Mountain.
Clays, 642, 643, 646 See Thieh- Wei Shan Tshung Than
Cleomedes the Stoic (c. + 175), 399 Collected Notes of the Rustic Guest. See Yeh
Clepsydra, 35, 190, 191, 207, 246, 297, 302, 306, Kho Tshzl1lg Shu
3 0 9,3 13 ff., 329, 331, 359, 360, 374, 377,461 , Collected Works of Chu Hsi. See Chu Tzu
4 6 5, 633 Chhiiarl Shu
 INDEX
Collected Writings on the Sea Tides. See Hai
Chlwo Chi Shuo
Collection of Ancient and Modern Mathematical
Works. See Ku Chin Suan Hsiieh Tshung Shu
Collection of Official Records of the Yuan
Dynasty. See Yuan Pi Shu Chien Chih
Collection of Phrases and Literary Allusions. See
Pien Tzu Lei Pien
Collection of Strange Things Heard. See Sou
Tshai 1 Wen Lu
Collection of the most important Military
Techniques. See Wu Ching Tsung Yao
College of All Sages, 191 (e)
College of the Glorification of Literature, 415 (c)
Colmar, 528
Colonies, Chinese, 472
Colorimetric methods ID chemistry and bio-
chemistry, 672
Colour, in the classification of minerals, 642
Colour printing, 341 (a)
Colton, A. L., 226
Columbus, Christopher, 559 (a)
Combinatorial analysis, 55 ff.
Comets, 171, 193 (b), 200, 207, 209, 367, 377,425,
426, 427, 430 ff. , 458, 462, 682
members of the solar system, 432
spiked, Fig. 184 (b)
tails of, 431, 432, 443
technical terms, 431
theories about, 432-3
Commentary on the Apocalypse, 529
Commentary on the Appended Judgments, in the
1 Ching. See Hsi Tzu Chuan
Commentary on the Armillary Sphere. See Hun
1 Chu
Commentary on the Book of Changes. See 1 Chang
Chii
Commentary on Things Old and New. See
Ching-Chai Ku Chin Chu
Commerce, 166 ff.
Common denominator, 21
Commonly used Synonyms. See Thung Su Wen
Compartment-drum devices, 328
Compass-bearings, 559, 576
Compass-card, 478 (a), 560 (b)
Compass needles, 279
Compass-points, 140, 398
Compasses (geometrical), 23, 94, 95, 567, 570
Compendium of Astrology, New and Old. See
Ku Chin Thung Chan
Compendium of Non-Classical Matters. See Wei
Liieh
Complete Description of Waterways. See Shui
Tao Thi Kang
Complete Map of the Fixed Stars, based on the
Equator. See Heng Hsing Chhih-Tao Chhiian
Thu
Complete Studies of Astronomical Instruments.
See Yii- Ting 1 Hsiang Khao Chheng
Complete Studies on Astronomy and Calendar.
See Yii- Ting Li Hsiang Khao Chheng
Complete Survey of Mathematics, 1843. See
Suan Fa Ta Chheng
Complete Treatise on the Thien Yuan Calendar.
See Thien Yuan Li Li Chhiian Shu
Complete Works on Calendar and Mathematics.
See Li Suan Chhiian Shu
Component of the Four Displacements, 343,
45 0
Component of the Six Cardinal Points, 343, 450
Component of the Three Arrangers of Time, 343 ,
45 0
Compositio, 161, 164
Compound proportion, 45
Comprehensive Geography. See Kua Ti Chih
Comprehensive Geography of the (Chinese)
Empire (under the Chhing dynasty) . See Ta
Chhing 1 Thung Chih
Concave (cupola) star-maps, 389 (b)
Concentric spheres, system of, 198 (k), 438 ff.
Concentric squares, system of, 501-2, 541
Conception, positions of stars at, 362
Conchs, 598, 617, 618
Concrete fact, Chinese passion for, 151 (d)
Condensation, 468
Condensation and dispersion , 23 (a), 222 (g), 498 (k)
Cone, 26, 99, 147
Confidential Remarks on the Appearances of the
Milky Way. See Yin Ho Chii Pi Chiieh
Confucians and Confucianism, 152, 153, 171, 191,
25~ 413, 418, 463, 482, 58~ 657, 659
lack of interest in scientific problems, 225-6
Confucius, 225-6, 227, 230, 290, 582
Conic sections, 102 ff., 125, 309
The Consolidator; or Memoirs of Sundry Trans-
actions from the World in the Moon (+ 1705),
441
Content, exposition of, inseparable from transla-
tion, xlv
Contiguity, method of (for determining sun's
position among the stars), 229
Continuation of Ancient Mathematical Methods
for Elucidating the Strange (Properties of
Numbers). See Hsii Ku Chai Chhi Suan Fa
Continuation of Ancient Mathematics. See Chhi
Ku Suan Ching
Contour maps. See Maps
Contraction and expansion, 491, 616
Conversations and Discourses of Confucius. See
Lun Yii
Conversations on Recent Events in the Mountain
Retreat. See Shan Chii Hsin Hua
Conze, E., 167 (e)
Coordinate geometry. See Geometry
Coordinates, 106 ff., 176, 179, 232, 266 ff., 528,
533, 53 8
geographical and celestial, 542, 544-5
Copernicus and Copernicanism, 166, 220, 427,
43 8 , 443, 445, 44 6 , 447, 450, 455
Copper, 638, 639, 640, 649, 674, 676, 67 8
acetate, 652
carbonate, 638 (c), 640, 643, 649
furnaces, 658
smelting, 652
sulphate, 643, 649, 651-2
Cop tic. See Languages
818 INDEX

Coral, 613, 671 Crystallography, 145,591,636, 648-9

Cordier, H. (I), 175; (3), 565; (4), 507 Ctesias (-4th century), 507
Coromandel, 561 Ctesibius (- 3rd century), 314, 315
Correlative thinking. See Symbolic correlations Cube, 65, 98, 129
Corundum, 667, 668 duplication of, 103
Cos (Greek island), 395 (c) roots, 26, 33, 35, 65, 75, 125, 126, 137, 146
Cosmas Indicopleustes (c. + 540),515,530-1,587 Cuckoo, 464
mountain of, 531 Cull collection, 303
Cosmetics, 651 Culminations of stars. See Stars
Cosmic egg, 218 Cultures
• Cosmic mirrors'. See Mirrors Aztec (Amerindian), 188 (d), 215 (f), 397,
Cosmic symbolism, 303, 308 663
Cosmic wind, 223 Champ a (Indo-Chinese), 11,292,557,558
Cosmogony, centrifugal, 278 (b), 598 (b) Karaim (Jewish), 681
Cosmography, 500, 502, 528-9, 547, 561, 563, Khazars (Turkic Jewish), 107 (k), 681 ff.
565 ff., 587, 589 Khmer (Cambodian), 11, 5Il, 568
Cosmology, 20, 152, 157, 171, 176, 181, 193, 198, Maya (Amerindian), 16, 397, 407
199, 209, 210 ff., 257, 279, 293, 423, 427, Sogdian (Central Asian), 204 ff., 536
428, 438 (a), 440, 442, SOl, 542 Currents, 632
Cosmos (yu chou), 217 Curtis, H. D ., 333
the 'Cossic Art' (old name for algebra), 129 (b) Customs, 508, 510, 518
Cottoniana map, 532 Customs and Notable Things of Yo-yang. See
• Counter-earth', 228, 402 (e) Yo- Yang Feng Thu Chi
• Counter-Jupiter', 228, 402 Customs of the Province of Chi. See Chi-chou
Counting-board, 4, 9, 12, 13,42,45,46, 62-3, 66, Feng Thu Chi
69, 72, 80, 88, 112, 116, 117, 126, 127, 128, Cyclical world-catastrophes, 598, 602, 622
130, 133, 137, 146, 148, 152 Cyclones, 463
Counting-rod numerals. See Rod numerals Cylinder, 26, 99, 144
Counting-rods, 4, 5, 8, 9, 17, 19, 30, 38, 45, 47, Cynocephali, 507
69 ff., 78, 86, 90, lIS, 116, 126, 138, 140,570 Cyranides (+ 300), 647
influence on orthography, 72
Counting-tables, 80 Dacia, 550
Courant, M., 565 Daily Acts of the Chin Emperors. See Chin Chhi
Couvreur, F. S., 642 Chii Chu
Crab Nebula, 426-7, 428, 445 (a) Dakshi/:lOvritti yantra, 301
Crabs, 618, 619 Dalton, O. M., 376
fossil, 613, 614, 616 Damascus, 680
Pleistocene, 616, 619 Dams, 577
• Crag and platform' motif, 593 Dante Alighieri, 603
Cranks, 630 Danti, Egnatio (+ 1570), 479
Crass us, 536 Danzig, 475
Crates of Mallos, 374 Dareste, C., 507
Cravats, ideal, I I 2 (b) • Dark stars', 228
• Creation', Chinese conception of, 598 (f) Dati, Leonardo, 530
Cressey, G. B. (1),462 Daudin, P., 82, 85
Crimea, 680, 681 Davidson, T., 614
Crocodile, 464 Davis, J ohn (+ 16th century) , 574
Cronin, V., 439 (e) • Dawdling' (of armillary sphere), 361
Cross-staff. See Jacob's Staff Day and night, 213, 215
Cross-wire grid sights, 574, 575 subdivisions of, 398 (c)
Crossbow, 574-5, 681 Daylight appearances of Venus, 232 (c)
Crossbow-like instrument, 574-5 De Congelatione et Congllltinatione Lapidum, 602
Crossbow trigger (fa-chi), 627 (d), 63 0 De Facie in Orbe Lunae, 440 (d)
Crow in the sun, 41 I (a), 436, 505 (a) De Gentibus Septentrionalibus, 520
Crusades, 366 De Infinito Universo, 440
Crustacea, 612 De Lapidiblls (c. - 300), 647
Crystalline deposits, 605 De Lineis Insecabiliblls, 142
Crystalline spheres, cosmological theory of, 198 ff., De Loqllela per Gestum Digitorulll, 68
221 (a), 223 (b), 438 ff. De Magnete, 439
Chinese freedom from European orthodoxy De Materia Medica (+60), 647
concerning, 223 De Mineralibus (c. + 1260), 647
Chinese scepticism concerning, and its influence De Montium Origine, 603
on European thought, 440, 442 De Re Metallica, 679 (a)
 INDEX
De Re et Praxi Geometrica, 573
De T emporum Ratione, 494
De Triangulis, 109
D ead -reckoni ng, 526, 543, 579
D ecan stars, 256, 273, 314
Decimal f ractions, 45, 46, 82 ff.
D ecimal m etrology, 82 ff., 286
D ecimal notation , 83, 84, 86, 88, 89
Decimal place-value, 10 (k), 12, 13, 16, 17,46,83 ,
149, 152
D ecimal point, 45, 46, 89, 127
D ecimals, 36, 46, 69, 82 ff., 155 , 286
technical terms, 86
Decimation , Roman military practice of, 6 I
Declination circles, 179, 2 I 3, 278
Declination of the stars, 179, 180, 181, 249
D eclination of the sun , 19, 287
Deduction, 161 , 164, 165
Deductive geometry. See Geometry
Deductive science, 15 I, 156
Deep drilling, 681
Defoe, Daniel, 441
Deforestation, 609
Degrees, d ecimal division of, 374 (b)
Dehergue , J. (2), 183
Deinosaur, 621
Delambre, M ., 175, 184
Delhi,300
Delian problem, 103
Delporte, E. (1),234,239
Dember, H. & Uibe, M ., 226
Democritus, 92, 625
Denderah, planisphere of, 273
Denominator, 65, 81, 86, 146
lowest common, 82
Densities of metals, 33
Dental troubles, 617
Denudation, 602
St. Denys, d'Hervey, Marquis, 683
Descartes, Rene, 108 , II5 , 124, 155, 158,474
Description of Cambodia. See Chen-La Feng Thu
Chi
Description of Mount Lu. See Lu Shan Chi
Description of the Buddhist Temples of Loyang.
See L o- Yang Chhieh Lan Chi
Description of the Stars. See Hsing Shu
Description of the Three Districts in the Capital.
See San Fu Huang Thu
Deserts, 507
Designs of Astronomical Instruments. See I
Hsiang Thu
Destombes, M. (I), 292
Detailed Analysis of the M athematical Rules in
the 'Nine Chapters' and their Reclassifica-
tion. See Hsiang Chieh Chiu Chang Suan Fa
Tsuan Lei
Determinants, 48, 117 ff.
Determinative stars. See Hsiu-deterrninatives
The Development (,J Mathematics in China and
Japan , 2
Devils, Jesuits' belief in, 457
Dew, 468
Dew-mirrors, 227 (b)
Diagram of the concentric declination-circles, 19,
212
Diagram of the Old Method for finding E ighth
and Lower Powers, 47
Diagrams illustrating the Celestial Sphere. See
HUll Thien Thu Chi
Diagrams illustrating the Spiritual Constitution of
the Universe. See Ling Hsien Thu Chi
Diagrams of Hydrostatic Vessels. See Wo Chhi
Thu
Diagrams presented to YU the Great by miracu-
lous animals, 56
Dialytic elimination, 47
Diameter, 94
Mohist definition, 94
Diamond drill, 669
Diamonds (chin kang), 652, 664,667,668,669-71
Diaz, Emanuel (Yang Ma- TO),444
Dicrearchus of Messina, 493
Dice, 140, 305
Dictaphones, 441 (a)
Dictionary of Sounds. See Chhieh Yut!
Diels, H ., 313, 314
Dieppe, 532
Diet, 617, 651
The Different Influences of the Seven Luminaries
and the Constellations. See Chhi Yao Hsing
Chlun Pieh Hsing Fa
Diga'J'lSd yat!tra, 3 01
Dimensions of the universe in li, 220 (a), 225 (g),
489 (e)
Dingle, H. , 157
Diophantus of Alexandria (fl. + 250 to + 275),
34 (a), 54, 90, 91, II3, 114, I 15,122,147,395
Dioptra (instrument), 332, 368, 370 (b), 571,
573 (c)
Diorite, vases of, 666
Dioscorides (+ 60), 647, 652, 656, 660, 661, 669,
67 1
Dipping strata, 592, 593
Director-General of the Masses (Ta Ssu Tu), 534
Directorate of Astronomy and Calendar, 191
Directors of Regions (Chih Fang Shih), 534
Discoidal knives, 669
Discourse on Net Calculations. See Suan Wang
Lun
Discourse on the Creation. See Tsao-Hua Lut!
Discourse on the Diurnal Revolution. See Hsin
Thien LUI!
Discourse on the Heavens. See Lilt! Thien
Discourse on the Principles of Things. See Wu Li
Lun
Discourse on the Tides. See Hai Ch/wo Lut!
Discourse on the Vastness of Heaven. See Chhiu1!g
Thien Lun
Discou rse on Time (calendrica\) . See Shih WIl
Lun
Discourse on Uranographic Models. See Hun
Thien Hsiang Shuo
Discourses on Literature. See Tien Lun
Discourses on Salt and Iron. See Yen Thieh Lun
Discourses weighed in the Balance. See Lun
Heng
820
Discovery of a World in the Moon, tending to prove
that 'tis probable that there may be another
habitable World in that Planet, 440
Discussion of the Astronomy in the Historical
Classic. See Shang Shu Shih Thien
Discussion of whether the Heavens are at Rest.
See An Thien Lun
Discussion on Arcs and Sagittae. See Hu Shih
Lun
Discussions and Conclusions regarding the Geo-
graphy of the Tribute of YU. See Yii Kung
Shuo Tuan
Discussions of a Bookseller. See Shu Ssu Shuo
Ling
Discussions on the Dispersal of Doubts.
Chhii I Shuo Tsuan
Discussions on the Heavens in Different Ages.
See Li Tai Lun Thien
La Disme. 89, 167
Disquisition on Strange Names for Common
Things. See Shu Wu I Ming Su
Distances of heavenly bodies, 225
Distillation, 468 (c), 606 (f)
Dittrich, A. (I), 286
Diurnal rotation of the heavens. See Apparent
diurnal rotation of the heavens
Dividend (shih), 65
Divination, 4, 24, 29, 30, 57, 59, 119 (j), 140, 141,
302,303, 308,467,481 (c), 503,505,542, 607
by the throwing of coins, 140 (d)
Divination by Weird Wonders. See Yao Chan
Diviner's plate (shih) , 23 (e), 303, 304, 305, 335,
54 1, 54 2
Division, 33, 34, 35, 62, 63, 65, 86, 133
of fractions, 2 I, 8 I
galley method, 65
rule of, 35, 86
sign in, 114
tables, 46, 65
Divisor (fa), 65, 86
greatest common, 82, 86
Djaring Nor (lake), 523
Dodder (plant parasite), 675
Dog-faced men, 505
Don (river), 529, 681
de Dondi, G. (+ 1318 to + 1389), 154
Donne, John, 157
Dore, H. (I), 282
Dot zero sign (bindu), 10 (k), 11, 12, 149
Double-entry book-keeping, 166
'Double False.' See Rule of False Position
Double-headed animal (amphisbaena), 473 (e)
Double-hours. See Equal double-hours
Double-vault theory of the world, 212
Dox, Paul (fl. + 1510), 579
Draco (constellation), 234, 336
Draconitic months, 252 (c)
The Dragon Diagrams of the Book of Changes.
See I Lung Thu
'Dragon fire', 482
'Dragon-Head waterway', 621
Dragon-horse, 56
Dragons, 219, 252 (c), 479, 480, 618, 621
INDEX
the Dragons and the pearl, 252
'Dragon's bones' (lung ku), 621
Dragon's Horn. See Chio
'Dragon's teeth' (lung chhih), 621
Dream Pool Essays. See Meng Chhi Pi Than
Dresden, celestial globe at, 382
Dreyer, J. L. E., 377, 379
Drills, 668, 669
Drinking pipes, 314 (d)
Drooping Rainbow Bridge, 516
Droughts, 472, 473
Drugs, 504, 605
plant, 643
to confer immortality, 642
See Drugs of the Southern Countries beyond the
Seas. See Hai Yao Pen Tshao
Drum clocks, 328
Dry pivot suspensions, 3 12
Dubois-Reymond, C., 301
Dubs, H. H., 174, 408, 417, 418, 420, 436, 536,
537, 64 0 , 64 1
Dudgeon, J., 204
Duhem, P., 160
Dulcerto, Angelino (fl. + 1339), 532
Dunlop, D. M., 555 (e), 562 (e), 682
Duplation, 62
Duplication of a cube, 103
Dust-storms, 436
'Dusty Heavens', 640
Dutch embassy to Peking (+ 1656), 442 (b)
traders, 330, 447
Duyvendak, J. J. L., 444, 53 6, 537, 559, 561
Dyadic arithmetic. See Arithmetic, binary
Dye, D. S., 308
Dyeing, 651, 653
Dyes, 642, 678
Dykes, 26, 42, 43, 99, 153, 472, 4 88 , 537, 578
Dynamic movement of points, 142
Eagle, 671
'Eagle-Stone.' See Aetites
Eagres. See Tidal bores.
the Earth
centre of, 286, 29 I (b), 292, 297
circumference of, 526
curvature of surface of, 225, 292 (c), 293, 498,
5 26 , 564, 5 8 9
eccentricity of orbit, 3 I 3, 329
motion of, 224
revolution of, 181
shape of, 211, 212, 213, 218, 220, 225, 438, 498,
499, 501, 526
surface of, 507, 603
Yin nature of, 227
Earth models in demonstrational armillary
spheres, 343, 35 0 , 3 8 3, 385, 3 86 , 3 8 7, 3 8 9
Earth -shine (te-hsing), 422
the Earthly Paradise, 550, 562
'Earthquake weathercock', 627, 633
Earthquakes, 200, 412, 483, 603, 624 if.
underwater, 484 (a)
Earth's atmosphere, 226-7, 462, 468, 479
moisture in, 471
 INDEX
Earth's crust, 591, 598 (f), 624, 637, 640
Earth's Mansions Immortal, 639, 663
Earth's Mansions Pharmacopoeia. See Thu Hsiu
Pen Tshao
Eastern 'Palace', 198,200,250,251
Eastlake, F. W. (I), 68
Eberhard, W . (I), 404, 407, 421; (2), 200, 393;
(6), 417; (10, 11), 182, 186; (12), 396
Eccentricity of the earth's orbit, 313, 329
Eclipses, 52, 176, 185, 188-9, 190, 200, 209,
244 (a), 278, 318, 370, 406, 407, 409 if., 436,
454, 455, 45 8
annular, 413, 421
attempts to predict the geographical path along
which solar eclipses would be visible, 421
causation theories, 411 if.
Chinese records and their reliability, 417 if.
earliest recorded, 409-10
investigation of the path of the shadow on the
earth's surface, 417
Japanese records, 417 (f)
Korean records, 417 (f)
lunar, 228, 417, 421, 527, 564
partial, 411, 420, 421, 422
and politics, 418-19
prediction of, 168, 172, 200, 394 (d), 410, 411,
420 if., 437, 443, 449
pulsation theory of, 412 if.
solar, 203, 409, 417, 418, 420, 421, 422, 437,
439, 5 2 3
technical terms, 420, 421
Ecliptic, 179, 180, 181, 200, 217, 229, 256
empirical graduation of, 356-7
obliquity of, 173, 180, 181, 200, 287 if., 313,
32 9, 357
Ecliptic coordinates, 375, 381
abandonment of, 366, 372, 379, 450
imposed by Jesuits upon Chinese astronomy,
43 8
Ecliptic nature of Western astronomy, eifect on
mechanisation of instruments, 366
Ecology. See Oecology
Economic geography. See Geography
Edge-runner mill, 214
Edkins, J. (Protestant missionary), 18,273,447
Edsin Gol, 64
Egypt, 13, 15,79, 81, 83, 95, 99, 106, 114, 119,
137, 146, 150, 229, 256, 273, 313, 321, 322,
404, 502, 569, 582, 653, 666, 680
Hellenistic, 571
Egyptian unequal-hour shadow-clocks, 309
Eichholz, 636
Einhard, 435
Eisler, R. (2), 332-3; (3), 620
Eitel, E. J. (I), 507
Ekman current meter, 632
Eldred, John (f!. + 1583),608 (e)
Electricity, 18 I, 480
Elegies of Chhu. See Chhu Tzhu
Elementary Explanations of Astronomical Instru-
ments. See Chien Phing I Shuo
Elements of Euclid, 54
Elements of Geometry. See Chi Ho Yuan Pen
821
Elephant, 464, 621
d'Elia, Pas quale (I, 3), 444; (4), 106
Eliade, M. (4), 641; (5), 159
Elimination and substitution, methods of, 47, 117
Ellipses, 102, 142
St Elmo's Fire, 558 (d)
Embankments, 99, 120
Embryology, 477 (i), 507
Emery, 668
Emetics, 653
Empiricism, 91, 97, 103-4, 151, 155, 159, 172,
421, 591, 596, 630, 674, 677, 67 8
'Emptiness', of Taoist mysticism, 12, 221, 222
Enamelling, 651
Endo, T., 3
Engineering, 37, 39, 314, 365, 366, 576, 579
horological, 360
hydraulic, 23, 48, 71, 158, 325, 500, 577
mechanical, 318, 354
military, 162
England, 434, 520
English Channel, 493
Enlarged Terrestrial Atlas. See Kuang Yii Thu
Enquiry into the History of Mechanical Com-
puting Aids. See Ku Suan Chhi Khao
Entretiens sur la Pluralite des Mondes (+ 1686),
441
Enuma (or Ea) Anu Enlil series, 255
Entsu (monk), 457
Envoys, 511, 525
Ephemerides, 50, 205, 206, 395, 396
cuneiform, 394 (d)
Ephthalite Huns. See Tribal peoples
Epicycles, 198 (k), 437 (d)
Epidemics, 419
Epiphanius (Cypriot bishop, +4th century), 671
Epistemology, 163-4, 165
Epistles of the Brethren of Sincerity. See Rasii'il
Ikhwiin al-$afii'
Equal double-hours, 313, 322, 398
Equality symbol, 114-15, 152, 166
Equation of Time, 182, 329-31
Equations, 26, 27, 36, 37,41,42,43,44,47,49,51,
65,90, 107, 108, 112, 394, 395
biquadratic, 48, 113, 125
cubic, 113, 125 if., 147
indeterminate, 26, 36, 50, 119 if., 122, 147
numerical, 45, 65, 126 if., 147
quadratic, 35, 47, 123 if.
simultaneous, 35, 47, 130
simultaneous linear, 26, 43, 45, I IS if.
used as test for minor functionaries, 116
Equator (celestial), 178, 179, 180,231-2,240,248,
25 0
(terrestrial), 180, 181
Equatorial coordinates, 185 (a), 270, 372, 379,
381 ,43 8 ,45 8
'Equatorial' sundials, 3 I I
Equatorial mounting, 377, 382, 458
Equatorial-plane plate, 307, 308-9, 3 II
Equatorial telescope mountings, 340, 355 (e), 366,
372, 378
'Equinoctial' dials, 311, 374, 378
822 INDEX
Equinoctial double-hours. See Equal double-
hours
Equinoctial points, 246, 270, 274, 278, 281 , 329,
35 6, 387
Equinoxes, 181, 188, 224, 246, 284, 302, 368, 393,
467
precession of the, 173, 176, 177, 181,200,211,
220, 246, 247, 250, 252, 259, 270, 278, 356,
3 8 7,43 8
estimates of, 356 (h)
Equisetum arvense and palustre (the horsetails),
67 8
Eratosthenes (- 276 to - 196), 54, 89, 106, 200,
225, 520, 526, 527
Erh Chih Kuei Ying Khao (Studies on the
Gnomon Shadows at the Two Solstices), 299
Erh-shih-pa Hsiu Erh-pai-pa-shih-san Kuan Thu
(Planisphere showing the 28 Hsiu and the
283 Constellations), 206
Erh Ya (Literary Expositor [dictionary]), 248,
619
Erkes, E. (I), 507, 640
Eroded forms, 591
Erosion, 593, 597, 603-4, 60 5
river-valley, 603
Escapement, 362, 389
compartment-drum, 328
invention of, 350, 360, 362
link-work, 363
verge.and-foliot, 319, 366
Escorial MS. map, 547 (f)
d'Espinha , Joseph (Jesuit cartographer), 586
Essay on (Astronomical and Meteorological)
Presages. See Thien Yuan Yii Li Hsiang 1 Fu
Essay on the Art of Constructing Mountains with
Rice. See Chii Mi Wei Shan Fu
Essay on the Great Constellations in the Heavens.
See Thien Wen Ta Hsiang Fu
Essay on the Mysteries of the Celestial Bodies.
See Thai Hsiang Hsiian Wen
Essay on the Tides. See Hai Chhao Fu
Essential Knowledge for Official Astronomers.
See Ling Thai Pi Yao
Essentials of History. See Li-Tai Thung Chien
Chi Lan
Essentials of Observations of the Celestial Bodies
through the Sighting-Tube. See Thien Wen
Ta Chheng Kuan Khuei Chi Yao
Essentials of Surveying. See Tshe Liang Fa 1
Essentials of the Technique of Measurement
with the Armillary Sphere. See Hun 1 Fa
Yao
'Establishment of the port', 492, 494
L' Estat de la Citez de Jherusalem, 520
Ethiopia, 313
Ethnology, 5IO, 520
Etna (Mount), 610
Etruscans, 481 (c)
Etymologiae, 529, 530
Euclid, 21, 52, 54, 66, 91 £I., 103-6, 112, 148, 151,
157, 437
possible + 13th-century translation into Chinese,
10 5
Euclidean method, 22 (d)
Eudoxus of Cnidus (c. -409 to - 356), 198 (k),
216, 382, 401
Euler, 291
Eunuchs, 79 (h), 556, 557, 681
Europe, 15, 18,27,35,43,47,51,53,61,63,66,68,
79,80,82,89,90,91,97, 102, 107, 108, 109,
I I I, 114, 117, 118, 121, 122, 125, 128, 134,
139, 14 1, 145, 14 6 , 147, 15 0 , 154, 155, 15 9,
160, 162, 164, 166, 167, 168, 172, 176, 180,
220, 223, 224, 246, 257, 262, 266, 270,
271 £I., 282, 300, 301, 302, 311, 313, 319, 328 ,
329, 34~ 36~ 3 62, 366 , 37~ 372, 375, 379,
3 81 , 3 89, 39 1, 4 2 3, 4 28 , 430, 434, 43 8 , 439,
442 £I., 457, 4 6 4, 469, 471, 472, 475, 47 6 , 47 8 ,
492,493,5°3,512,516,520,521,522,525 ,
530, 53 2 , 555, 55 6 , 5 6o , 5 6 4, 5 67, 568, 573,
575, 577, 58~ 5 8 7, 58 9, 59~ 59 1, 592, 60~
6°3, 612, 623, 624, 626, 645, 651, 652, 657,
659, 66o, 662, 663, 665, 673, 678, 679, 680
Evaporation, 468-9, 636
Evaporation-rate, 322
Evelyn, John , 579
Examinations, 36, 40, 153 (f), 192
Excess and deficiency, 26, 118- 19
'Exchequer. ' See Counting-table
Exeligmos, 421
'Exhalations.' See Aristotelian theory of 'exhala-
tions'
Exhaustion, method of. See Method of exhaus-
tion
Exorcism, 457
Expansion and contraction, 616
Expectorants, 654
Expeditions and voyages
against the Champa people of Lin-I (+ 349),
292
to the south seas (+ 724), 274
under the direction of Nankung Yiieh and
I-Hsing (+721 to +725),292-3
under Chhiu Chhang-Chhun ( + 1221) to
Chinghiz Khan at Samarqand, 293, 417,
522
to Annam during the Li Dynasty, 512
to Persia under Chinghiz Khan, 522
to Cambodia, 511, 658
to Korea ( + 1124), 492-3, 511
from Shantung to Afghanistan, 522-3
to Htiliigu Khan, 523
in Central Asia (+ 1260 to + 1263), 523
to the source of the Yellow River, 523-4,
58 5
under Kan Yen-Shou as far west as the Talas
River, 536
under Cheng Ho, 556 £I.
in Manchuria (+ 1677), 585
to visit the Torguts on the Lower Volga, 585
in Tibet, 585
Experimental-mathematical method, 156 £I.
Experimentation, 155 £I., 168,456, 634
in ancient Greece, 161 Cc)
Explanation of Indeterminate Analysis. See Ta
Yen Hsiang Shuo

Explanation of the Determination of Segment
Areas. See Ko Yuan Lien Pi Li Thu Chieh
Explicatio Sphaerae Coelestis. See Thien Wen
Liieh
Exploitation of the Works of Nature. See Thien
Kung Khai Wu
Exploration. See Travel and exploration
ben Ezra, Abraham (c. + 1150), 89, 141
Fa (divisor), 65
Fa (star), 250
Fa-chi (crossbow trigger), 627 (d)
Fa Hsiang Chih (The Miniature Cosmos), 544
Fa-Hsien (+ 5th-century monk and traveller), 51 I,
512, 522
Fa-li-hsi-na (France), 555
Fa-Mu (Taoist), 27
Fa Yen (Model Discourses), 216, 354
Fa Yuan Chu Lin (Forest of Pearls in the Garden
of the Law), 610
Fabricius, 429 (e), 434
Fabulous beings, 504, 50S, 508
Falling weight drive, 319
'False carp' (chhiu chieh), 620
, False jade' (fu yii), 664
' False longitude and latitude', 267 (a)
Falsificatio, 161 , 165
Famine Herbal. See Chiu Huang Pen Tshao
Famines, 436, 518
Fan (alum), 642, 653
Fan (River), 607
Fan Chheng-Ta (scholar, +1177),477,510,518,
520, 613, 61 9
Fan Chho (geographer, +9th century), 544
Fan Chih-Ming, 606
Fan Shun-Chhen (+ 14th-century physician and
astronomer), 331
Fan Wen (military commander, fI. + 349), 292
Fan Wen-Thao (1), 561
Fan Yeh (historian), 630
Fan Yti-Chhi, 535
Fang (hsiu), 242, 245, 247, 248-9, 425
Fang chih ('gazetteers'), 517, 519, 534
Fang Chung-Thung (+ 17th-century mathe-
matician), 60
Fang hsieh (measuring right angles and acute
angles), 540, 576
Fang H stian-Ling (+7th-century historian), 359
Fang Kuan-Chheng (+ 18th century), 517
Fang Phing, 600
Fang Yti Hui Pien (second division of the Thu
Shu Chi Chheng encyclopaedia, q.v.)
Fang Yii Sheng Lan (Triumphant Vision of the
Great World), 521
The Far-Seeing Optick Glass. See Yuan Ching
Shuo
al-Faraji, Abu Bakr (+ I Ith century,
algebraist), 34 (a)
al-Farisi, Kamal ai-Din, 474 (a)
Farmers, 362
'Farmer's clock', 320
Famese marble (celestial globe), 382
Fariies, 583 (h)
INDEX
Farrington, O. C., 671
Fate-calculation, 4, 34 (b), 141
Faulting, 591
Fave, 1., 380
Feathers, hygroscopic properties of, 470-1
Fei Hsin (officer of Cheng Ho), 558
Fei-Ian Tao. See Friesland (imaginary island)
Fei iao Li. See Flying Bird Calendar
Fei Niao Thu (Bird's-Eye Map), 538, 576
Fei tshui (jadeite), 665
Fei-tshui stone, 673 (f)
Feldhaus, F. M., 579
Felspar, 643, 664
Fen lii (graduated scale), 539-40, 576
Fen tzu shih (' tangle-stone '), 674
Fen yeh system, 545
Feng Chheng-Chtin (1), 561
Feng Chhuang Hsiao Tu (Maple-Tree Window
Memories),422
Feng Chio Shu, 433
Feng Hsiang Shih (Imperial Astronomer, a title),
18 9
Feng Kuei-Fen (19th-century astronomer), 456
Feng Lao (the Lady Feng, Han woman scholar
and diplomatic envoy), 537 (b)
Feng Su Thung I (Popular Traditions and
Customs), 88, 510
Feng Thu Chi (works on folk customs and their
geographical distribution), 510
Feng Yen (fI. +800),490
Feng Yu-Lan, 92
Ferguson, J. C. (3), 82, 100
de Fermat, P., 55, 108, 142
Fermat's theorem, 54 (d)
Femel, Jean (French physician, + 16th century),
579
Ferrand, G., 587
Ferrous sulphate, 651
Fertilisers, chemical, 652
Fertility magic, 17 (e)
A Few Points in the Vast Subject of the 'YtiKung '.
See Yii Kung Chui Chih
Fibonacci (fI. + 1200 to + 1220), 55, 108, 118,
122, 128, 147
Ficino, M., 158
Field concepts, in physics, 158 (a)
Figurate numbers, 54, 55, 71 (e), 138
Filliozat, J . (7, 8), 253
Filter (ching-wei), 324
Fine, Oronce, 573
Finger-reckoning, 68-9
Fir-trees, 6 I 2
Fire-magic and fire-worship, 188 (d)
, Fire-proof cloth, 656 if.
Fire-proofing of wood, 653
Fire-rat, 658
Arab 'Fire-times' , 323, 469 (j)
Fire-wells, 6 I 0
Firework-making, 651
Firing of mortar shells etc. at hailstorm clouds,
472- 3
the First Point of Aries. See Aries
the First Point of Libra. See Libra
 INDEX

Fischer, J., 533, 537 the' Four displacements' (SSIl Yll), 224
Fish glue, 505 Component of, 343, 450
Fish-spawn, 623 the' Four-element process' (in mathematics), 47
Fisher, Sir Ronald, 87 (b), 123 (g), 406 (j) the Four Elements, 439
Fishes, fossil, 612, 614, 619, 620, 621, 622 Fracastoro, Girolamo (+ 1517), 61I
the Five Elements, 30, 43, 58, 159,397,398,439, Fractions, 21, 25, 33, 34, 35, 36, 45, 66, 81 ff., 128,
607, 64 1 146, 385 (a)
the Five Walkers (Wu Pu (the five Planets», 399 Fracture (of minerals), 649
the Five Wefts (Wu Wei (the five Planets», 399 France, 472, 555, 584, 644
Flags, 276, 532 Franco of Liege, 102
Flame-throwers, 682 Franke, H. (I), 419
Flamsteed, J., 300, 446, 448 Fraunhofer, Joseph (+ 1824), 362, 366
Flies, 658 Frederick 11 of Sicily, 382
Float (inflow clepsydra), 314, 315, 320 French Revolution, 90, 397 (b)
Float siphon, 315 (a) Freret, N., 182
Float valve, 314 Frescoes depicting fossilised pine-trees, 6 I 2
the Flood. See Noachian Flood legend Han, 537
Floods, 471, 472, 473 of the Umayyad desert palace of Qu~air 'Amrah,
control of, 99 389 (b)
erosive action of, 603 Friesland (imaginary island), 583, 584
Flora Saturnisans, 679 Frisius, Gemma, 379
Fluxions, method of. See Method of fluxions Frontier Agents (Hsing Fang Shih), 534
Fly-Whisk Conversations of the Scholarly Guest. Frost, 468, 679
See Mo Kho Hui Hsi Fryer, John (Protestant missionary), 447
Flying Bird Calendar (Fei Niao Li), 538 Fu (place in Shensi), 607, 609
Fo Kuang. See 'Buddha Light' nimbus Fu An (astronomer, +84), 343
Fo Kuo Chi (Records of Buddhist Countries), 511 Fu Chhai (prince of Wu State), 485, 486, 487
Fo Tsu Thung Chi (Records of the Lineage of Fu Chhien (Later Han or Chin), 673
Buddha and the Patriarchs), 565-6 Fu chih (' gazetteers '), 5 I 7
Fog, 411, 468 Fu Fan-Chi. See Furtado, Francis
Folded strata, 591 Fu Heng (Sung general), 510
Folklore, 510 Fu-Hsi (mythical ruler), 22, 23, 95, 213 (b)
of the diamond, 671 Fu HsUan (+ 3rd century), 657
star-myths, 282 ff. Fu-ling (fungus), 675
de' Fontana, Giovanni (fI. 1410 to 1420), 162 Fu Pan Che (Bearers of the Tables of Population),
de Fontenelle, B., 441 58 2
Foot-rule, 84, 286 Fu-Sang, embassy from, 436
Foothill Hall Essays. See Lu Thang Shih Hua Fu-Sang tree, 567
Foreign countries, 510-14, 521, 551 Fu Sheng (Han scholar), 334
Forensic medicine, 162 (e) Fu Sheng-Tse. See Foucquet, Jean-Fran~ois
Forest of Pearls in the Garden of the Law. See Fu Ssu-Nien, 151
Fa Yllan Clm Lin Fu Tse-Hung, 514, 516
Forke, A. (6), 218, 498 Fu Tso-Lin. See da Rocha, Felix
Former Han (dynasty), 24, 25, 28, 90, 97, 173, Fu TZll (Book of Master Fu), 657
189, 199, 200, 248, 305, 321, 396, 4 14, 504, Fu Yin (geographer, + 12th century), 514, 5 I 5
534, 581, 602, 605, 651 Fu yu (' false jade '), 664
Former Han clepsydras, 321 Fuchs, W., 373, 552, 552 (g), 555 (d), 556, 585
Formosa, 472, 517, 547 Fukien, 204, 419, 557, 559
Formulae for avoiding Calamities according to the Fukien Meteorological Survey, 282
Seven Luminaries. See Chhi Yao Jang Tsai Full Explanation of Tabulated Equations. See
Chiieh Jll Chi Shih Hsiao
Fortifications, 48, 99, 515 Fuller's earth, 6+3, 652
'Fortuitous concourses', 167 (d) Functionality, idea of, 158
Fortunate Islands, 528 Fundamental Ideas of the Five Classics. See Wll
Fortune-telling, 34 (b) Ching Thlmg I
Fossil animals, 614 ff. Funeral rites, 319
Fossil echinoids, 604 Fungi,675
Fossil man, 621 Fungicides, 652
Fossil plants, 612-14 Furs, 680
Fossils, 602, 603, 604, 611 ff. Furtado, Francis, 449
Fotheringham, J. K. (I), 390; (2), 409
Foucquet, Jean-Fran~ois (Jesuit), 450 Galen, 161
the' Four Beginnings', 164 Galilean method, 156 ff.
 INDEX 82 5
Galileo, G., 154, 156, 157, 158, 159, 160, 161, 162, in Chinese art, 592 ff.
193,220,3 66 (e), 427, 434, 43 8,444, 445, 449, largely a modern science, 591
4 66 ,47 1,494 and political conditions, 591 (d)
condemnations of his Copernican views, 444, Geomancy, 159, 500, 524, 598 (f), 651
445 Geometric models, 68, 97
Gallagher, L. J., 682 Geometrical progression. See Progressions
Galley method of division. See Division Geometrica, 96
Games, their association with divination, 303-5 Geometrical point, 91-2, 142, 437 (f)
Gamow, G., 426 Geometry, 23-4, 38, 47, 52, 53, 55, 65, 66, 74, 90,
Ganchow. See Chang-yeh 91 ff., 110, 111-12, 147, 148, 156, 162, 212,
Gap between rims of sky and earth, 215 (f) 3 81 , 3 8 2, 394, 395, 399, 437, 442, 447, 45 8 ,
Gardens, botanic, 162 (i), 681 460, 57 1-2
Garnet, 668 analytic, 108, 155
Gas. See Natural gas and clockwork, 155 (a)
Gastropods, 617, 618 coordinate, 77, 106 ff., 155
Gaubil, Antoine, 173, 174, 175, 182 ff., 209, 229, deductive, 97, 105, 108, 156, 220, 223
234, 242, 246, 288, 290, 29 1, 293, 299, 355, plane, 39
3 80 , 3 81 , 395, 43 0 , 447, 45 2 solid, 97 ff.
Gauchet, L. (6), 123; (7), 39, 48, 109, 110, 125 spherical, 181, 223
Gauss' formula , 121 Geophysics, 673, 680
Gautama clan, 202-3 Georgio, Ludovico (Portuguese Jesuit), 585
Gautama Siddhartha. See Chhlithan Hsi-Ta Gerbanites, 406 (j)
Gauthier, H., 464 Gerbillon, Jean Fran~ois (Jesuit cartographer),
, Gazetteers', 5 I 7 585
Gear-wheels, 314, 339 (e), 366 (c), 577, 668 (e) Germanium, 677
Geerts, A. J . C., 592, 644 Germany, 331,434, 555
Geikie, Sir A., 592, 622 ben Gerson, Levi (Proven~al Jewish scholar,
Gelosia method of multiplication, 64, 72, 148 + 1288 to + 1344), 573, 575
Geminos of Rhodes (ft. -70),395 Gesammelte Abhandlungen u. d . chinesischen
Gemmarum et Lapidum Historia, 646 Mathematik. See Chung Suan Shih Lung
Gems, 591, 669 ff. Tshung
mining, 669, 670 Geschichte d. Sternkunde, 175
technical terms, 669 Ghetaldi, Marino (+ 1630), 108
General Description of Stars and their Portents. Giant astronomical instruments in masonry,
See Hsing Ming Tsung Kua 291 (b), 294 ff.
General Description of the World in the Thai- Gibraltar, 579
Phing reign-period. See Thai-Phing Huan Gilbert, William, 154, 155, 159, 439
Yii Chi Giles, L. (8), 484, 518; (9), 518; (10), 583
General Geography of the Yuan-Ho reign-period. GiIle, B. (3), 154
See Yuan-Ho Chiin Hsien Thu Chih Gillis, 1. V., 484
General Ideas of the Pharmacopoeia. See Pen Gimbals, 387
Tshao Yen 1 Ginger (chiang plant), 675
Generalisations on Numbers. See Shu Tu Yen Ginzel, F. K., 184
Gentchiscan. See Chingiz Khan Giraffe, 558 (c)
Geobotanical prospecting. See Prospecting Girl map-maker, 538, 541
Geocentric world-view, 446, 447 Glacial valley, 593
Geographer-Royal (Thu-Hslin), 534 Glass, 658
Geographical symbols, 497-8, 552 (d), 555 Glass-making, 653
Geography, 89, 106, 497 ff. Glazes, 651
Arabic, 512-13 Glory-of-the-Sages Prescriptions. See Sheng Hui
economic, 500, 644 Fang
human, 508 Gnomon, 19,21,54, 104, 108, 182,213,217,224,
physical, 462, 501 225, 231, 274, 284 ff., 302, 30 3, 3 0 7, 327,
two separate traditions in both East and West, 359, 3 68 , 3 6 9, 370, 3 81 , 47 8 , 523, 5 26 , 542,
500 5 6 9, 571
Geography of the Empire. See Chhien-Lung Fu of Bologna, 300 (f)
Thing Chou Hsien Chih inclined, 302, 303
Geological lore, 673 of Kuo-Shou-Ching, 296
Geological prospecting. See Prospecting pin-point, 299
Geological Survey, Chinese, 591 (d) pole-pointing, 303, 307, 309, 311
Geological time, 601 of portable sundial, 31 0
Geology, 521, 524 use of hole in the top of, 300
and alchemy, 598 (f) Gnomon Shadow Template, 284 ff., 542
826
Gnomonics, 309, 375, 378, 437
Gnostic philosophy, 159
Gobi desert, 436, 553, 555
Godwin, Francis, 440, 441
Goes, Benedict (+ 17th century), 665 (d)
Gogeisl, Anton, 452, 454
'Going against Nature', 196
Gold, 637, 638, 639, 640, 641, 670, 671, 674, 675,
676, 677, 678
assaying of, 672-3
'Gold companion stone' (pan chin shih), 674
'Gold-testing stone' (shih chin shih), 672
Golden Box Manual. See Chin Kuei Ching
Golden Mirror of the Flowing Waters. See Hsing
Shui Chin Chien
Goldschmidt, V. M., 677
Goldschmidt Enrichment Principle, 677
Goodrich, C. (4), 102; (5), 75; (6), 620; (8), 583
Gorges, 546, 604
Gothic stone-carving, 160
Government, centralisation of, 472, 632
Government Departments Mathematical Manual.
See Wu Tshao Suan Ching
Grabau, A. W., 598
Graduated pole, 569, 570, 577
Graduated scale. See Fen LU
Granaries, 99, 120, 153
the Grand Canal,s 16, 552
Grand Cycle (Shang Yuan) , 120
'Grand Lord Chronologer', 191 (c)
Granet, M. (5), 58
Granite, 597
Grant, R., 184
Graphite, hygroscopic, 471 (a)
Graphs, 77-8, 107, 108, 124
Gravitational attraction, 157,490,492,494,673
Grease, used as a medium for abrasives, 668
Great Bear, 210, 215, 219, 223, 230, 232, 234, 240,
25~ 25 1, 272, 278, 33~ 33 6 , 33 8 , 3 8 5, 43 0
legend of its disappearance, 283
Great Chhen (Ta chhen), 250
Great Encyclopaedia of the Yung-Lo reign-
period. See Yung-Lo Ta Tien
Great Learning. See Ta Hsiieh
Great Magpie Mountains, 655
a 'Great New Star', 244 (a), 424
The Great Pharmacopoeia. See Pen Tshao Kang
Mu
the' Great Star', 242
Great Unity Divining-Board Manual. See Thai
I Shih Ching
Greatest Common Divisor, 54 (d)
Greece, 161 (c), 409, 462, 500, 526, 637, 672
Greek abacists, I I (e)
Greek alchemy, 159
Greek astronomy, 171, 172, 173, 175, 179, 180,
181, 186, 189, 203, 212, 216, 220, 223, 225,
227, 228, 229, 230, 253, 258, 26~ 27~ 288,
292, 309, 314, 326, 329, 35 0 , 366, 376, 382,
395,399,402 (e), 404, 408, 4II, 45 0 , 458, 460
influence on Indian astronomy, 176 (b), 267 (a)
Greek atomists, 92
Greek biology, II9
INDEX
Greek cartography, 526, 533, 53 8, 587
Greek chemistry, 639
Greek' exhalations', 636-7
'Greek fire', 482 (b)
Greek geometry, 91, 96, 309
Greek literature, 622
Greek logic, 151 (d)
Greek mathematics, I, 16, 35, 53, 54, 55, 61, 68,
82,83,90,92,96, 101, 103, 107, 108, II2-I3 ,
I IS, 125, 128, 141, 156, 162, '167
abstract and systematic character of, lSD-I
Greek mythology, 405, 505
Greek numerals, I I, 13
Greek spheres, 198 (k), 439 (a)
Greeks, 153, 158, 160, 468, 493, 5 19, 53 0 , 533,
542, 543, 545, 561, 56 4, 568 , 575, 612, 62 3,
646, 653, 662
and the experimental method, 161 (c)
Green banners (sympathetic fertility magic), 17
'Green Springs', 640
Gregorian Calendar, 447 (a)
Grid, in Egyptian hieroglyphs, 106
Grid system, 498, 502, 527, 532, 537, 539, 54 0 ,
54 1, 545, 55 6 , 56 4, 56 5, 56 9, 575, 5 86 , 5 8 7,
58 9-9 0
Griffith, W., 665
Grindstone, 640
Groma (Roman surveyor's instrument), 286, 370,
57 1
de Groot, J. J. M. (2), 282
Gros, L ., 1 I I
Grosseteste, Robert (+ II68 to + 1253), 161, 162.
166
Ground waters, 649-51
Growth and development of metals in the earth,
637 ff.
Guest-stars. See Novae
Guide through the Forest of Affairs [encyclo-
paedia]. See Shih Lin Kuang Chi
de Guignes, C . L. J., 174, 175, 183,430
van Gulik, R. H. (2), 646
'Gun-barrel' sighting-tube, 352, 377
Gunnery, 158, 162, 589
Gunpowder, 162, 167, 352 (c), 441 (a), 652
Gunter, E., 73, 155
Gunther, R. T. (I), 379; (2), 375
'Gur' (early Renaissance mineralogical term),
642
Gwalior, 10
Haab (calendar year of the Mayas), 397
Haddad, Sami, 562
Haematite, 643, 650, 652, 674, 676
Haenisch, E. (I), 521
Hagiwara, 630
Hai Chhao Chi Shuo (Collected Writings on the
Sea Tides), 493
Hai Chhao Fu (Essay on the Tides), 490
Hai Chhao Lun (Discourse on the Tides), 490
Hai Ch/wo Thu Hsii (Preface to Diagrams of the
Tides), 491
Hai Chhao Thu Lun (Illustrated Discourse on the
Tides), 491
 INDEX

Hai Han Wan Hsiang Lu (The Multiplicity of Handbook of Archaeology. See Ko Ku Yao Lun
Phenomena),22I Handbooks for painters, 596
Hai Kuo Wen Chien Lu (Record of Things Seen Hangchow, 516, 518, 519, 661
and Heard about the Coastal Regions), 517 tidal bore at, 483-4
Hai Nei Hua I Thu (Map of both Chinese and Bar- retirement of capital to, 422, 682
barian Peoples within the (Four) Seas), 543 Hanoi,292
Hai Nei Shih Chou Chi (Record of the Ten Sea Hansford, S. H., 663, 665, 667, 668
Islands), 657, 667 'Hard wind' (hang chhi or hang !eng), 222, 223,
Hai-Ta-Erh (+ 14th-century President of the 224, 477 (i)
Muslim Astronomical Bureau), 49 Harland, B., 593 (e)
Hai Tao Suan Ching (Sea Island Mathematical Harmonic progression. See Progressions
Manual), 30-2, 35, 39-40, 104, 108, 571 'Harmony' (of armillary sphere), 361
Hai Thao Chih (or Hai Chiao Chih) (On the Harness, 681
Tides),489 Harpedonaptae, 3 (h), 95 (f)
Hai Yao Pen Tshao (Drugs of the Southern Hariot, T., 43, 434
Countries beyond the Seas), 653 Hartner, W. (2), 234; (3), 372, 373, 375, 378;
H ai yen (' eye of the sea', wells), 606 (4), 391 ; (5), 409; (8), 288
Haichow, 574 Harvest, 17, 200, 397, 402, 436, 621
Hail storms, 472 Harvey, Gabriel, 155
Hainan Island, 292, 310, 547, 619 Harvey, William, 158
Hakemite Tables, 396 (a) Harzer, P., 3
Hall, A. R, 166 (e), 311 (d) Hashimoto, M . (1,4), 177,246
von Hallerstein, Augustin, 452, 454 de la Hautefeuille, 634
Halley, Edmund, 270, 271 Haiiy, R J., 591
Halley's comet, 171, 193 (b), 431-2, 433 Hawaii,472
Haloes, 464, 474-6 Hayashi, Tsuruichi, 2
lunar, 470 Heath, Sir Thomas (I), 92, 93
solar, 470, 475-6 Heaven like the cover of a carriage (chhi hai), 214
Haloun, G., 665 Heavenly Husbandman. See Shen Nung Pin
'Hammoniac' salt, 654 Tshao Ching
Han (dynasty), 5, 8, 9, 19, 20, 25, 26, 27, 29, 36, 'Heavenly reprimands,' 465, 480
40, 57, 64, 65, 66, 68, 71, 81, 82, 85, 88, 95, the Heavens
99, 103, 104, I IS, 116, 123, 126, 137, 146, circumference of, 217
147, 148, 149, 153, 174, 182, 198, 199, 210, diurnal revolution of, 232, 361
218, 219, 226, 227, 248, 251, 252, 261, 262, rotation of, 213, 215, 217, 218
264, 276, 281, 282, 286, 290, 291, 294, 297, shape of, 211, 212, 213, 220, 498
300, 30 3, 3 0 7, 308, 313, 315, 319, 321, 326, Heawood, E., 583
33 2 , 334, 354, 361 , 379, 38 3, 393, 397, 40 7, Hebrews. See Jews
408,409,410,411,417,418,420,421,425, van Hee, L., I; (I), IZ3; (2),96; (3), IZ2; (4),45;
43 1, 433, 436, 464, 4 6 5, 467, 468, 47 6 , 47 8 , (7,8),31; (10), 3; (11), 34; (12) , 47,130;
47~ 48~ 4 81 , 49~ 50~ 511, 5 21 , 5 2 5, 53~ (14), 106
535, 53 8 , 539, 54 2 , 545, 557, 5 68 , 5 69, 57 0 , Hei-Ti-Erh. See Hai-Ta-Erh
57 1, 57 2 , 574, 575, 579, 580 , 5 81 , 5 82 , 60 3, Heliacal risings and settings, 229, 230, 240, 251-2
607, 610, 612, 621, 622, 625, 626, 643, 657, Helicopter, 160
659, 665, 670, 674, 677 Heliocentric theory of the solar system, 181, 438,
Han (river), 500, 515 443-6
Han apocryphal books, 57, 58, 225 Heliostat, 366 (e)
Han calendars, 287 van Helmont, J. B., 158
Han Code, 322 Hemicyclium excavatum, 301
Han Hsien-Fu (astronomer), 207 Henckel, J . F., 679
Han I (ft. + 223), 29, 294 Heng (river), 501
Han Kung-Lien (horological engineer), 104, Heng Hsing Chhih-Tao Chhiian Thu (Complete
155 (a), 192, 359 Map of the Fixed Stars, based on the
Han-Lin Yuan. See Academies Equator), 185
Han shui shih (,water-absorbing stone'), 614 Heng Hsing Chhih-Tao Ching-Wei Tu Thu (Map
Han Wu Ti (emperor), 221, 282, 322, 367 (d), 536, of the Fixed Stars according to their Right
582,602 Ascension and Declination), 185
Han Wu Ti Nei Chuan (The Inside Story of Hillg numerals, 8
Emperor Wu of the Han), 546, 566 Henna, 654
Han Yen (mathematician, +780 to +804),34,86 Henry of Mainz, 529
Han Yen-Shou (between -140 and -70),579 Henry the Navigator, Prince, 533
Han Yii Thung (General Survey of the Universe), Hen's egg analogy, 217, 218,498
454 (d), 499 Henseling, R, 407, 421
828 INDEX
Herbal Classic of the Heavenly Husbandman. See
Shen Nung Pen Tshao Ching
Herbals, 591, 636
Hereford Mappamundi, 529 (I)
Hermann the Lame, 80
H ermetica (+300), 647
Hermit philosophers, 159,605
Herodotus (- 5th century), 79, 493, 505, 512
Heron of Alexandria (ft. + 62), 96, 161 (c), 315,
571, 63 0
Herrmann, A., 497, 540, 543 , 544, 565, 585
Hevelius, 475
Hexagon, 100
Heyd, W ., 681
Hibiscus, 649
The Hidden Number-Diagrams of the Book of
Changes Hooked Out. See I Shu Kou Yin
Thu
Hides, treatment of, 651, 653
Hidokei, 302 (a)
Hierarchy of Stones. See Shih Phin
Higgins, K., 252
Higher artisanate, I54ff., 159, 161, 162, 166
'Hill-censers', 580-1
Hiller, J. E., 592
Hilprecht tablet, 257
Hind, J. R., 408, 432
'Hindu-Arabic' numerals, 10, 15, 146
Hindus, I I, 300
Hindustan, 680
Hipparchus (c. - 140), 106, 108, 171, 172, 197,
268 (c),269, 270,340,375,382,393,395,425,
52 7
Hippocrates, 464
Hippolytus (+ 3rd century), 622
Hippotherium, 621
Hirayama, K ., 409
de la Hire, P., 300, 450
Hirth, F., 512, 682
I;Iisiib al-Jabr w'al-Muqiibalah (The Calculation of
Integration and Equation), I 13
I;Iisab al-khatii'ain (Rule of False Position),
II8
Histoire de I' Astronomie Ancienne, 175
Historia adversus Paganos, 529
Historical Account of the Coastal Protection
Works of Chekiang Province, prepared by
Imperial Command. See Chhih Hsiu Liang
CM Hai- Thang Thung Chih
Historical Classic. See Shu Ching
Historical Collections. See Thung Chih Lileh
Historical Geography of Szechuan. See Hua Yang
Kuo Chih
Historical Geography of the Sixteen Kingdoms.
See Shih-liu Kuo Chiang Yil Chih
Historical Investigation of Public Affairs. See
Wen Hsien Thlmg Khao
Historical Record. See Shih Chi
Historiography, 157 (c)
History and Topography of the Lo Fou Moun-
tains. See Lo Fou Slzan Chih
A History of Chinese Mathematics. See Chung-
Kuo Suan-Hsileh Shih
History of Institutions of the Yuan Dynasty. See
Yuan Ching Shih Ta Tien
History of Israel Jobson, the Wandering Jew (1757),
441
History of the Chin Dynasty. See Chin Shu
History of the Chin (Tartar) Dynasty. See Chin
Shih
History of the Former Han Dynasty. See Chhien
Han Shu
History of the Later Han Dynasty. See Hou Han
Shu
History of the Ming Dynasty. See Ming Shih
History of the Northern Chhi Dynasty. See Pei
Chhi Shu
History of the Northern Dynasties. See Pei Shih
History of the (Northern) Wei Dynasty. See Wei
Shu
History of the South. See Nan Shih
History of the Southern Chhi Dynasty. See Nan
Chhi Shu
History of the Sui Dynasty. See Sui Shu
History of the Sung Dynasty. See Sung Shih
History of the Thang Dynasty. See Chiu Thang
Shu and Hsin Thang Shu
History of the Three Kingdoms. SeeSanKuoChih
History of the Yuan Dynasty. See Yuan S hih
Hitti, P. K., 681
Hiuheng. See HsU Heng
Ho (legendary astronomer), 186, 187, 188, 245
Ho (river). See Yellow River
Ho Chheng-Thien (astronomer, c. +450), 287,
292, 384, 392
Ho Chhil Shu (Rivers and Canals, chapter of the
Shih Chi, q.v.)
Ho Hsiu (+ 18th-century scholar), 634
Ho Jung (astronomer, + 102), 306, 322, 328
Ho Kuan-Chou (1), 504
Ho Kuo-Tsung ( + 18th century mathematician),
44 8
Ho Kuo-Tung ( + 18th-century cartographer), 585
Ho Lin Yil Lu (Jade Dew from the Forest of
Cranes), 580
Ho Ping-Yu (I), 475
Ho Shuo Fang Ku Chi (Archaeological Topo-
graphy of the Regions orth of the Yellow
River), 51 I
Ho Thu (the' River Diagram '), 56, 57 ff.
Ho Thu Wei Chi Yao Kou (Apocryphal Treatise
on the River Chart; Investigation of the Full
Circle of the (Celestial) Brightnesses)
Ho Thu Wei Kua Ti Hsiang (Apocryphal
Treatise on the River Chart; Examination of
the Signs of the Earth), 468, 568
Ho Ting books, 638 ff.
Ho Ting Hsin Shu (New Book of Poisonous Sub-
stances), 638
Ho Yuan Chi (Records of the Source of the
(Yellow) River), 524
Ho Yuan Chi Lileh (The Sources of the (Yellow)
River, and a History of our Knowledge of
them), 585
Hoang, P. See Huang, P.
Hodometer, 543 (b), 577, 579, 630
 INDEX
Hodous, L. (I), 282 Hsi-Hsia (State), 549
Hogback, 592 Hsi-Hsia Chi Shih Pen Mo (Rise and Fall of the
Holland,434 Hsi-Hsia), 549
Holmes, U. T., 262 Hsi Jung. See Tribal peoples
Holmyard, E. J . & MandeviIle, D . C ., 602 Hsi Kho ('Western Bureau' of Astronomy), 449
Holorenshaw, W., 573 (a) Hsi-Lan-Shan. See Ceylon
Rolosteum umbellatum, 678 Hsi-mu (one of the twelvefold divisions of the
Holy Land, 513 (b) equator and its hsiu, corresponding to the
Holywood of Halifax, John (d. + 1256), 340 autumn equinox), 243, 489
Homer, 230 Hsi-Ning reign-period, 262, 549, 577
Hommel, F., 254 Hsi-Pei Pi Ti-Li Thu (grid map of the north-
Hommel, Johann (+ 1518 to + 1562), 296 (a) western countries), 552
Homophones, 334 (d) Hsi Pu Thien Ko (The Western Song of the March
Honan, 624 of the Heavens), 201
Honorius of Autun, 529 Hsi Shih Chi (Notes on an Embassy to the West),
Ronzo-Wamyo (Synonymic Materia Medica with 52 3
Japanese Equivalents), 645 (a) Hsi Tse-Tsung, 268 (d); (1), 425
Hooke, Robert, 80, 145, 262, 362, 366, 378 (a), Hsi Tzhu Chuan (Commentary on the Appended
391 (a), 479, 61 I Judgments, in the I Ching), 56
Hoover, H. C. & Hoover, L. H., 604, 649 Hsi Wang Mu (fabulous imperial goddess of the
Hopei,604 West), 507, 566
Hopkins, L. C. (18), 249; (19), 339; (26), 473 Hsi- Yang Chhao Kung Tien Lu (Record of the
Horizon, 178, 179, 180, 229, 240 Tribute-paying Western Countries), 559
Horizon circle for azimuth measurements, 452 Hsi- Yang Fan Kuo Chih (Record of the Barbarian
Hormuz, 558, 559, 560 Countries in the Western Ocean), 558
Horner's method, 43, 66, 68, 126, 127 Hsi- Yang Hsin FaLi Shu (Treatise on (Astronomy
Horological engineering. See Engineering and) Calendrical Science according to the
Horologium. See Sundial _ Tew Western Methods), 448, 449
Horses, 607, 621 Hsi Yu Chi (+I6th-century novel , 'Monkey'), 17
Horsetails (Equisetum arvense and palustre), 678 Hsi Yii Chu Kuo Feng Wu Thu (Illustrated
Horwitz, H. T. (8), 472-3 Account of the Strange Customs and Pro-
Hosie, A., 435, 472 ducts of the Western Countries), 510
Hosoi, S., 3 Hsi Yu Lu (Record of a Journey to the West), 522
Hot springs, 610-II Hsi Yii Shui Tao Chi (Account of the River
Rou chi i (Pole-observing Instrument), 370 Systems of the Western Regions), 525
Rou Ching Lu (Waiting for the Mackerel), 470 Hsi Yii Thu Chi (Illustrated Record of Western
Hou Chlin-Chi (general, +7th century), 523 Countries), 654
Rou Ran Shu (History of the Later Han Dynasty), Hsi Yii Wen Chien Lu (Things seen and Heard in
35,71, 100,287,288,292,401 ,626,632, 656 the Western Countries), 655
I-lough, W., 331 Hsi Ytin-Hsing (bronze-founder), 324
Houpilay. See Khubilai Khan Hsia (dynasty), 409, 503, 539, 625
Hour-circles, 179, 231, 234 Hsia Ao (+ loth-century surveyor), 104
Hour-glass, 330 Hsia Chiang Thu Khao (Illustrations of the
House-swallow, 464 Yangtze Gorges), 592
Houzeau, J. C., 175, 271 Hsia Hsiao Cheng (The Lesser Annuary of the
How to Use the Gnomon Shadow Template. Hsia Dynasty), 194, 245, 247
See Thu Kuei Fa Hsia Hsiao Cheng Su I, 194
Hsi (Western), unpopularity of the term with the Hsia Wu-Chti (physician to the King of Chhin),
Chinese in the + 17th century, 449 535
Hsi (legendary astronomer), 186, 187, 188, 245, Hsia Yin Chou Lii Li (Treatise on the Calendars
28 5 of the Hsia, Shang and Chou Dynasties), 19
Hsi (Duke of Lu), 284 Hsiahou Yang (Northern Wei mathematician), 33,
Hsi Chhi Tshung Yii (Western Pool CoIlected 36, 65, 66, 86, 88
Remarks), 618 Hsiahou Yang Suan Ching (Hsiahou Yang's
Hsi Chhing Ku Chien (Hsi Chhing Catalogue of Mathematical Manual), 33, 34
Ancient Mirrors and Bronzes), 580-1 Hsiahou Yang's Mathematical Manual. See
Hsi Ching Tsa Chi (MisceIlaneous Records of the Hsiahou Yang Suan Ching
Western Capital), 4, 581 Hsiai (a kind of shallot), 675, 676
Hsi-Chou Yen Phu (Hsichow Inkstone Record), Hsiang (river), 485
646 Hsiang Chieh Chill Chang Suan Fa Tsuan Lei
Hsi Ho (mythological being, sometimes the (Detailed Analysis of the mathematical Rules
mother and sometimes the chariot-driver of in the 'Nine Chapters' and their Reclassifi-
the sun), 188 cation), 28, 41, 50, 66, 134, 136
 INDEX
Hsiang Chung Chi (Records of Hunan), 615
Hsiang-hsiang (in Thanchow), 620
Hsiang han (' response', of water to the inftuence of
the moon), 492
Hsiang Ming Suan Fa (Explanations of Arith-
metic),32
Hsiang-Shan (mountain), 596
Hsiang Ta (1), 511
Hsiang Tho, 226
Hsiang Wang (ruler of the Wei State, d. - 245),
50 7
Hsiang Wei Hsin Phien (New Account of the Web
of Stars), 209
Hsiang-yi, 577
Hsiang Yil Shu (Book on the Prediction of Rain),
47 0
Hsiangchow (in Kuangsi), 617
Hsiao-An Hsin Fa (Wang Hsi-Shan's New
(Astronomical) Methods), 454
Hsiao Chhiu (volcano), 658
Hsiao Ho (general, fI. - 207), 535, 539
Hsiao I (emperor of the Liang), 508
Hsiao Lung Chhiu, 603
Hsiao Shu (Taoist), 657
Hsiao Tai Li Chi. See Li Chi
Hsiao Tao-Tshun (c. + 11th century), 144, 152
Hsiao Thang Shan tomb-shrine, 303
Hsiao Tsung. See Hyojong, king
Hsiao Wei Tzhu Hsiung Thu (Apocryphal
Treatise on the Filial Piety Classic; Diagrams
of Male and Female (Influences», 683
Hsiao Yang (the fixed stars), 227
Hsiao Yin (the planets), 227
Hsiao yil (' little excess '), 392
Hsichow Inkstone Record. See Hsi-Chou Yen Phu
Hsieh Chha-Wei (mathematician), 79
Hsieh Chhing-Kao (sailor, + 18th century),
522 (d)
Hsieh Chia-Jung (1), 433
Hsieh Chuang (cartographer, +421 to +466),582
Hsieh Lan (astronomer, ft. +415), 350, 352
Hsien. See Immortals
Hsien Chhuang Kua I Chih (Strange Things seen
through the Barred Window), 606
Hsien chih (' gazetteers '), 517, 593
Hsien Ching (Manuals of the Immortals), 648
Hsien-Feng Yuan Nien Chung Hsing Piao (Tables
of Star Culminations issued in the first year
of the Hsien-Feng reign-period), 456
Hsien-Lo. See Siam
Hsien Pin Lu (Record of All the Guests), 512
Hsien Tsung (emperor of the Thang), 544
Hsien-yang (capital of the State of Chhin), 196,
535, 539
Hsin (hsiu), 240, 242, 245, 248, 249, 250
Hsin (interregnum of Wang Mang), 303
Hsin-Chai Tsa Tsu (Miscellanea of (Chang) Hsin-
Chai),60
Hsin Fa Suan Shu (Treatise on Mathematics (and
Astronomy) according to the New Methods),
5 2 ,45 0
Hsin I Hsiang Fa Yao (New Description of an
Armillary Clock), 208, 278, 352, 363, 386, 387
Hsin-Ling, Lord of, 195
Hsin Lun (New Discussions), 226
Hsin Pien Tui Hsiang Ssu Yen (Newly Revised
Reader with Four Characters to the Line and
Pictures to match), 75
Hsin Shu ( ew Book), 84
Hsin Thang Shu (Kew History of the Thang
Dynasty), 483,544,612, 681
Hsin Thien Lun (Discourse on the Diurnal Revo-
lution), 200, 206, 215
Hsing (hsiu), 242, 245, 248-9, 271
Hsing Chha Sheng Lan (Triumphant Visions of
the Starry Raft), 558
Hsing Ching (Star Manual), 197, 198, 248, 250,
2 6 4, 268, 273, 383, 387
Hsing Khai (+ 13th-century scholar), 59
Hsing huei (' Star-dial '), 370
Hsing Ming Tsung Kua (General Description of
Stars and their Portents), 208
Hsing pien pu (Records of Unusual Occurrences
in the Heavens), 425
Hsing Shu (Description of the Stars), 207
Hsing Shui Chin Chien (Golden Mirror of the
Flowing Waters), 514, 516
Hsing Ytin-Lu (calendar expert, + 1573 to
+ 1620), 48, 109
Hsintu Fang (+6th-century mathematician and
surveyor), 20, 104, 221, 358, 632-3, 634
Hsiu (28 lunar mansions), 21, 184, 190, 195,200,
202, 204, 217, 231, 232 fr., 271, 273, 278,
279, 302 , 33 6 , 343, 357, 43~ 45~ 53 8 , 545
antiquity of, 242 fr.
equatorial character of, 184
extensions in degrees on the ecliptic, 357 (c)
interversion of, 251
origin of, 252 fr.
reasons for the number of, 239
Hsiu and Planet Siltra. See Hsiu Yao Ching
Hsiu Chen Thai Chi Hun Yuan Thu (Restored
True Chart of the Supreme Pole Chaos-
Origin), 144
Hsiu-determinatives, 238-9, 248, 249, 251, 253 fr. ,
279, 287
Hsiu Yao Ching (Hsiu and Planet Siltra), 202,
20 4
Hsiung Ming-Yii (ft. + 1648),499
Hsii (hsiu), 245, 246, 247, 249
Hsii Chao-Chiin (19th-century astronomer), 456
Hsii Chhien-Hsiieh ( + 17th-century geographer),
5 21
Hsii Chhun-Fang (1-4), 3
Hsii Chiai (geographer), 521
Hsii Chiang (Han-Lin Academician), 365
Hsii Chien (Thang scholar), 611
Hsii Ching (ft. + 1124), 492-3, 511
Hsii Ching-Tsung (geographer, +7th century) ,
543
Hsii Chung-Shu (2), 464
Hsii Fa (+ 17th-century scholar), 455
Hsii Heng (Neo-Confucian philosopher, + 1209
to + 1281), 163, 380
Hsii Hsia-Kho (traveller, + 1586 to + 1641),
5 24-5, 58 5
 INDEX
Hsii Ku Chai Chhi Suan Fa (Continuation of
Ancient Mathematical Methods for Eluci-
dating the Strange (Properties of umbers»,
59,60, 104
Hsti Kuang-Chhi (agriculturalist, official and
associate of the early Jesuits in translation
work), 52, 106, 110, 447
Hsti Lu-Chai. See Hsti Heng
Hsti Mou-Te. See Pereira, Andrew
Hsti Shang (Former Han mathematician), 28
Hsti Shen (lexicographer), 4
Hsti Sung (Commissioner of Education for
Hunan) , 525
Hsti Ta-Sheng. See Simonelli, Jacques-Philippe
Hsti T2U-I (examination candidate), 264
Hsii. wu (' great emptiness '), 221
Hsti Yo (Later Han mathematician), 29, 30, 35,
58, 59, 76, 79, 87, 152, 54 1 ,600
Hstian (High King of Chou), 487
Hstian Chao, 492
Hsiian-chi (sighting-tube instrument), 21 (e), 261,
334 if.
Hstian-Chuang(Hstian-Tsang,+7th-centurymonk
and traveller), 511, 522
Hsiian Chung Chi (Mysterious Matters), 671
Hsiian-Ho Fbtg Shih Kao-Li Thu Ching (Illus-
trated Record of an Embassy to Korea in the
Hstian-Ho reign-period), 492, 5 I I
Hstian-Ho reign-period Treatise on Stones. See
Hsiian-Ho Shih Phll
Hsiian-Ho Shih Phll (Hstian-Ho reign-period
Treatise on Stones), 645, 647
Hsiian shih (non-magnetic iron ore), 620
Hsiian Thu diagram, 95, 147
Hstian wu. See Black Tortoise
Hstian Yeh theory, 210, 219 if., 224, 438, 439
Hstieh Chi-Hstian (Sung scholar), 330
Hstieh Feng-Tsu (+ nth-century mathematician),
52, 454
Hsiieh Li Hsiao Pien (Minor Disputation on
Calendrical Science), 456
Hstieh Yti, 657
Hstin Chhing (philosopher, Hstin Tzu), 195
Hsiin TZll (Book of Master Hstin), 603
Hu Hou-Hstian (1), 464
Hu-khou, 501
Hu-Lo-Mo-Ssu. See Honnuz
Hu Shan (mountain), 613
Hu Shih, 92, 514 (c)
Hu shih ko yuan chihfa (arc-sagitta method), 39
Hu Shih Lun (Discussion on Arcs and Sagittae),
51
Hu Shih Suan Shu (Calculations of Arcs and
Segments), 51
Hu Tho (river), 604
Hu Tsung-Hsien (governor of Fukien), 559
Hu Wei (+ 17th-century geographer), 59, 540
Hu yung (cartographical technical tenn), 576
Hua Hsin (governor of Hangchow, ft. +84 to +87),
488
HIUl I Lieh Kuo :Ju Kung Thu (Illustrated Enu-
meration of the Tribute-Bearing Regions,
both Chinese and Barbarian), 510
Hua I Thu (Map of China and the Barbarian
Countries), 547, 548
Hua Yang Kuo Chih (Historical Geography of
Szechuan), 517
Huai (river), 577
Huai-khou, 577
Huai Nan Tzu (The Book of (the prince of) Huai
Nan), 56, 199, 214, 224, 234, 248, 250, 286,
332, 392, 401, 432, 469, 470, 477, 478, 480,
507, 565, 6°3, 6°7, 640, 666
Huai Nan Tzu school, 224 if.
Huan (Duke of Chhi), 674
Huan Than (Han scholar, -40 to +30), 219,
226, 321, 358,481
Huan Wen (c. + 360), 601
Huang, P., 417, 420, 435, 624
Huang Chhao 1 Thung Ti Yii Chhiian Thll (Com-
prehensive Geographical Atlas of the present
(Chhing) Dynasty), 586
Huang Chhao Li Chhi Thll Shih (Illustrated
Description of Sacrificial Vessels, Official
Robes and Insignia, Musical Instruments
and Astronomical Apparatus, used during the
Chhing Dynasty), 388, 452
Huang Chhing Chih Kung Thu (Chhing Dynasty
Illustrated Records of Tributary Peoples),
5 10
Huang Chhu calendar ( + 220), 294
Huang Chi calendar (+6°4), 123, 294
Huang Hsing-Tsung, 610 (g)
Huang Jun-Yti (Ming astronomer), 221
Huang Ming Chih-Fang Ti Thu (Atlas of the Pro-
vinces and Districts of the Imperial Ming), 556
Huang Ming I Thung Fang Yii Pei Lan (Compre-
hensive Geographical Atlas of the Imperial
Ming),586
Huang Ping-Wei, 497
Huang Shang (Sung astronomer), 549, 580
Huang Sheng-Tsheng (+ 16th century), 559
Huang Shih Kung (Old Master Yellowstone),
282
Huang Tao Tsung Hsing Thu (Star-maps on
Ecliptic Coordinates), 454
Huang Ti (legendary emperor), 61, 177,478,674
Huang Tzu-Fa, 470
Huang-Yu (reign-period), 192
Huang Yii. Chhiian Lan Thu (Khang-Hsi Jesuit
Atlas), 585
Huangfu Chung-Ho (astronomer, ft. + 1437),
162 (i)
Huangfu Hung-Tse, 328
Huangfu Sung (Later Han scholar), 4
Huber, E. (2), 257
Huchow, 514
Hudde (+ 1658), 125
Huet Collection, 337
Hui Shih (logician), 92, 94, 143
Hiilagu Khan, 105, 372, 523
Hulbert, H. B., 565
Human geography. See Geography
Humanists, difficulties of, xlii
Hummel, A. W. (6), 499; (8), 512; (9), 519;
(11), 584
 INDEX
Hun hsiang (celestial globe), 382, 383, 384, 385,
386
Hun i (armillary sphere), 339, 383, 384, 385
Hun I (On the Armillary Sphere), 355, 360
Hun-I Chiang-Li Li-Tai Kuo Tu Chih Thu (Map
of the Territories of the One World and the
Capitals of the Countries in Successive Ages),
554-6
Hun-I Chiang-Li Thu (Map of the Territories of
the One World), 554
Hun I Chu (Commentary on the Armillary
Sphere), 217
Hun I Fa Yao (Essentials of the Technique of
Measurement with the Armillary Sphere),
207
Hun I Thu Chu (Illustrated Commentary on the
Armillary Sphere), 360
Hun Thien (theory), 20, 210, 216 if., 221, 224,
232, 355, 43 8 (a), 49 8 , 499
Hun thien (celestial sphere), 384, 385
Hun-Thien (Armillary Sphere) Temple, 283
Hun thien hsiang (celestial globe), 369
Hun Thien Hsiang Shuo (Discourse on Urano-
graphic Models), 200, 218, 358, 386
Hun thien i (armillary sphere), 373
Hun Thien Thu Chi (Diagrams illustrating the
Celestial Sphere), 206
Hun-tun (chaos), 210 (g)
Hunan, 525
'Hundred Fowls' problem, 121-2, 147
Hung Chen-Hslian, 194
Hung Fan Wu Hsing Chuan (Discourse on the
Hung Fan chapter of the Shu Ching in re-
lation to the Five Elements), 392
Hung Hsiieh Yin Yuan Thu Chi (Illustrated
Record of Memories of the Events which had
to happen in my Life), 484
Hung Liang-Chi (+ 18th-century geographer),
5 86
Hung Lu Department, 508, 509
Huns. See Tribal peoples
Huo (star), 244, 245
Huo hsing (the Fire Star or Constellation), 242,
246
Huo sha (quick-sands), 607
Hupei. See Yung (province)
Hurricanes, 464, 477, 55 8
'Hurrying' (of armillary sphere), 361
'Hussar', derivation of, 681
Hussite Wars, 162
Huttmann, W., 526
Hutton, James, 591, 604
Huygens, Christian (physicist), 158,440
Hyades. See Pi (19th hsiu)
Hydra, 271
Hydraulic engineering. See Engineering
Hydrostatic puzzles, 327 (d), 329
Hydrostatic vessels (wo chhi), 633
Hydrostatics, 167
Hygrometer, 160, 470ff.
Hyojong, Korean king (Hsiao Tsung), 390
Hyperbola, 102
Hypocalcaemia, 617
Hypotheses, forming and testing of, 156, 159, 160,
161, 166
I (river), 625
I (hsiu) , 248, Fig. 184
I Chang Chii (Commentary on the Book of
Changes), 470
I Ching (Book of Changes), 40, 56, 57, 69, 119,
140, 301, 464, 625
I Ching hexagrams, probable connection with
counting-rods, 140 (b)
I Chou Shu (Lost Books of Chou), 392, 410, 657
I Chuan (Record of Symbols in the Book of
Changes), 59
I Hsiang Chih (Description of Astronomical
Instruments)
I Hsiang Khao Chheng (The Imperial (Astrono-
mical) Instruments), 454
I Hsiang Thu (Designs of Astronomical Instru-
ments),452
I-Hsing (+ 8th-century monk, mathematician and
astronomer), 4, 37-8, 48, 119, 120, 139, 202,
203, 207, 234, 270-1, 274 (d), 282-3, 292,
293, 294, 319, 350, 360, 383, 409, 421, 422,
544, 545
I Ku Yen Tuan (New Steps in Computation), 40,
45, 133
I Lung Thu (The Dragon Diagrams of the Book
of Changes), 59
I Pu Chhi Chiu Chuan (Old Discourse of an Ex-
perienced Elder for the benefit of the (Astro-
nomical) Bureau), 199
I Shu Kou Yin Thu (The Hidden Number-Dia-
grams of the Book of Changes Hooked Out),
59
I Shu Pien (The Antheap of Knowledge; miscel-
laneous essays), 457
I-Ssu-Ma-Yin (Muslim gunner), 49
I Wei Thung Kua Yen (Verifications of the
Powers of the Kua in the Book of Changes),
199, 287, 29 1
I Wu Chih (Memoirs of Marvellous Things), 657
I Wu Chih (descriptions of unfamiliar regions),
5 10
I Yii Thu Chih (Illustrated Record of Strange
Countries), 512, 513
Iba, Yasuaki, 427
Ibn Aflal), Jabir (b. c. + 1130), 372, 378
Ibn al-Faqih (geographer, ft. +950), 512
Ibn al-Haitham, 379
Ibn al-Muhalhil, Abu Dulaf (traveller), 587
Ibn al-Muqtafi, Abu al-Fa<;il Ja'far, 435
Ibn Battutah, Abu 'Abdallah al-Luwati al-Tanghi
(+ 1304 to + 1377), 579
Ibn Hauqal, Abu al-Qasim Mul)ammad (c. +950),
513, 562, 609 (j)
Ibn Khurdadhbih, Abu al-Qasim (geographer,
c. + 950), 512, 564, 681
Ibn Ri<;iwan, 'Ali (+ 998 to + 1061), 162
Ibn Rushd, 435
Ibn Sina (+ 11th century), 40, 603, 61 I, 622, 637,
647
Ibn Yunus (+ 1007), 396 (a)
 INDEX
Ibrlihim the astrolabist of I~fahlin, 376
Iceland, 583 , 584
Idealism (metaphysical), 151 (d), 165
Ideler, L ., 183
al-Idrisl, Abo. 'AbdaIIah al-Sharif (+ 1099 to
+ I166), 513, 554, 562, 563-4, 583 (h), 587
Igneous rocks, 597
Iijima, Tadao, 186
Illustrated Account of Central India. See Chung
Thien-Chu Kuo Thu
Illustrated Account of the Kirghiz. See Ka-Hsia-
Ssu Chhao Kung Thu Chuan
Illustrated Account of the Strange Customs and
Products of the Western Countries. See Hsi
Yil Chu Kuo Feng Wu Thu
Illustrated Commentary on the ArmiIIary Sphere.
See Hun I Thu Chu
Illustrated Description of Sacrificial Vessels,
Official Robes and Insignia, Musical Instru-
ments and Astronomical Apparatus used
during the Chhing Dynasty. See Huang
Chhao Li Chhi Thu Shih
Illustrated Discourse on the Tides. See Hai Chhao
Thu Lun
Illustrated Discussion of the Fields of Heaven.
See Yuan Thien Thu Shuo
Illustrated Enumeration of the Tribute-Bearing
Regions, both Chinese and Barbarian. See
Hua I Lieh Kuo Ju Kung Thu
Illustrated Mirror of the Earth. See Ti Ching Thu
Illustrated Pharmacopoeia. See Pen Tshao Thu
Ching and Thu Ching Pen T shao
Illustrated Record of an Embassy to Korea in the
HsUan-Ho reign-period. See Hsilan-Ho Feng
Shih Kao-Li Thu Ching
Illustrated Record of Memories of the Events
which had to happen in my Life. See Hung
Hsileh Yin Yuan Thu Chi
Illustrated Record of Strange Countries. See
I Yil Thu Chih
Illustrated Record of Western Countries. See Hsi
Yii Thu Chi
Illustrated Seaboard Strategy. See Chhou Hai
Thu Pien
Illustrated Treatise on Standard Clepsydra
Technique. See Kuan Shu Kho Lou Thu
Illustrations of the Princely Assembly. See Wang
Hui Thu
Illustrations of the Yangtze Gorges. See Hsia
Chiang Thu Khao
Imago Mundi, 529
Imamura, A., 626, 628, 630
Immortality, 566, 582, 606 (a), 641, 642
Immortals (hsien), 303, 305, 320, 323, 566-,], 600
Imperial Astrologer (Pao Chang Shih), 190
Imperial Astronomer (Feng Hsiang Shih), 189-90
The Imperial Astronomical Instruments. See
I Hsiang Khao Chheng
Imperial observatory. See Astronomical Obser-
vatories
Imperial Palace Museum(Ku Kung Po WuKuan),
Peking, 326, 556
Imperial University (Kuo Tzu Chien), 192
In Somnium Scipionis, 529
Incarnations, 282
Incense-burners, 580-1
Incense-clocks, 330
Indeterminate analysis, 33, 35, 37, 38, 40, 42, 45,
119 if., 147
connection with ancient method of divination,
119(j)
earliest example of a worked-out problem in,
33, 34 (a)
Indeterminate equations. See Equations
India, 15,30, 37,49,79, 139,45 8 ,46 3, 5 I1 , 53 1,
544, 559, 5 60 , 565, 587, 591 , 602, 622, 653,
656, 662, 669, 670, 671
peninsular nature of, 556, 563
Indian astronomers, and astronomy, 175, 184,
202 (d), 221, 252 if., 267 (a), 350, 369, 372,
395, 4 0 4, 4 16
Indian astronomical observatories, 296, 300if.
Indian cosmography, 568, 589
Indian mathematics, 10, 11,27, 34, 35, 53, 64, 83,
87, 88, 89, 90, 91, 108, 113, 119, 122, 128,
137, 141, 146, 147, 148, 150, 15 1, 155, 156
Indian mythology, 34 (b), 505, 507
Indian numerals, 10, I I
Indian Ocean, 556, 560
Indian philosophy, 12, 149
Indian sorrel (san yeh suan), 678
Indicator-rod (clepsydra), 314, 317, 320, 322, 324,
3 26 ,3 27
Indivisibles, method of. See Method of infini-
tesimals
Indo-China, 10, I1, 292, 565, 610
Induction (logical principle), 161, 163, 165, 168
Indus (river), 493
Industrial manufacture, 166
Industry, 167,651,653
Inequality of the seasons. See Seasons
Infinite universe, conception of, 157, 218, 219 if.,
439,45 8
Infinitesimals, 92, 142
Infinitesimals, method of. See Method of
infinitesimals
Informal Records of Famous Physicians. See
Ming I Pieh Lu
Informal Remarks on the Pharmacopoeia. See
Pen Tshao Pieh Shuo
Information on what is Beyond the Passes. See
Ling Wai Tai Ta
Ink, 609, 645
red, 651
Inkstone Record. See Yen Phu
Inkstones, 619, 645-6
Innumerable worlds, Buddhist conceptions of,
145 (a)
Inorganic substances, 60S, 606, 636, 641 if., 642,
643', 644, 646
Inscriptions,s, 10, I1, 12, 13,24,83,85,100,149,
176, 204, 244, 246, 278, 279, 293, 3 01 , 3 12 ,
321, 322, 324, 359, 424, 547, 55 1, 557, 55 8
Insect pests, 652
The Inside Story of Emperor Wu of the Han. See
Han Wu Ti Nei Chuan
 INDEX
Instrument-making, 358, 379, 438
Integration, 141, 14Z, 143
Intercalated months etc., 390, 397, 4ZO, 477 (a)
International Astronomical Union, 435
Interplanetary travel, 440
Interpolations, in texts, 177 (e)
Interversion of the hsiu. See Hsiu
Introduction to Mathematical Studies. See Suan
Hsueh Chhi Ming
Invertebrates, 61Z, 614
marine, 675
Inverted hemisphere of Berossos, 301
Investigation of Celestial Phenomena as recorded
in the Ancient Classics. See Ku Ching Thien
Hsiang Khao
Investigation of Eclipses in relation to the Four
Kinds of Calendar. See Ssu Li Po Shih Khao
Investigation of the Chinese Calendars ew and
Old. See Ku Chin Lu Li Khao
Investigation of the Dimensions of the Universe.
See Kao Hou Me.zg Chhiu
Investigation of the Mysterious Brightnesses. See
Shang Shu Wei Khao Ling Yao
Investigation of the Similarities and Differences
between Chinese and Western Star-Names.
See Chzmg Hsi Ching Hsing Thung I Khao
Investigations of the Astronomy and Mathe-
matics of the Classics. See Ching Shu Suan-
Hsueh Thien- Wen Khao
Ionides, S. A. & Ionides, M. L., 436
Ionosphere, 435
Iran, 113, z04, Z40, z53, z57, 396, 564
Iranian mythology, 505
Irish chronicles, 483
Iron, 71, 349, 350, 481, 639, 640, 643, 667, 668,
674, 675
compounds, 664
ore, 6zo, 650
oxides, 643, 668, 67z
pyrites, 675
silicate, 668
sulphate, 653
Irrigation and water-conservancy works, Z3, 4Z,
48, 189, 577, 578, 6z1
'Isa Tarjaman (,Isa the Interpreter, Syrian
physician, mathematician and astronomer,
f1 . + IZZ7 to + 1308),49, 381 (c)
Isidore of Seville (Spanish bishop, f1. +600 to
+ 63 6), 5Z9, 53 0 , 6Z3
Islam, 15,68 (c), 160,564, 60z, 603, 6IZ, 659, 660
Isolation of phenomena, 156, 160
Israel, 13
culture contacts, 680-z
al-I~~akhri, Abu Is\:laq al-FarisI, 513, 561, 56z
Istanbul, 5Z4
Italy, IZ5, Iz6, 147
Itinerarium Cambriae, 5Z0
Itinerary from Bordeaux to Jerusalem, 5 I 3
Jackwork, 350, 363, 389
Jacob of Edessa (Syrian bishop, +633 to +708),
5 1Z
Jacob's Staff (instrument), 373, 573 ff.
Jade (chen yu), 305, 317, 3Z5, 3Z6, 334, 335, 581,
610,637,641,648,656, 663ff., 670, 671, 673, 674
colours, 664
hardness, 664
indications of the presence of, 676, 677
semi-transparent, used for observation of the
sun, 4Z0 (b), 436
sources, 665
weapons and implements, 665
working, 666-9
Jade-cutting knife, 656 (h), 667
Jade Dew from the Forest of Cranes. See Ho Lill
YuLu
Jade template (instrument), 307, 383 (g)
Jadeite, 663, 664, 665
Jager, F., 543
Jaghanyan (Tokharestan), Z04
Jai prakai (instrument), 301, 369
Jai Singh of Jaipur (maharajah), 300
Jain Canon, 589
Jains, 568
Jaipur, 300, 301, 37z
Jamal ai-Din (Persian astronomer), 49, 148, 37z,
374,375,37 8 ,3 81 (a), 38 9, 55 1, 55 6 , 574, 5 8 3
Jambudvipa (continent), 565
Japa-mala (muttering chaplet), 79 (h)
Japan , z04, 313, 391 (d), 417 (f), 4Z7, 4z9, 436,
457, 555, 59 6 , 6Z4, 635
first modern observatory in, 447
Japanese mathematics, 2, 3, 46, 60, 62, 72,75,103,
117,14 1, 14Z, 144, 145
Japanese pirates, 517, 559
Jartoux , Pierre (Jesuit cartographer), 145, 585
Jasper, 672
Java , I I, z74 (e), 558, 561
Javillier, M., 677
Jehl, P. A., 408 (f), 451 (e)
Jen Chhao, 565
Jen-ho (near Hangchow), 661
Jen Tsung. See Chu Kao-Chih
Jerusalem
orbocentric position of, 529, 563, 567
Jesuit books, successive changes in the titles of,
447-5 0
Jesuit calendar reform, 259 (a), 446 ff.
Jesuit opinions of Chinese astronomy, 297 (a),
369, 442 ff., 458 (a)
Jesuit transmissions
more of what was very new in Europe (developed
algebra, telescopic astronomy) than of what
was very old (deductive geometry), 114
offered as primarily 'Western' rather than
primarily 'New', 447 ff.
often of what was about to be abandoned in
Europe, 379, 437 (d), 439 (b)
sometimes of what had been known in China
but forgotten, 437 (f.)
withholding the heliocentric theory of Coper-
nicus, 443 ff., 445
Jesuits , 16, 18,50,5 I, 52, 53,65, 10Z, 114, 125, 139,
142, 152,154,17Z,173, 182,185,2Z9,258,274,
300 ,3 10 , 311,367,379,380, 387,3 89,39z,
399,40 4,4 22 , 437 ff., 5 12 , 533, 574,5 8 3,5 86
 INDEX
Jettons, 80
Jewish scholars, 89
Jews, 11,252,257, 3II, 575, 681
'Jigsaw map', 582-3
Jih Hua Pen Tshao (Master Jih-Hua's Pharma-
copoeia), 617, 649, 662
Jih Kao Thu (diagram of the sun's altitude),
21
Jih Kuei Shu (Sundial Book), 302
Jih Yiieh Hsiu Li (Calendrical Treatise on the
Positions of the Sun and Moon among the
Stars), 19
Jih yiieh shih i (Instrument for Observation of
Solar and Lunar Eclipses), 370
Jo shui ('weak water'), 607, 608
John of Seville (c. + II40), 89
Johnson, M. C., 377
Joinville (chronicler, + 1309), 620
Josephus problem, 61-2
Jottings from Two Mountains. See Liang Shan
Mo Than
Journal des Savants, 183
Ju Chi Shih Hsiao (Full Explanation of Tabulated
Equations), 41
Ju Chi Shih So (Piling-up Powers and Unlocking
Coefficients), 137
Juan Yuan (historian of the exact sciences), 3, 39,
110
Judaism, 681
Jujube-tree, 463, 649
story about Chhiwu Huai- W~n and the, 78
Julian cycle, 406-7
Julien , Stanislas, 184, 247
Jun-chou , 434
Jung Chh~ng, 390 (c)
Jung Fang (semi-legendary astronomer), 21
Jupiter (planet), 401, 402-4, 408
cycle, 189, 190, 251, 398, 402,406,436,625 (a)
satellites, 444, 445
technical terms for stations, 402
J urchen Chin empire, 42
Jussieu , 644
Jyekundo, 523
Ka-Hsia-Ssu Chhao Kung Thu Chuan (Illustrated
Account of the Kirghiz), 510
Kai Fukudai no Ho (Methods of Solving Problems
with Determinants), 117
Kai Thien theory, 20, 210 ff., 218, 221, 222, 224,
354, 43 8 (g), 568
Kald (imaginary planet in Arabic astronomy),
402 (e)
Kalpa (Indian time-period), 30
Kamal, Yussuf, 561, 562
Kan (series of ten characters in the sexagesimal
cyclical system), 396, 397
Kao-ChU-Li. See Korea
Kan Pao (+4th century), 659
Kan T~ (astronomer, -4th century), 197, 247,
248, 263, 268, 287, 340, 343, 355, 382, 4 01 ,
41 I
Kan Yen-Shou (Protector-General of Central
Asia, - 36), 536
Kan Ying (traveller), 522
Kan Ying Lei Tshung Chih (Record of the Mutual
Resonances of Things), 471
Kanda, S., 435
Kang chhi (' hard wind '), 222, 223, 224
Kansu, 204,473, 537, 543,547,608, 60 9,620, 62 7,
63 2, 653, 655
Kao Chao (+ 1668), 645
Kao Hou Meng Chhiu (Investigation of the Di-
mensions of the Universe), 456
Kao hsia (measuring the high and the low), 540,
576
Kao-Li Jih Li (Korean Solar Calendar), 207
Kao Lu (1), 417
Kao-nu hsien, 609
Kao Phing-Tzu, 296
Kao piao (Lofty Gnomon), 369
Kao Seng Chuan (Biographies of Famous (Bud-
dhist) Monks), 149, 602
Kao Shen-Ssu. See d'Espinha, Joseph
Kao Ssu-Sun (+ 12th century), 467
Kao Tsu (emperor of the Sui), 264, 632-3
Kao Tsu (emperor of the Han), 418
Kao Yen-Ming (prince of An-F~ng), 358, 633
Kaochh~ng (the old Yang-chh~ng), 296
Kaolin, 651, 652
Kaothang Lung (ft. +213 to +235),29
Kapala (instrument), 301
Kaplan, S. M., 305
Karachi, 493
Karaim (of Poland). See Cultures
Karakash (river), 665, 666
Karakitai. See Qara-Khitai
Karakoron (city), 110
Karlgren, B., 5, 234, 334, 396, 64 1
Karnak, 314
Karpinski, L. C. (I), IS; (2), I
Kashgar, 562
al-Kashghari, MaJ:unUd ibn al-I:Iusain Mul:tam-
mad,5 62
al-Kashi, Ghiyath ai-Din Jamshid, 66, 68, 89, 102,
146
Kaye, G. R. (I), I I; (5), 301
Kazuyuki, Sawaguchi (Japanese mathematician,
c. + 1670), 144, 145
Keay Arear Sukradana, 662
Keishi-zan (Computation of Pieces), 141
Keith, A. Berriedale (4), 254
Ken (root; modern Chinese mathematical term),
65 (h)
Keng Hsin Yii Tshe (Precious Secrets of the
Realm of K~ng and Hsin), 678
Keng HsUn (engineer and instrument-maker),
3 18 , 327, 329, 633
K~ng Shou-Chhang (mathematician, ft. -75 to
-49),24,216,276 (d), 343, 354, 355
Kenko, Takebe (Japanese mathematician, + 1664
to + 1739), 145
Kennedy, J. (I), 505
Kepler, Johannes, 141, 142, 172, 182, 329, 400,
423, 426, 428, 43 1, 444, 445, 4 60 , 494,
58 3
Kerulen (river), 293, 417
 INDEX
Ketu (imaginary invisible planet), 175, 228,
252 (c), 416
Ketzer (heretic), derivation of, 681
Key of Computation. See Miftiih al-Jjisiib
Khai-Chheng (reign-period), 193
Khai Fang Shuo (Theory of Equations of Higher
Degrees), 123
Khai-Huang (reign-period), 385
Khai-Pao Pen Tshao (Khai-Pao reign-period
Pharmacopoeia), 619
Khai-Pao reign-period Pharmacopoeia. See Khai-
Pao Pen Tshao
Khai Yang (star), 233
Khai-Yuan (reign-period), 120,274, 283, 545
Khai- Yuan Chan Ching (The Khai-Yuan reign-
period Treatise on Astrology), 12, 37, 100,
124, 148, 175, 198, 201, 203, 207, 208, 264,
266, 268, 398,401,426,482
The Khai-Yuan reign-period Treatise on Astro-
logy. See Khai- Yuan Chan Ching
Khaifeng, 331, 362, 363, 387,427,537,596
community of Jews at, 682
Khan Yin (+4th-century geographer), 520
Khanbaliq. See Peking
Khang Chien (Korean scholar, ft. + 1021), 683
Khang-Chti. See Sogdia
Khang-Hsi (emperor of the Chhing), 450
Khang-Hsi (reign-period), 53, 102, 473, 585
Khang-Kan (river), 612
Khang Thai (diplomat, c. +260), 511, 512, 610,
65 8
Khao Kung Chi, section of the Chou Li, q.v.
Khazar kingdom, 107 (k), 147, 681ff.
Khazars. See Cultures
Khmers. See Cultures
Kho (' quarters '), 322, 329
Kho-Chih. See Cochin
Kho-Sa (branch of the Turks). See Tribal peoples,
Khazars
Khotan (Yti-Tien), 523, 665, 666
Khou Tsung-Shih (+12th-century pharmaceutical
naturalist), 618, 622, 675
Khubilai Khan (emperor of the Yuan), 48, 49,
372, 380, 38 I, 524
Khuei (the thunder-drum musician), 505 (a)
Khuei (' The Chiefs '), 232, 248, 278
Khuei chi (Observing Table), 370
al-Khujandi, I;Iamid Ibn al-KhiQr, 296
Khun-Iun (mountain-range), 468, 523, 536, 563,
565, 567, 568, 589, 607, 659, 665
Khun-ming (lake), 602
'Khun-Wu' sword or knife, 656, 667, 668
Khun Ya Wan Kuo Chhiian Thu (Comprehensive
Atlas of the Ten Thousand Countries of the
World),5 83
Khung kung nieh (stalactites), 605
Khung Ping (official designated to assemble and
study maps in connection with problems of
fiefs), 536
Khung Shu-Jui (geographer), 520
Khung Thing (astronomer, ft. + 323), 343,349,358
Khung Ying-Ta (commentator, + 574 to + 648),
315
Khurilsan highway, 681
al-Khwilrizmi, Mu1:tammad ibn MUsa (Persian
algebraist, + 9th century), 107, 1I3, 1I8, 147,
682
Kidinnu (Babylonian astronomer), 399, 407 (e)
Kidney diseases, 663
Kieselguhr, 65 I
Kirp. Song-Taik. See Chin Chheng-Tse
Kimble, G. H. T., 525, 564
al-Kindi, Abu YUsufYa'qUb ibn-Is1:taq (d. + 873),
162, 373, 573 (d)
King Alfred's candles, 330 (c)
Kingsmill, T. W. (I), 234
the Kinship of the Three. See Tshan Thung Chhi
Kirfel, W., 568
Kirkwood, D., 435
Kirwitzer, Wenceslaus (Jesuit missionary), 445
Kitiib al-Khawii$,< (Book of (Magic) Properties), 61
Kitiib al-Masiilik w'al-Mamiilik (Book of Roads
and Provinces), 681
Kitiib al-Shakl al-Qattii' (Book of Sharp Sector
Figures), 109
Kitiib al-Shifii (Book of the Remedy), 603, 647
Kites, experiments to test the behaviour of winds,
477
Klaproth, J ., 681
Knife-money, 5 (i), 16 (d)
Knives, 667
discoidal, 669
Knobel, E. B., 268, 279, 282
Knots, theory of, 112 (b)
Knott, C. G., 80; (I), 75
Knotted cords (as records). See Quipu
Knowledge
Aristotle on, 161
Neo-Confucian conception of, 163
St Thomas Aquinas on, 166
Wang Chhuan-Shan on, 165
Ko Chhiang Suan (indeterminate analysis), 122
Ko Chih Ku Wei (Scientific Traces in Olden
Times),457
Ko Chih Tshao (Scientific Sketches), 499
Ko Heng (astronomer, fl. + 250), 385, 386, 389
Ko Hsiang Hsin Shu (New Elucidation of the
Heavenly Bodies), 102, 208
Ko hui chih shu (methods for dealing with packing
problems), 142
Ko Hung (alchemist), 152,218,219,221,222,226,
359, 489, 493, 519, 546, 566 , 56 7, 600, 606,
608, 647, 652, 654, 658, 662, 671
Ko Ku Yao Lun (Handbook of Archaeology), 646,
67 2
Ko Yuan Lien Pi Li Thu Chieh (Explanation of the
Determination of Segment Areas), 145
Ko Yuan Mi La Chi Fa (Quick Method for Deter-
mining Segment Areas), 145
bar Kochba. See Simon bar Kochba
Kogler, Ignatius (Jesuit astronomer), 352, 448,
45 2 , 454
Kokon SampfJ-ki (Old and New Mathematical
Methods), 144
Kokonor (lake), 662
Konantz, E. L. (I), 47
 INDEX
Koran, 252
Korea, 46, 301, 493, 5 I l , 544, 549, 552, 554-5,
565, 682
demonstrational armillary constructed in, 389-
90
Korean eclipse records, 417 (f)
Korean map. See Hun-I Chiang-Li Li-Tai Kuo
Tu Chih Thu
Korean observatory tower, 297, 682
Korean picture of a comet, 43 I, 682
Korean rain-gauges (+ 15th century), 471
Korean Solar Calendar. See Kao-Li Jih Li
Korean star-chart, 279
ben Koseba. See Simon bar Kochba
Koslow, Arnold, 23 (a)
KOwa, Seki (+ 17th-century Japanese mathe-
matician), 117, 145
Koyre, A. (I), 155, 158, 167
Kriintiv.ritti valaya yantra (instrument), 301, 372
Kretschmer, K., 602
Kroeber, A. L., IS
Kfa1Ja. See Chha-na
Ku Chhou Suan Khao Shih (Investigation into the
History of the Ancient Computing-Rods), 73
Ku Chhou Suan Khao Shih Hsii Pien (Supplement
to the foregoing), 73
Ku Chin Chu. See Ching-Chai Ku Chin Chu
Ku Chin Lii Li Khao (Investigation of the Chinese
Calendars ew and Old), 48, 109, 391
Ku Chin Suan Hsiieh Tshung Shu (Collection of
Ancient and Modern Mathematical Works),
18
Ku Chin Thung Chan (Compendium of Astro-
logy, New and Old), 197
Ku Ching Thien Hsiang Khao (Investigation of
Celestial Phenomena as recorded in the
Ancient Classics), 185
Ku fa chhi chhellg fang thu (Old method Chart of
the Seven Multiplying Squares), 134
Ku Khai-Chih (painter, +4th century), 615
Ku-Li. See Calicut
Ku Pao-Ku (I) , 92
Ku ssu fen li (Old Quarter-Remainder Calendar),
293, 35 6
Ku Suan Chhi Khao (Enquiry into the History of
Mechanical Computing Aids), 70
Ku Suan Khao Yuan (Dber den Ursprung der
chinesischen Mathematik), 3
'Ku-Tan' (Chhtithan Hsi-Ta), 175
Ku Wei Shu collection, 199, 401
Ku Yeh-Wang (+ 6th-century geographer), 520
Ku Yen-Wu (+ 17th-century geographer), 586
Ku Ying-Hsiang (Governor of Ytinnan), SI, 52
Kua Ti Chih (Comprehensive Geography), 520
Kuai Shih Tsan (Strange Rocks), 645
Kuan or Kuan thung (process of 'relating' or
'threading' together) , 163, 164
Kuan Chung, 674
Kuan Hsiang Thai, Peking. See Astronomical
Observatories
Kuan-Hsiu (Thang monk), 603
Kuan Khuei Chi Yao . See Tien Wen Ta Chheng
Kuan Khuei Chi Yao
Kuan Lang (geomancer), 59
Kuan li (technical term), 314 (d)
Kuan Shih Lu (On Looking at Stones), 645
Kuan Shu Kho Lou Thu (Illustrated Treatise on
Standard Clepsydra Technique), 326
Kuan Sui (military commander, + 349), 292
Kuan Tzu (The Writings of Master Kuan), 64,
4 6 4, 535, 674
Kuan Tzu-Yang, 226
Kuang-Ling, 485, 488
Kuang Wu Ti (emperor of the Han), 537
Kuang Ya (Enlargement of the Erh Ya),673
Kuang Yii Thii (Enlarged Terrestrial Atlas), 470,
552, 553, 555 , 556, 586
Kuang Yiin (Enlargement of the Chhieh Yiin),
673
Kuangsi, 524, 583, 593, 597, 617, 61 9
Kuangtung, 297, 524, 583
Kucha, 655
Kuei (jade symbol of sovereign power), 335
Kuei-Chi (prefecture), 485, 486
Kuei Hai Yii H ClIg Chih (Topography and Pro-
ducts of the Southern Provinces), 510, 520,
613, 61 9
Kuei-Hsin Tsa Chih (Miscellaneous Information
from Kuei-Hsin Street), 654
Kuei ku suan (indeterminate analysis), 122
Kuei Ku Tzu (legendary philosopher), 122
Kuei piao (sundial), 302
Kuei suan (method of calculation connected with
divination), 140
Kuei Ying Thu (Diagram of the Sun Shadow), 309
Kufstein, 579
Ktihnert, F. (I), 184; (5), 422
Kun (father of Yti the Great), 604
Kung Ch en (+ 15th century, officer of Cheng
Ho),55 8
Kung Jen (Superintendents of Mining), 534
Kung-Kung (legendary rebel), 214
Kungyang Kao (commentator), 250, 468
Kunz, G. F. , 663, 664
Kuo (astronomical technical term), 414
Kuo Chhing Ssu temple, astronomical observa-
tory at, 38
Kuo Hsien (Han writer), 660
Kuo Mo-Jo (J), 242
Kuo Pao-Chtin, 665
Kuo Pho (alchemist, c. + 300), 479, 600,608,619,
65 8
Kuo Po-Yu (calendar expert, + 14th century), 79
Kuo Shih Chih, 318 (c), 327
Kuo Shou-Ching (+ 13th-century mathematician
and astronomer), 39, 48, 49, 50, 79, 109-10,
125,148,162 (e), 209, 251, 291, 294, 296, 299,
349, 350, 36 7, 370, 371, 372, 374, 375 , 377,
37 8 , 379, 380, 3 81 , 382 , 38 7, 3 8 9, 395 , 4 22 ,
442, 55 1
globe made by, 367-8, 452 (c)
Kuo Thien-Hsi (diarist, + 1308 to + 1310),465
Kuo Tzu Chien (university), 192
Kuo Yuan (Korean ambassador, + 1016), 683
Kuo Yuan-Seng, 478
Kuriles, 505
 INDEX
Kuttaka (Indian mathematical method), 122 Laufer, B. (I), 653, 654, 658, 659; (3), 580 ; (7),
Kweichow, 524, 649 30 3; (8), 334, 33 6 , 337, 664; (9), 505; (ll),
Kweilin, 593, 597 656; (12), 667, 669, 671; (13), 671, 672
Kyeser, Konrad (+ 1366 to after + 1405), 162 Law, 65
Kymograph, 609 Law of gravitation. See Gravitational attraction
Kyungju (Chhing-chow), observatory tower at, Law of signs, 90
297, 682 Laws of Nature, 152-3, 155, 198, 217
Lead, 639, 640, 671, 674, 676, 678
de Lacouperie, Terrien, 80; (2), 70 acetate, 651
Lacquer, 122, 501 carbonate, 643,651
the Lady Chao. See Girl map-maker oxides, 651
the Lady Feng. See Feng Lao tetroxide, 643
Lakes, 469, 514 Lead foil, 67 I
Lamas, 473 Leavens, D. H., 75
Lambert, 590 Lebanon, 56z
Lamp time-keeper, 331 Lecomte, Louis, 443
Lan Chen Tzu (Book of the Truth-through- 'Left Pivot' (Tso shu), 260
Indolence Master), 222, 281 Legends, 95
Lancaster, 175 of charts presented to Yii the Great, 56
Lanchow, 523, 524 Legge, J., 184, 334
' Land-ponolans', 577 Lei-hsia (district), 501
Land utilisation, idea of coordinates in, 106, 541 Lei Hsiao-Ssu. See Regis, Jean-Baptiste
de Landa, Diego, 514 Lei HSiieh-Hung, 185
Landergren, S., 678 Lei Kung, 649
Landslides, 412, 614 Lei Kung Yao Tui (Answers of the Venerable
Langlois, V., 533 (Master) Lei concerning Drugs), 648, 649
Languages Leibniz, Gottfried Wilhelm, 12 (b), 108, 117, 140,
Arabic, 680 14 1, 142, 145, 155, 157
Coptic, 252, 257, 662 Leland, John (+ 1506 to + 1552),520
Frankish, 680 Lemoine, J. G., 68, 69
Greek,680 Length, 92, 142
Persian, 204, 655, 680 measures of, 82, 83-4, 85
Sanskrit, 146,251,258,283,637 Lenormant, F., 507
Slavonic, 680 Lenz, H. 0., 592
Sogdian, 204, 205, 655 Leonardo da Vinci, 161,494,599,602,611,622
Spanish, 680 his theoretical backwardness, 154, 160
Tibetan, 672 Leonardus, Camillus (+ 1502), 647
Lanquin (province), 662 Leonids, 433
Lao Chiin Miao (in Kansu), 608 Leontius Mechanicus (+7th century), 382
Lao Hsileh An Pi Chi (Notes from the Hall of Lepidolite, 648
Old Learning), 614 Lepisma, 62 I
Lao Nai-Hsiian (19th-century mathematician), Leslie, D., 621 (j)
72-3 The Lesser Annuary of the Hsia Dynasty. See
Lao Tzu, 70, 221, 226 Hsia Hsiao Cheng
Lapidaries, 591, 636, 645, 646, 647, 648, 665, 669 Lettres Edifiantes et Curieuses, 183
Lapidarium Sinicum, 592 the Lever, 161 (c), 630
' Lapides figurati', 6 I I Lex Mercatoria, 167 (d)
' Lapidifying ' emanations or juices, 6ll Lexicography, Chinese tradition of, xliii
Laplace, Pierre Simon, 183, 288, 290, 291, 299 Lexicon Alchemiae (+ 1612), 645
Large numbers, 87, 139 Leybourn, W. (+ 1667), 72
v. Lasaulx, E., 622 Lhassa, 523
Lasi (explorer, + 1704), 585 Lhwyd, Edward, 6II
Later Han (dynasty), 4, 20, 23, 25, 37, 58, 76, 196, Li (pattern, principle of organisation), 163, 165,
200, 219, 240, 247, 268, 504, 517, 537, 539, 362, 500
582, 609, 630, 657, 673 Li Chao-Lo (19th-century geographer), 185, 586
tomb-shrines, 536 Li-Chheng Shih So (tabulation system for un-
Later Wei (dynasty), 283 locking binomial coefficients), 137
Latin literature, 79, 622 Li-Chheng SlIan Ching (Mathematical Tables), 9,
Latin scholars, 89, 564 36 (f)
Latitude (celestial), 106, 107, 180, 266, 350 Li Chhiian (Taoist and military technologist,
Latitude (terrestrial), 106, 107, 180,292,368,527, +759),4 26
528 , 5-1- 2 , 564, 58 9 Li Chhung (astronomer, + 14th century), 228
Lattices, 95, 112, 308 Li Chi (Sung mathematician), 19, 20
 INDEX
Li Chi (Record of Rites compiled by Tai the
Younger), 195,480
Li Chi-Chang (friend of Chu Hsi), 580
Li Chi-Fu (geographer, + 9th century), 490, 520,
544
Li Chieh (architect, d. +1110),154
Li Chih-Chhang (secretary to Chhiu Chhang-
Chhun), 417, 522-3
Li Chih-Tsao, 52, 447, 450
Li Ching, 72
Li Fan (calendar expert, ft. + 85), 247, 320, 401
Li Hai Chi (The Beetle and the Sea), 477, 493
Li Ho (c. +800),611
Li Hsien (c. +775),654
Li Huang, 27
Li Hui (geographer, + 15th century), 554
Li Jui (+ 18th-century mathematician), 96, 123,
39 1
Li Kai (geographer, +9th century), 545
Li Kho (Department of the Calendar), 449
Li Kung-Lin (painter, ft. c. + 1100), 593
Li Lan (Taoist, c. +450), 326, 327
Li Li-Ong (+ 1679), 596
Li Ling (general, - 99), 536
Li Ma-Tou. See Ricci, Matteo
Li Ming-Chhe (Taoist astronomer, + 19th cen-
tury), 457
Li Nien, 2, 3, 9, 18,20,36,38,60; (1), 40, 98, 99;
(2),40 ,79; (4), 50, 70, 7 1,95, IIO, 119, 127;
(7), 542 ; (8), 64, 69; (9), 69; (10), 86
Li Pai (poet), 599
Li Po (Taoist, father of Li Shun-Feng), 201, 544
Li Shan-Lan (19th-century mathematician), 106
Li Shan-Pang, 626, 628
Li Shih A-Pi-Than Lun. See Lokasthiti Abhi-
dharma 8iistra
Li Shih-Chen (pharmaceutical naturalist, + 1518
to + 1593), 154, 434, 436, 605, 616, 617,
619, 621, 622, 638, 639, 644, 647, 648, 663,
667,676
Li Shih-Chhtian, 663, 668
Li Shih I Shu (Mathematical Remains of Mr Li),
96
Li Shih Yao Lu (Mr Li's Record of Drugs), 621
Li Shun-ChU, 482
Li Shun-Feng (Thang mathematician and com-
mentator), 20, 27, 31, 38, 42, 49, 102, 104,
121, 123, 124, 125, 197, 201, 202, 207, 221,
29 2 , 3 2 9, 343, 349, 35 0 , 359, 38 3, 38 9, 394,
544, 545
Li Ssu (prime minister), 4
Li Suan Chhuan Shu (Complete works on
Calendar and Mathematics), 48, 455
Li Tai Lun Thien (Discussions on the Heavens in
Different Ages), 185
Li Tai Thung Chien Chi Lan (Essentials of
History), 556
Li Tao-Yuan (+ 6th-century geographer), 514,
609, (,15, 620
Li Te-Chhu (geographer, + IIth century), 521
Li Te-Yu (governor of Szechuan), 544
Li Thai Tsu. See Yi Tai Jo
Li Thien-Ching, 447
Li Tse-Min (geographer, c. + 1330), 551, 554
Li Tshe (Calendrical Measurements), 456
Li Tung-Yang, 75
Li Yeh (mathematician, + I178 to + 1265),40-1,
44, 45, 87, 114, 129, 13 0 , 132, 133, 152,
49 8
Li Yeh-Hsing (calendar expert, + 548), 107, 542
Li Yuan (Origins of Calendrical Science), 456
Li yun i (Vertical Revolving Circle), 369
Liang (dynasty), 85, 196, 197, 201, 205, 221, 263,
2 6 4, 317, 384, 385, 3 86 , 5 08 , 5 14, 5 20 , 543,
67 6
Liang (defile), 501
Liang Chi (general, d. + 159), 657, 661
Liang I (heaven and earth method of ball-
arithmetic), 78
Liang Ling-Tsan (horological engineer, c. 720),
270, 319, 350, 360, 383, 386
Liang Shan Mo Than (Jottings from Two
Mountains), 223, 601
Liang Ssu Kung Chi (Tales of the Four Lords
of Liang), 660, 671
Liangthien chhih (Sky-measuring Scale), 297
Liao (dynasty), 208, 427, 457
Liao (smartweed), 676
Liber Abaci, 122
Liber Organicus Astronomiae, 454 (a)
Liber Secretorum Fidelium Crucis, 564
Libra, First Point of, 179
Libros del Saber de Astronomia ( + 1277), 328, 340
Lieh Hsing Thu (Map of the Principal Stars), 281
Lieh Tzu (Book of Master Lieh), 92,221,222,225,
565, 656, 667
Life of Charlemagne, 435
Lifting and sinking of the pole, theory of, 215, 224
Light on Mysterious Things. See Tung Ming Chi
Lightning, 480-2, 640
Lignite, 602
Lilavati, ISO (d), 152 (d)
Lime, 622, 643
Limestone, 305, 646
Ordovician, 618
stalactitic, 652
Limestone karst pinnacles, 593
Limits, method of. See Method of limits
Limits, theory of. See Theory of limits
Lin Chhing (expert in water conservancy and
hydraulic works, 19th century), 484
Lin Hsiao-Kung (astronomer and mathematician.
ft. + 581 to +604),633,634
Lin-I (State), 292
Lin-i (capital of the Lin-I State), 292, 293
Lin Te calendar (+ 665), 123, 202
Lin YU-Thang (5), 33 I
Lindemann, 102
Linear congruences, 33, 36, 42
'Linear zigzag functions', 394 (d), 395
Linen, 660
Ling (river), 486
Ling (zero), 16. 17
Ling chhih or ling i (phrases), 603
Ling Hsien (The Spiritual Constitution of the
Universe), 20, 104, 199, 216, 226, 265, 414
 INDEX
Ling Hsien Thu Chi (Diagrams illustrating the Liu Tsung-Yuan Thang poet), 206
Spiritual Constitution of the Universe), 206 Liu Tun-Chen, 296
Ling-ling (in Yungchow), 615 Liu Yen, 185
Ling lung i (Ingenious Annillary Sphere), 369 Liu Yin (poet, + 1279), 79
Ling Thai Pi Yao (Essential Knowledge for Liu Yuan-Ting (ambassador to the Tibetans,
Official Astronomers), 207 +822), 523
Ling Thai Pi Yuan (Secret Garden of the Obser- Lives of the Divine Hsien. See Shen Hsien
vatory), 208 Chuan
Ling Wai Tai Ta (Information on what is Beyond Lo (river), 577, 621, 625
the Passes), 512, 617 Lo Fou Shan Chih (History and Topography of
Linnaeus, 591, 611 the Lo Fou Mountains), 519
van Linschoten, J. H. (+ 1596), 586 Lo Han (official of the Chin), 615
Liquid escapement mercury drum clock, 328 Lo-Hou. See Rahu
'Liquid pearls', 326 Lo Hung-Hsien (geographer, + 1504 to + 1564),
Lisbon, 585 55 2 , 553
Lister, Martin, 611 Lo pang (molluscs), 615
Literary Expositor [dictionary]. See Erh Ya Lo Shih-Lin (19th-century mathematician), 16,
Litharge, 651 123
Liu (hsiu), 244, 247, 271 Lo Shu (the' Lo River Writing'), 56, 57 ff.
Liu An (prince of Huai Nan), 199, 225, 507, 527 Lo Shu Wei Chen Yao Tu (Apocryphal Treatise
Liu Chao-Y ang (1), 242, 423; (3), 20, 186 on the Lo Shu Diagram; Examination of the
Liu Chhang-Tsu (+ I Ith-century geographer), Measured (Movements) of the (Celestial)
577 Brilliances), 401
Liu Chhung (prince of Chhen), 574, 575 Lo Ta-Ching, 580
Liu Chhuo (calendar expert, ft. +604), 123, 124, Lo Theng-Feng (1), 122
205, 292, 294, 394, 421 Lo Ya-Ku. See Rho, James
Liu Chi ( + 14th-century naturalist), 493 Lo- Yang Chhieh Lan Chi (Description of the
Liu-Chia-Chiang (near present Shanghai), 557 Buddhist Temples of Loyang), 519
Liu Chih (astronomer, c. +274), 386, 414 Lo Ytieh-Chhing (+ 16th-century geographer),
Liu Ching Thien Wen Pien (Treatise on Astro- 512
nomy in the Six Classics), 208 Locke, John, 69
Liu Ching Thu (Pictures of Objects mentioned in Lodestone, 675
the Six Classics), 325, 326, 549 Loess calcite, 668
Liu Ching-Yang (Sung cartographer), 547 Loess canyons, 604
Liu-Chu Islands, 69 Loewenstein, P. J., 308, 423
Liu Fu (1), 305, 307 Logarithms, 52, 155, 455
Liu Han (Commissioner of the Tibetan Border- slide-rule, 73
lands), 547 tables, 52, 53
Liu Hsiang (c. -25, bibliographer and alchemist), Logic, 161
2 8 7, 392, 4 14, 435, 508 dialectical, Chinese tendency towards, 151 (d)
Liu Hsin (-1st-century astronomer, calendar Logicians, School of, 92
expert and bibliographer), 20, 24, 85, 100, Lohsia Hung (- 1st-century astronomer), 153,
153, 294, 401, 404, 414, 421 199, 216, 218, 247, 27 1, 343, 354, 355, 35 8 ,
Liu Hui (+ 3rd-century mathematician), 24, 25, 4 14,493
27, 29, 30, 46, 54, 66, 85, 91, 95-6, 99, 100, Lokasthiti Abhidharma Siistra (Treatise on the
101, 102, 103, 104, 113, 116, 118, 127, 143, Preservation of the World), 228
147, 57 1 Lolo (tribe). See Tribal peoples
Liu Hui-Chi (teacher of Hsti Yo), 77 Lones, T. E., 625
Liu Hung (+ 2nd-century calendar expert and Long-eared men, 506
commentator), 20, 25, 29, 54, 200, 247, 288, Long White Mountain region, 585
35 6 , 395, 421 Long-Winded Discussions at San-Yu. See San-
Liu I (algebraist, + 1075), 41, 46, 104 Yii Chui Pi
Liu Ju-Hsieh (mathematician, c. + I 100), 41, 42, Longitude (celestial), 106, 107, 180, 357, 545
137 Longitude (terrestrial), 106, 107, 527, 528, 542.
Liu Ming-Shu (2), 560 545, 56 4, 58 9
Liu Mu ( + 10th-century scholar), 59 Longobardi, Nicholas, 447
Liu Ping-Hstian (1), 45 'Looking at heaven through a tube' , 332
Liu po (game), 304 ff., 308 Lop Nor (lake), 523
Liu sha (shifting sands), 607 Loria, G. (I), 1,92
Liu Shih-Yen (Sung weather expert), 470 Lost Books of Chou. See I Chou Shu
Liu Sung (dynasty), 33, 42, 101, 204, 264, 384, 'Lotus clepsydra', 324-5
582, 638 Lou (hsiu), 273
Liu Sung-Ling. See von Hallerstein, Augustin Lou Kho Ching (Clepsydra Manual), 328
 INDEX
Lou Kho Fa (Clepsydra Technique [of Li Lan,
c. +450]), 326
Lou Kho Fa (Clepsydra Technique [of Yin
Khuei, c. + 540]), 324
Lou Shui Chuan Hun Thien I Chih (Apparatus for
Rotating an Armillary Sphere by Clepsydra
Water), 320, 360
Lou Yuan-Li (Sung diviner), 470
de la Loubere, S. (+ 1691), 80
Louis IX (king of France), 619
Lovisato, 435
Lowit2, Tobias (+ 1794), 475
Loxodromes, 532, 587
Loyang, 33, 287, 296, 327, 520
astronomical observatory at, 385
Lit (radical applied to salt), 642
Lu, Master (Chhin magician), 56
Lu Catalogue, of archaic jade objects, 664
Lu Chao (tidal theorist, + 850), 490, 492
Lii Chhang-Ming (maker of tide-tables, + 1056),
492
Lu Chheng (geographer, + 5th century), 520
Lii Chhiu-Chhung, 206
Lu Chi (+ 3rd-century astronomer), 219, 359, 386
Lu Chih (c. + 150),510
Lu Chiu-Shao (brother of Lu Chiu-Yuan), 549
Lu Chiu-Yuan (idealist philosopher), 549
Lu Fa-Yen (+ 7th-century philologist), 107, 673
Lu-hun, barbarians of, 503
Lu Hung (hermit), 38
Lu I Chi (Strange Matters), 612
Lu Kuei-Meng (Taoist poet, + loth century), 613
La Li Chih (Memoir on the Calendar), 200
La Li Suan Fa (Mathematical Methods concerned
with the Pitchpipes and Calendar), 27-8
Lil Li Yuan Yuan (Ocean of Calendar Calcu-
lations), 53
La Lil Hsin Lun (New Discourse on Music and
Acoustics), 59
Lu Nan Shan (mountains), 525
Lu Pien (+6th-century commentator), 59
Lti Pu-Wei (merchant and naturalist), 19, 21,
195-6, 526
Lit Shan Chi (Description of Mount Lu), 519
La Shih Chhun Chhiu (Master Lii's Spring and
Autumn Annals), 19, 195-6, 248, 467, 498,
507, 60 7, 625, 675
Lii Shu (ethnographer, c. +844),510
Lii Ta-Lin (Neo-Confucian scholar), 547, 668
Lu Thang Shih Hua (Foothill Hall Essays), 75
Lu Thu, 56
Lu To-Sun (Sung official), 518
Lii Tshai (cartographer and sceptical naturalist,
d. + 665), 323, 544, 545
Lu Tzu- Kang (famous jade worker), 667
Lti Wen (official, + 9th century), 545
Lu yen (sal ammoniac?), 654
Lu Ying-Lung (Sung writer), 606
Lu Yu (Sung writer), 614
Luan Ta (Han magician), 414
Liibeck Chronicle, 549
al-Lubudi, Najm ai-Din, 61
Lucas, 653
Lucian of Samosata (b. + 120), 440 (d)
Lucky and unlucky days, 457 (f)
Lucky and unlucky numbers, 55
Lucretius, 413, 481
LUll Erh-shih-pa Hsiu Tu Shu (Measurements of
the 28 Hsiu in Degrees), 206
Lun H eng (Discourses weighed in the Balance), 20,
2 14, 321, 402, 436, 468, 477, 480, 485, 625
Lun Thien (Discourse on the Heavens), 414
LUll Yil (Conversations and Discourses of
Confucius), 56
Lunar mansion symbols, 239 (g)
Lunar mansions. See Hsiu
Lunar mountains, 444 (a)
'Lunar 20diac', 173
Lunations, 239, 390, 392, 397, 398, 402, 407, 410
Lundmark, K. (I), 425, 426
Lung (rising of the moon), 252
Lung-Chhilan Hsien Chih (Lung-chhiian Local
Topography), 616
Lung-Hsi. See Kansu
Lung Hua-Min. See Longobardi, Nicholas
Lung Men (gorges), 515
Lung Mien Shan (mountain), 593
The Lute of Po Ya. See Po Ya Chlzin
Lycopodium species, 678
Lycoptera, 621
Lyons, H . G., 471 , 571
Ma Heng (I), 82
Ma Hsti (astronomer, c. + 100), 200, 265
Ma Huai-Te (mathematician, ft. c. + 1064), 74
Ma Huan (Chinese Muslim geographer on the
staff of Admiral Cheng Ho), 162 (i), 558
Ma Jung (Han scholar), 7 1, 334
Ma Ku (legendary Taoist woman immortal), 600-1
Ma-Ku Shan Hsien Than Chi (Notes on the
Altars to the Immortals on Ma-Ku Moun-
tain), 599-600
Ma Kuo-Han, 467, 676
Ma Kuo-Hsien. See Ripa, Matteo
Ma Tuan-Lin (+ 13th-century historian), 174,
175, 209, 425, 43 0 , 433, 682
Ma tzu (confidential weight numerals), 5 (i)
Ma Yuan (general, + 32), 582
Ma Yung-Chhing (Sung philosopher), 222, 281
Macao, 444, 644, 671
McCartney, E. S., 622
Macerata, 167
Machinery, 162
McManigal sundial, 365 (b)
Macrobius, Ambrosius Theodosius (+ 395 to
+4 2 3), 529, 53 0 , 58 7
Macrocosm-microcosm analogy, 215, 230, 240,
259, 4 8 7, 488, 494, 634, 65 0 , 65 1
Macrophthalmus latreilli, 619
von Madler, J . H., 184
Maenchen-Helfen, 0., 504, 507, 670
Maes Titianus (a Syrian engaged in the silk trade
with the Chinese), 527
Magadha (modern Patna), 511
Magalhaens, Gabriel (Jesuit), 330
Magellanic Clouds, 276
 INDEX

Magic, 303, 501, 504, 677 Maoris. See Tribal Peoples

Magic squares, 30, 52, 55 ff. Map-making. See Cartography
Magical mushrooms (chih), 606 Map of China and the Barbarian Countries. See
Magician-scientists, 507-8 Hua I Thu
Magicians, 188, 189, 304, 414, 470 Map of concentric squares, 501-2, 541
Magistrates, 472 Map of Szechuan. See Pa Chiin Thu Ching
Magnesium Map of the Fixed Stars according to their Right
silicate, 677 Ascension and Declination. See Heng Hsing
sulphates, 653 Chhih-Tao Ching-Wei Tll Thu
Magnet, 154, 155, 312 Map of the Principal Stars. See Lieh Hsing Thu
Magnetic compass, 30, 310, 311, 312, 362, 381, Map of the Tracks of Yii (the Great). See Yii Chi
493, 53 2, 533, 54 1, 559 (a), 576, 587,600 (f), Thu
639 (c) Map of the True Topography of the Five Sacred
Magnetic polarity, 303, 532, 590 Mountains. See Wu Yo Chen Hsing Thu
Magnetic' storms', 435 Maple-Tree Window Memories. See Feng
Magnetism, 140 (c), 159, 162, 652 Chhuang Hsiao Tu
terrestrial, 339, 435 Mappaemundi, 528-9
Magnetite, 639, 643, 652, 674 Mapping of the heavens, 176
Maharatnakiita Siitra. See Ta Pao Chi Ching Maps, 88-9, 498, 503, 508, 517, 518, 520, 682
Mahavira (Indian mathematician, fl.. c. +830),35, connection between geographical maps and
88, 91, 119 (b), 147 population statistics, 582
Mahler, K., 121 (b) contour, 546
MaJ:uniid (son of Ibrahim the astrolabist of engraved on copper plates, 586
I~fahan), 376 first historical reference to a map in China,
Maitreya, 610 534
Malachite, 640, 649 first map of China in a European atlas, 585
Malaya, 274, 560, 654 military, 534, 535, 53 6, 53 8 , 544, 577, 582 , 59 0
Malaysia, 472 panoramic, 514, 516
Malta, 622 printed, 549
Malynes, G., 167 (d) relief, 569, 579 ff.
Mammals, fossil, 612, 619, 621 scroll, 517
al-Ma'miin (caliph, + 813 to + 833), 561 on silk, 534, 541
The M an in the M oone; or, A Discourse of a Voyage on stone steles, 543, 547, 550-1
Thither, by Domingo Gonsales, the Speedy strategic value of, 549-50
Messenger, 440 on wood, 580, 582
Man chhing (rape-turnip), 678 Maraghah observatory. See Astronomical Obser-
Man Shu (Book of the Barbarians), 544 vatories
Management of all Techniques. See Tien Shu Marakuev, A. V. (I), 82
al-Manazil, 252 ff. Maraldi, 182
Manchu (dynasty), 106, 145, 448, 449, 655, 673 Marble, 643
Manchuria, 3II, 585 Marbodus (c. + 1070),647
Manganese March, B., 596
compounds, 664 Marcianus MS. (+ I Ith century), 645
dioxide, 613 Marco Polo. See Polo, Marco
sulphates, 653 Marcus Aurelius Antoninus, 174 (i)
Mangu Khan, 523 Marine chronometer. See Chronometer
Manichaeans, 204 Marine invertebrates. See Inverteb rates
Manilius (c. +20), 201 Mariner's charts, 559
al-Man~iir, Abii Ja'far (caliph), 61 Mariner's Mirror (+ 1584), 533
Manual of the Bronze Earthquake(-Indicating) Marinus of Tyre, 527, 533, 587
Instrument. See Ti Tung Thung I Ching al-Marrakushi, Abii 'Ali al-I;Iasan ibn 'Ali
Manual of the Distinctions between Precious (+ 13th century), 378, 56+
Stones. See Pieh Pao Ching Mars (planet), 283, 398, 401, 408
Manual of the Four Gates. See Ssu Men Ching Marshes, 469, 501
Manual of the White and Gloomy Planet of War. Martin (Chelido dasypus) , 617
See Thai Pai Yin Ching Martini, Martin (Jesuit cartographer), 80, 586
Manuals of the Immortals. See Hsien Ching Marxism, 166
Mao (hsill), 238, 244, 245, 246, 248, 249, 274 Maspero, H. (2), 505; (3), 182, 198,224, 234,259,
Mao Heng (commentator), 87, 88 261, 263, 398, 401, 41 I; (4), 182, 268, 294,
Mao I-Sheng (1), 99 299, 300 , 30 5, 3 17, 342 , 349, 354-5, 392 ;
Mao Khun (collaborator of Hu Tsung-Hsien, (8), 188; (IS), 176, 182,242,246,259,460
governor of Fukien), 559 Master Jih-Hua's Pharmacopoeia. See Jih Ht/a
Mao Yuan-I, 559 Pen Tshao
 INDEX
Master Lii's Spring and Autumn Annals. See Lu
Shih Chhun Chhiu
Master Sun's Arithmetical Manual. See Sun Tzu
Suan Ching
Master Tsochhiu's Enlargement of the Spring
and Autumn Annals. See Tso Chuan
Master Yen's Spring and Autumn Annals. See
Yen Tzu Chhun Chhiu
Mastodon, 621
al-Ma'sUdi (geographer, c. + 950),512,564, 600 (d)
Mateer, 18
Materialism, 165
Materials on the Pacificatory Expedition to
Annam during the Li Dynasty. See Chiao Li
Chiao Phing Shih Lueh
Mathematical Astronomy. See Shu Hsiieh
The Mathematical Curtain Pulled Aside. See Thou
Lien Hsi Tshao
Mathematical Manual of the Five Government
Departments. See Wu Tshao Suan Ching
Mathematical Methods concerned with the Pitch-
pipes and Calendar. See Lu Li Suan Fa
Mathematical Remains of Mr Li. See Li Shih I
Shu
Mathematical Treatise in Nine Sections. See Shu
Shu Chiu Chang
Mathematical Treatise on the Seven Luminaries
Calendar. See Chhi Yao Li Shu Suan Ching
Mathematicians, difficulties, and success, in
communicating with each other, 38, 448
Mathematics, 182, 192, 358, 375, 395, 442, 447,
448,450,457, 577, 600, 632, 633
and astronomy, 177
Babylonian, 205
and bureaucratic government, 42, 153, 192
and the calendar, 152
and chemistry, 122
and experimental science, 154-5
and fate-calculation, 34 (b)
Indian. See Indian mathematics
and mysticism, 88
and science, ISO ff.
and security regulations, 194
technical terms, 46, 47, 49, 62 ff., 72, 114, 120,
124, 127-8, 133, 138, 146
and technology, 155 (a)
Mathematisation of h ypotheses, Is6ff., 158ff., 448
Matriarchal customs, 390 (c)
Matrices, 9, Il7, 129 ff., 139
Matthiessen, L. (I), 121
Mauretania, 313
Mausolea, 682
Maximus Planudes (c. + 1340), 66
Mayas (Amerindian people). See Cultures
Mayow, John, 439 (b)
j'vlazzaloth, 252
Measurement
areas and volumes, 26, 33, 34, 42, 52, 85, 97,
142, 144
distances of heavenly bodies, 225
heights and distances, 21, 23, 27, 31
length, 82, 83-.h 85
weight, 85
Measurements of the 28 Hsiu in Degrees. Se::e
Lun Erh-shih-pa Hsiu Tu Shu
Measures of length, 83-5
very small lengths, 85
Measures of volume, 85
Measures of weight, 85
Mecca, 563
Mechanical automata, 314 (d)
Mechanical clock. See Clocks
Mechanical toys, 321 (c)
Mechanical water-clocks. See Clepsydra
Mechanics, 167, 441
as starting-point of modern science, 158 (c)
Mechanism, 167 (d), 414
Mechanistic world-view, 157, 158
Medhurst, W. H., 334, 393
Mediation (halving), 62
Medical theory, 477 (i)
Medicinal plants, 680
Medicine, 161, 181, 616, 619, 621, 636, 642,
643,644.645,648,651,652, 653, 654, 663.
682
forensic, 162 (e)
Mediterranean, 483, 493. 526, 529. 530, 531. 532.
555, 57 6 , 622, 625
Megalithic monuments, 291 (f)
Megasthenes (- 3rd century), 507, 608 (d)
Mei Chheng (d. - 140), 71
Mei-Ku, 188
Mei Ku-Chheng (mathematician. + 1681 to
+1763), SI, 53, 168, 44~ 457
Mei Piao (+9th-century mineralogist and al-
chemist), 644, 647, 654
Mei Sheng (poet, d. - 140), 485, 493
Mei Wen-Mi (+ 1723), 185
Mei Wen-Ting (calendar expert, + 1633 to
+ 17 21 ), 48, 53, 7 0 • 75. 79, 18 5, 455. 457
Mei Yao-Chhen (poet, d . + 1060), 320
Mekong (river), 525
Melandrium dioecium, 678
de Mely, F., 639; (I), 592.644,645,651; (2). 505
Memoir on Geography. See Yu Ti Chill
Memoir on some Traditions of Mathematical
Art. See Shu Shu Chi I
Memoir on the Calendar. See Lu Li Chih
Memoirs of a Mission achieved in the Wilds. See
Yeh Huo Pien
Memoirs of Marvellous Things. See I Wu Chih
Memoirs on Neglected Matters. See Shih I Chi
Memoranda on Astronomy. 562
Memorandum on the Gnomon. See Piao Chih
Menaechmus (c. - 350). 107
Mencius. See Meng Kho
Menelaus of Alexandria (c. + 100), 108, 357
Meng-Chhang, Lord of, 195
Mblg Chhi Pi Than (Dream Pool Essays), 36, 38.
39, 139, 142, 208. 422. 433, 492. 576, 580 ,
603, 60 7
Meng huo yu (' fierce fire oil', petroleum), 608
Meng Kho (Meng Tzu, Confucian philosopher).
196, 197
Mellg Liang Lu (The Past seems a Dream), 470,
51 9
 INDEX
Meng Shen (c. + 670, nutritional pharmaceutist), Method of elimination and substitution, 47, Il7
644 Method of exhaustion, 92, 141, 142, 144, 145
Meng Tzu (Book of Master Meng (Mencius», 408 Method of finite differences, 35, 49, 123, 292, 394
Meng Wen-Thung (1), 464 Method of ftuxions, 141, 142
Mercantile capitalism. See Capitalism Method of indivisibles. See Method of infini-
Mercator, Gerard (+ 1512 to + 1594),533 tesimals
his projection, 208, 278, 533, 545, 563 Method of infinitesimals, 141, 142
Merchants, 205, 265 (d), 525, 673 Method of limits, 141
Arab, 512, 513 Methods of Solving Problems with Determinants.
Hebrew, 575, 681 See Kai Fukudai no Ho
Mercuric sulphide, 639, 641, 642, 651 Methodus Geometrica (+ 1598), 579
Mercury (metal), 317, 319, 326-7, 329, 349, 350, Meton of Athens (ft. -432), 186,406,407
582 , 637, 639, 64 0 , 64 1, 643 Metrica, 96
extraction of, 678, 679 Metrology, 82 ff., 286, 287, 454
mines, 649 Metropolitan Museum, New York, 663
in plants, 679 (c) Mez, A., 681
in soils, 678 Mi Fu (official, + 11th century), 645
Mercury (planet), 398, 399,400,401,435 Miao. See Tribal peoples
Mercury seismograph. See Seismographs Miao Chhang-Yen (+ 3rd century), 478
Meridian, 230, 23 I Mica, 420 (b), 620, 643, 647-8, 649, 669
definition, 179 schists, 524
transits, 297, 377 (g) Micatio digitis, 69
Meridian line of I-Hsing ( + 724), 292 ff. Michel, H., 74, 184,281, 334, 336, 338, 375
Meridians, 106, 526-7, 532, 587 Michinori, Fujiwara (Japanese feudal lord
Merits and Drawbacks of all the Countries in the and mathematician, ft. + I 157), 61, 141
World. See Thien Hsia Chiin Kuo Li Ping Microcosm. See Macrocosm-microcosm analogy
Shu Micrographia, 145
Merle, William (ft. + 1337 to + 1344), 465 (d) Micrometer screws, 438
Meru (Mount), 531 (d), 563, 568, 589 Microscope, 668
Mesa, 592 Mieleitner, K., 592
Mesopotamia, 82, 146, 149, 395 (e), 396, 469, Mieli, A., 681
608 (e) Mien (crystal face), 648
Mesopotamian mythology, 505 Miftii/:z al-I;Iisiib (Key of Computation), 68
Metal-cleaning, 662-3 Migration of Chinese overseas, 472
Metal weight-driven clock. See Clocks Migratory birds, 215 (f)
Metal-workers, 294 Mikami, Yoshio, 2, 3, 27; (I), 31, 52, 75,99, 103,
Metallic oxides, 663 126, 145; (1), 26, 77, 15 1 ; (2), 95; (4), 3 ;
Metallic salts, 663 (5), 3; (7), 52; (11), 127; (12), 457; (19), 99
Metallurgy, 222, 647, 652 Military affairs, 426
Metals Military engineering. See Engineering
assertion that metals could be obtained from Military expeditions. See Expeditions
certain plants, 678 Military maps. See Maps
classification of, 641 Military technology, 559, 651, 652
densities of, 33 Milk, 6I 7
formation of (theory of 'exhalations '), 469, Milky Way, 276, 462, 489
636 ff. Miller, K. (4), 561
ores of, 534 MiIlman, P . M. (I), 305, 307
Metamorphosis of minerals, theory of, 641 Mills, J. V., 586 (j); (I), 559, 560; (2), 584; (7) ,
Metaphysical idealism. See Idealism 517; (8), 517
Metaphysics, 149 'Millstone' of heaven, 214-15
Meteor showers, 433 Milne, J. , 626, 628
Meteorites, 433-4, 462 Minakata, K. (I), 272
Meteorologica, 462, 469, 483, 625 Mineral acids, 5 I I, 672
Meteorological charts, 466 Mineral remedies, 643
Meteorological measurements, 462 Mineral waters, 606 (f), 643
Meteorological observations, 465-6, 471 Mineralogy, 521, 606
Meteorology, 190, 435, 436, 636, 640, 675 Minerals, 504, 592
changes of meaning, 462 catalogues of, 591
and divination, 467 classification of, 591, 641, 647
Meteors, 200, 207, 209, 244 (a), 367, 433, 442, deposition of, by evaporation from ground
443,4 62 waters in ore channels, 649- 5 I
technical terms, 433-4 formation of, 469, 61 I, 636 ff.
Method of double differences, 3 I, 104, 109 practical uses of, 651-2
 INDEX
Miners' lore, 637 (b), 674 Mo Tzu (The Book of Master Mo), 56
Ming (dynasty), 3, 16, 20, 38,49, 50, SI, 72, 85, Mocattam (mountain), 296
114, 139, 153, 173, 199, 206, 208, 209, 221, 'Mock suns', 474
223, 224, 251, 262, 281, 300, 307, 310, 331, Model Discourses. See Fa Yen
357,422,43 0 ,433, 437 if., 44 2 , 443, 45 1, 455, Mogadishiu (in Africa), 558
45 6 , 457, 465, 4 6 9, 477, 493, 499, 5 11 , 5 12, Mohist Canon. See Mo Ching
519,520,521,524,552,556,557, 6lI, 617, Mohists, 84, 91, 92, 94-5, 96, 143, 165, 437 (f)
618, 645, 646, 654, 661, 681 Mohs scale, 664
Ming An-Thu (Manchu mathematician), 145 de Moidrey, J., 435
Ming Huang Tsa Lu (Miscellaneous Records of Molluscs, 612, 615
the Brightness of the Imperial Court), 38, 282 bivalve, 614
Ming I Pieh Lu (Informal Records of Famous lamellibranchiate, 617
Physicians), 621, 648, 652 Monadnock, 592
Ming I Thien Wen Shu (Astronomy, Officially Monasteries, 519
Translated by order of the Ming), 49 Monetae Cudendae Ratio, 166
Ming Shih (History of the Ming Dynasty), 48, 125 Monetary reform, 166
Ming Suan (degree in mathematics), 192 Money
Ming Thang (Bright Palace), 58, 189, 308 knife, 16 (d)
Ming Ti (emperor of the Wei), 659 paper, 40
Minguzzi, C. & Vergnano, 0., 678 Mongol period, 197, 380, 589
The Miniature Cosmos. See Fa Hsiang Chih Mongol Persia, 196
Mining and miners, 167, 534, 592, 636, 639, 641, Mongol wars, 105
652, 676, 678, 679 Mongol Yuan empire. See Yuan (dynasty)
of gems, 669-70, 672 Mongolia, 293, 523, 55 1, 552
of jade, 663, 665 'Mongolian style' in cartography, 554, 564
prospecting methods, 673 if. Mongols, 41, 49,109, lIO, 297, 381, 406, 416, 5lI,
Minister of Works (Ta Ssu Khung), 537, 538 522, 551, 556, 564, 565, 585, 661
Minor Disputation on Calendrical Science. See 'Monkey' (+ 16th-century novel). See Hsi Yu Chi
Hsiieh Li Hsiao Pien Monks, 149,203,281, 323,602,603,645
'Minus' sign, 114, 132 Monsoons, 462-3, 477
Mira in Cetus (variable star), 429 Monsters, 505-'7
Mirages, 479 Monthly Ordinances. See Yiieh Ling
Mirrors, 257 (a) Monthly Ordinances for the Four Sorts of People.
burning, 227 (b), 661 See Ssu Min Yiieh Ling
for detecting partial eclipses, 420 Montucla, J. E., I II
TLV or 'cosmic', 303 if., 308, 335, 541-2 the Moon, 26, lI8, 175, 190, 200
Miscellanea of (Chang) Hsin-Chai. See Hsin- apparent contrary motion of, in relation to the
Chai Tsa Tsu fixed stars, 214
Miscellanea of the Thang dynasty. See Thang falls back eastwards, 13° each day, 219. 413
Yii Lin full, 232, 240, 390, 410
Miscellaneous Information from Kuei-Hsin imaginary beings in, 228, 41 I (a), 436
Street. See Kuei-Hsin Tsa Chih influence on living things, 390 (c), 675
Miscellaneous Records of the Bamboo Leaf influence on the tides, 484, 485, 488, 489. 493
Pavilion. See Chu Yeh Thing Tsa Chi motion of, 239, 257, 278, 392 if.
Miscellaneous Records of the Brightness of the new,4 lI - 12
Imperial Court. See Ming Huang Tsa Lu path of, 410, 421
Miscellaneous Records of the Candid Studio. See phases of, 302
Than Chai Thung Pien reflected light of, 227, 410, 414. 415
Miscellaneous Records of the Lone Watcher. See resting-places of, 239
Tu Hsing Tsa Chih shape of, 413, 415
Miscellaneous Records of the Western Capital. voyages to, 440-1
See Hsi Ching Tsa Chi Yin (female) nature of, 227, 411-12, 414
Miscellany of the Yu-Yang Mountain (Cave). See Moon-dial, 3 I I
Yu- Yang Tsa Tsu Moon-stations, 252 if.
Misra yantra ('Mixed Instrument'), 300 Morley, S. G ., 397
Missionaries, 172, 182, 445, 447 Moro, Lazzaro (+ 1687 to + 1740), 603
Mr Li's Record of Drugs. See Li Shih Yao Lu Morocco, 378
Mithras, 204 Morphogenesis, 623
Mithridates Eupator (king of Pontus), 425 (h) Mortuary jars, 581, 582
Mo Ching (Mohist Canon), 83, 88, 91, 94,149,224 Moschopoulos, Manuel, 61
Mo Kho Hui Hsi (Fly-Whisk Conversations of the Moscovia (Muscovy), 167
Scholarly Guest), 606, 613 Mosei, Muramatsu KudayU (Japanese mathe-
Mo Ti (philosopher, Mo T2U), 214-15 matician, d. + 1683), 144
 INDEX
Motion, 155, 156-'7, 158
Moule, A. C. (3), 484, 493; (6), 523
Moule, G. E. (I), 106
Mount Athos MS. (c. 1250), 533
Mount Wilson loo-inch reflector, 377
Mountain-passes, 523
Mountain-ranges, 501, 508, 546
precipitation of rain by, 468-9
Mountain scenery, 593
Mountains, 498, 500, 507, 518, 521, 536, 566-7,
612
observation of haloes from, 477
origin of, 598 ff., 615
primary (volcanic) and secondary (stratified
eroded), 603
sacred, 519 (c), 542, 546
in sculptured relief on incense-burners and jars,
580, 581
'Moving-ball plate' (abacus), 76
Mu (High King of the Chou), 656
Mu Ching (Timberwork Manual), 153
Mu-Ku-Tu-Shu. See Mogadishiu
Mu Thien Tzu Chuan (Account of the Travels of
the Emperor Mu), 404, 507, 565
Mu Ni-Ko. See Smogul~cki, Nicholas
Mugwort (ai hao), 678
Mukden. See Shenyang
'Mul-Apin' series, 256, 291 (g)
Mulberry, 463, 464, 501
groves (sang thien), 599, 600, 601, 612
Mulder, W. Z., 560
MUller, Johannes of Konigsberg (Regiomontanus),
109, 34 1, 372, 43 0
MUller, R. (1),404,407; (2), 200, 393
Multiplication, IS, 33, 34, 35, 62, 63-4, 75, 149
algebraic, 46
of fractions, 21, 81
gelosia method, 64, 72, 148
symbol, 114
tables, 9, 22, 25, 36, 64, 542
The Multiplicity of Phenomena. See HaiHan Wan
Hsiang Lu
Muntner, S., 681
Muramatsu, Kudayu (d. + 1683), 144
Murchison, Robert, 614
Muscat, 559, 560
Muscovite, 648
Music, 59
Musk, 680
Muslim Astronomical Bureau (Hui-Hui Kho),
49, 449
Muslims, 49, 50, 105, 208, 372, 379, 380, 381,
551, 55 8 , 56 3, 56 4
van Musschenbroek, P., 329
Mustard-Seed Garden Guide to Painting. See
Chieh-Tzu Yuan Hua Chuan
Mutability of the obliquity (of the ecliptic), 291
Mysterious Matters. See Hsiian Chullg Chi
Mysticism. See Mathematics and mysticism
Mythical teratology, 505
Mythology, 214, 220, 228, 282,436, 505-7, 512
Na-Hsin (Mongol geographer), 5 I I
Nabonassar, 409
Naburiannu (Babylonian astronomer), 394(C), 399,
407 (e)
al- adim, Abu'I-Faraj ibn abu Ya'qub (d. +995),
589, 682
Niiga (sacred serpent), 489
al-Najjarl, Jamal ai-Din ibn MuJ:!ammad, 372-3
al-Najrani (Christian monk and traveller), 589
Nakamura, H. (I), 565
Nakane Genkei (director of first modern observa-
tory in Japan, + 1725), 447
Nakayama, H. (1), 303
Nahshatra, 252 ff., 258 (a)
Nam Pyeng-Chul. See Nan Ping-Chi!
Nam Pyeng-Kil. See Nan Ping-Chi
Nan Chhi Shu (History of the Southern Chhi
Dynasty), 102
Nan-Chiao, 188
Nan Chou I Wu Chih (Strange Things from the
South), 510
Nan Huai-Jen. See Verbiest, Ferdinand
Nan I I Wu Chih (Strange Things from the
Southern Borders), 510
Nan men (constellation), 425
Nan Ping-Che (Korean astronomical writer, early
19th century), 683
Nan Ping-Chi (Korean astronomical writer, early
19th century), 683
Non Shih (History of the South), 101-2
Nan Tou. See Southern Dipper
Nanhai,297
Nanking, 310, 349, 367, 3 68 , 443, 445, 454, 5 14,
624
Nankung YUeh (astronomer, +8th century), 203.
274 (d), 292, 297
Nao sha (quick-sands), 607
Nao sha (sal ammoniac), 654, 655
Naphtha, 608, 609, 610
Napier, John, 43, 72, 155
Napier's bones, 69, 72-3
Naples, 382, 585 (i)
Narayana (Indian mathematician, fI. + 1356),
!l8
N arbonne, 3 I 3
Narivalaya yantra (instrument), 301
al-Nasawi, AJ:!mad (Persian mathematician, fI.
+ 1030), 89
Nationalisation of salt and iron, 71
'Natural Fire Island' (Tzu-Jan Huo Chou), 658
Natural gas, 610, 652, 658
Natural history, 164
Natural law and good custom, Chinese devotion
to, 441
Naturalistic movement in + I2th- and + I3th-
century Europe, 160
Naturalists, School of, 198, 226, 402, 414, 480.
4 88 ,64 1
Nature mysticism, 612
Nautiloids, 612, 619
straight-shelled, 6 I 8
Navagraha (Indian calendar). See Chiu Chih
calendar
Navigation, 274 (b), 279, 378, 560, 561, 590
 INDEX

Nebulae, 276 Nine continents (yu), 216, 507 (d)

Negative numbers, 26, ·B , 45, 90-1, 130, 146, 151 the Nine Halls (of the Ming Thang), 58
Neo-Confucian philosophers, 10,41,43, 129 (d), Nine heavens, 198
144, 163 ff. , 222, 224, 278, 408 (a), 492, 547, Nine positions (wei), 216
549, 580, 598, 602, 619 Nine provinces, 500, 503
Neolithic axes, 434, 482 (e) the 'Nine Roads of the Moon' (chiu hsing) ,
Neolithic jade tools, 665, 666 39 2-3
Nepal,610 The Nine Songs. See Chiu Ko
Nephelometric methods, 672 Nine-sphere theory, 198, 222
Nephrite, 663, 664, 665 Nineteen-year period, 21
Neptunian theories, 591 Nineveh, 255
Nestorian Christianity, 204, 423 (a), 608 (a) ing Hsien Wang (prince, mineralogist and al-
Neugebauer, 0., 113; (I), 394; (5), 329; (9), 96 chemist), 512, 513
New Account of the Web of Stars. See Hsiang Ning Tsung (emperor of the Sung, + 1195 to
Wei Hsin Phien + 1224), 278
~ew Book. See Hsin Shu ingpo, 492
~ew Book of Poisonous Substances. See Ho Ting Tingyuan, 525
Hsin Situ Niu (hsiu), 238, 247, 251, 287
' ew Description of an Armillary Clock. See Hsin No ChU-Lo (monk), 603
I Hsiang Fa Yao Noachian Flood legend, 602, 623
New Discourse on Music and Acoustics. See Lu 'Nocturnal' (instrument), 338, 370
Lu Hsin Lun Noda, Chury(j, 20, 247; (2,2), 195,234,238; (3),
New Discourse on the Talk of the Times. See 186,238 ; <4>, 408, 40 9
Shih Shuo Hsin Yu Nodes of the moon's orbit, 175, 228, 252 (c), 416,
New Discussions. See Hsin Lun 421
New Elucidation of the Heavenly Bodies. See Noel, Francis (Jesuit), 454
Ko Hsiang Hsin Shu 'Noise' in radio-wave receivers, 428
a' ew Great Star', 244 (a), 424 Nolte, F ., 339
New History of the Thang. See Hsin Thang Shu Nomenclature
the' _ ew, or experimental, philosophy', 156 mineral substances, 592, 641 ff.
the' ew Star' of Tycho Brahe (+ 1572),426-,] stars, 232, 271 ff.
New Steps in Computation. See I Ku Yen Tuan ominalism, 167 (e)
New Zealand, 663 'Non-inflammable birds', 659 (d)
ewcomb, S., 288 Noria, 318, 389, 489
Ncwe Attractive, 154 Norman, Robert (+ 1590), 154, 166
Newly Revised Reader with Four Characters to North America, 196, 472
the Line and Pictures to match. See Hsin North and south, position of in Chinese maps,
Pien Tui Hsiang Ssu Yen 549, 554, 559-60
Newton, Isaac, 123, 128, 141, 142, 145, 155, 157, North polar distance, 179, 343, 35 6, 357
159,432,438 (d), 494 North pole (celestial), 179, 213, 217, 256, 259 ff.,
Newtonian-Cartesian science, 155 274, 27 8
Ngaring Nor (lake), 523 position of the true pole, 262, 332, 336, 337
. ha-trang, 292 orthern Chhi (dynasty), 78, 358, 632
Ni (retrograde motion), 398, 400 Northern Chou (dynasty), 33, 35, 208, 264, 608
Niao hsing (the Bird Star or Constellation), 242, Northern Dipper. See Great Bear
244, 245, 24 6 Northern Liang. See Pei Liang
~i a o-I barbarians. See Tribal peoples Northern Mongolia, 417
Kicholas of Cusa, 372 (b), 471 Northern 'Palace', 198,200
Kickel indicator plants, 678 Northern Sung (dynasty), 191,352, 365
Nicole, Franc;:ois (+ 1717), 125 fall of, 422 (b)
Nicolson, M. H. (I), 440 Northern Wei (dynasty), 27, 33, 149, 326, 327,
Nicomachus of Gerasa (fl. c. + 90, mathe- 519, 673
matician), 34 (a), 54 Norway, 550
Nieuhoff, J. (+ 1765), 442 Notation, algebraic, 44, 45, 112 ff., 155
Nieuwhoff, J. See Nieuhoff, J. decimal, 83, 89
Night-watches, 398 (c) of only nine figures, 13, 15, 146
Night-watchmen, 319 (d) Yuan Thien, 66, 129 ff., 137, 151-2
igidius Figulus, 215 Notes from the Fasting Pavilion. See Chieh An
Nile (river), 229, 529 Man Pi
the' Nine Calculations', 25 Notes from the Hall of Old Learning. See Lao
the Nine Cauldrons of the Hsia (Hsia ting), 503-5 Hsueh An Pi Chi
Nine Chapters on the Mathematical Art. See Notes on an Embassy to the North. See Pei Shih
Chiu Chang Suan Shu Chi
 INDEX
Notes on an Embassy to the West. See Hsi Shih
Chi
Notes on the Altars to the Immortals on Ma-Ku
Mountain. See Ma-Ku Shan Hsien Than Chi
Novae, 171, 209, 244 (a), 423 ff., 43 I, 442, 458
technical terms, 425
Novara, 158
Nozawa, TeichO (c. + 1664), 144
Nil (hsiu), 247, 25 I
Nil-Kua (consort of Fu-Hsi), 23, 95
Number-mysticism. See Numerology
Number-theory. See Theory of numbers
Numerals, 5 ff.
Shang Chinese first to express any number with
no more than 9 numeral signs, 15
Numerator, 65, 81, 146
Numerical equations. See Equations
Numerology, 54
Nashiidur (Arabic term for sal ammoniac), 654,
655
Nutritional Medicine Pharmacopoeia. See Shih
Liao Pen Tshao
O-Erh-Thai (Manchu official), 673
Obliquity of the ecliptic. See Ecliptic
Observations (astronomical). See Astronomical
observations
Observations Mathlmatiques, Astronomiques, etc.,
tirles des anciens Livres Chinois ou faites
nouvellement aux Indes et cl la Chine par les
Peres de la Compagnie de Jesus, 183
Observatories (astronomical). See Astronomical
observatories
Observatory tower (Chan Hsing Thai) at Kyung-
ju, Korea, 297, 682
Ocean of Calendar Calculations. See Lii Li Yuan
Yuan
Odd and even numbers, 54-5, 57
Oecology, plants, 674, 677, 678
Ogawa, Takuji (1), 546, 555, 566
Ogura, S., 409
Oikoumene (that part of the world inhabitable by
man, as conceived at different times by one
people or another), 211, 526, 527, 529, 543,
56 5
Oil, 122, 608, 609, 657, 661
Olaus Magnus the Swede (+ 1490 to + 1558),520
Old and New Mathematical Methods. See Kokon
Sampo-ki
Old Discourse of an Experienced Elder for the
benefit of the (Astronomical) Bureau. See
I Pu Chhi Chiu Chuan
The Old Fisherman of the Eastern Sea (Tung Hai
Yil Ong), 490
The Old Gentleman of the Water-Garden who
attained success through Forbearance (Kuan
Yuan Nai Te Ong), 490 (e), 519 (f)
Old method Chart of the Seven Multiplying
Squares. See Kufa chhi ~hheng fang thu
Old Quarter-Remainder Calendar (Ku ssu fen li),
293
Old Silk Road, 524, 543, 665
Oldenberg, H. (2), 254
Oligo-elements, 677
Olivier, C. P., 430, 431-2
Oman, 680
Omar Khayyam. See 'Umar al-Khayyl\ml
O-mei Shan (mountain in Szechuan), 477,515,593
Omens, 255, 283, 475
Omissions from Previous Pharmacopoeias. See
Pen Tshao Shih I
Omori, F., 624
On Inkstones. See Yen Shih
On Looking at Stones. See Kuan Shih Lu
On Maps and Books. See Thu Shu Pien
On the Armillary Sphere. See Hun I
On the Houses of God in Jerusalem, 520 (a)
On the Motions of the Seven Governors. See
Chhi Cheng Tlzui Pu
On the Tides. S.ee Hai Thao Chih
On the Use of the Calculating-rods. See Tshe
Suan
On World Geography. See Chih Fang Wai Chi
'One', a number or not?, 12 (b)
'One' can become a 'ten', and a 'five' a 'two',
17
Ono, Ranzan, 644
Ophthalmic affections, 663
Oppert, M. (I), 507
Oppolzer Canon, 420
Opposability, method of (for determining sun's
position among the stars), 229-30, 240
Optical illusions, 219, 226-7
Optics, 162, 181,652
Oracle, 119 (j), 503
Oracle-bones, 5, 8, 13, 83, 95, 177, 242, 244, 246,
249, 254, 28 4, 293, 294, 39 1, 39 2 , 396 , 4 0 7,
4 0 9, 4 10 , 423, 4 2 4, 4 2 9, 4 60 , 464, 467, 473,
504, 582, 621, 641, 642
Order, concept of, 153
Ordos Desert, 5 15
Ordovician limestone, 618
Ore beds, 649
formation by the circulation of ground waters,
649-5 0
Ores, 534, 59 1, 643
generation of, 626, 639, 642
d'Oresme, Nicholas (+ 14th century), 107
Organic naturalism, 163ff., 414, 415, 469 (a)
Organic world-view, 157, 163 ff., 278 (b), 362,
412 (e), 469 (a), 494, 65 1, 675
Organism, philosophy of, 151 (d), 153, 171
Organoll parallacticon (instrument), 373
Original Mirror of Alchemical Preparations. See
Tan Fang Chien Yuan
Origins of Calendrical Science. See Li Yllan
Origins of Mathematics. See Thung Yuan Sllan
Fa
Orion, 232, 233, 240, 244, 250, 272
and Antares (myth), 282
Orosius (f1. +410), 529, 587
Orphic philosophy , 159
Orpiment, 638, 643, 651
Orrery, 339. 389
mechanised, 360
Ortelius (+ 1570), 533, 583, 586
 INDEX
Orthoceras sinensis, 6 I 9 Paper, 651, 653
Orthoceratids, 618 Paper-folding, 112
Orthomorphic projection, 589-90 Paper money, 40
Oughtred, W., 73, 134 Parabola, 102, 107, 141
Outline of Chinese Mathematics in History. See 'Paradises', 507
Chung-Kuo Shu~Hsiieh Ta Kang Paradoxes
Ouyang Wen (geographer, + 12th century), 521 Logicians', 92, 94, 143
Overflow-tank clepsydra, 324 Taoist, 47
Oxalis corniculata, 678 Paraffins, 608
Oxford, 161 Parallactic ruler, 375
Oxford Philosophical Society, 661 Parallel linkage device, 319
Oyster shells, 598, 600, 604, 61 I, 617 Parallel of declination, 179
Ozanam, M., I I I Parallelepiped, 98, 99
Ozene, 563 (b) Parallelogram, 104
Parallels, 93, 526, 527, 532, 587
Pa Chiin Thu Ching (Map of Szechuan), 517 Paramiir;tu. See Chi-wei
Pa Ku examination system, 153 (f) Paranatellons, 173, 179, 229
Pa Kua Suan (method of calculation connected Parapegrnata, 247 (I)
with divination), 140 Parasites, plant, 675
Pa Thou Suan (method of calculation connected de Paravey, C. H., 273
with divination), 140 Parchment, 653
Pacific Ocean, 463, 658, 663 Pare, Ambroise (+ 1510 to + 1590), 154
Pacioli, L. (+ 1494), 66, 68, 118, 141, 166 Parhelic phenomena, 474--7
'Packing' theory, 145 Paris, 340, 579
Paddle-wheel,479 Paris MS. (+ 1478), 645
Padua university, 161, 166 Paris Museum of Natural History, 644
Pagnani, 118 Paris Observatory. See Astronomical obser-
'Pagoda-stone' (pao tha shih), 618 vatories
Pai Chin. See Bouvet, Joachim Parmenides of Elea (fl. c. -475), 227, 410
Pai Chu-I, 596 Paros, 622
Pai Chung Ching (Manual of the Hundred Parry's arc, 475
Culminations), 396 Parthia, 536
Pai Fu Thang Suan-Hsiieh Tshung-Shu (Collected Parthians, 205
Mathematical Works of the Pai-Fu Hall), 48 Partington, J . R., 666
Pai hu. See White Tiger Partnership problems, 26
Pai wu (the' hundred beings '), 504 Pascal, Biaise, 47, 74, 134, 155
Painters, 593 fr., 683 Pascal's triangle, 47, 52, 134, 135, 136, 147
handbooks for, 596 Passe-terns, 679
Painting, 561 The Past seems a Dream. See Meng Liang Lu
conventions and technique, 596-8 Pasteur, Louis, 183 (f), 677
technical terms, 597-8 Pathogenesis, 651
Paints, 65 I Patna. See Magadha
the' Palaces' of the lunar mansions, 234, 240, 242 Paulisa Siddhtinta, 108, 149
symbolic animals of, 240 (a) Pausanias, 519 (g), 622
Palaeobotany, 612 Peach-kernels, fossil, 614
Palaeontology, 598-9, 61 I fr. Peach-tree, 464
Palembang, 558 Peano-Schwarz surfaces, 112 (b)
Palestine, 564 Pearls recovered from the Red River. See Chhih
Palissy (+ 1580), 61 I Shui I Chen
Palmqvist, S., 678 Pease, A. S., 620
Pan, 582 Peat, 602
Pan Chao (sister of Pan Ku), 106 Pedology. See Soil science
Pan Ku (historian), 106, 535 Pei (gnomon). See Gnomon
Parka Siddhiintlkii, 108, 149, 395 (e) Pei Chhi Shu (History of the Northern Chhi
Panicum crusgalli, 678 Dynasty), 632
Pao Chang Shih (Imperial Astrologer), 190 Pei chi (' North Pole' constellation), 261
Pao Chhi-Shou (+ 19th-century scholar), 60 Pei Liang (Northern Liang kingdom), 204
Pao Hsi. See Fu-Hsi Pei Lin (astronomer, + 1482), 50
Pao Kan-Chih (Sung mathematician), 20 Pei Lin Museum, Sian, 547, 548
Pao-ning, 597 Pei Shih (History of the Northern Dynasties), 543 .
Pao Phu Tzu (Book of the Preservation-of- 633
Solidarity Master), 489, 567, 606, 647, 660 Pei Shih Chi (Notes on an Embassy to the North) ,
Pao Yu-Kuan. See Gogeisl, Anton 5 22
 INDEX

Peking, SO, 52, 100, 182, 184, 194, 257, 297, 302, Peurbach, George, 341
30 7, 326, 349, 36 5, 367, 369, 378, 38 7, 38 9, Peutinger, Conrad, 528
4 16 , 427, 43 1, 438, 443, 444, 556, 562, 586 , Pfintzing, Paul (+ 1598), 579
668 Pfizmaier, A., 646, 669
Peking National Library, 519, 549 Phallic symbolism, 335-6
Peking observatory. See Astronomical Observa- Phan Ang-Hsiao (geographer, + 13th century), 5:t4
tories Phan Chu Chi (Record of the Plate and the Balls),
Pelliot, P., 198, 204, 544, 549, 558, 561, 664 78,80
Pellos (+ 1492), 89 Phang yen (technical term in cartography), 576
Pen Tshao books, 592, 60S, 606, 617,621,643,644, Pharmaceutical botany, 681
64 8 Pharmaceutics, 606, 615, 616, 617, 621 , 622, 643,
Pen Tshao Kang Mu (The Great Pharmacopoeia), 663, 683
434, 60S, 615, 616, 617, 621, 637, 639, 644, Pharmacology, 648
647,676 Pharmacopoeia of the Heavenly Husbandman .
Pen Tshao Pieh Shuo (Informal Remarks on the See Shen Nung Pen Tshao Ching
Pharmacopoeia), 648 Pharmacopoeia of the Thang Dynasty. See Thang
Pen Tshao Shih I (Omissions from Previous Pen Tshao
Pharmacopoeias), 674 Pharmacopoeias. See Pen Tshao books
Pen Tshao Thu Ching (Illustrated Pharmacopoeia), Pharos at Alexandria, 555
617, 647, 648, 649-50, 654, 660 Phei Chii (Commercial Commissioner for the Sui
Pen Tshao Yen I (The General Ideas of the dynasty), 543, 654
Pharmacopoeia), 618, 674 Phei Hsiu (cartographer, + 3rd century), 88, 106,
Pendulum, 628 ff., 634, 635 535,53 8 ff., 55 1, 559, 5 66 , 571, 575, 579, 58 7
Pendulum clocks. See Clocks Phei Wen-Chung, 464, 621 (i)
Peneplains, 592 Phei Yin (+ 5th-century commentator), 471
Peneplanation, 602 Pheng Chheng ( + 11th-century Astronomer-
Pepys, Samuel, 378 (a), 391 (a) Royal), 191, 192
Percentages and proportions, 25-6, 34, 35 Pheng-Lai (sacred island mountain), 567, 581-2,
Peregrinus, Petrus (+ 1260 to + 1270), 162 600
Pereira, Andrew (English Jesuit), 448 Pheng sha (borax), 662
Perfect numbers, SS Pheng Yiieh, 486
'Perfection' of the heavens, 172 (b), 427-8, 434 Phenomenalism, 465, 480
Periegetes, Dionysius (c. +436), 623 Philippines, 215 (f)
Periodical cataclysms. See Cyclical world cata- Phillips, G. (I), 560
strophes Philolaus of Tarentum (late - 5th century), 228,
Peripatetics, 142 402 (e)
Periplus, 669 Philoponus, Joannes (Byzantine physicist, c.
Permian basalt cliffs, 593 + 52 5), 37 6
Permutation s, 61 'Philosophical sulphur', 448
and combinations, 4, 40, 139 ff. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society, 80,
'Perpetual lights', 33 I 579,662
Perpetual motion, 328 Phing (' floating' difference), 49
Perseid meteors, 433 Phing-yang (modern Linfen), astronomical col-
Persia, 105, 109, 134, 147, 196,204,256,296,372, lege at, 368 (f)
376, 423, 474, 522, 634, 653, 669, 671, 681 Phing-Yuan, Lord of, 195
Persian Gulf, 493, 559, 560 Phlogopite, 648
Persian language. See Languages Phnorp Bakhen, 568
Persians, 49-50, 68, 69, 110, 147, 204, 205, 208, Phnorp Bay~n, I I
381 , 55 1, 555 Phoenix, 419, 659
'Perturbations', 394 Phosphate, 617
Peru, 69 Photographic methods in astronomy, 364
Perugia, 471 Phu-Chi (monk), 38
Pescadores, 472 Phu Chi Fang (Simple Prescriptions for Every-
Peters, C. H . F., 268 man),682
St Petersburg, 475 Physical geography. See Geography
Petrifaction, 603, 637, 642 Physicians, 49 (c), 331,682,683
Petrifying springs, 606-7 Physics, 155, 157, 162,299,303, 314,541,652,680
Petroleum, 608-9 Physiologus (end of +2nd century), 659
smoke, 609 Physiology, 158
Petrucci, R. (I), 97 Pi (1T), value of, 29, 35, 89, 99 ff., 141, 143,385 (a)
Petrus Alphonsus of Huesca, 530 Pi (ancient ritual object of jade), 334 ff.
Petrus Bertius (+ 1628), 530 Pi (hsiu), 238, 245, 248, 468, 469
Petrus Peregrinus. See Peregrinus Pi Hung (+8th-century painter), 612
 INDEX

Pi Nai Shan Fang Chi (Pi Nai Mountain Hut Planispheres, 183, 185, 208, 255-6, 260, 263, 273,
Records), 60 278-9, 281, 550
Piao. See Gnomon Greek,282
Piao (' The Spoon '), 232, 233 'Plans (or Models) of Astronomical Instruments
Piao Chih (Memorandum on the Gnomon), 20 from the Western Countries' (Hsi y u i
Pictograms, 5, IS (a) hsiang), 372
Pictures of Objects mentioned in the Six Classics. Plans of cities, 547
See Liu Ching Thu Plant biochemistry, 679
Pieh Pao Ching (Manual of the Distinctions be- Plant diseases, 677
tween Precious Stones), 648, 669 (h) Plant drugs, 643
Pien Canal (Pien Chhii), 577 Plant parasites, 675
Pien Chung-Ho (Korean), 302 Plants, 504, 510, 643
Pienfu shih ('bat-stone'), 619 as biological concentrators and indicators, 677
Pien Hsin (calendar expert, + 85) , 247, 320 effect of metallic elements in the soil on the
Pien Tzu Lei Pien (Collection of Phrases and appearance of, 676
Literary Allusions), 602 fossil, 612-14
Pilgrims, 511 , 513, 522 as indications of ore deposits, 675 ff., 679
'Piling up' method, 39, 93, 142-3 medicinal, 680
Piling-up Powers and Unlocking Coefficients. See oecology of, 674
Ju Chi Shih So suitable for food in emergency, 162 (i)
'Piling up the rectangles', 23 Plastics, 658
Pilots, 532, 560 Plato, 92, 158, 167, 216,672
Pin-point gnomon, 299 Platus, Carolus (+ 16th century), 389
Pindar, 672 Pledge, H. T. (I), 154
Pine-cones, fossil, 614 Pleiades, 244, 253, 274, 276
Pine-forest stone (sung lin shih), 613 Pleistocene crabs, 616, 619
'Pine-stone' (sung shih), 613 PIiny, 425, 505, 623, 654, 656, 660, 671, 672
Pine-trees, 609 Plough,33 2
petrified, 612, 613 Plumb-line, 95, 286, 298, 370, 569, 570-1
Ping Ho (river), 607 Plurality of worlds, 221,440-2
Pinnules, 352, 368 (c) 'Plus' sign, 13, 114
Pioneer developments, disadvantages of, 9 (j) , 90(a) Plutarch, 423, 440 (d), 660
Pipettes, 314 (d, e) Plutonian theories, 591
Pirates, 517, 559 Pneuma, 469; 625-6, 634, 637
Pisano, Leonardo. See Fibonacci. Pneumatodestera, 469, 636
Place-names, 508 Po Kao (legendary minister of Huang Ti), 674
Place-names on Chinese maps, 549, 551, 554, 555, Po-lo-men books. See Brahmin books
5 60 , 5 6 4, 5 6 5, 58 9 Po-Ssu, 653-4
Place-value, 8 ff., 62-3, 66, 146, 148, 149 Po Wu Chi (Notes on the Investigation of
decimal, 10 (k), 12, 13, 16, 17, 46, 83, 149, 152 Things), 608
development of algebraic symbolism perhaps Po Wu Chih (Record of the Investigation of
hindered by, 9 (j) Things), 608 (i), 61 I (a)
practice of writing out the place-value terms, Po Ya Chhin (The Lute of Po Ya), 221
12 (a) Poem on the Mysterious Mechanism of the
sexagesimal, 10 (k), 149 Celestial Bodies. See Thai Hsiang Hsuan Chi
Place-value component not itself a numeral, IS, Ko
148 Poland, 162, 681
Plane geometry. See Geometry Polar axis
Planetary conjunctions, 408 bearings of, 2 I 5
Planetary cycles, 176, 207, 398 ff. inclination of, 213-14, 215
Planetary day-names, 397 (c) Polar axis mounting. See Equatorial telescope
Planetary motion, 198, 200, 392 ff. mounting
geometrical analysis of, 437 Polar regions (celestial)
technical terms, 398-9 north, 259 ff.
Planetary occultations, 408, 414 south, 274
Planetary seven-day week. See Seven-day week Polar regions (terrestrial), 475
Planets Polaris, 261, 278, 281
colours of, 209 Pole-finding telescope, 262
mean p'lth of, 179 the Pole Star, 21,189,217,219,230,240,250,262,
periods of revolution, 391 281, 333, 35 6 , 38 5
Planisphere showing the 28 Hsiu and the 283 Con- Pole stars, 259 ff.
stellations. See Erh-shih-pa Hsiu Erh-pai- Poliak, A. N., 682
pa-shih-san Kuan Thu Policeman (statuette on clepsydra), 320, 323
 INDEX
Political absolutism, 441 Prism, 26, 98, 99
Polo, Marco, 80, 378 (a), 519 (f), 522, 551, 556, 660 Private profit, 167
Polycarpaea spirostylis, 678 Probability, 139
Polychrome block printing, 596 Probierbuchlein, 672
Polygons, 100, 101, 102, 143 Problem of Malfatti, 145
Polyhedra, 103 Proclus (+410 to +485),90,637
Polyhistor (a + 6th-century reVlSlon of Collec- Procopius, 188 (d)
tanea Rerum Memorabilium), 505 Prodromus (+ 1668), 591
Polyvascular c1epsydras, 323, 324 Products, natural, records of, 518
Pomponius Mela (geographer, ft. +43), 494 Profit. See Private profit
Pontifex Maximus, 189 (d) Prognostication, 4, 172, 190, 284, 367, 378 (a),
Pope-Hennessy, U., 664 426, 427, 467, 476, 482, 625, 633
Popular Traditions and Customs. See Feng Su rationalisation of, 362
Thung I Progressions, 137 fr.
Population statistics, 534, 582 arithmetical, 22, 26, 35, 36, 43, 45, 138
Porcelain, 65 I, 68 I geometrical, 26, 35. 139
Portents, 193, 232 (c), 283, 418-19, 426, 475 Proof, absence of idea of, in Chinese mathe-
Portolan charts, 89, 532-3, 556, 560, 561, 564, matical thought, 151
57 6-'1, 5 87 'Proper motion' of stars, 270
Ports, 492, 494, 532 Proportion, 26, 35
Portuguese, 148, 3II, 330, 671 compound, 45
Poseidonius of Apameia (c. - 90), 493 Prospecting
Positional astronomy. See Astronomy bio-geochemical, 675 fr.
Positive law. See Law geobotanical, 675 fr.
Positive numbers, 26, 43, 90-1, 151 geological, 673-5
Post-Cartesian science, 49 Prostov, E. V., 620
Potassium nitrate. See Saltpetre Proto-c1ockwork, 314 (d)
Potter's wheel, 215 Proto-science, 159, 477 (i), 639
Pottery, Chou period, 95 Protractors, 74, 301
Powders, 642 Provence, 681 fr.
Power-drive, 360, 362, 363 Proverbs, 464
Poyang Fu (Chou statesman), 624 Psalter Map, 529
Practical and empirical genius of the Chinese, 88, Pseudo-Callisthenes, 656
151 (d), 152, 153, 172 Pterodactyl, 621
Practice and theory, 158-<) Ptolemaic-Aristotelian world-view, 172, 198, 220.
Prtina, 469, 477 (i), 637 43 8 , 44 2 , 445, 446, 45 6
Pratt, J. H., 246 Ptolemaic coordinates, 533
Prayers for and against Rain. See Chhing YU Ptolemaic planetary system, 395
Chih Yu Shu Ptolemy (astronomer, c. + 150),89, 101, 106, 108,
Pre-Socratic philosophers, 216, 500, 622, 641 171, 172, 174, 176, 268, 269, 270, 271, 288,
Precession of the equinoxes. See Equinoxes 29 0 , 300 , 333, 340 , 34 1, 349, 373, 38 2, 4 0 9,
Precious Mirror of the Four Elements. See Ssu 4 17, 421, 444, 5 2 5, 52 7, 5 28 , 5 2 9, 533, 54 0 ,
Yuan Yu Chien 561 , 56 3, 564, 58~ 589
Precious Secrets of the Realm of K8ng and Hsin. Pu (resonance period), 406, 407
See Keng Hsin Yu Tshe Pu (tree), 613
Precious stones. See Gems Pu-Khung (Amoghavajra, Indian astronomer),
Precipitation (meteorological), 467 fr. 202
Prediction. See Prognostication Pu Mi-Ko. See Boym, Michael
Prediction of the daily motion of the sun, 123ff., Pu Thien Ko (The Song of the March of the
292, 392fr. Heavens), 201, 281
Preface to Diagrams of the Tides. See Hai Chhao Public finance, 166
Thu Hsu Pulkovo Observatory. See Astronomical obser-
Prehistoric monsters, 622 vatories
Price, D. J., 315 (f), 343 (a), 366, 383 Pulleyblank, E., 203 (g)
Priestley, 193 Pumps, 167
Prime vertical, 179, 2II Puppets, 329, 363
'the Prince of Chhin's Secret Method of Counting Purcell, V., 446 (c)
Soldiers' (indeterminate analysis), 122 Purchas his Pilgrimes ( + 1625), 553, 586
Printed maps. See Maps Pure Records of the Cavernous Heaven. See
Printing, 39, 153. 193, 441 (a), 582 Tung Thien Chhing Lu Chi
colour. 341 (a) 'Pure Unity' Buddhist cloister, 661
polychrome block, 596 Purple Mountain Observatory. See Astronomical
Priscian, 623 observatories
 INDEX
Purple Yang (alchemical term, possibly cinnabar), Rape-turnip, 678
63 8 Rapids, 488
Pursuit and alligation, problems of, 26 Rarefaction. See Condensation and dispersion
Piirvavideha (continent), 568 Rasii'il Ikhwiin al-$afii' (Epistles of the Brethren
Puzzles, I I I of Sincerity), 602
Pyongyang, 555 Riislvalaya yan tra (instrument), 300
Pyramid, 26, 39, 98, 99, 109, 143 'Raslanda', 583 (h)
the P yramids, 296 Ratios, 26
Pyrophyllite, 664 Rats, 651, 660
Pythagorean form of multiplication table, 64-5 Raulin, Jules, 677
Pythagorean theorem, 21, 22, 24, 95, 96, 103, 147, Raven, C. E., 611
212 Ray, John (+ 1627 to + 1705),61 1,653
Pythagoreans, 54, 55, 90, 158, 161 (c), 167, Read, B. E., 592, 621, 644
198 (k), 228 Realgar, 638, 640, 643, 651, 675
Pytheas of Marseilles, 493 Rebus,8
the Recluse of the Western Hill (Hsi Shan Yin
Qara-Khitai (West Liao State), 118 (b), 457 (d) Che),490
al-Qazwini, Abii YaQ.ya (Arabic encyclopaedist, Record of a Journey to the West. See Hsi Yu Lu
c. + 1270), 469 Record of All the Guests. See Hsien Pin Lu
al-Qazwini, Hamdallah ibn abii Bakr al-Mustaufi Record of Rites compiled by Tai the Younger.
(+ 1281 to + 1349), 564, 589 See Li Chi
al-Qazwinl, Zakariya' ibn MuQ.ammad (+ 1203 Record of Symbols in the Book of Changes. See
to + 1283), 562 I Chuan
Quadrant, 296, 300, 301, 311, 452, 571 Record of the Barbarian Countries in the Western
Quadrant altazimuth, 452 Ocean. See Hsi- Yang Fan Kuo Chih
Quadrantal points, 249 Record of the Communicating Machine. See
Quadratic equations. See Equations Thung Chi Chi
Quartz, 643, 664, 672 Record of the Communicating Small Objects.
crystals, 648 See Thung Wei Chi
sand,668 Record of the Investigation of Things. See Po
Questions about the Heavens. See Thien Wen Wu Chi
Quick Method for Determining Segment Areas. Record of the Kingdom of Wu. See Wu Lu
See K o Yuan Mi Lii Chi Fa Record of the Moving Plate. See Tsou Phan Chi
Quick-sands, 607 Record of the Mutual Resonances of Things. See
Quipu, 69, 95 Kan Ying Lei Tshung Chih
Quotient, 65 Record of the Plate and the Balls. See Phan Chu
Chi
Record of the Rites of Chou. See Chou Li
Rabbit in the moon, 228 (f), 41 I (a), 436 Record of the Soils, Customs and Products of all
Rabinowitz, 681 the Provinces. See Chu Chun Thu Su Wu
Radhanites (group of Jewish merchants), 681 ff. Chhan Chi
Radio aerials of interferometer type, 428 Record of the Sources of the Four Seas, and the
Radio-astronomy, 428 Hundred Rivers. See Ssu Hai Pai Chhuan
'Radio-stars', 228 (I), 428 ff. Shui Yuan Chi
Radio transmission, 435 Record of the Ten Sea Islands. See Hai Nei Shih
Radius, 94 Chou Chi
Rahu (imaginary invisible planet), 175, 228, Record of the Thirteen Provinces. See Shih San
252 (c), 416 Chou Chi
Rain, 121,211,463, 467ff., 472, 481, 636, 640 Record of the Tribute-paying Western Countries.
'the chhi of earth', 467 See Hsi- Yang Chhao Kung Tien Lu
'comes from the mountains', 468 Record of Things Seen and Heard about the
prediction, 470, 471 Coastal Regions. See Hai Kuo Wen Chien Lu
red,470 Record of Tunhuang. See Tun-huang Lu
Rain-dragon, 473 Recorde, Robert, 115, 155, 166
Rain gauges, 121 (a), 471-2, 632 Records
Korean, 471 accuracy of, 417 ff., 426, 427 (e), 519 (b)
Rain magic, 467 astronomical, 417 ff., 426, 427 (e)
Rainbow, J62 , 467, 473-4, 477 meteorological, 462, 465, 467; floods and
al-Raiy (Persian town), 681 droughts, 472
Riim yantra (instrument), 301 Records of Buddhist Countries. See Fo Kuo
Rams , 671 Chi
Ram's horn conchs (yang chio lo), 618 Records of Foreign Peoples. See Chu Fan Chih
Rankama, K. & Sahama, T. G ., 678 Records of Hunan. See Hsiang Chung Chi
 INDEX
Records of Military Expeditions. See Shu Cheng Resume of Astronomy. See Thien Wen Lu
Chi Retrogradations (planetary motions), 200, 399, 400
Records of Strange Things. See Shu I Chi Rey, J ean, 439 (b)
Records of the Lineage of Buddha and the I;?g Veda hymns, 254
Patriarchs. See Fo Tsu Thung Chi Rhabdas, Nicholas, 61
Records of the Origins of Affairs and Things. Rhabdologiae, seu Numerationis per Virgulas, Libri
See Shih Wu Chi Yuan Duo, 72
Records of the Source of the (Yellow) River. See Rhinoceros, 621
Ho Yuan Chi Rho, James (Jesuit missionary) , 447
Records of the Warring States. See Chan Kuo Rhodes, 526
Tshe Rhomboid, 98
Records of the Western Countries in the Time of Rhone (river), 681
the Thang. See Ta Thang Hsi Yii Chi Rhumb-lines, 532, 560
Records of Things Seen and Heard. See Chien ' Rhyme-tables ', 78 (b), 107
Wen Chi Ricci, Francesco, 167
Records of Unusual Occurrences in the Heavens. Ricci, Matteo, 52, 106, 110, 172, 173, 194, 220,
See Hsing pien pu 36 7, 3 69, 370, 437, 438, 439, 442, 444, 450,
Rectangle, 22, 25, 93, 98, 104-5, 142 583-4, 589, 682
Rectangular grid. See Grid system contributions to geography by, 583
Red Bird (southern 'Palace'), 242 Rice crop famines, 436
Red Leather Record. See Tan Chhien Tsung Lu Rice culture, 463, 652, 682
Red rain, 470 Richardson, L. J., 68
Red Sea, 493, 559, 560 Right-angled triangles. See Triangles
Reed, problem of the, 27 Right ascension, 179, 180, 239, 250-1, 287, 338,
Reeves, J., 183 343, 357
Reflected light (of moon and planets), 227 'Right Pivot' (Yu shu), 260
the Reformation, 166 Rim-ocean, 211, 214
Refonnist movement, Sung period, 40, 281 'Ring of Linked Rings' (puzzle), I I I
Regiomontanus. See MUller, Johannes, of Ripa, Matteo (secular priest), 585
Konigsberg Rise and Fall of the Hsi-Hsia. See Hsi-Hsia Chi
Regis, Jean-Baptiste (Jesuit cartographer), 585 Shih Pen Mo
Regola Elchataym (Rule of False Position), 147 Rites and ceremonies, 195, 220, 334, 398
Regula Coecis, 122 Rites Controversy, 454 (b)
Regula Potatorum, 122 River conservancy, 516 (a)
Regula Virginum, 122 River-crossings, 523
Reinaud, J. T., 380 River evolution, 602
Rejuvenation, of a valley, 593 River systems, 508, 5 I 5
Relaci6n de las Cosas de Yucatdn, 514 Rivers, 498, 500, 507, 514, 517, 521
Relief maps. See M aps ' like the pulsating blood-vessels of a man', 487
Reliefs (Han dynasty), 303 mapping of, 514, 518
'Religious cosmography', 500, 502, 528-31, 547, Rivers and Mountains (c. +220), 647
561, 563, 565 ff., 587, 589 Road guides, 524
Remainder (yii), 63, 65, 85 Road-maps, 544
problems, 122 of the Roman world, 528
Remusat, J. P. A., 184, 433 Roads, 518, 523
Renaissance, 90, 91, 150, 152, 154, 156, 158, 164, Roberval, 142
166,172,266,282,296,340,341,377(g),379, da Rocha , Felix (Jesuit cartographer), 454, 586
400, 420, 437, 449, 45 8 , 4 64, 4 66 , 479, 494, Rock crystal, 438 (c), 652, 667
5 14, 520, 528, 533, 569, 579, 58 5, 587, 58 9, bottles of, 666
603,611,623,642,646,662 used for observation of the sun, 420 (b), 436
Reorganised Phannacopoeia. See Cheng Lei Pen Rock-salt, 637, 639
Tshao Rockhill, W. W., 512
Repetition of experiments, 160, 634 Rocks , 645, 649
Reports on Spiritual Manifestations. See Sou classification of, 641
Shen Chi generation of, 626, 637
Reptiles, fossil, 612, 619, 621 Rod-numerals , 8, 9, 17, 33, 62-3, 65, 70, 72, 91,
Resolutio, 161, 163 130, 132, 137
Resonance, philosophical concept of, 359 (e), Roemer, 377 (g)
384 (d), 468, 471 Roger II (Norman king of Sicily), 563
Resonance periods, 406 ff. Roller-cutter, 671
Restored True Chart of the Great-Ultimate Roman College, 444
Chaos-Origin. See Hsiu Chen Thai Chi Hun Roman indiction, 407
Yuan Thu Roman legionaries, 536-7
 INDEX 855
Roman surveyors, 286 Salterns, 642
Roman Syria. See Ta-Chhin Saltpetre, 643, 651, 652, 663
Roman triumphal processions, 536 Salween (river), 525
Romans, 13, 15, 61, 65, 68, 69, 81, 215, 313, 653 Samarqand, 205, 293, 416-17
Rome, 315, 389, 475 , 502, 526, 571 Samarqand observatory. See Astronomical ob-
Root extraction, 46, 47, 62, 65 if., 74, 85, 87, 89, servatories
127, 133, 134, 137, 146, 147 Samrii! yantra (Supreme Ruler Instrument),
Rosary, its possible relation to the abacus, 79 (h) 300, 301
Rosetti (I), 565 San-Fo-Chhi. See Palembang
Rotary disc knife (cha tho), 667-8 San Fu Huang Thu (Description of the Three
Rotation of the heavens. See Heavens Districts in the Capital), 478, 602
Rotation of the Tao, 467 San Kuo (period), 19, 33, 85, 116, 137, 200, 326,
Rotz, Jan (+ 1542), 532 385,478,508,514,538,621 , 657,668
Roxby, P., 462 (e) San Kuo Chih (History of the Three Kingdoms),
Royal Astronomical Society, 282 657
Royal Society, 183, 391, 450 San-Thien Thai-Shang Tao-Chtin (The Highly
Ruby, 672 Exalted Taoist Adept of the Three Heavens),
Rude star finder and identifier, 377 566
Rudimentum Novitiorum, 549, 550 San Thung Li (Three Sequences Calendar), 20,
Rudolph , R. C., 620 294, 407 (a), 421
Rudolphine Tables, 444 San tshai (Three Powers), method (of ball-
Ruffini, Paolo, 126 arithmetic), 78, 140
Rufus, W. C . & Tien Hsing-Chih (I), 278, 279, San Tshai Thu Hui (Universal Encyclopaedia),
281 617, 644
Ruhland, 645 San yeh suan (Indian sorrel), 678
Rule of False Position, 26, 35, 114, II7 if., 147 San- Yu Chui Pi (Long-Winded Discussions at
Rule of Six Quantities, 108 San-yti), 668
Rule of Three, 26, 35, 146 Sanbiasi (Jesuit cartographer), 584
technical terms, 129 (b), 146 Sand dunes, 607
Rules of Proportion and Exchange. See Suan Sang Chhien (river), 604
Hsueh Pi Li Hui Thung Sang Chhin (- 1st-century geographer), 514
Ruscelli, 528 Sang Hung-Yang (minister of State, - 152 to
Russell, S. M., 184 -80),7 1
Russians, 80 Sang thien (Taoist geological technical tenn) ,
Rustic Talks in Eastern Chhi. See Chhi Tung Yeh 599, 600-1
Yu Sanskrit. See Languages
Santarem, M. Vicomte, 526
Sabine, 435 Sanuto, Marino (cartographer, + 1306 to + 1321),
Sabsu (Manchu official, + 1677), 585 56 3, 56 4, 56 5, 58 7
Sacred mountains. See Mountains Saracens, 443
Sacred Promontory, 526 Sardines, fossil, 622
Sacrifices, 195, 232 (a), 397, 504 Sargent, C. B., 508
of animals, at the openings of mines, 671 Saris, John (English sea-captain), 586
to heaven, the sun, the moon and the stars, 336 Sarmatia, 113
human, 188 (d) Saros cycle, 186, 410, 420, 421
Sacrobosco, Johannes. See Holywood of Halifax, Sarton, George, 41, 80, 88, 90, 281,428,435, 512,
John 579, 61 9
Sagui, C. L., 592 Sassanian Persia, 205
Sahara desert, 555 Saturn (planet), 282, 398, 401, 408, 444
'Sailing directions', 559 Satyricon, 529
Sailors, 265, 470,493,517, 522 (d), 533, 557, 559, de Saussure, L., 173, 177, 182, 184,209,229, 242,
58 7 246, 247, 25 1, 257, 259, 287, 324, 391, 396,
Saka era, 11 397, 4 0 4, 406 , 4 6 0-1, 50 7
Sal ammoniac, 651, 654 if. Sawaguchi, Kazuyuki (c. + 1670), 144
Salamander legend, 658 if. Sayce, A. H., 41 I
Salamis abacus, 79 Sayili, Aydln, 333
Salrnony, A., 664 Scales (weighing), 332
Salt, 71, 639, 642, 643, 652 Scaliger, 407
industry, 610 Scandinavia, 188 (d)
mining, 652 Scaphe, 301, 302 (b and c)
rock-, 637, 639 Scarps, 592
sea-, 622 Sceptical rationalism, 413, 436, 482, 485, 657,
-wells, 610 659- 60
 INDEX

Schall von Bell, John Adam (Jesuit, + 1640), 52, Sedillot, L. P., I; (I), 379, 395; (2), 184, 460 (a);
102, 173,312,444,445,447,448,449,456 (3), 296 ; (5), 184
Scheiner, Christopher (Jesuit, + 1625), 366, 434, Sedimentary deposition, 603, 604, 605
442,475 Sedimentary rocks, 597, 612
Schlegel, G., 184, 185,273,504; (5), 183,234,282 Seed-drill tube, 332
Schnabel, P., 408 Seismographs, 359,451, 626 ff.
Scholars, 195, 196 mercury, 634-5
banishment of, 525 Seismological Observatory, University of Tokyo,
Scholastic philosophy, 161, 162, 163, 164, 165, 63 0
166, 428, 440 Seismology, 537, 624 ff.
School of Naturalists. See Naturalists, School of Sekino, T., 665
Schools, 683 Selenium, 678
Schbpfer, W. H., 677 Seleuceia, 493
Schove, D. J., 436 Seleucid Babylonia, 205, 394 (d), 395
Schreck, Johann. See Terrentius, Johannes Seleucos the Chaldean (astronomer, c. - 140), 493
Schwabe, 435 • Semi-human' peoples, 504
Science Seneca, 626
attitude of Europeans to Chinese science, 369, Seoul,301
44 1-3, 449, 45 6 Sera Metropolis, 527, 624ff.
Chinese attitude to the new science, 449, Seres, 505 (c)
45 0 - 1, 45 6 Series. See Progressions
development in Europe in 16th and 17th cen- Serpentine, 655, 664
turies, 154ff., 166-'7,439,448 Serpents, 6 I 8, 621
Jesuit attitude to the new science, 449, 450, 456 The Seven Beguiling Tales. See Chhi Fa
universality of modern science, 448--<) Seven-day week, 204, 397
Science and mathematics, 150 ff. Seven Luminaries (the sun, moon and five
Science and technology, 152ff., 154, 158ff., 162, planets), 204, 219, 359
167, 294 ff., 673 ff. Seven Regulators, 334
Scientific method, 154ff., 156, 159, 161, 448ff. • Seven Subtle Shapes' (puzzle), I I I
failure of medieval scholars to appreciate fully, Severn (river), 483
161, 165 Sexagenary cycle, 82, 396 ff., 408
Scientific' prediction', 156 (d) Sexagesimal arithmetic. See Arithmetic
Scientific research, 155 Sexagesimal notation, IS, 16
• Scientific' romances of interplanetary travel, 440 Sexagesimal place-value. See Place-value
Scientific Sketches. See Ko Chih Tshao Sexology and calendrical science, 390 (c)
Scientific theories, types of, 158, 159, 163 ff., 448 Sextant, 296, 301, 452, 574
Scientific Traces in Olden Times. See Ko Chih La Sjera (15th-century poem), 530
Ku Wei Sha-Chou Thu Ching (Topography of Shachow
Scoop-wheel, 318 [Tunhuang)), 518
Scorpio (constellation), 240, 250, 272, 425 Shadow Definer (ying ju), 299, 369
Scroll maps. See Maps Shadow lengths. See Sun-shadow lengths
Sculptors, 683 Shakespeare, William, 230
Sea-charts. See Portolans Shallot (hsiai plant), 675
Sea-faring, 265 (d) Shamanism, 159
Sea Island Mathematical Manual. See Hai Tao Shan ch/lUan, geographical division of the Thu Shu
Suan Ching Chi Chheng encyclopaedia (q.v.)
Sea-level, changes in, 598 ff., 602 Shan Chii. Hsin Hua (Conversations on Recent
Sea Mirror of Circle Measurements. See Tshe Events in the Mountain Retreat), 3 I I, 331,
Yuan Hai Ching 4 19,479
Sea-serpents, 489 Shan Hai Ching (Classic of the Mountains and
Sea walls, 488 Rivers), 434, 488, 494, 50 3, 504, 505, 508,
Sealing, 657 512, 565, 57 0 , 6 07, 608, 653, 658, 674, 675,
the Seasons, 213, 217, 224, 229, 240, 245, 246-7, 67 6
252, 253, 282, 390, 489 Shan hu (coral), 613
inequality of, 287, 329, 393 ff. Shan 0 (geographer, + 1059), 514
Seaweed, 622 Shan-Yin (river), 486, 487
Sebokht, Severus (Syrian bishop, +7th century), Shanchli Li (naturalist), 498
15, ISO, 376 Shang kingdom, 12, 13, 15, 83, 88, 96, 146, 148,
Secant, 108, 109 149, 159, 213, 242, 248, 249, 254, 256, 284,
Secret Garden of the Observatory. See Ling Thai 293,313,334,337,391,396,404,407,409,
Pi Yuan 410,411,464,473, 50 3, 504, 539, 569, 625,
Security regulations and astronomical officials, 641, 642, 665
193 climate, 464
 INDEX
Shang numeral system, 13
Shang (star), 242
Shang Hsien-Fu (Astronomer-Royal, +7th
century), 545
Shang-Huang Chhing-Hsti (imaginary reign-
period), 566
Shang Kao (semi-legendary mathematician), 21 ff.
Shang-shan-men, 577
Shang Shu Shih Thien (Discussion of the Astro-
nomy in the Historical Classic), 456
Shang Shu Wei Khao Ling Yao (Investigation of
the Mysterious Brightnesses), 199, 224, 361
Shang shui shih ('water-absorbing stone'), 614
Shang-tang, 660
Shang-yen, 621
Shang-Yti (river), 486, 487
Shangtu (Xanadu), 297, 310, 311
Shanks, William, 102
Shansi, 3 I I, 312, 500, 604, 624
Shantung, 95, 420, 5 00 , 522, 547, 55 1
Shao (one of the standard astronomers' terms for
fractions of a degree), 385 (a)
Shao Ang-Hsiao, 455
Shao 0 (astronomer, + 12th century), 262
Shao-shih (mountain), 606
Shao Yung (+ I Ith-century philosopher), 140,
222, 228
Shashtii1'}'!sa yantra (Sixty Degree Instrument),
301
Shaw, W. Napier, 435
She-thi (' Assistant Conductors '), 25 I, 252
She-thi-ko (first year of the Jupiter cycle), 251,
40 4
Shell-fish, 620
Shells, 598, 599, 600, 614, 622, 623
Shen(hriu),238, 240, 244, 248,249, 250, 251,272
Shen Hrien Chuan (Lives of the Divine Hsien), 600
Shen I Ching (Book of Strange Spiritual Mani-
festations), 658
Shen Kua (+ 11 th-century astronomer, engineer,
and high official), 4, 36, 38-<), 42, 48, 72, 79,
97, 102, 109, 110, 139, 142, 143, 145, 153,
191, 192, 208, 228, 262, 278, 281, 310, 325,
33 2 , 4 15, 421, 433, 473, 479, 4 8 2, 492, 493,
541,549,574-7,580,6°3,604,605,6°7,609,
61 I, 612, 614, 618
Shen Nung Pen Tshao Ching(Pharmacopoeia of the
Heavenly Husbandman), 60S, 621, 643, 644,
647
Shen Shih ( + loth century), 646
Slum Tao Ta Pien Li Tsung Suan Hui (Assembly
of Computing Methods connected with the
Calendar), 143
Shen Te-Fu (c. + 1398), 655
Shen Thu-Ti, 485-6
Shen Tso-Che (about + 12th century), 88
Shen Wen-Hou, 282
Sheng Chiao Kuang Pei Thu (Map for the Dif-
fusion of Instruction), 554
Sheng Hui Fang (Glory-of-the-Sages Prescrip-
tions), 683
SMng Pai-Erh (+18th-century scholar), 456, 457
Sheng Tu (Sung geographer), 547
Shensi, 419, 500, 604, 609, 624
Shenyang (Mukden), 311
the Shifting Sands, 667
Shih (radical for all stones or rocks), 641
Shih (equal double-hours). See Equal double-
hours
Shih (instrument). See Diviner's plate
Shih (technical term of ancient hydraulic en-
gineering), 325
Shih Chang-Ju (1, 2), 665
Shih chhi ('stone lacquer', petroleum), 608, 609
Shih Chi (Historical Records), 56,71,185,195,199,
232, 399, 401 , 420, 425, 471, 537, 582, 608,
62 4
Shih Chin (Imperial Meteorologer), 190, 476
Shih Ching (Book of Odes), 16, 87, 244-5, 251,
254, 315, 409, 410, 416, 463, 4 68
Shih chung ju (' stone bell milk', stalactites), 605
Shih~, 492
Shih hria and Shih hsieh (fossil crabs), 613, 619
Shih I Chi (Memoirs on Neglected Matters), 538,
610, 657
Shih jung (' stone silk-floss', asbestos), 661
Shih han (stone oysters), 615
Shih ho (fossil clams), 617
Shih Liao Pen Tshao (Nutritional Medicine
Pharmacopoeia), 644
Shih Lin Kuang Chi (Guide through the Forest of
Affairs [encyclopaedia]), 323
Shih-liu Kuo Chiang Ya Chih (Historical Geo-
graphy of the Sixteen Kingdoms), 586
Shih ma (stone hemp , asbestos), 660
Shih mei ('stone plum-trees'), 613
Shih-men Shan (mountain), 593
Shih nao (aetites), 652
Shih nieh (alum), 653
Shih phi (' stone spleen '), 606
Shih Phin (Hierarchy of Stones), 645
Shih Pi (early Yuan traveller), 561
Shih po ('stone cypresses'), 613
Shih-san Chou Chi (Record of the Thirteen
Provinces), 520
Shih she (' stone serpents '), 617
Shih Shen (astronomer, fl. between - 370 and
- 340), 197, 200, 216, 247, 248, 261, 263,
268, 271, 287, 340, 343, 355, 38 2, 392, 4 01 ,
406, 411
Shih Shuo Hsin Ya (New Discourse on the Talk
of the Times), 600, 601
Shih So Suan Shu (Book of the Unlocking of
Coefficients), 136
Shih Su (Studies on the Book of Odes), 315
Shih sun (fossil bamboo-shoots), 614
Shih tshan ('stone silkworms'), 619
Shih Wu Chi Yuan (Records of the Origins of
Affairs and Things), 276
Shih Wu Lun (Discourse on Time [calendrical]),
86
Shih yang liu (weeping willow), 678
Shih Yao Erh Ya (Synonymic Dictionary of
Minerals and Drugs), 644, 647
Shih yen ('stone-swallows'), 614, 617
Shih-yen Shan (mountain), 615
 INDEX
Shih yu (' stone fishes '), 620 Shuo Wen Chieh Tzu (Analytical Dictionary of
'Shimmering' (atmospheric phenomenon), 637(b) Characters), 469, 666
Shinjo, Shinzo, 186, 397 Siam, 558
Shipbuilding, 158 Sian
Ships, 167,331,441 city-maps of, 551
al-ShIrazi, Qutb ai-DIn (+1236 to +1311),474 earthquakes at, 632
Shogunate, 682 siege of, 624
Short, James (+ 1732 to + 1768), 366 Siberia, 663
Shou Shih Calendar (+ 1281), 49,125,294,380 (i), Siberian coast, 505
38 I (a) Sicilian straits, 526
Shou Shou Wu Yo Yuan Fa (The Received Sicily, 526, 563
Method of Drawing the Circles of the Five Siddhiintas, 254
Mountains), 567 Sidereal day, 181-2, 398, 428
Shu. See Szechuan Sidereal month, 239
Shu Cheng Chi (Records of Military Expeditions), Sidereal period, 401, 402
478 Sidereal time, 181
Shu cheng tien, natural records division of the comparison with clock time, 322
Thu Shu Chi Chheng encyclopaedia, q.v. Sidereal year, 181,247,284, 356
Shu Ching (Historical Classic), 56, 174, 177, 184, Sidereal year fraction, 294, 391
186, 189, 231, 245, 247, 249, 333, 336, 386, Sidereus Nuntius (+ 1610), 444
4 0 9, 4 61 , 4 68 , 487, 500, 501, 502, 503, 504, Sieberg, A., 626
53 8 , 53~ 54 1, 54 8 , 5 6 5, 574, 575, 61~ 627 , Sieve of Eratosthenes', 54
Shu Hai (legendary assistant of Yli the Great), 570 Sighting-board, 570
Shu Hsi (astronomer, late + 3rd or + 4th cen- Sighting-tube, 21, 261, 262, 270, 299, 300, 332 ff.,
tury), 17, 226 339, 340 , 35 0 , 362 , 36 3, 36 4, 36 5, 36 9, 38 3,
Shu Hsueh (Mathematical Astronomy), 456 38 4, 45 8 , 57 1, 57~ 577
Shu I Chi (Records of Strange Things), 607 'gun-barrel', 352, 377
Shu I-Chien (astronomer, + 1050), 350 Signatures, doctrine of, 679
Shu Li Ching Yun (Collected Basic Principles of Silicon carbide, 668
Mathematics), 53 Silk, 501, 541
Shu Shu Chi I (Memoir on some Traditions of trade, 527
Mathematical Art), 29, 58,76,78,87,88, 140, Silkworm, 501, 651
600 Silver, 638, 639, 640, 672, 674, 675, 676, 678
Shu Shu Chiu Chang (Mathematical Treatise in 'Silver-fish' (Lepisma), 621
Nine Sections), 10, 40, 42,43,120, 141,472, Silver table (planisphere), 282
577, 57 8 Simeonis, Symon (Irish monk, + 14th century),
Shu Shu Chiu Chang Cha Chi (Notes on the 513 (b)
Mathematical Treatise in Nine Sections), 44, Simon, E. (I), 69
578 Simon bar Kochba (' son of the Star'), 426 (i)
Shu Ssu Shuo Ling (Discussions of a Bookseller), Simonelli, Jacques-Philippe, 454
477 Simple Prescriptions for Everyman. See Phu Chi
Shu Tu Yen (Generalisations on Numbers), 60 Fang
Shu Wu I Ming Su (Disquisition on Strange Simplicius, 401
Names for Common Things), 661 Simplified Instrument. See Chien i
Shui An-Li (Sung historical geographer), 549 Simultaneous linear equations. See Equations
Shui Ching (Waterways Classic), 514 Sinanthropus pekinensis, 62 I
Shui Ching Chu (The Waterways Classic Com- Sines, 48, 108, 110, 375
mented), 514, 615, 620 Singer, C., 653, 675
Shui Lien, 603 'Singing sands', 607
Shui Tao Thi Kang (Complete Description of Sining, 523
Waterways), 514 Sinkiang, 510, 525, 655, 665
Shun (legendary emperor), 487 Si no logical criteria, compared with those of
Shun Ti (emperor of the Later Han), 359, 419. occidental philology, 622 (b), 657 (e)
632 Sinology, in relation to mathematics and science,
Shun Tien, chapter of the Shu Ching, q.v. I (e), 2 (a, b), 429 (b)
Shun- Yu Lin-An Chih (Shun-Yu reign-period Sinor, D. (I), 507
Records of the Hangchow District), 492 Sinyakova, A., 678
Shun-Yu reign-period Records of the Hangchow Sion, J. (I), 462
District. See Shun- Yu Lin-An Chih Sip Chong Rok (Calendar of the Ten Essences),
Shuo Jih (on the sun), chapter of the Lun Heng 68 3
(q.v.) Siphon, 315, 320, 323, 326, 328
Shuo shih (lunation), 392 Sirius, 229, 270, 272
Shuo Wen. See Shuo Wen Chieh Tzu Sisco, A. G., 672
 INDEX

de Sitter, W., 288 Sou Shen Chi (Reports on Spiritual Manifesta-

'Six Learned Scholars' (game). See Liu po tions), 659
Sixty-day count. See Sexagenary cycle Sou Tshai I Wen Lu (Collection of Strange
Skins. See Hides Things Heard), 64, 568
Slaves, 681 Souciet, E., 174, 183
Sleet, 467 The Sources of the (Yellow) River, and a History
Slide-rule, 73-4, 155,438 of our Knowledge of them. See Ho Yuan Chi
Small Encyclopaedia of the Principles of Things. Liieh
See Wu Li H siao Shih South Africa, 472
Smartweed (liao) , 676 'South-pointing carriage', 579
Smethurst, Gamaliel, 80 South polar constellations, 281
Smith, D. E. (I), 1,2,3,15,27,35,75,89,98,103, South pole (celestial), 179, 208, 217
107, 117, 122, 128, 141, 145 South Seas, 556, 658
Smogul~cki (Nicholas), 52, 445, 454 Southampton, 484
Snakes, 618 Southern circumpolar stars. See Stars
Snow, 121, 464, 467, 468 Southern Dipper ( an tou), 232, 233
Snow gauges, 472, 632 Southern 'Palace', 200
So Ko-J ong ( + 15th-century Korean geographer), Southern provinces, topography, 51 0
521 (b) Southern Sung (dynasty), 352, 367
Soapstone, 642, 660 Space, 93
Social position infinite, 157,218, 219 fr., 439
of astronomers, 171 Spain, 526, 532, 584
of mathematicians, 42, 153 Spanish conquests on the American continent,
of technicians, 155 559 (a), 663
Socio-economic theory of the causation of post- Special Characteristics of Chinese Mathematics.
Renaissance science, 166-7 See Chung-Kuo Suan-Hsiieh The Se
Socotra, 559, 560 Specifications (or Calibration) of Scientific Instru-
Sodium tetraborate, 662 ments. See Chhi Chun Thu
Sogdia, 204, 205, 206, 395 (d), 396 Spectrographic analysis , 674
Sogdian language. See Languages Spens, Sir Patrick. See 'Ballad of Sir Patrick
Sogdians. See Cultures Spens'
Soil science, 500-1, 674, 676, 677-8 Sphaera Mundi, 340
Solar corona, 423 Sphere, 99
Solar day, 182 volume of, 144
Solar eclipses. See Eclipses Spheres, celestial, Greek and Chinese, 198 fr.
Solar-terrestrial phenomena, 435 Spherical astrolabe, 375 (f)
Solar time, 313 Spherical astronomy. See Astronomy
Solar year, 390 Spherical geometry. See Geometry
Soldering, 662 Spherical triangles, 357
Solger, F. (I), 282 Spherical trigonometry. See Trigonometry
Solid figures, 26, 97 fr. Sphericity of the earth, 218, 225, 438, 498, 499,
Solid geometry. See Geometry 526 , 545
Solinus, Gaius Julius (+3rd century), 505, 512 Spherics, 108
Solstice points, 179, 246, 249, 270, 329, 387 Spica, 230, 233, 239
variation of, 173 Spin/er, 614, 616
Solstice-shadow measurements, 293, 523, 526 The Spiritual Constitution of the Universe. See
Solstices, 181, 188, 190,211,212,215,224,246, Ling Hsien
247, 257, 284, 286 fr., 302, 337-8, 357, 368, Spizel, G., 80
393, 4 6 7, 471 Split-ring armillary circles, 352, 368 (b)
'standard ' measurements, 297 van der Sprenkel, 0., 157 (c)
Summer, 526 Spring and Autumn Annals. See Chhun Chhiu
Winter, 465 Spring Dragon, 252
Solstitial colure, 337, 340 Springs, 419, 606
Solstitial day, 527, 542 hot, 610-1 I
'Solstitial Dial', 374, 378 petrifying, 606-7
Solstitial gnomon shadow-lengths, 526 the Square, 21 , 22, 23, 55, 65, 90, 98,
Somnium Scipionis, 440 (d) 129
Sondok of Silla (queen in Korea, +632 to +647), Square roots, 21-2, 26, 33, 35, 50, 65, 75, 85, 123,
297 126, 127, 146
Song of the Eastern Lord. See Tung Chiln of negative quantities, 9 I
Song of the March of the Heavens. See Pu tables of, 89
Thien Ko Ssu-chou, 577
St Sophia in BY2antium, 296 Ssu Fen Li calendars, 20, 247, 293
860 INDEX
Ssu Hai Hua I Tsung Thu (Complete Map of
China and the Barbarian Lands within the
Four Seas), 565
Ssu Hai Pai Chhiian Shui Yuan Chi (Record of the
Sources of the Four Seas, and the Hundred
Rivers), 566
Ssu Hsiian Fu (Meditation on the M ystery), 440 (d)
Ssu Li Po Shih Khao (Investigation of Eclipses in
relation to the Four Kinds of Calendar), 207
Ssu M en Ching (Manual of the Four Gates), 204
Ssu Min Yiieh Ling (Monthly Ordinances for the
Four Sorts of People), 196
SsIl-Pi Sllan Fa Tuan Shu «Book of -Euclid on)
Calculation in Propositions), 105
Ssu Thien Chien (Directorate of Astronomy and
Calendar), 191,421
Ssu Thien Chien Hsii Chih (What Every Member
of the Astronomical Bureau ought to Know),
207
Ssu y u (the' four displacements '), 224
Ssu Yuan Yii Chien (Precious Mirror of the Four
Elements), 41, 46,125,131,134,135,138
Ssurna Chhien (historian and astronomer), 56, 71,
18 5, 199, 232, 247, 252, 254, 274, 302 , 399,
401 ,4 1 1,422,476, 50 4, 535, 537
Ssurna Kuang (historian), 107
Ssurna Piao (philosophical commentator), 92
Stalactites, 605-6, 643
Stalactitic limestone, 652
Stalagmites, 605-6, 614, 643
Standard foot-measure, 82
'Standard of Chhih-Yu', 426
Standard platinum metre, 287
'Standard' solstice measurements, 297
Standing wave, 484
Stapleton, H. E., 654
Star catalogues, 183, 197, 216, 263 fr., 454, 458
Star identifications, 261, 282
Star-lists. See Star catalogues
Star Manual. See Hsing Ching
Star-maps, 183, 185, 201, 208, 259, 276 fr., 338,
36 4, 37 6 , 38 3, 38 7
coloured, 263-4
Egyptian, 281
p ainted in the concave surface of a cupola,
389 (b)
Tunhuang MS., 264, 276
Star-maps on Ecliptic Coordinates. See Huang
Tao TSllng Hsing Thu
Star of the Magi, 423 (a), 426 (i)
Stars, 278, 338, 603
altitude of, 179
circumpolar, 176, 179, 180, 184, 230, 232 fr.,
249, 25 0 , 251, 252, 253, 255, 262, 279, 332
colours of, 209, 263 (d), 425, 427
culminations of, 21, 231, 279
declination of, 179, 180, 181, 249
folklore , 282 fr.
nomenclature, 232, 271 fr.
positions at conception, 362
proper motions of, 270 fr.
shape, 413
shooting, 4 13, 433
southern circurnpolar, 274, 278
times of meridian passages, 184
variable, 413 (e), 423 fr., 429
visible and invisible, 217
Stars of Anu, 256
Stars of Ea, 256
Stars of Enlil, 256
Statistical methods, 634
Steatite, 643, 660, 664
powdered, 651
Steel, 350
tools, 667
Steelyard c1epsydras, 317, 319, 323, 326, 327
Stein, Aurel, 287, 420, 519 (b)
Stein Tunhuang collection, 252
Steinschneider, M . (I, 2), 257
Stele in Confucian temple, Yang-chheng, 297
in Chhang-lo, Fukien, 557
in Confucian temple, Suchow, 278, 550
Stensen, Nicholas (+ 1668), 591
Steppes, 536
Stereometric projections, 310, 381
Sternpost rudder, 559 (a)
Stevin, Simon, 46, 89, 155, 158, 166, 167
Stifel, M., 35, 134
Stiles , W., 677
Stimulus and response, 492 (a)
Stimulus diffusion, 149
Stoliczka, F., 665
Stone axes. See Neolithic axes
'Stone crabs' (shih hsieh), 618, 619
'Stone cypresses' (shih po), 613
Stone-Fish Mountain, 620
'Stone fishes' (shih yii), 620
'Stone hemp' (asbestos), 660
'Stone lacquer' (petroleum), 608, 609
Stone oysters (shih kan), 615, 617
'Stone plum-trees' (shih mei), 613
Stone-quarries, 622
'Stone serpents' (shih she), 617, 618
'Stone silkworms' (shih tshan), 619
'Stone swallows', 614-17, 619
'Stone Tower', 527
Stones, 645, 646, 647
classification of, 641
precious, 669 ff.
'pregnant', 652
, Stopwatch' c1epsydra. See Clepsydra
Storeys, or layers, celestial, 198 ff.
Stories of the Eastern Palace. See Tllng Kung Ku
Shih
Storm prediction, 441 (a), 464
Strabo (-63 to + 19), 494, 505, 512, 520, 622,
656, 660
'Straight-horn stone' (chih chio shih), 619
Strange Matters. See Lu I Chi
Strange Rocks . See Kuai Shih Tsan
Strange Things from the South. See Nan Choll
I Wu Chih
Strange Things from the Southern Borders. See
Nan I I Wu Chih
Strange Things seen through the Barred Window.
See Hsien Chhuang Kua I Chih
 INDEX 861
Straton of Lampsacus, 161 (C) Sui-Chhu Thang Shu Mu (Catalogue of the Books
'Striding level', 298 (b) in the Sui-Chhu Hall), 40, 207, 676
Striking device, m Korean demonstrational Sui Hsi Yu Thu (Map of the Western Kingdoms
arrnillary, 389 in the Sui Dynasty), 543
Strong, E. W., 158 Sui Shu (History of the Sui Dynasty), 36, 86,101,
Struik, D. J. (2), 92 124, 201, 202, 205, 264, 303, 327, 383, 386,
Studies on the Book of Odes. See Shih Su 5 18 , 654
Studies on the Gnomon Shadows at the Two Sui yu (' year-fraction '), 294, 391
Solstices. See Erh Chih Kuei Ying Khao Sulaiman al-Tajir (Sulaiman the Merchant), 203,
Studies on the Oceans East and West. See Tung 565, 587, 681
Hsi Yang Khao Sulphur, 6II, 639, 641, 643, 651, 655, 675
Study of Star-Maps from the Myriad Bamboo Sulun (explorer, + I704), 585
Tablet Studio. See Wan Chhing Lou Thu Sumatra, II, 274
Pien Sumeria,82
Stumpf, Bernard Kilian (Jesuit), 380 (a), 452 Summa de Arithmetica, 166
Style (pole-pointing gnomon), 303, 307, 309, 3II Summation of a series, 39, 141
Styptics, 653 Summation of power progressions, 48
Su Hsiin (early + I Ith century), 482 Sums of products, 36
Su I-Chien (+ loth century), 646 Sun
Su Kung (+7th century), 648, 649 angular motion of, 124, 394
Su Sung (astronomer, + 1020 to + IIOI), 155, 192, annual movements of, 21, 229, 257
193-4,208,278,279,281,349,35 0 ,352,353, apparent contrary motion of, in relation to the
361, 362, 363, 36~ 365, 366, 37~ 38~ 38~ fixed stars, 214
389, 617, 618, 647, 648, 654, 660, 661, 663, apparent gross enlargement of, near the horizon,
675 226
Su Tung-Pho (poet), 331, 482 apparent unequal rate of motion of, 313, 329
Suan (calculation), 3, 4, 8 colour, at sunrise and sunset, 227, 467
Suan Ching Shih Shu (The Ten Mathematical course and resting-places, 220, 239
Manuals), 18 declination of, 19
Suan Fa Ta Chheng (Complete Survey of Mathe- determination of its position among the stars,
matics},24 229, 232, 246
Suan Fa Thu Pu, mathematical diagrams chapter diameter, 300, 332, 573 (c)
of Hsin-Chai Tsa Tsu, q.v. eccentric circle theory of its motion, 393
Suan Fa Thung Pien Pen Mo (Alpha and Omega illumination of the earth's surface by, 21 I
of the Mathematics of Mutually Varying influence on the tides, 490, 491, 492, 493
Quantities), 104 mean path of, 179
Suan Fa Thung Tsung (Systematic Treatise on moving 1° each day, 218, 219
Arithmetic), 16, 51-2, 55, 60, 64, 69, 75,76, rotation of, 182, 435
122, 569 shape of, 413, 415
Suan Fa Yuan Li Kua Nang (Comprehensive Yang (male) nature of, 227, 4II-12, 414
Discussion of Circle Theory Computations), Sun Chang. See de la Charme
10 3 Sun Chho (+4th century), 322
Suan Hsueh Chhi Meng (Introduction to Mathe- Sun Chhiian (first emperor of the Wu State), 538,
matical Studies), 41, 46, 90 54 1
Suan Hsueh Pi Li Hui Thung (Rules of Proportion Sun Seng-Hua, 264
and Exchange), 16 Sun-Jhadow lengths, 21, 257, 284 ff., 356, 542,
Suan Kuan (mathematical department of the 583 (e)
Imperial University), 192 moment of minimum and maximum shadow
Suan phan (calculating plate; abacus), 74 ff. length,293
Suan Wang Lun (Discourse on Net Calculations), south of Tropic of Cancer, 292
100, 538 Sun-spot cycle, 420, 435, 465
Subtraction, 10, IS, 62, 63, 149 possible connection with good and bad harvests,
of fractions, 81-2 43 6
'Succi' (ground waters), 649-50 Sun-spots, 172, 209, 366 (e), 41 I, 434 ff., 444 (a),
'Succus lapidificus ', 619 447, 45 8 , 4 8 3
Suchow, 74, 514, 557, 608, 661 earliest dated, 436
city-map of, 551 technical terms, 435, 436
Confucian temple at, 278 Sun Tzu (+ 3rd century), 36, 65, 85, 119, 120,
planisphere, 278, 281, 550 146, 147, 152
Suez, 493 Sun Tzu Suan Ching (Master Sun's Arithmetical
Sui (dynasty), 37, 148, 192, 197, 198, 201, 202, Manual), 8, 9, 12, 33, 66, 83, 119, 137, 147
257, 2 64, 3 15, 327, 328 , 38 5, 472, 5 20 , 543, Sun Wen-Chhing (4), 538
633, 673, 677 Sun Wu (- 6th-century general and author), 33
862 INDEX

Sun Yen-Hsien, 474 'Symbolic words' , I I

Sundial, 232 (c), 301, 302 ff., 309, 329, 331, 338, Symbolism, Hebrew, 257
381, 682 Symbols, geographical, 552 (d)
bow~ 301, 30~ 369, 374, 375 Symon Simeonis, 513 (b)
equatorial, 3 I I Sympathetic fertility magic, 17
equatorial-plane plate, 307, 308-9, 311 Synagogues, 682
portable, 31o ff. Synodic cycles, 200, 399, 401
primitive, 308 Synodic month, 239, 390
Sundial and compass makers, 3 12 Synonymic Dictionary of Minerals and Drugs.
Sundial Book. See Jih Kuei Shu See Shih Yao Erh Ya
Sung (dynasty), 3, 9, 10, 16, 17, 18,20,31,33,36, Syntaxis Mathematica. See Almagest
38 ff., 46, 5 1,56, 59,64,65,66,85,86,90,97, Synthesis, 161
116, 117, 122, 123, 125, 126, 127, 128, 129, Syracuse, 622
130, 133, 137, 144, 147, 152, 153, 154, 159, Syria, 175
171, 174, 193 ,201,2°4,206 ff., 224, 228, 281, Syrians, 15,49, 150, 376, 610
312,315,317,318,321,323,324,326,327, Systematic Treatise on Arithmetic. See Suan Fa
328, 331, 334, 35 2 , 36 5, 397, 415, 416, 420, Thung Tsung
421, 427, 430, 433, 4 6 4, 4 6 9, 470, 472, 473, Szczesniak, B. (I), 447; (2), 444
493,510,511,512,514,518,519,520,521, Szechuan, 477, 5 15, 5 17, 5 2 4, 539, 543, 544, 597 ,
54 1, 543, 54 6 , 547, 549, 550, 55 1, 5 68 , 574, 608,610, 613, 655, 672, 680
580, 6°3, 606, 6°9, 611, 613, 614, 617, 619,
624, 625 , 645, 654, 660 T-square, 22, 23, 567, 570
Sung (State), 413 TLV-board, 303, 305
Sung Ching (Astronomer-Royal of the Chhen), TL V markings, 303-5, 307-8
328 TL V mirrors. See Mirrors
Sung Ching-Chhang, 44, 578 T-O maps, 529-30, 561, 562
Sung Chlin (d. +76), 199 Ta Chang (legendary assistant of Yti the Great),
Sung Chun (ft. + loth century), 518 57°
Sung lin shih (pine-forest stone), 613 Ta chhen (celestial mark-points), 250
Sung La (+ 1665), 645 Ta-Chhin (Roman Syria), 174,321, 587, 656
Sung Min-Chhiu, 547 Ta Chhing Hui Tien (Administrative Statutes of
Sung Shan (mountain), 38 the Chhing Dynasty), 325
Sung Shih (History of the Sung Dynasty), 518 Ta Chhing I Thung Chih (Comprehensive Geo-
Sung shih ('pine-stone'), 613 graphy of the (Chinese) Empire (under the
Sung Tzhu (ft. + 1240 to + 1250, founder of Chhing dynasty), 593
forensic medicine), 162 (e) Ta chio (star), 25 I
Sung Ying-Hsing (ft. + 1600 to +165 °), 154, Ta hsing. See' Great Star'
665, 666, 670, 675 Ta Hsiieh (Great Learning), 163
Sung Yu (- 3rd-century poet), 305 Ta huo (star), 250
8ilnya ('emptiness', zero), 10 (k), 12, 148 Ta-liang (one of the twelvefold divisions of the
Superintendents of mining. See Kung Jen equator and its hsiu, corresponding to the
Supernovae, 171, 244 (a), 423 ff. spring equinox), 243, 489
'Supreme Ultimate Great Origin', 408 Ta-Iu (the Great Plain), 501
Surds, 90 Ta Lung Chhiu, 603
Surveying, 25, 35,37,39, 52,95 ,97, 104,105,153, Ta Ming calendar (+463), 294, 392
33 2 , 373 , 437, 540, 542, 569 ff., 586 Ta Ming HUll-1 Thu (Ming Dynasty Map of the
Surveyor's carriage, 579 One World), 555
Surveyor's poles, 3 I Ta-Mu-She (title of a Persian astronomer, +719) ,
Roman, 286 204
Siirya-prajiiapti, 589 Ta Pao Chi Ching (Maharatnakuta Slitra), 88
S177'ya Siddhtinta (The Sun-God's [Astronomical] Ta-Shih. See West Liao State
Treatise), 394 (a), 395 (e) Ta Tai Li Chi (Record of Rites compiled by Tai
Suspension-bridge, 682 the Elder), 58, 59, 61, 194,248,498
Sutan (province), 662 Ta Thang Hsi Yii Chi (Records of the Western
Swallows, 615, 616 Countries in the Time of the Thang), 5 I I
Swastika, 58, 308 Ta-thung, 667
Swords, 68o Ta Thung calendar (+ 1364),49,79
Sydrac (c. + 1250), 262 Ta-T sin . See Ta-Chhin (Roman Syria)
Syene, 225, 526 Ta-Yeh reign-period, 327, 385
Sylvester, J. J. , 47 Ta Yen calendar (+728),37,2°3,294
Symbolic animals, 240 (a) Ta yen chhiu i (indeterminate analysis), 42
Symbolic correlations, I I (a), 58 (b), 65, 84, 151, Ta Yen Hsiang Shuo (Explanation of Indetermi-
195, 240, 257 (g), 398, 402, 405, 64 0 , 679 nate Analysis), 40
 INDEX
Ta Yen Li Shu (Book of the Ta Yen Calendar), Tardin (+ 1618), 608 (e)
119-20, 203 Ta'rfkh-i-Guzfda (Select Chronicle), 564
Ta yen shu (indeterminate analysis), 119, 121, Tarim basin, 523, 665
122 Tartaglia, icol6 (+ 1500 to + 1557), II8, 125,
Tabulation, calculating by, 26 154, 158, 166
systems, 106, 107 Tartars. See Tribal peoples
Tabulation of Data in the Calendar of the Nine Tasaka, Kodo, 372
Palaces/ in which the Chess Pieces Move. See Tattooing, 505
Chiu Kung Hsing Chhi Li-Chheng Tatu (Peking), 297
Tai Chen (+ 18th-century scholar and mathe- Taurus (mountains), 526
matician), 18, 29, 66,72, 519 Taxation, 25 (f), 26, 48, 153, 518
Tai Chin-Hsien. See Kogler, Ignatius Taximeter carriage, 577
al-Tajir. See Sulaiman al-Tajir Taylor, Brook (+ 1716), 125
Takakusu, Seki. See K6wa, Seki TB-hsing (' earth-shine '), 422
Takeda, K. (I), 52 Te Tsung (emperor of the Thang), 543
Taki, Sei-ichi, 596 Technical education, 359
Talas River, 536, 681 Technical terms, xlii if.
Talc,664 abacus, 74 if.
Tales of the Four Lords of Liang. See Liang air-pump, 451
Ssu Kung Chi celestial globe, 383
Talismans, 567 clepsydra, 325
Talks (at South Village) while the Plough is clouds, 470
Resting. See Cho Keng Lu comets, 431
Tamil astronomy and calendrical science, 395 (e) decimal system, 86
Tan (term in alchemy and mineralogy), 642 various parts of the degree, 268
Tan (prince of Yen, -240 to -226). See Yen eclipses, 420, 421
Tan Tzu fractions, 81 if.
Tan Chhien Tsung Lu (Red Lead Record) , 661 Jupiter cycle, 402
Tan Fang Chien Yuan (Original Mirror of Al- lunar and solar motion, 395
chemical Preparations), 671 mathematics, 46, 47, 49, 62 if., 72, II4, 120,
Tan-thu, 485, 486 124, 127-8, 133, 138, 146
Tan Yuan Tzu. See Wang Hsi-Ming meteors and meteorites, 433-4
Tanais (river). See Don (river) novae, 425
Tangent, 108, 109 planetary motions, 398-9
'Tangle-stone' (fen tzu shih; unidentifiable), precious stones, 669
674 resonance periods, 406-7
'Tangrams' (puzzle), I I I solar halo system, 475-6
Tanning, 651 sun-spots, 435, 436
the Tao of Nature, 159, 402, 458, 467, 468 Taoist, 599, 612
Tao-An (monk, +4th century), 566 tides, 484-5
Tao li (pacing out the sides of right-angled tri- topography, 524
angles), 539-40 Technicians, 155, 158, 159, 166, 222, 360, 365,
Tao-Shih (monk, +668),610 643, 667, 681
Tao TB Ching (Canon of the Virtue of the Tao), Technology, 294, 449, 457, 651, 663, 668
69,7 0 ,464 Teheran, 681
Tao Tsang (Taoist Patrology), 198 Telescope, 262, 339, 340, 341, 355 (e), 362, 365,
Taoist 'emptiness ', 12,221,222 3 66 , 372, 377 (g), 37 8 , 427, 429, 434, 438,
Taoist hermits, 152 (d), 605 443, 444, 445, 45 8
Taoist paradoxes, 47 first reference in Chinese, 444
Taoist Patrology. See Tao Tsang Telescopic observations, 444, 445, 447
Taoist Trinity, 566 (d) Tempel's Comet, 433
Taoists and Taoism, 12, 29, 30, 35, 133 (d), 140, Temperature, 465- 6
144, 145, 152, 153, 159, 171, 196, 201, 221, Temperature control, 159, 319, 321,
222, 226, 276, 293, 326, 327, 414, 4 16, 457, Temples, 198
464,477 (i), 50 7, 519,522,541,544,545,546, Blue Pagoda temple, Khaifeng, 331
557,566,567,581-2,589,596,599,600,602, Chin Shan temple, Jun-chou, 434
60~ 6I~ 613, 639, 642, 657, 659 Cockcrow temple (Chi Ming Ssu), Nanking,
and astronomy, 171 (c) 367 (d)
and geography, 551 (e), 566 if. Confucian temple, Suchow, 278
technical terms, 599, 612 Confucian temple, Yang-chheng, 297
Tapa (bark cloth), 658 Hun Thien temple, Chhang-an, 283
Taprobane (Ceylon), 533 'Pure Unity' Buddhist cloister, Jen-ho, 661
Taqwfm (calendars), 378 (a) Taoist temples, 276
 INDEX
Temples (contd.)
Temple of Heaven, Peking, 257
Tunhuang cave-temples, 9
Temporal or variable-length hours, 313
Ten-day week (hsiin), 397, 477
the 'Ten Haloes', 475, 476
the Ten Mathematical Manuals. See Suan Ching
Shih Shu
Ten suns in the sky (mythological story), 476-7
Teng (' rank '), 9
T~ng Ai (general of the Wei State), 571
T~ng Mu (+ 13th century), 221
T~ng Phing (calendar expert), 247
T~ng Yen-Lin, 18
T~ng Yu (general of Kuang Wu Ti), 537
T~ng YU-Han. See Terrentius, Johannes
Teratology, 505-'7
Terceira Decada da Asia, 585
Terminology. See Technical terms
Terra-cotta, 286
Terrentius, Johannes (Johann Schreck), 182,444,
445,447
Terrestrial emanations (anathumiasis), 469
Terrestrial globe, 374, 381, 389,450, 556, 583
Terrestrial magnetism, 339, 435
Tetrahedral wedge, 99
Tetrahedron, 26
Textile production, 35, 137
Textiles, 501, 541, 652, 658
Texts, Chinese, interpolations made to antedate
discoveries and inventions in, unlikely, 177 (e)
Tha (river), 501
Thai-Chhu (reign-period), 478
Thai Chhu Li calendar, 20, 247
Thai Chi, 44, 45
Thai Chi shih (Ordovician limestone), 619
Thai Chia, chapter of the Shu Ching, q.v.
Thai-Hang Shan (mountain-range), 604, 609
Thai Hsiang Hsiian Chi Ko (Poem on the Mys-
terious Mechanism of the Celestial Bodies),
206
Thai Hsiang Hsiian Wen (Essay on the Mysteries
of the Celestial Bodies), 207
Thai I (Han meteorologer), 467
Thai i (the Great Unique, star), 260
Thai i (Great Unity), method (of ball-arithmetic),
77, 140
Thai I Shih Ching (Great Unity Divining-Board
Manual), 663
Thai Pai Yin Ching (Manual of the White and
Gloomy Planet of War), 426, 570
Thai-Phing Huan Yii Chi (General Description of
the World in the Thai-Phing reign-period),
521
Thai-Phing Yii Lan (Thai-Phing reign-period
Imperial Encyclopaedia), 57, 199, 303, 315,
470, 546, 638, 646, 669
Thai Shan (sacred mountain), 468
chart of, 546
Thai Shih ChU (Bureau for Prediction of Eclipses),
421
Thai Shih Ling (Astronomer-Royal), xlv, 191,
63 2
Thai-Tshang Chou Chih (Topography of Thai-
tshang, in Chiangsu), 667
Thai tzu (star), 261
Thai Yang (the sun), 227
Thai Yin (the moon), 227
Thai-yU Shan (mountain), 610
Thaihu (lake in Chiangsu), 516
Thaiyuan, 3 I I, 501
Thales of Miletus, 95, 225, 333 (a), 410
Thames (river), 484
Than Chai Thung Pien (Miscellaneous Records of
the Candid Studio), 59
Than Ch~ng (maker of clepsydra), 321
Than Chhi-Hsiang, 519
Than-huai, 501
Than-Ying (Buddhist monk), 27, 149
Thanchow, 620
Thang (dynasty), 4, 9, 17, 27, 31, 34, 36, 37, 42,
48,49,59,72,85,86,102, 106, 128, 139, 147,
148, 159, 175, 192,201,202,206,234,270-1 ,
278,282,286,294,297,315,318,323,328,
3 60 , 394, 396, 420, 421, 426, 458, 472, 489,
493,508,511,512,520,521,522,523,541,
543, 544, 545, 546 , 547, 55 1, 557, 5 82, 58 5,
599, 601, 603, 606, 610, 612, 614, 615, 633,
635, 644, 654, 655, 660, 668, 672, 680
Thang Chhiieh Shih (Thang Memorabilia), 116
Thang Chi (+ 1066),646
Thang Chin-Chu, 305, 307
Thang Jo-Wang. See Schall von Bell, John
Adam
Thang Jung-Tso, 663
Thang Liu Tien (encyclopaedia), 607
Thang M~ng (c. + 190),608
Thang Pen Tshao (Pharmacopoeia of the Thang
Dynasty), 615, 617, 649, 654
Thang Shen-Wei (pharmaceutical naturalist, c.
+ 1115),644,647
Thang Shu. See Chiu Thang Shu and Hsin Thang
Shu
Thang Shun-Chih (+ 16th-century mathema-
tician and military engineer), 51, 105
Thang Yii Lin (Miscellanea of the Thang
Dynasty), 192, 477
Thao Ching-I (+ 18th-century geographer), 519
Thao Hung-Ching ( + 5th-century physician and
alchemist), 668, 675
Thao Tsung-I (+ 1366),669
Theodolite, 338, 369, 375, 571, 577
Theodoric of Freiburg (d. 13 I I), 162, 474 (a)
Theon of Alexandria (c. + 390), 66, 375
Theon of Smyrna (+ 130), 54, 55, 61
Theophrastus (- 370 to -287), 623, 647, 652,
656, 672
Theoricae Novae Planetarum (+ 1472), 341
Theory and practice, 158-9
Theory of Equations of Higher Degrees. See
Khai Fang Shuo
Theory of limits, 151
Theory of numbers, 54
Thermometer, 159,466
Thiao (periods of faster speed in the moon's
motion), 392
 INDEX
Thieh-le (T6l6s, horde of Turkic nomads). See
Tribal peoples
Thieh- Wei Shan Tshung Than (Collected Con-
versations at Iron-Fence Mountain), 660
Thiehchow, 549
Thiele, G. (I), 281
Thien chhtian (' hounds of heaven', meteorites),
434
Thien chhtian (star), 232, 233
Thien chi (star), 232, 233
Thien-Fang. See Arabia
Thien Hsia, chapter of Chuang Tzu, q.v.
Thien Hsia Chiin Kuo Li Ping Shu (Merits and
Drawbacks of all the Countries in the
World),5 86
Thien hstian (star), 232, 233
Thien Hsiieh Hui Thung (Towards a Thorough
Understanding of Astronomical Science), 455
Thien i (the Celestial Unique, star), 260
Thien Kuan (Celestial Officials), chapter of the
Shih Chi, q.v.
Thien Kung Khai Wu (Exploitation of the Works
of Nature), 665, 666, 670
Thien Mu hsien-seng (Taoist recluse), 30, 77
Thien Pu Chen Yuan (True Origins of the
Celestial Movements), 52, 455
Thien shu (Celestial pivot, star), 232, 233, 278,
281
Thien Tui (Answers about Heaven), 206
Thien Wen (Astronomy), 197
Thien Wen (Questions about the Heavens [poem]),
198, 206, 230
Thien Wen, chapter of the Huai Nan Tzu, q.\".
Thien Wen Hsing Chan (Astronomical Star
Prognostication), 197
Thien Wen Ko, 206
Thien Wen Lu (Resume of Astronomy), 201, 210
Thien Wen Liieh (Explicatio Sphaerae Coelestis),
444
Thien Wen Ta Chheng Kuan Khuei Chi Yao
(Essentials of Observations of the Celestial
Bodies through the Sighting-Tube), 208,431
Thien Wen Ta Hsiang Fu (Essay on the Great
Constellations in the Heavens), 201
Thien Wen Yuan, 191
Thien yti (Celestial Prison, star), 252
Thien-yti Shan (mountain), 607
Thien yuan i (unity symbol), 42
Thien Yuan Li Li Chhiian Shu (Complete Treatise
on the Thien Yuan Calendar), 455
Thien Yuan notation. See Notation
Thien Yuan Yii Li Hsiang I Fu (Essay on (Astro-
nomical and Meteorological) Presages), 475
Things Seen and Heard in the Western Countries.
See Hsi Yii Wen Chiefl Lu
Thlaspi spp., 678
Thompson, C. J. S., 507
Thompson, R. C. (I), 507
Thorndike, L., 372
Thou Lien Hsi Tshao (The Mathematical Curtain
Pulled Aside), 50
Three Kingdoms period, 30-1, lOO, 264
the Three Roads, 256, 257, 273
86 5
-Three Sequences Calendar. See San Thung Li
Thu (maps or pictures), 498, 536
Thu Ching Yen I Pen Tshao (Illustrated Pharmaco-
poeia), 617 (h), 648 (a), 649-50, 660 (g), 676
Thu Hsiu Pen Tshao (Earth's Mansions Pharma-
copoeia), 638
Thu Hstin (Geographer-Royal), 534
Thu Kuei Fa (How to Use the Gnomon Shadow
Template), 207
Thu shu (charts and documents), 536
Thu Shu Chi Chheng (encyclopaedia), 59, 201,209,
295, 4 00 , 4 2 5, 435, 445, 44 6 , 44 8 , 452, 465,
466, 47 0 , 482, 5 21 , 572, 585, 593, 624, 662,
664
Thu Shu Pien (On Maps and Books), 565
Thui (technical term), 165 (a)
Thui lei (' enlarging the class (of things or processes
with the same pattern)'), 165
Thui li (' extending the pattern-principle '), 164
Thui Pu Fa Chieh (Analysis of Celestial Motions),
45 6
Thunder, 480-2, 625, 637, 640
bolts, 637
storms, 615, 616
'Thunder axes', 482 (e)
Thung Chan Ta Hsiang Li Hsing Ching (star
manual), 198
Thung Chhi Hsien Chih (Brief Notes from Thung-
chhi), 510
Thung Chi Chi (Record of the Communicating
Machine), 78
Thung chih (' gazetteers' of provinces), 517
Thung Chih Li1eh (Historical Collections), 206,
328,467
Thung Su Wen (Commonly used Synonyms), 673
Thung Wei Chi (Record of the Communicating
Small Objects), 78
Thung Wen Kuan College, Peking, 184
Thung Wen Suan Chih (Treatise on European
Arithmetic), 52
Thung Yuan Suan Fa (Origins of Mathematics),
50
Ti (hsiu), 247, 248
Ti Chih Thu (Map of the Earth), 545
Ti Ching Thu (Illustrated Mirror of the Earth),
676
Ti Hsing Thu (Physical Geography Map), 538
Ti li (' earth pattern', geography), 500
Ti Li Chih (Geographical Record), 520
Ti Li Chih (geographical sections of the official
histories), 508
Ti Li Shu (Book of Geography), 520
Ti thu (maps), 534, 535
Ti Tung Thung I Ching (Manual of the Bronze
Earthquake( -Indicating) Instrument), 633
Tibet, 523-4, 562, 565, 585, 655, 662, 671
Tibetan borderlands, 547
Tibetans, 406
Tidal bores, 483-5, 493
association with new and full moon, 491
Tidal waves, 484 (a), 488
Tide tables, 490, 492, 494
earliest in Europe, 492
866 INDEX
Tides, 224, 390(C), 415, 462, 483-94, 514, 606, 675
combined action of moon and sun, 493
daily changes in the time of high water, 490
dependence on the moon, 485, 491, 493
due to 'overflowing' of the Milky Way, 489
gravitational explanations, 494
part played by the sun, 490, 491, 492, 493
prediction, 441 (a)
respiratory theories of, 487, 490, 491, 493, 494
role played by the topography of the sea and
estuary bottom, 487, 488
technical terms, 484-5
Tien Lun (Discourses on Literature), 659
Tien Shu (Management of all Techniques), 638
Timaeus, 216
Timberwork Manual. See Mu Ching
Time
equation of, 182
measures of, 181, 318
Time-continuum, historical, 157 (c)
Time-keeping, 190, 318
Timocharis, 270, 340
Timosthenes of Rhodes, 532
Timurid embassy from Samarqand to Peking,
68 (c)
Tin, 639, 643, 674, 676, 678
Tincal,662
Ting (High King of the Chou), 503
Ting (' fixed' difference), 49
Ting (Pegasus), 244
Ting Chhli-Chung (+ 19th-century mathemati-
cian), 48, 13 I
Ting Chli (+ 14th-century mathematician), 46,
50, 148
Ting Cha Suan Fa (Ting Chli's Mathematical
Manual),5 0
Ting Fu-Pao, 3, 186
Ting hsien-seng ('Mr. Nail', i.e. Christopher
Clavius), 52 (d)
Ting Huan (Han mechanic), 581
Ting shih i (Time-Determining Instrument), 370
Ting Wen -Chiang, 404, 524
Titanium, 664
Titles, official, difficulty of translating, xlv ff.
Toad-grease, 668
Todda trees, 662
Tokharestan (Jaghiinyiin), 204
Tokyo, 75
Tomb-carving, 276
Tongguk Yeji Sellngnam (Geographical Vista of
the Eastern Kingdom), 521 (b)
Tongking, 544
Topographia Hiberniea, 494, 520
Topography, 503, 504, 521, 524
foreign countries,s 10 ff.
local,s 17 ff., 544
southern regions, 510 ff.
technical terms, 524
Topography and Products of the Southern Pro-
vinces. See Kuei Hai Yii H eng Chih
Topography of Chiang-yin and its District [in
Chiangsu Province]. See Chiang- Yin Hsien
Chih
Topography of Shachow [Tunhuang]. See Sha-
Chou Thu Ching
Topography of Thai-tshang, in Chiangsu. See
Thai-Tshang Chou Chih
Topography of the Suchow Region [ChiangsuJ.
See Wu Chiin Chih
Topology, I l l , 112
Torguts. See Tribal peoples
Toronto Museum, 305
Torquetum (instrument), 301, 370, 371,372,375,
37 8 ,45 8
Tou (hsiu), 247, 249
Tou Shu-Meng (c. +770),489,493,494
Tou Yen (astronomer, e. +955),408
Touchstone, 672 ff.
Towards a Thorough Understanding of Astro-
nomical Science. See Thien Hsiieh Hui
Thung
Tower of the Winds, Athens, 309, 315, 478
'Trace' -elements, 677
Traetatus de Latitudinibus Formarum, 107
Traetatus de Uniformitate et DifJormitate Inten-
sionum, 107
Trade and traders, 512, 513, 557, 587, 610, 656,
665, 669
Trade-routes, 517, 681
Traite de la Chronologie Chinoise, 183
Traite du Triangle Arithmetique, 47, 134
Trans-polar flying, 590
Translations, insipidity of, xlv
Transversal dot lines in graduations, 296 (a)
Trapezium, 98
Trapezoid figures, 25, 34, 98
Travel and exploration, 128, 511, 513, 522 ff. ,
556 ff., 575, 585, 587, 610
Treadle lathes, 669
Treatise on Architectural Methods. See Ying
Tsao Fa Shih
Treatise on Armament Technology. See Wu Pei
Chih
Treatise on (Astronomy and) Calendrical Science
according to the ew Western Methods. See
Hsi- Yang Hsin Fa Li Shu
Treatise on Astronomy in the Six Classics. See
Liu Ching Thien Wen Pien
Treatise on Coordinates, 110
Treatise on European Arithmetic. See Thung
Wen Suan Chih
Treatise on Mathematics (and Astronomy) ac-
cording to the New Methods. See Hsin Fa
Suan Shu
Treatise on Stones by the Venerable Mr Yliyang.
See Yiiyang Kllng Slzilz Phu
Treatise on the Calendar of the' Hsia, Shang, and
Chou D ynasties. See Hsia Yin Clzoll
Lii Li
Treatise on the Preservation of the World. See
Lokasthiti Ablzidlzarma Sastra
Trees of the sun and moon, Figs. 213, 228, 242;
567 (b)
Tremolite, 655
Trends of Oriental Thought, 2
Treviso arithmetic, 63
 INDEX

Tria Prima (the three alchemical elements), 159 Tsechow, 618

Triangles, 25 , 108, 134, 141 Tseng Chu-Sen (I) , 57
isosceles, 98 Tseng Kung-Liang (+ 11th-century military en-
right-angled, 19,21,22, 23 , 27,31,35,37,47, cyclopaedist), 570, 57 I
95, 96, 97, lOO, 104, lOS, 108, 109, 213, 217, Tseng Kuo-Fan (Chhing official), 106
225, 286, 572, 574, 575 Tseng Min-Hsing (+ 12th century), 308, 615
similar, 31,104,105 Tseng Nan-Chung (+ 12th-century astronomer),
Tribal peoples, 508, 510, 517. Cf. Cultures 308, 30 9
Ainu, 50S Tseng Shen (pupil of Confucius), 498
Borneo, 284 (b) Tshai Ching (Sung minister of State), 40
Chia-jung, 510 Tshai ChUn-Mo, 613
Chin (Jurchen) Tartars, 352, 365, 683 Tshai Thao (+ 12th century), 660
Ephthalite Huns, 205, 681 Tshai Yuan-Ting (Neo-Confucian philosopher),
Hsi-jung, 656 40, 598 (f)
Huns, 204, 5JI, 536 Tshai Yung (astronomer, + 178), 20, 200, 210,
Liao (Chhi-tan) Tartars, 473 247, 24 8 , 288, 33~ 355, 5 27, 537
Lolo, 69, 510 Tshan Thung Chhi (The Kinship of the Three),
Maoris, 663 654
Miao, 69, 510 Tshang lung. See Blue Dragon
Niao-i, 501 Tshao Shih-Wei (astronomer, c. +660),205
Philippine. 215 (f) Tshao Yuan-Li (Later Han scholar), 4
Tartars, 369, 522 Tshe Liang Fa 1 (Essentials of Surveying), 110
Thieh-Ie (Ttiltis) horde of Turkic nomads, Tshe Liang 1 Thung (Similarities and Differences
293 (between Chinese and European) Surveying
Torguts, 585 Technique), 110
Turkic peoples, 405, 681 Tshe ni (periods of slower speed in the moon's
Uighurs, 544, 612, 681 motion), 392
YU , 188 Tshe Suan (On the Use of the Calculating-rods),
YUeh-chih, 665 72
Tribute, SOl, 503, 508, 509, 644, 657 Tshe Thien Yo Shuo (Brief Description of the
Trier, mosaic at, 382 Measurement of the Heavens), 447
Trigault, Nicholas, 442, 682 Tshe Yuan Hai Ching (Sea Mirror of Circle
'Trigonometrical stations', 577 Measurements), 40, 44, 45, 129, 130, 132,
Trigonometry, 31, 37, 108 ff., 148,202 (d), 203 133
spherical, 39, 48, 375 Tshe Yuan Hai Ching Fen Lei Shih Shu (Classified
Trilobites, 612, 619 Methods of the Sea Mirror of Circle Measure-
Trip-lug, 314 (d), 318, 359 ment), 51
Tripi~aka, 204, 566 Tshui (hsiu), 25 I
Triquetrum (instrument) , 373, 573 (c), 574 Tshui Chih-Yuan (Korean astronomer, +858 to
Trisection of an angle, 103 +9 10), 68 3
Triumphant Vision of the Great World. See Tshui Hsia, 510
Fang Yii Sheng Lan Tshui Ling-tn (c. + 520), 221
Triumphant Visions of the Boundless Ocean. Tshui Shih, 196
See Ying Yai Sheng Lan Tshui Tzu-YU, 359
Triumphant Visions of the Starry Raft. See Hsing Tshui Yu-Chih (+ 17th-century Korean clock-
Chha Sheng Lan maker), 390
Trollope, M. N., 683 Tshun (technical term in landscape painting), 597
Tropic of Cancer, 180, 292 Tshung (ancient ritual objects of jade), 334 ff.
Tropic of Capricorn, 180 Tshung (the ciboule onion), 675 , 676
Tropic year, 181, 182, 247, 284, 293, 356, 390, Tso cheng i (Rectifying Instrument on a stand), 370
396, 39 8 , 4 02 , 4 0 4 Tso Chuan (Master Tsochhiu's Enlargement of
Tropic year fraction, 294, 391 the Spring and Autumn Annals), 8, 284, 404,
Troy, 230 413 (c), 417, 418, 422, 423, 467, 503
True Origins of the Celestial Movements. See Tso Wu (associate of Liu An, prince of Huai
Thien Pu Chen Yuan Nan),508
True Story of the Conquest of New Spain, 514 Tsou Pllan Chi (Record of the Moving Plate), 78
Tsang Min (+ 2nd century), 5 I I Tsou Yen (Naturalist philosopher, late - 4th
Tsao-Hua books, 598 (f) century), 2JI (a), 216 (e), 414, 436, 493,504,
Tsao wei chih shu (solution of packing problems), 507 (d), 568, 610, 641
142 Tsu Chhung-Chih (mathematician, ft. +430 to
Tse (late afternoon), 284 + 510),25,35-6,42,101,102,123,153,292,
Tse (rules applicable to parts of wholes), 163 (c) 294, 324, 35 8 , 392, 394, 457
Tse-lu (mountains), 660 Tsu I-Chi, 47
868 INDEX
Tsu Keng-Chih (+ 5th-century astronomer ana
mathematician), 101, 102,21°,214,262,264,
287, 324, 358
Tsu-Khao (monk, ft. + I I 19 to + I 125), 645, 647
Tsuchihashi, P. & Chevalier, S., 454
Tsung-chhu (touchstone?), 673
Tsung Lin, 282
Tsung numerals, 8
Tu (lord of), 487
Tu Ang (c. + 1470), 668
Tu Chheng Chi Sheng (The Wonder of the
Capital), 519
Tu Chung (Former Han mathematician), 28
Tu Fu (poet), 112, 621
Tu Hsing Tsa Chih (Miscellaneous Records of the
Lone Watcher), 308
Tu Huan (officer captured by the Arabs at the
battle of the Talas River), 682
Tu-Kang (district), 534
Tu Kuang-Thing (+9th century), 612
Tll-Li- Yii-Ssu Ching, 204 (f)
Tu Mu (+ 1516), 604
Tu Shih (leader of expedition to investigate the
source of the Yellow River), 524
Tu Te-Mei. See Jartoux, Pierre
Tu Tzu-Sheng (bronze-founder), 324
Tu Wan (+ 12th century), 604, 615, 617, 645,
647, 648, 649, 665
Tu Yli (minister of State, geographer, astronomer
and patron of engineers, + 222 to + 284), 601
T uan Chheng-Shih (c. + 800), 675, 676
Tuan-Chhi Yen Phu (Tuan-chhi Inkstone Re-
cord),646
Tuan Fang (Manchu prince), 305
Tubular drill, 669
Tufa, 614
Tuku Thao (+ I I th-century alchemist), 663, 671
Tulisen (+ 18th-century traveller), 585
Tun-huang Lu (Record of Tunhuang), 518
Tung Chiin (Song of the Eastern Lord), 218
Tung fan (constellation), 336
Tung Hsi Yang Khao (Studies on the Oceans
East and West), 470, 512
Tung hsien (constellation), 266
Tung Kao, 452
Tung Kung Ku Shih (Stories of the Eastern
Palace), 581
Tung Ming Chi (Light on Mysterious Things),
660
Tung Thien Chhing Lu Chi (Pure Records of the
Cavernous Heaven), 613, 645
Tung Tso-Pin, 242, 244, 284, 293, 296, 297, 299,
391, 407, 4 10 , 423, 424, 4 60 , 4 64, 4 67
Tung Yu-Chheng (mathematician, + 1819), 145
Tungfang Shuo (adviser to Han Wu Ti), 282, 602
Tunhuang, 607
Tunhuang cave-temples, 9, 343 (e), 389 (b), 55 I
frescoes, 58 I
manuscripts, 36, 198, 542, 567
star-map, 264, 276, 281
Tunhuang region, 670
Turfan, 655
Turin MS., 529
Turkestan, 205
Turkey, 671
Turkic peoples. See Tribal peoples
Turkish world-map, 562
Turks, 205, 555, 608, 681
calendrical knowledge of, 406 (a)
Turquoise, 671-2
Turtle, 56
al-TUsi, Na~ir ai-Din, 105, 10.9,370,382,562,563
Tuttle's Comet, 433
'Two earths ' theories, 2 I 5, 402 (e)
Tychonic theory of the solar system, 446, 454-5,
45 6 ,457
Tyentullg Sanguiko (Register of Strange Phe-
nomena in the Eastern Heavens), 683
Typewriters, 441 (a)
'Typhoon-mothers' (chu mu), 470
Typhoons, 463, 477
Tyson, Edward, 661
Tzolkin (religious year of the Mayas), 397, 407
Tzu-liu-ching brine-field, 642, 662
Dber den Ursprung der chinesischen Mathematik.
See Ku Suan Khao Yuan
Ueta, J., 248, 266, 268
Uhden, R., 532
Uighurs. See Tribal peoples
Ujjain, 300, 563 (b)
UIUgh Beg, 68 (c), 269, 296, 300
'Umar al -Khayyami, 134, 137
Umayyad desert palace of Qu~air 'Amrah,
frescoes, 389
Umuna (Manchu official, + 1677), 585
Underground streams, 606
Unequal hours, 309, 313, 374, 381
Unequal night-watches, 319 (d), 398 (c)
'Uniformisation' of the Cosmos, 157
Unity symbol, 42
Universal Encyclopaedia. See San Tshai Thu
Hui
the Unknown (in algebra), 129 (b)
UpasUnya. See Ylieh-Pho-Shou- a
'Upward-looking Bowl Sundial', 301, 309, 369
Uraniborg mural quadrant, 296
Uranographic models, 383-4
Uranographie Chinoise, 183
Urbino MS. (c. + 1200), 533
al-'UrQ!, Muhammad ibn Mu'ayyad, 375, 382
de Ursis, Sabbathin, 437, 446
Usher, Bp., chronology of, 120
Uttarakuru (continent), 568
Vacca, G ., 20, 139, 586
Vajra (Buddhist term), 670
Valerius Faventies, 603
Vanadium, 664
Vandermonde, J. F., 644
Vane-sights, 368
Vangsun. See Wang Hslin
Varaha-Mihira (Indian mathematician, c. + 5 10),
108, 149, 395 (e)
Variable hours. See Unequal hours
Variae Orbis Universi, 530
 INDEX
Variation of the solstice points. See Solstice Wan Nien Li (Ten Thousand Year Calendar,
points + 126 7), 49, 381
Varnish,65 1 Wan Yung Cheng Tsung Pu-Chhiu-Jen Chhiilln
Vases, 666 Pien (The 'Ask No Questions' complete
'Vast Mountain Stoves', 580 Handbook for General Use), 512 (b)
Vega, 252, 253, 276 Wang An-Shih (reforming minister of State), 40,
and Altair (myth), 282 281
'Veilings' (po) of the sun, 41 I Wang Chen (fl . + 1280, encyclopaedist of agri-
Venice, 154 culture and engineering), 162 (e), 320
Venus (planet), 232 (c), 282, 398, 401, 408, 419, Wang Chen-To (1), 628, 630; (5), 312, 330
4 26 , 427,435, 444 Wang Chhen, 107, 542
Verbiest, Ferdinand (Jesuit astronomer) , 102, 173, Wang Chhi (+ 1609), 644
352, 379,3 88,450,451,452,466, 470,584-5, Wang Chhuan-Shan (+ 17th-century philosopher
662 and historian), 165
Verge-and-foliot escapement, 319, 366 Wang Ch hung (+ 1st-century sceptical philo-
Verificatio, 161 , 165 sopher), 20, 165,214,215,218,226,321,4°2,
Verifications of the Powers of the Kua in the Book 41 I, 413-14, 423, 432, 436, 468-9, 477, 480,
of Changes. See I Wei Thung Kua Yen 485 fr., 494, 504 (b), 621
Vermilion. See Cinnabar Wang Chia (late + 3rd century), 538, 657
Vermilion Bird, 242 Wang Chih-Chien (Ming writer), 6I1
Vernier graduation and its predecessors, 296 (a) Wang Chih-Yuan (cartographer, + 13th cen-
Vertebrates, 619, 621 tury), 551
Vesalius, 449 Wang Chin-Chhen (+ I1th century), 618
Victorinus sabbatical cycle, 407 Wang Ching (astronomer, geomancer and hy-
Viet-Nam, 292 draulic engineer), 537
Vieta. See Viete Wang-ching (village), 516
Viete, Fran~ois (+ 16th-century mathematician), Wang Ching-Hung (Cheng Ho's vice-admiral),
101 ,114,128,155,43 8 557
da Vigevano, Guido (+ 1280 to after + I 345), Wang Chu (geographer, + 11th century), 521
162 Wang Chung-Ssu (geographer, + 8th century),
Vinegar, 616, 622 543
Viola cala71linaria, 678 Wang Fan (+ 3rd-century mathematician and
Virgo (constellation), 233, 239, 273 astronomer), 100, 200, 218, 225, 350, 358,
Viruses in silkworms, 651 fr. 383, 386 , 3 89
Viscaria alpina, 678 Wang Fu (Sung archaeologist), 541 - 2
Viscosity of water, 321-2 Wang Hai (a god), 504
Viscous drag, 223 Wang Hsi-Ming (Tan Yuan Tzu), 201
Vissiere, A., 70, 78 Wang Hsi-Shan (+ 17th century), 454
Vitriol, 637 Wang Hsi-Shan's New (Astronomical) Methods.
Vitruvius, 214, 301, 3 14, 3 15 See Hsiao-A n Hsin Fa
van Vlacq, A., 53 Wang Hsi-Yuan (Assistant Astronomer-Royal ,
Volcanic intrusions, 591 + 1006), 207
Volcanoes, 469, 602, 603, 610-11, 624, 654, 655, Wang Hsiang-Chih (geographer, + 13th cen-
65 8 , 675 tury), 521
Volga (river), 585 ,68 1 Wang Hsiao-Thung (early + 7th-century mathe -
Volume, 94 matician), 36, 37, 38, 42, 125, 128, 147
determination of, 26, 33, 42, 97, 99, 142, 147 Wang Hsiian-Tshe (+ 648, ambassador to the
standard, 33, 85 court of Magad ha), 5I1, 610
Voyages. See Expeditions and voyages Wang H siin (Astronomer-Royal, c. + 1255 to
+ 1282), 380
Wada, Y ., 471 Wang Hui Thu (Illustrations of the Princely As-
Abu '1- Wani', 395 (k) semblY),5 10
Waghenaer (+ 1584), 533 Wang I (+2nd century), 198
Waite, Nicholas (+ 1684), 661 Wang I-Chung (1), 505
Waiting for the Mackerel. See Hou Ching Lu Wang Jen-Chlin (late Chhing scholar), 457
Waley, A., 332 (c); (10), 523 Wang Jung (minister of Chin and patron of
Wallace, 677 water-mill engineers), 7 I
Wallis, John , I l l , 142 Wang Kai (+ 1679), 596
Walls, 26, 99 Wang Kho-Ta (Ming astronomer), 209, 224
Wan Chhen (naturalist, + 4th century), 510 Wang Khuei (Ming biologist), 469, 477, 493
Wan Chhillg Lou Thu Pien (Study of Star-Maps Wang Kuo-Wei (2), 82, 504
from the M yriad Bamboo Tablet Studio), 455 Wang Lao (neighbour of I-Hsing) , 283
Wan-Li reign-period, 450 Wang Ling (-202),71
 INDEX
Wang Ling (I), 66, 89, 383
Wang Mang (emperor of the Hsin), 100, 536
Wang Ming-Sher.g (+ 1722 to + 1798),457
Wang Ming-Yuan (geographer, +7th century), 5+3
Wang Mou (+ 1201), 602
Wang Phan (+ 16th-century scholar), 583
Wang Phu (c. 1135), 326
Wang Po- Chhiu, 557
Wang Shih-Chen (+ 17th century), 619
Wang Wei (Ming astronomer), 208, 209
Wang Ying-Lin (Sung scholar), 208
Wang Yuan-Chhi (+ 18th-century mathema-
tician), 102
Wang Yun (+ 13th century), 625
Wang Yung (1), 497, 504, 544, 549, 559, 582
V\'angsun Man, 503
War machines, 162
Ward, F. A. B., 309
Warfare, 609
Warnefrid, Paul (geographer, d. +797),494
Warp and weft, possible connection with the co-
ordinate system, 5+1
Warren, H. V. & Delavault, R. E., 678
Warren, H. V. & Howatson, C. H., 678
Warring States period,s, 8, 20, 25, 62, 70, 95, 146,
2I~ 268, 319, 399, 414, +6~ 507, 607
Wars, possible effects on the history of mathe-
matics in China and Japan, 41 (a)
Watches (divisions of time). See ight-watches
Watches (nautical), 559
Watches (time-pieces), 338
'Water-absorbing stone' (shang shui shih), 6q
Water-clock. See Clepsydra
Water-Conservancy of the Wu District. See Wu
Chung Shui Li Shll
Water-conservancy works. See Irrigation and
water-conservancy works
Water-cycle, meteorological, 467 If.
Water-driven mechanical clock. See Clocks
Water-level, 21, 286, 297, 302, 332. 381. 569, 570,
577
bubble, 353 (c)
technical terms, 571
Water-mill, 71, 425 (h)
Water-power drive (of armillary sphere), 19+,339.
343,35 0 , 3 62 ,39 0 ,45 8 (b)
Water-power trip-hammer, 609
Water-wheel, 319, 359, 36:;, 36 5, +79, +89
Waterfalls, 477
'Waters under the earth', 219
Waterspouts, 479
Waterways, 500, 514, 516
Waterways Classic. See Shui Chillg
Waterways Classic Commented. See Shui Ching
Chll
Wave forms in earth and water, 598 ff.
'Weak water' (jo shui), 607, 608
Weather, 462 , +63-4
and politics, +72
prediction, +6+. +67, +69-70, +71
Weather-cock. See Weather-vane
Weather-lore, 464
rhyming, 470
Weather-vane, 451, 477-9
\Veaving, 35, 137, 138
\Veber, A., 242
Wedge, 26, 98, 99
Weeping willow (shih yang lill), 678
'Weft Books.' See Chhall- Wei Shu
Wei (dynasty). See Northern Wei
Wei (kingdom), lOO, 571, 659
Wei (State), 195 , 197, +86
Wei (river), 500, 501, 515
Wei (hsill), 238, 247, 249
Wei (cartographical technical term), 54'
TVei chhi (game), 139 (b)
Wei Chli-Hsien (2), 68; (3), 505
Wei Fang-Chi. See l'ioel, Francis
Wei Han-Chin, 50+ (b)
Wei Hsiang-Chhien ( + J 7th-century astronomer),
+5 6
Wei Lii.eh (Compendium of ~on-Classical
Matters), 467, 470, 505, 656
Wei Phei (+ 332), 322
Wei Pho (+ I I th-century astronomer), 72, 422
Wei Po-Yang (+ 2nd-century alchemist), 654
Wei shih (stomach stone), 606
Wei Shou (+ 6th century), 654
Wei SIIII (History of the ( orthern) Wei Dynasty) ,
654
Wei Wang-Thai (geographer, +7th century), 520
Wei Wen-Khuei (+ 17th-century astronomer), 456
Weichow (old city near modern Ling-chhiu), 293
Weierstrass, 151
Weighbridge, 319
Weight drive, 329. 366
Weig hts and measures, 33, 8r, 85
s tandardisation of, 84
Weinstock, S., 253
Wellmann, M., 592
Wells, 614
supposed connection with the sea, 606
used for observation of the stars, 229 (c), 333
Wen (emperor of the Chin), 539
Wen (technical term in astronomy), 410
Wen Hsien Thllng Khao (Historical Investigation
of Public Affairs), 174, 209, +25, +3 0 , 433.
+35. 482, 682
Wen Hsien-Tzu (2), +r7
Wen I-To (2), 198
Wen Ti (emperor of the Liu Sung), 384
Wen Ti (emperor of the Wei kingdom), 659
Wen Tzu (The Book of Master Wen), 218, 677
Wen Wang Kho (system of divination) , qo (d)
Wenchow, 603, 605
Werner. A. G .• 591
Werner. E. T. C. (I), 282
West Liao State (Ta-Shih). See Qara-Khi~ai
West River (Hsi Chiang), 524
' Western' (Hsi), unpopularity of the term wi :h
the Chinese in the 17th century, 449
Western Journey of the Taoist Chhang-Chhun .
See Chhang- ChhUlI C hell-Jell Hsi YlI Chi
Western 'Palace', 200
Western Pool Co llected Remarks. See ll si Chhi
Tshllng Yii
 INDEX
The Western Song of the March of the Heavens. The Writings of Master Kuan. See Kuan Tzu
See Hsi Pu Thien Ko Wu (kingdom), 100,200, 264, 384, 385, 387, 538,
Whales, 489, 584 539
Whaling, 657 Wu (State), 485 ff.
What Every Member of the Astronomical Bureau Wu (emperor of the Wei kingdom), 661
ought to Know. See Ssu Thien Chien Hsu Wu (sun-spots), 435, 436
Chih Wu Chheng-Lo (2), 82, 83
Wheat, 678 Wu Chhi-Chhang (2),519
Wheel,94 Wu Ching Suan Shu (Arithmetic 10 the Five
Wheel-clocks, 3 18 Classics), 35, 185
Wheel-maps, 529, 546, 561, 562, 563, 566, 568 , Wu Ching Thung I (The Fundamental Ideas of
587 the Five Classics), 414
Whelk-like animals, 604 Wu Ching Tsung Yao (Collection of the most im-
Whetstone of Witte, II5, 166 portant Military Techniques), 570, 571
Whewell, W., 209 (c) Wu Chun Chih (Topography of the Suchow
Whipple Museum, Cambridge, 31 1 Region [Chiangsu]), 518
Whirlwind,479 Wu Chung Shui Li Shu (The Water-Conservancy
White, W. C., 305, 307, 682 of the Wu District), 514
White arsenic, 652 Wu Hsien (astronomer), 197, 263
White Tiger (western' Palace '), 242 Wu Hsin-Min (mathematician, c. + 1450), 79
White Tiger Hall, 219 Wu Hsing Hsing Tsang Li (Ephemerides of the
Whitehead, A. N., 151 , 158 Five Planets), 396
Whitney, W. D., 242; (1, 2), 184 Wu Hsing Hsing Tu Chieh (Analysis of the
Wicks of lamps, 656, 657 Motions of the Five Planets), 454
Wiedemann, E., 373 Wu-Hu-Lieh-Ti (Euclid), 105
Wild animals, 504 Wu Li Hsiao Shih (Small Encyclopaedia of the
Wilhelm, H . (1), 189 Principles of Things), 678
Wilkins, J ohn, 440, 441 Wu Li Lun (Discourse on the Principles of
Willetts, W., 335 (a) Things), 200, 218, 469, 489
Willey, B. (I), 427 Wu Liang tomb-shrines, 23, 95, 240,303,304,535
William of Conches (d. + IIs4), 529 Wu Lu (Record of the Kingdom of Wu), 658
William the Conqueror, 354 Wu Mi (+6th century), 197,201
Williams, J. (I), 282; (5), 435; (6), 425, 430 Wu Pei Chih (Treatise on Armament Techno-
Williams, Wells, 442 logy), 559-61, 577
Wilson, Miles, 441 Wu Phu (+ 225, pharmaceutical naturalist), 653
Wind, 467, 477-9 Wu Po-Shan (calendar expert, +755), 204
' the chhi of heaven', 467 Wu Shih-Chhang, 5 (f), 13 (d)
erosive action of, 603 Wu Shih Wai Kuo Chuan (Account of Foreign
experiments with kites, 477 Countries in the time of the Wu Kingdom),
prediction, 470 5 11
Winged men , 505 Wu Su-HsUan, 610 (g)
'Winged sun' symbol, 423 Wu Ta-Chheng (2), 334, 336, 338
Winter, H. J. J., 589 Wu Tai period, 408
Wire saw, 669 Wu-thung, 486
Witelo of Poland (c . + 1230 to + 1280) , 162 Wu Ti, chapter of the Chhien Han Shu, q.v.
'Witterung', 637 Wu-Ting (king of the Shang, - 1339 to - 1281),
Wittfogel, K. A. (2), 189; (3), 464 24 2 , 244
Wittkower, R. , 507 Wu Ting (river), 607
Wo Chhi Thu (Diagrams of Hydrostatic Vessels) , Wu Tshao Suan Ching (Mathematical Manual of
633 the Five Government Departments), 8, 33,
Wolf, R., 181,339 34, 36
Womb -symbol, 335 Wu Tzu-Hsu (minister of the State of Wu),
Women, in Han period, 536, 537 485 ff., 493
immortals, 600 Wu Ying Tien Chu Chen Pan Tshung-Shu (Imperial
The Wonder of the Capital. See Tu Chhling Chi Movable-Type Collection of the Classics),
Sheng 18
The Wonder of the World. See Yil Ti Chi Sheng Wu Yo Chen Hsing Tlzu (Map of the True Topo-
Wood, protection from decay , 652 graphy of the Five Sacred Mountains), 546,
Woodsmoke Perfume Jottings. See Chhiao 56 6
Hsiang Hsiao Chi Wuchiang (city), 516
World-cycles, 408 Wuchow (city), 612, 614
World War I, 589 Wukusun Chung-Tuan (Chin ambassador),
World War II, 668 522
 INDEX
Wylie, A., 18, 106, 447, 661; (I), 31, 7.20, 517,
519,644; (4), 1,2,10,119,120,121; (6), 183,
185,234; (7), 299; (8), 4 17; (9), 65 6 ; (13), 184
Xanadu. See Shangtu
Xenophanes, 620, 622
Xenophobia, 507
Yabuuchi, K. (2), 186; (3), 2; (5), 372; (9), 396;
(10), 208
Yajurveda , 254
Yampolsky, P., 186
Yang (character), 339
Yang Chhao-Ko (c. + 1790), 185
Yang-chheng (modern Kaochheng), 287, 291 (b) ,
29~ 297, 310, 369, 381 (b)
Confucian temple at, 297
Yang Chhtian (astronomer, + 3rd century), 200,
218,469,4 8 9
Yang Chhtian (petrifying spring), 607
Yang-Chia (reign-period), 627
Yang Chia, 549
Yang Ching-Feng (astronomer, + 8th century),
202
Yang chio 10 (ram's horn conchs), 618
Yang Fu (naturalist, +2nd century), 510
Yang Hsiung (mutationist and lexicographer,
- 53 to + 18), 216, 219, 354, 355, 358
Yang Hstian-Chih (c. + 500), 519
Yang Huan (astronomer, d. + 1299), 299
Yang Hui (+I3th-century mathematician), 28, 41,
45, 46, 50, 59-60, 61, 66, 86, 103, 104, 105,
116, 134, 136, 162 (e)
Yang Hui Suan Fa (Yang Hui's Computing
Methods), 41 , 45
Yang i (Upward-looking Instrument), 369
Yang-Ku, 188
Yang Kuang-Hsien (+ 17th-century scholar,
amateur astronomer and anti-Jesuit con-
troversialist), 449
Yang kuei (the foreign sundial), 310
Yang Kung-I (astronomer, ft. c. + 1255 to + 1318) ,
3 80
Yang Lien-Sheng (I, 2), 303
Yang Ma-No. See Diaz, Emanuel
Yang Shen (Ming writer) , 661
Yang Sun (Thang official), 116
Yang Ti (emperor of the Sui), 327
Yang Wei (astronomer, + 3rd century), 392, 421
Yang Wei-Te (Chief Calendrical Computer in
+ 1054, observer of the Crab supernova) , 427
Yang Yti (+ 1360), 311, 331, 419, 423, 479, 482
Yangchow, 549
Yangkongy. See Yang Kung-I
Yangtze River, 483 , 484, 485, 486, 487, 488, 500,
515,523,525,582, 609,624
Yao (legendary emperor), 186, 187, 188,476,487,
60 4
Yao Chan (Divination by Weird Wonders) , 482
Yao Chhiao-Lin (maker of sundials and com-
passes), 3 I 2
Yao Hsin (astronomer, c. + 260), 200, 206, 215,
22+
Yao kuang (star), 233
Yao Pao-Hsien (1), 464
Yao Tien, chapter of the Shu Ching, q.v.
Yao Yuan-Chih (+ 17th century), 614, 655
al-Ya'qubi (geographer, c. +950), 140 (a), 512
Yarkand (in Sinkiang), 665
Yeh (technical term), 542
Yeh Chhi-Sun, 472 (b)
Yeh Huo Pien (Memoirs of a Mission achieved in
the Wilds), 655
Yeh Kho Tshll1zg Shu (Collected Notes of the
Rustic Guest), 602
Yeh Meng-Te, 469
Yeh Ping-Ching, 477
Yeh Thang, 185
Yehlti Chhu-Tshai (statesman, + 1190 to + 124+),
368(0, 38~ 522, 523
Yehlti Hsi-Liang (traveller, + 1260 to + 1263),
52 3
Yehlti Shun ( + I Ith-century astronomer), 208
Yellow River, 56, 405, 463, 46+, 485, 500, 501,
511,514,515,544,552,582,604,607,625
dykes, 537
source of, 523-4, 536, 585
Yellow Sea, 640
Yellow Springs, 640
Yelutchoutsay. See Yehlti Chhu-Tshai
Yen (State), 501, 534
Yen (in Kansu), 607, 609
Yen Chen-Chhing ( + 8th century), 599, 600, 601 ,
612, 615
Yen-Chhuan Shih I (Yen River Stone Juice), 609
Yen Chtin (+ 3rd century), 489
Yen Kuang-Ta, 523
Yen Kung (+ 14th-century mathematician), 50
Yen Li-Pen (+ 7th-century painter), 510
Yen Phu (Inkstone Record), 646
Yen Shih (On Inkstones), 646
Yen-shou (modern Yenan), 609
Yen Su (scholar, painter, technologist and
engineer), 324- 5, 327, 328, 491, 492, 493
Yen Tan Tzu (Tan, prince of Yen), 534, 577
Yen Tan Tzu (Story of Tan, prince of Yen ).
534 (h)
Yen-tang Shan (mountain), 603, 604, 605
Yen Thieh Lun (Discourses on Salt and Iron), 71
Yen Tun-Chieh, 3; (1),46; (2), 64; (3), 79; (7) .
10 5; (9), 40
Yen Tzu (favourite pupil of Confucius), 164
Yen Tzu Chhun Chhiu (Master Yen's Spring and
Autumn Annals), 401
Yenchow, 614
Yetts, W. P ., 303, 304, 305, 5+1
Yi Ik-Seup (I), 565
Yi Tai Jo (Thai Tsu, emperor of the Li and
founder of the last Korean dynasty) , 279
the Yin and the Yang, 57, 58, 159, 165, 218-19,
223 , 224,227,33+- 5,339, 359,397,4 11 ,4 12 ,
414- 15, 432, ' 4+8, 478, 480, 481, 483, +90,
491 , 567,625,633,634,638,639,640
Yin Cheng, chapter of the Shu Ching , q.v.
Yin Ho Chit Pi Chiteh (Confidential Remarks on
the Appearances of the Milky Way), 207
 INDEX
Yin Hsien (sundial expert, A. - 32), 302
Yin Khuei (clepsydra expert, c. + 540), 324
Yin Li Plw (treatise on the Shang Calendar),
2+2
Yin Ilieh (stalagmites), 605
Yin Shao (mathematician, A. +430 to +460),
27
Ying Pu Tsu (Too Much and 'ot Enough),
chapter of Chill Chang Sllan Shll, q.v.
Ying Shao (ethnographer, c. + 175), 510, 512
Ying Tsao Fa Shift (Treatise on Architectural
Methods), 332
Ying Yai Shellg Lan (Triumphant Visions of the
Boundless Ocean), 558
YO/bl method in computation, 81
Yo-yang, 501
Yo- Yang Fblg Thll Chi (Customs and Kotable
Things of Yo-yang), 606
Yogatlira (junction-stars), 253, 254
Yu (semi-legendary emperor, the Great En-
gineer), 23, 56, 196,500-1,503,570
Yu (High King of the Chou), 624, 625
Yu (province), 501
YU (mountain), 604
Yu (radical applied to jade and all kinds of precious
stones), 641
Yu barbarians. See Tribal peoples
Yu Chhe (Prefectural Director of Studies at
Chen-chiang in + 1142),548
Yu Chi Thll (Map of the Tracks of YU (the Great»,
547
Yu Chi-Tshai (astronomer, c. + 580), 208, 264
Yu chih (technical term in cartography; measur-
. ing curves and straight lines), 540, 576
Yu Ching (+ 1025),491
YU ChUn (+ 1617),645
Yu family of astronomers, 205 (e)
Yu Hai (Ocean of Jade [encyclopaedia)), 327
Yu Hao (architect), 153
Yii-hb,g (astronomical instrument), 334, 336
Yu heng (star), 233
YU Hsi (astronomer, A. + 307 to + 338), 200, 206,
210,211,220,247,270 ,356,498
YU Huan (+ 3rd century), 505, 656
Yu Kuang ( + 544), 286
Yu Kung (Tribute of VU " ~ _hapter of the SIIlI
Ching, q.v.
Yu K,mg Cftlli Chih (A few Points in the Vast
Subject of the' Tribute of Yu '), 540
Yu KlIng Shllo Tuan (Discussions and Conclu-
sions regarding the Geographyof the 'Tribute
ofYU'), 514, 515
Yii KlIng Ti Yi; Thu (Map of the Places and Cities
in the 'Tribute of Yu '), 538
YU-Iung, 620-1
Yu Man-Chhien (official of the Liang), 205
Yu MOH (bibliographer, + I 127 to + I 1<)+) . +0,
20 7
Yu Ssu-Chhien (+ 1781), 493
Yu Sung (astronomer, c. + 265), 201. 211. 222,
49 8
Yii Thallg Chia HlIa (Agreeable Talks in the Jade
Hall), 625
Yu Thu (Earth-Vehicle (i .e. Terrestrial) Map),
55 1
Yu Ti Chi Sheng (The Wonder of the World), 521
Yu Ti Chih (Memoir on Geography), 520
Yt, ti thll (technical term in geography), 536
YU-Tien. See Khotan
Yu-Ting J Hsiang Khao Chlleng (The Imperial
Astronomical Instruments), 452
Yu-Ting Li Hsiang Khao Chlleng (Compendium
of Astronomy and Calendar), 448
Yu- Yang Tsa Tsu (Miscellany of the Yu-yang
Mountain (Cave», 606, 675
Yuan (dynasty), 31, 38ff., 41,48,49, SI, 122, 139,
20~ 208, 20~ 234, 251, 281, 286, 29~ 296,
297, 3 0 7, 324, 357, 36 7, 369, 372, 377, 380 ,
392,4 19,43 0 , 433,451, 493, SI I, 5 26 , 55 1,
552, 556, 557, 561 , 583, 585, 633, 661, 668,
672
Yuan Chen (cartographer, + 9th century), 544
YI/an chhi (primeval vapour), 21 I, 222
Yuan Ch hung (+ 597), 287, 306
Yuan-Chia 'reign-period', 264, 384, 385
Yuan Chia calendar ( + 443), 392
YlIan Chillg Shih Ta Tien (History of Institu-
tions of the Yuan Dynasty), 552, 55+, 564
Yuall Ching Shuo (The Far-Seeing Optick Glass),
4+5
Yuan Hao-Wen (official of the Chin dynasty), 41,
42
Yuan-Ho Chiin Hsien Thu Chih (Yuan-Ho reign-
period General Geography), 490, 520, 544,
608
Yuan-Ho reign-period General Geography. See
Yuall-Ho Chiin Hsien Thu Chih
Yuan Hsieh (Director-General of Government
Grain Stores, d. + 1220),518
Yuan-Mo Valley, 524
Yuan Pi Shu Chien Chih (Collection of Official
Records of the Yuan Dynasty), 105
YI/an Shih (History of the Yuan Dynasty), 48, +<),
23~ 297, 298, 299, 36~ 37 1, 37 2 , 373, 52~
574, 667
Yuan-Thai,5 67
Yuan Thien notation. See Totation
Yuan Thien Thu Shllo (Illustrated Discussion of
the Fields of Heaven), 457
Yuan Thung (calendar expert, + 14th century), 79
Yuan Ti (emperor of the Liang), 603
YUchang, 309
YUeh (State), 486, 607
YUeh-chih people. See Tribal peoples
Yueh Chiieh SIIIl (Book of the Former State of
YUeh),5 I 7
Yiieh Ling (Monthly Ordinances), 194, 195, 245,
247, 254
YUeh-Pho-Shou-Na (UpasGnya), 88
YUeh Shih (geographer, + loth century), 521,
548 (a)
YUeh-Ya ChhUan (temple and lake), 607
Yule, Sir Henry, 174, 175, 556
YUn Cheng, chapter of the SlllI Ching, q.v.
Yiin Lin Shih Phll (Cloud Forest Lapidary), 604,
606, 61 5,620,645,647
 INDEX
Yiin",u (,cloud-mother', mica), 6..7
YUII Tai Rok (Calendar of the Years), 683
Yung (province), 501, 539,619
Yung (river), 501
Yung-chhiu, 577
Yung-Fu Buildings Upkeep Office, 33 I
Yung Heng (Sung scholar), 6 .. , 568
Yung-khang (near Wuchow), 612, 613
Yung-Lo (reign-period), 557, 558
YUlIg-Lo Ta Tien (Great Encyclopaedia of the
Yung- Lo reign-period), 18, 31-2, So, 66, 136
Yung-::--'ing Kuan (near Yenchow), 61 ..
Yung thi and Yung shu (packing problems in
mathematics), 1+5 (d)
Yungchow, 615
Yunnan, 52 .. , 557, 593, 665, 67 0
Yiinnan Thullg Chih (Local Topography of
Yunnan), 673
Yurungkash (river), 665, 666
Yushkevitch, A. P., 2
YUwen Khai (engineer, Sui period), 327
Yiiyallg KUlIg Shih Phu (Treatise on Stones by
the Venerable Ir YUyang), 645
Zebra, 513
Zenith distance, 179, 375
Zeno of Elea (fl. -450),92
Zero,9 ff., .. 3, 63, 86, 130, 132, 146, 148, 149, 152,
20 3
Ziggurat, 296 (k)
Zilsel, E. (2), 154
Zinc, 678
'Zinc pansy' (Viola caLaminaria), 678
Zinncr, E., 175, 184,282, 341, 373, 374
von Zittel, K. A., 592, 61 I
Zodiac, 256, ..38
Zodiacal signs, 247, 258, 404
Zoology, 513, 636, 675
ZUrich (Swiss canton ), 579
 TABLE OF CHINESE DYNASTIES

HSIA kingdom (legendary?) c. - 2000 to c. - 1520

SHANG (YIN) kingdom 1520 to
C. - 1030
C. -
Early Chou period c. - 1030 to -722
J!J CHOU dynasty (Feudal Chhun Chhiu period ';{j. tk -722 to -480
Age) { Warring States (Chan' -480 to -221
Kuo) period ~ ~
First Unification ~ CHHIN dynasty -221 to - 207
fChhien Han (Earlier or Western) -202 to +9
~ HAN dynasty") Hsin interregnum +9 to +23
~Hou Han (Later or Eastern) +25 to +220
==- Wll SAN Kuo (Three Kingdoms period) +221 to + 26 5
First 1i.i SHU (HAN) 26
+ 221 to + 4
Partition ~ WEI + 220 to + 26 5
:!R: Wu + 222 to +280
Second fl CHIN dynasty: Western + 265 to + 3 17
Unification Eastern + 317 to +4 20
~IJ *- (Liu) SUNG dynasty +420 to +479
Second Northern and Southern Dynasties (Nan Pei chhao)
Partition 1f CHHI dynasty +479 to + 502
~ LIANG dynasty + 502 to + 557
l* CHI-IEN dynasty + 557 to + 58 9
(Northern (Thopa) WE! dynasty + 386 to + 535
Wl! ") Western (Thopa) WE! dynasty + 535 to + 556
tEastern (Thopa) WE! dynasty + 534 to + 550
~t 'if Northern CHHI dynasty + 550 to + 577
~t)!] Northern CHOU (Hsienpi) dynasty +557 to +5 81
Third ffi Sur dynasty + 581 to + 618
Unification Jli THANG dynasty +618 to +906
Third Ji R Wu TAl (Five Dynasty period) (Later Liang, +907 to +960
Partition Later Thang (Turkic), Later Chin (Turkic),
Later Han (Turkic) and Later Chou)
~ LIAO (Chhitan Tartar) dynasty +907 to + 112}\-
West LIAO dynasty (Qara-Khitai) +1124 to +12q
W 1{ Hsi Hsia (Tangut Tibetan) state +986 to + 122 7
Fourth *- Northern SUNG dynasty +960 to + II26'
Unification *- Southern SUNG dynasty + 1127 to + 12 79
~ CHIN (Jurchen Tartar) dynasty +III5 to +1234
YUAN (Mongol) dynasty + 1260 to + 1368
MING dynasty + 1368 to + 1644
CHHING (Manchu) dynasty +1644 to +1911
Republic + 19 12

N.B. When no modifying term in brackets is given, the dynasty was pl,!rely Chinese. Where the
overlapping of dynasties and independent states becomes particularly confused , the tables of Wieger (r)
will be found useful. For such periods, especially the Second and Third Partitions, the best guide is
Eberhard (9). During the Eastern Chin period there were no less than eighteen independent States
(Hunnish, Tibetan, Hsienpi, Turkic, etc.) in the north. The term' Liu chhao' (Six D ynasties) is often
used by historians of literature. It refers to the south and covers the period from the beginning of the
+ 3rd to the end of the + 6th centuries, including (San Kuo) 'Vu, Chin, (Liu) Sung, Chhi, Liang and
Chhen.
 ERRATA TO VOLUME I
p. 31, 4th paragraph, 2nd line. For minister read premier.
p. 36, 13th line. For 1280 read 1648.
p. 37, substitute an asterisk for the dot at the junction of S- and -eng.
p. 49, 5th paragraph, 9th and 12th lines. For Su read So.
p. 56, 'Provinces', after Chekiang. For tfJT read WT.
'Place-names' , after Amoy (city). For J[ read lY..
p. 57, line 31. For Liuchu read Liuchhiu. For JJft ~ read JJft ~J.
p. 67, 2nd line. For Black read Caspian.
p. 77, note d, 4th line. Huang chi tien should be in italics.
p. 78, 32nd line. For + 937 read + 907·
33rd line. For + II25 read + II44.
p. 79, 3rd paragraph, 5th and 6th lines. For first President read Secretary-General.
p. 93, footnote d. For pa read po.
p. 108, last paragraph, 2nd line. For Hsii Shih read Hsii Fu.
p. 122, 9th line. For last read second.
p. 125, 6th line from end. For Weichhi read Yiichhih.
p. 128, 6th line. For +610 read +636.
p. 137, 7th line. For a mud-boat read mud-boots.
p. 138, footnote b, line 1. For second read third.
p. 142, footnote I. For jf: read ~.
p. 145, 6th line. For volumes read chapters.
p. 1S4, 18th line. For late - 5th century read mid -4th.
note g. Read Cf. p. 227 below.
p. 165, 16th line. For - 296 read - 245.
23rd line. For Su Tan-Chi read Su Ta-Chi.
p. 166, 9th line after illustration. For + 2nd century read - 3rd century.
p. 174, note f, 5 lines from end. For p. 185 read p. 186.
p. 180, 2nd paragraph, loth line. For Fan Chhang read Fan fang.
p. 181, 6th and 13th lines. For Ganchow read Kanchow.
p. 182, note c. For p. 195 read p. 196.
p. 186, last paragraph, 5th line from end. For p. 204 read p. 205.
p. 192, fourth column from the right. For before + 429 read c. + 264.
p. 199, section (2), 7th line. For Yuan read Liang.
p. 200, 1st line. For Kallenberg (I) read Kallenberg, 1.
p. 202, note b, 3rd line. For Hsiu read Hsin.
p. 207, 6th line. For Chiu-Mo-Lo-Shih-Pho read Chiu-Mo-Lo-Shih.
p. 209, note b, 2nd line. For + 663 read + 647.
p. 212, 2nd line. For Yo-Yang Tsa Tsu read Yu-Yang Tsa Tsu.
p. 219, 3rd line after quotation. For tshao-hsieh read tshao-shu. For 'J¥. ~ read 'J¥. if·
last line but one. For chih read chiu.
note 8. For ~ read ~.
p. 220, 2nd paragraph, 8th line. For claims from them read claims for them.
p. 233, note g. For Elegies, Ill, 12 read Elegies, IV, 3.
p. 258, IIth line, first column. For + 510 read + 520.
18th line from bottom, first column. For + 670 read + 629.
 ERRATA

14th line, second column. For + 640 read + 636.

27th line, second column. For + 670 read + 629.
p. 262, 4th line, first column. For Yo-Yang Tsa Tsu read Yu-Yang Tsa Tsu.
5th line, first column. For Yo-Yang read Yu-Yang.
p. 264, 14th line. For Pieh Hao Sll Yin read Pieh Hao So Yin.
p. 269, under BIOT. For 1930 read 1940.
p. 277, under DE GROOT. For (I) Die Hll1men etc. read Vol. I, Die Hunnen etc., and Jar
(2) Die Westliinde etc. read Vol. 2, Die Westliinde etc.
under Chhlln Chhill. For 118 read 117.
p. 302, loth line, second column. For Chiu-Mo-Lo-Shih-Pho read Chiu-Mo-Lo-Shih.
p. 3 17, 7th line from bottom, second column. For Weichhi read Y uchhih.
p. 318, 23rd line, second column. For Yo-Yang Tsa TSll (The Yo-Yang Miscellany) read
Yu- Yallg Tsa TSll (The Yu-Yang Miscellany).

ERRATA TO VOLUME II
p. 19, 2nd paragraph , 1st line. For (c. -298 to -238) read (c. -305 to -235).
p. 74, note b. For Dr E. Galazs and Dr Lu Bwei-Djen read Dr E. Balazs and Dr Lu
Gwei-Djen.
p. 133, note c, last line. For + 6th century read + 7th century.
p. 164, note c. For Lin Tung-Chi read Lin Thung-Chi .
p. 305, loth line. For - I ISO read - 1050.
13th line. For - 1100 read - 1020.
p. 360, 20th line. For :\Iing read Yuan.
p. 378, note e, 1st line. For Yao Shan Yun read Yao Shan-Vu.
p. 394, note b. For Laufer (6) read Laufer (8).
p. 486, note e, 2nd line. For chen read cMlIg.
p. 493, 9th line. For miao wan Wit erh yen chih yeh read !Iliao wall Wit erh yen che yeh.
p. 516, 3rd paragraph, 3rd line. For Ling read Lin.
p. 625, last line. For 1925 read 1935.
p. 633, 18th line. For HUANG HSIN-CHI read HUA G !ISIU-CHI.
p. 634, under KARLGRE1 . For Shanghai read Peiping.
p. 637, 30th line. For LIN T NG-CHI read LrN TH UNG-CIlI.
 ROMANISATION CONVERSION TABLES

BY ROBIN BRILLIANT

PINYIN/MODIFIED WADE- GILES

Modified Modified
Pinyin Wade-Giles Pinyin Wade- Giles

a a chou chhou
ai al chu c hhu
an an chuai chhuai
ang ang chuan chhuan
ao a0 chuang chhuang
ba pa chui chhui
bai pai chun chhun
ban pan chuo chho
bang pang ci tzhu
bao pao cong tshung
bei pei cou tshou
ben pen cu tshu
beng peng cuan tshuan
bi pi CUI tshui
bian pien cun tshun
biao piao cuo tsho
bie pieh da ta
bin pin dai tai
bing pmg dan tan
bo po dang tang
bu pu dao tao
ca tsha de te
cal tshai dei tei
can tshan den ten
cang tshang deng teng
cao tshao di ti
ce tshe dian tien
cen tshen diao tiao
ceng tsheng die dieh
cha chha ding ting
chai chhai diu tiu
chan chhan dong tung
chang chhang dou tou
chao chhao du tu
che chhe duan tuan
chen chhen dui tui
cheng chheng dun tun
chi chhih duo to
chong chhung e e, 0
 879
Modified Modified
Pinyin Wade- Giles Pinyin Wad Giles

en en jia chia
eng eng jian chien
er erh jiang chiang
fa fa jiao chiao
fan fan jie chieh
fang fang jin chin
fei fei Jlng ching
fen fen jiong chiung
feng feng JIU chiu
fo fo JU chi.i
fou fou juan chi.ian
fu fu Jue chi.ieh , chio
ga ka jun chi.in
gai kai ka kha
gan kan kai khai
gang kang kan khan
gao kao kang khang
ge ko kao khao
gei kei ke kho
gen ken kei khei
geng keng ken khen
gong kung keng kheng
gou kou kong khung
gu ku kou khou
gua kua ku khu
guai kuai kua khua
guan kuan kuai khuai
guang kuang kuan khuan
gui kuei kuang khuang
gun kun kui khuei
guo kuo kun khun
ha ha kuo khuo
hai hai la la
han han lai lai
hang hang lan lan
hao hao lang lang
he ho lao lao
hei hei le le
hen hen lei lei
heng heng leng leng
hong hung li li
hou hou lia lia
hu hu lian lien
hua hua liang liang
huai huai liao liao
huan huan lie lieh
huang huang lin lin
hui hui ling ling
hun hun liu liu
huo huo 10 10
JI chi long lung
880

Modified Modified
Pinyin Wade-Giles Pinyin Wade-Giles

Iou Iou pa pha

lu lu pal phai
lu lu pan phan
luan luan pang phang
lue lueh pao phao
lun lun pei phei
luo 10 pen ph en
ma ma peng pheng
mal mal pi phi
man man pian phien
mang mang plao phiao
maD maD pie phieh
mel mel pm phin
men men ping phing
meng meng po pho
ml ml pou phou
mlan mien pu phu
miao miao qi chhi
mle mieh qia chhia
mm mm qian chhien
mmg ming qiang chhiang
mlU mlU qiao chhiao
mo mo qle chhieh
mou mou qm chhin
mu mu qmg chhing
na na qlOng chhiung
nal nal qiu chhiu
nan nan qu chhu
nang nang quan chhuan
nao nao que chhueh, chhio
nel nel qun chhun
nen nen ran jan
neng neng rang jang
ng ng rao jao
m m re Je
man men ren Jen
niang niang reng Jeng
niao mao n jih
nie nieh rong jung
mn nm rou jou
ning ning ru ju
nlU mu rua jua
nong nung ruan juan
nou nou rUI JUI
nu nu run Jun
nu nu ruo JO
nuan nuan sa sa
nue nlO sal sal
nuo no san san
0 0, e sang sang
ou ou sao sao
 881

Modified Modified
Pinyin Wade- Giles Pinyin Wade-Giles

se se wan wan
sen sen Wang wang
seng seng wel wel
sha sha wen wen
shai shai weng ong
shan shan wo wo
shang shang wu wu
shao shao XI hsi
she she xla hsia
shei shei xlan hsien
shen shen xlang hsiang
sheng sheng, seng xlao hsiao
shi shih xle hsieh
shou shou xm hsin
shu shu xing hsing
shua shua xiong hsiung
shuai shuai XIU hsiu
shuan shuan xu hsii
shuang shuang xuan hsiian
shui shui xue hsiieh, hsio
shun shun xun hsiin
shuo shuo ya ya
SI ssu yan yen
song sung yang yang
sou sou yao yao
su su ye yeh
suan suan YI
SUI SUI ym yin
sun sun ymg ying
suo so yo yo
ta tha yong yung
tai thai you yu
tan than yu yii
tang thang yuan yiian
taG thao yue yiieh, yo
te the yun yiin
teng theng za tsa
ti thi zal tsai
tian thien zan tsan
tiao thiao zang tsang
tie thieh zao tsao
ting thing ze tse
tong thung zel tsei
tou thou zen tsen
tu thu zeng tseng
tu an thuan zha cha
tui thui zhai chai
tun thun zhan chan
tUG tho zhang chang
wa wa zhao chao
wal wal zhe che
882

Modified Modified
Pinyin Wade-Giles Pin yi n Wad Giles

zhei chei zhui chui

zhen chen zhun chun
zheng cheng zhuo cho
zhi chih Zl tzu
zhong chun g zong tsung
zhou chou zou tso u
zhu ch u zu tsu
zhua ch ua zuan tsuan
zhuai chuai ZUI tsui
zh uan chuan zun tsun
zhuang chuang zuo tso

MOD I F IED WADE- GILESjPINYIN

Modified Modified
Wade- Giles Pinyin Wade- Giles Pinyin

a a chhi o que
al al chhiu qlu
an an chhiung qiorlg
ang ang chho chuo
ao ao chh ou chou
cha zha chh u chu
chai chai chh uai chuai
chan zhan chhuan chuan
chang zhang chhuang chuang
chao zhao chhui chui
che zhe chhun chun
chei zhei chhung chong
cht:n zhen chhi.i qu
cheng zheng ch hi.ian quan
ch ha cha chhi.ieh que
chhai chai chhi.in qun
chhan chan chi JI
chhang chang chi a jia
chhao chao chiang jiang
chht: che chi ao jiao
chhen chen chi eh Jle
chh eng cheng chien jian
chhi qi chih zhi
chhia qia chin jin
chhiang qiang chi ng jing
chhiao qlao chi o jue
chhieh qle chiu JIU
chhien qian chiung jiong
chh ih chi cho zhuo
chhin qin cho u zhou
chhi ng qing chu zhu
 883

Modified Modified
Wade- Giles Pinyin Wade-Giles Pinyin

chua zhua huan huan

chuai zhuai huang huang
chuan zhuan hui hui
chuang zhuang hun hun
chui zhui hung hong
chun zhun huo huo
chung zhong yl
chi.i JU jan ran
chi.ian juan jang rang
chi.ieh jue jao rao
chi.in Jun je re
e e,o Jen ren
en en jeng reng
eng eng jih n
erh er JO ruo
fa fa jou rou
fan fan JU ru
fang fang jua rua
fei fei juan ruan
fen fen JUI rUI
feng feng jun run
fo fo jung rong
fou fou ka ga
fu fu kai gal
ha ha kan gan
hai hai kang gang
han han kao gao
hang hang kei gel
haD haD ken gen
hen hen keng geng
heng heng kha ka
ho he khai kai
hou hou khan kan
hsi Xl khang kang
hsia xia khao kao
hsiang xiang khei kei
hsiao xiao khen ken
hsieh xie kheng keng
hsien Xlan kho ke
hsin xm khou kou
hsing xmg khu ku
hsio xue khua kua
hsiu XIU khuai kuai
hsiung xlOng khuan kuan
hsi.i xu khuang kuang
hsi.ian xuan khuei kui
hsi.ieh xue khun kun
hsi.in xun khung kong
hu hu khuo kuo
hua hua ko ge
huai huai kou gou
884

Modified Modified
Wade- Giles Pinyin Wade-Giles Pinyin

ku gu mu mu
kua gua na na
kuai guai nal nal
kuan guan nan nan
kuang guang nang nang
kuei gUl nao nao
kun gun nel nel
kung gong nen nen
kuo guo neng neng
la la nl m
lai lai niang mang
lan lan mao mao
lang lang nieh me
lao lao nlen nlan
le le nm nm
lei lei ning ning
leng leng mu nlie
li li nlU mu
lia lia no nuo
liang liang nou nou
liao liao nu nu
lieh lie nuan nuan
lien lian nung nong
lin lin nli nli
ling ling 0 e, 0
liu liu ong weng
10 luo, 10 ou ou
Iou Iou pa ba
lu lu pal bai
luan luan pan ban
lun lun pang bang
lung long pao baD
lli lli pei bei
llieh llie pen ben
ma ma peng beng
mal mal pha pa
man man phai pai
mang mang phan pan
mao maD phang pang
mel mel phao pao
men men phei pei
meng meng phen pen
mi ml pheng peng
miao mlao phi pi
mieh mle phiao plao
mien mlan phieh pie
min mm phien plan
ming mmg phin pm
mlU mlu phing ping
mo mo pho po
mou mou phou pou
 885

Modified Modified
Wad Giles Pinyin Wade-Giles Pinyin

phu pu ten den

pi bi teng deng
piao biao tha ta
pieh bie thai tai
pien bian than tan
pm bin thang tang
pmg bing thao tao
po bo the te
pu bu theng teng
sa sa thi ti
sal sal thiao tiao
san san thieh tie
sang sang thien tian
saD saD thing ting
se se tho tuo
sen sen thou tou
se ng seng, sheng thu tu
sha sha thuan tuan
shai shai thui tui
shan shan thun tun
shang shang thung tong
shao shao ti di
she she tiao diao
shei shei tieh die
shen shen tien dian
sheng sheng ting ding
shih shi tiu diu
shou shou to duo
shu shu tou dou
shua shua tsa za
shuai shuai tsai zal
shuan shuan tsan zan
shuang shuang tsang zang
shui shui tsao zao
shun shun tse ze
shuo shuo tsei zel
so suo tsen zen
sou sou tseng zeng
ssu si tsha ca
su su tshai cal
suan suan tshan can
SUI SUI tshang cang
sun sun tshao caD
sung song tshe ce
ta da tshen cen
tai dai tsheng ceng
tan dan tsho cuo
tang dang tshou cou
tao dao tshu cu
te de tshuan cuan
tei dei tshui CUI
886

Modified Modified
Wade-Giles Pinyin Wade- Giles Pinyin

tshun cun wang wang

tshung cong wet wet
tso zuo wen wen
tsou zou wo wo
tsu zu wu wu
tsuan zuan ya ya
tsui ZUt yang yang
tsun zun yao yao
tsung zong yeh ye
tu du yen yan
tuan duan yin ytn
tui dui ying ytng
tun dun yo yue, yo
tung dong yu you
tzhu Ct yung yong
tzu Zt yu yu
wa wa yuan yuan
wat wat yueh yue
wan wan yun yun