Computers and Structures 79 (2001) 1645±1660

www.elsevier.com/locate/compstruc

Homogenization-based multivariable element method for

pure torsion of composite shafts
B.L. Karihaloo a,*, Q.Z. Xiao a,b, C.C. Wu b
a
Division of Civil Engineering, School of Engineering, Cardi€ University, Queen's Buildings, P.O. Box 686, Cardi€ CF24 3TB, UK
b
Department of Modern Mechanics, University of Science and Technology of China, Hefei 230026, China
Received 13 March 2000; accepted 28 June 2001

Abstract
Application of the hybrid stress element to torsion of composite shafts is restricted, if the volume fraction of re-
inforcement is very large. The homogenization method is the most suitable for such problems because it gives not only
the equivalent material properties but also detailed information of local ®elds with less computational cost. In this
paper, the extension of the homogenization method to the pure torsion of composite shafts with reinforcing ®bers
aligned along its axis and the application of high performance multivariable elements are studied. The incompatible
element based on a modi®ed potential principle and the enhanced-strain element based on the Hu±Washizu principle
are appropriate for the analysis of the representative unit cell, whereas the hybrid stress element is appropriate for the
macro-homogenized problem. Numerical examples are provided and discussed. Ó 2001 Elsevier Science Ltd. All rights
reserved.

Keywords: Composite shaft; Enhanced-strain element; Homogenization; Hybrid element; Incompatible element; Representative unit
cell; Torsion

1. Introduction features are too many. In this case, the mathematical

In the mechanics of composite materials, it is of great
importance to determine the e€ective properties of the
composite from the distribution and basic properties of
constituents and the detailed distribution of ®elds on the
scale of microconstituents [1±4]. The hybrid stress ele-
ment introduced by the authors [5] is of course a useful
tool in the analysis of composite shafts because it gives
accurate results for the warping displacement, the angle
of twist per unit length, as well as the shear stress by
using a relatively coarse mesh. However, if the volume
fraction of reinforcement is very large, it is not realistic to
obtain the micro®elds by this method because the degrees
of freedom needed to model the entire macrodomain
with a grid size comparable to that of the microscale
*
Corresponding author. Tel.: +44-29-2087-4934; fax: +44-
29-2087-4597.
E-mail address: karihaloob@cardi€.ac.uk (B.L. Karihaloo).
homogenization method which has received considerable
attention in recent years [6±16] seems to be the most
suitable one. It is a kind of singular perturbation method
suitable for problems with boundary layers [17] that exist
at regions near the interfaces of di€erent phases in a
heterogeneous medium. With the help of multiple scale
expansion, it gives not only the e€ective properties of the
composite, but also detailed distribution of ®elds on the
scale of microconstituents with acceptable cost. In con-
trast to the most widely used methods in determining
the macro properties, i.e., the Eshelby method, the self-
consistent method, the Mori±Tanaka method, the dif-
ferential scheme and the bound theories [1±4], the
homogenization method takes into account the interac-
tion between phases naturally and avoids assumptions
other than the assumption of periodic distribution of
constituents. On the other hand, it accounts for micro-
structural e€ects on the macroscopic response without
explicitly representing the details of the microstructure in
the global analysis. The computational model at the

0045-7949/01/$ - see front matter Ó 2001 Elsevier Science Ltd. All rights reserved.
PII: S 0 0 4 5 - 7 9 4 9 ( 0 1 ) 0 0 0 9 1 - 8
1646 B.L. Karihaloo et al. / Computers and Structures 79 (2001) 1645±1660

lower scales is only needed if and when there is a necessity

to do so. In recent years it has been employed for the
solution of complex problems in conjunction with the
®nite element (FE) method [8±10,12±14]. Since accuracy
of the widely used isoparametric element method is not
satisfactory, high performance multivariable elements
are necessary to be introduced in the homogenization
method to improve the accuracy [14].
In this study, we will employ the homogenization
method for the solution of pure torsion of composite
shafts with ®bers aligned along its axis and study the
application of high performance multivariable elements.
In accordance with the mathematical homogenization
method, control di€erential equations for the represen-
tative unit cell (RUC) are obtained in Section 2. The
corresponding variational principles are then deduced as
the basis of the FE method in Section 3. The formula-
tion and practical application of incompatible and en-
hanced-strain elements to the analysis of RUC are
discussed in detail in Sections 4 and 5. A 4-noded in-
compatible element is also introduced. In Section 6, a
penalty function method is discussed to enforce the pe-
riodicity boundary condition of the RUC. In Section 7,
composite shafts of square as well as rectangular cross-
section reinforced with circular and elliptic ®bers are
analyzed as illustrative examples. For a square shaft
containing 16 ®bers, the problem is also solved directly
by the hybrid stress element. The shear modulus from
the homogenization method is compared with that ob-
tained by the hybrid stress element and by the Voigt±
Reuss theory [4]. A comparison of the computed results
shows common features of the local ®elds. Conclusions
Fig. 1. Illustration of a problem with two length scales.
and discussion follow in Section 8.

sentative volume element or unit cell Y, as shown in Fig.

2. Mathematical homogenization
Consider a uniform composite shaft of arbitrary
cross-section twisted by couples applied at the ends.
Without loss of generality, the origin of coordinates is
taken at the left end cross-section, with the x1 - and x2 -
axes as the principal axes of inertia, and the x3 -axis
along the axis of the shaft and pointing to its other end.
According to St. Venant's theory of torsion, the dis-
placement components are [18]
u1 ˆ hx3 x2
u2 ˆ hx3 x1 …1†
u3 ˆ w…x1 ; x2 †
where h represents the angle of twist per unit length
(clockwise about the x3 -axis).
Assume the microstructure of the cross-section Xe to
be locally periodic with a period de®ned by a statistically
homogeneous volume element, denoted by the repre-
1. In other words, the composite material is formed by a
spatial repetition of the unit cell. The shaft has two
length scales; a global length scale D that is of the order
of the section size, and a local length scale d that is of the
order of the unit cell and proportional to the wavelength
of the variation of the microstructure. The size of the
unit cell is much larger than that of the constituents but
much smaller than that of the section. The relation be-
tween the global coordinate system xi for the section and
the local system yi for the minimum repeated unit cell
can then be written as
xi
yi ˆ i ˆ 1; 2 …2†
e
where e is a very small positive number representing the
scaling factor between the two length scales. The local
coordinate vector yi is regarded as a stretched coordinate
vector in the microscopic domain. For an actual hetero-
geneous body subjected to external forces, ®eld quan-
tities such as displacements, strains and stresses are
assumed to have slow variations from point to point
 B.L. Karihaloo et al. / Computers and Structures 79 (2001) 1645±1660 1647

with macroscopic (global) coordinate x as well as fast where

variations with local microscopic coordinate y within a …0†
small neighborhood of size e of a given point x. That is, … 1† ou3
c3j ˆ
displacements, strains and stresses have two explicit oyj
…0† …0† …0†
dependencies: one on the macroscopic level with coor- c3j ˆ cx3j ‡ cy3j
dinates xi , and the other on the level of microconstitu- …0†
…0† ou3
ents with coordinates yi cx31 ˆ hx2
ox1
ue3 ˆ ue3 …x; y† …0† ou3
…0† …10†
cx32 ˆ ‡ hx1
ce3j ˆ ce3j …x; y† …3† ox2
…1†
se3j ˆ se3j …x; y† …0† ou3
cy3j ˆ
oyj
where j ˆ 1, 2. Due to the periodicity of the micro- ou3
…1†
ou
…2†
…1†
structure, functions ue3 , ce3j and se3j are assumed to be Y- c3j ˆ ‡ 3
oxj oyj
periodic, i.e., ue3 …x; y† ˆ ue3 …x; y ‡ kY †, ce3j …x; y† ˆ ce3j …x; y ‡
kY † and se3j …x; y† ˆ se3j …x; y ‡ kY †, where Y…yi † is the size Substituting Eq. (9) into the constitutive relation (6)
of the unit cell, or the basic period of the stretched co- gives the expansion of the stress se3j
ordinate system y and k is a non-zero integer. … 1† …0† …1†
The unknown displacement ue3 , the angle of twist per se3j …x; y† ˆ e 1 s3j ‡ s3j ‡ es3j ‡


…11†
unit length h, and the non-zero strain ce3j and stress se3j
where
can be solved from the following equations
… 1† … 1†
s3i ˆ Cij c3j …12†
ose3j
Equilibrium : ˆ 0 in Xe …4†
oxj …0† …0†
s3i ˆ Cij c3j …13†
  " # 
o
ce31 x2 ue3
Kinematical : ˆ ox1
in Xe …1†
s3i ˆ Cij c3j
…1†
…14†
ce32 o
ox2
x1 h
…5† Inserting the asymptotic expansion for the stress ®eld
(11) into the equilibrium equation (4) and collecting the
Constitutive : se3i ˆ Cije ce3j in Xe …6† terms of like powers in e gives equations
… 1†
and os3j
Z O…e 2 † : ˆ0 …15†
oyj
Mt ˆ …s32 x1 s31 x2 † dX …7†
Xe
… 1† …0†
os3j os3j
O…e 1 † : ‡ ˆ0 …16†
together with the traction free condition on the surface oxj oyj
of the shaft, and the traction and displacement condi-
tions at the interfaces between the microconstituents. …0† …1†
os3j os3j
For the sake of simplicity and clarity, we assume that the O…e† : ‡ ˆ0 …17†
®elds are continuous across the interfaces. The material oxj oyj
property tensor Cije is symmetric with respect to indices We ®rst consider the O…e 2 † equilibrium equation (15) in
…i; j†. Mt is the torque applied at the ends. The super- …0†
Y. Premultiplying it by u3 , integrating over Y, followed
script e denotes Y-periodicity of the corresponding by integration by parts, yields
function. The convention of summation over the re-
Z … 1† I
peated indices is used. …0† os3j …0† … 1†
The displacement ue3 …x; y† is expanded in powers of u3 dY ˆ u3 s3j nj dC
Y oyj oY
the small number e [6±14] Z …0† …0†
ou3 ou
…0† …1† …2† Cji 3 dY ˆ 0 …18†
ue3 …x; y† ˆ u3 …x; y† ‡ eu3 …x; y† ‡ e2 u3 …x; y† ‡


…8† Y oyj oyi
…0† …1† …2†
where u3 , u3 , u3 ,. . ., are Y-periodic functions with where oY denotes the boundary of Y. The boundary in-
respect to y. Substituting Eq. (8) into Eq. (5) gives the tegral term in Eq. (18) vanishes due to the periodicity of
…0† … 1†
expansion of the strain ce3j : the boundary conditions in Y, because u3 and s3j are
identical on the opposite sides of the unit cell, while the
… 1† …0† …1†
ce3j …x; y† ˆ e 1 c3j ‡ c3j ‡ ec3j ‡


…9† corresponding normals nj are in opposite directions.
1648 B.L. Karihaloo et al. / Computers and Structures 79 (2001) 1645±1660

Taking into account the positive de®niteness of the for v3j

3 …y† from Eq. (23) assuming it to be a Y-periodic
symmetric constitutive tensor Cij , we have function de®ned in Y. The e€ective material properties
…0† CjkH are given by Eq. (26). We then solve the homoge-
ou3 …0† …0† neous St Venant torsion problem by the hybrid stress
ˆ 0 ) u3 ˆ u3 …x† …19†
oyj element [5] and obtain the macroscopic ®elds: warping
…0†
displacement u3 , the angle of twist per unit length h,
and …0† …0†
strains cx3j and stresses (given by CjiH cx3i ). If the distri-
… 1† … 1†
c3j …x; y† ˆ 0 s3j …x; y† ˆ 0 …20† bution of the microscopic ®elds in the neighborhood of
point x is of interest, we use Eq. (22) to calculate the
Next, we proceed to the O…e 1 † equilibrium equation higher order displacement term, and then use Eqs. (10)
(16). From Eqs. (10) and (13) and taking into account and (13) to calculate the higher order strain and stress
Eq. (20), it follows that terms.
o   oCji …0† …0† The key problem here is to develop powerful ®nite
…0† …1†
Cji cy3i …u3 † ˆ c …u † …21† element methods to solve Eq. (23).
oyj oyj x3i 3
Corresponding to the equilibrium equation (23), the
Based on the form of the right-hand side of Eq. (21) virtual work principle states that
…1†
which permits a separation of variables, u3 may be Z   Z
o ov3k oCjk
expressed as dv3k
3 Cji 3 dY ‡ dv3k 3 dY ˆ 0 …27a†
Y oy j oy i Y oyj
…1† …0† …0†
u3 …x; y† ˆ v3j
3 …y†cx3j …u3 † …22†
where dv3k3 are arbitrary Y-periodic functions de®ned in
where v3j 3 …y† is a Y-periodic function de®ned in the unit the unit cell Y. Integration of Eq. (27a) by parts yields
cell Y. Substituting Eq. (22) into Eq. (21), and taking I I Z
into account the arbitrariness of the macroscopic strain ov3k odv3k
dv3k
3 Cji
3
nj ds ‡ dv 3k
3 C n
jk j ds 3
Cji
…0†
®eld, cx3j …u3 † within a unit cell, we have oY oyi oY Y oyj
Z
o   oCjk ov3k odv3k
…0†
Cji cy3i …v3k …y†† ˆ …23†  3 dY 3
Cjk dY ˆ 0
oyj 3
oyj oyi Y oyj

We now consider the O…e† equilibrium equation (17). The boundary integral terms in the above equation
Substituting Eq. (22) into Eq. (10), followed by the latter vanish due to the Y-periodicity of v3k 3k
3 and dv3 . Thus, we
into Eq. (13), and ®nally the result into Eq. (17) yields have
Z Z
o h i os odv3k ov3k odv3k
…1†
3
Cji …dik ‡ v3k †c
…0†
…u
…0†
† ‡
3j
ˆ0 …24† Cji 3 dY ‡ 3
Cjk dY ˆ 0 …27b†
oxj 3;yi x3k 3
oyj Y oyj oyi Y oyj

where dik is the Kronecker Delta. Integrating Eq. (24) Based on Eq. (27b), displacement elements can be es-
over the unit cell domain Y and taking into account the tablished in a standard manner.
…1†
periodicity of s3j yields It is easy to prove that Eqs. (27a) and (27b) is the ®rst
order variation of the following potential functional
o h H …0† …0† i
C c …u † ˆ 0 …25† Z Z
oxj jk x3k 3 1 ov3k ov3k ov3k
PP …v3k
3 † ˆ 3
Cji
3
dY ‡ 3
Cjk dY …28†
Y 2 oyj oyi Y oyj
This is an equilibrium equation for a homogeneous
medium (cf. Eq. (4)) with constant material properties If we de®ne the strain
CjkH , which are usually termed as the homogenized or
e€ective material properties and are given by ov3k
Z c~k3i ˆ 3

1 oyi
CjkH ˆ Cji …dik ‡ v3k
3;yi † dY …26†
Y Y and the stress
where Y is the area of the unit cell. s~k3j ˆ Cji c~k3i

so that
3. Variational principles and ®nite elements
c~k3i ˆ Cij 1 s~k3j
To solve the torsion of composite shafts by the ho-
mogenization method, together with numerical meth- which are Y-periodic functions in the unit cell, we have a
ods, e.g. the FE method adopted here, we will ®rst solve 2-®eld Hellinger±Reissner functional
 B.L. Karihaloo et al. / Computers and Structures 79 (2001) 1645±1660 1649
Z   X Z    
1 k 1 k ov3k oCjk 3k o ov3k oCjk
PHR …v3k ~k3j † ˆ
3 ;s s~3i Cij s~3j ‡ s~k3i 3 v3 dY dPP …v3k
3 † ˆ dv3k
3q Cji 3 ‡ dY
Y 2 oyi oyj e Ye oyj oyi oyj
…29a† (   …a†
XZ ov3k
3k
‡ dv3q Cji 3 ‡ Cjk nj
or equivalently a;b Sab oyi
Z 
1 k 1 k ov3k ov3k
  …b† )
PHR …v3k ~k3j † ˆ s~3i Cij s~3j ‡ s~k3i 3 ‡ Cjk 3 dY ov3k
3 ;s
3
2 oyi oyj ‡ …Cji ‡ Cjk †nj ds
Y oyi
…29b†
X Z odv3k ov3k
3k
‡ Cji 3 dY
By making use of the Lagrange multiplier method and e Ye oyj oyi
relaxing the compatibility condition in the potential
principle (28), or by employing Legendre transformation The stationary condition of the functional (31) gives the
on the Hellinger±Reissner principle (29b), one arrives at equilibrium equation (23) and the equilibrium of trac-
the 3-®eld Hu±Washizu functional tion between the elements if the following condition is
Z    met a priori
1 k ov3k
PHW …v3k X Z odv3k
k k k k k 3
3 ; ~
c ; ~
s
3j 3j † ˆ ~
c C ~
c
ij 3j ~
s ~
c ov3k
Y 2 3i 3i 3i
oyi 3k
Cji 3 dY ˆ 0
3k
 Ye oyj oyi
ov3 e
‡ Cjk dY …30†
oyj A convenient way to meet this condition is to satisfy the
following strong form (i.e. the sucient but not the
Based on the functionals (29) and (30), multivariable
necessary condition) in each element
®nite elements can be established. Z
Although hybrid elements based on the Hellinger± odv3k
3k ov3k
Cji 3 dY ˆ 0
Reissner principle or the Hu±Washizu principle can in Ye oyj oyi
general improve the accuracy of the approximate dis-
placement and stress solutions, they will not be used Since a constant stress state is recovered in each element
here as it is dicult to meet the Y-periodicity condition as its size is reduced to zero and since dv3k 3k is arbitrary,
of the stress on the boundary of the unit cell. The general the above constraint reduces to the general patch test
isoparametric elements are also not satisfactory because condition (PTC) [19,20]
of the gradients of v3k Z I
3 that appear in Eq. (26) in the ov3k
evaluation of the homogenized material properties. For
3k
dY ˆ 0 or equivalently v3k
3k nj ds ˆ 0
Ye oyj oYe
these reasons, in this paper we will instead introduce
displacement-incompatible elements based on the po- …32†
tential (28) and enhanced-strain elements based on Eq. The incompatible functions meeting the PTC can now
(30). be easily formulated.
If we refer to the 4-noded isoparametric element
shown in Fig. 2, the compatible displacement v3k 3q is re-
4. Displacement-incompatible elements lated to the nodal values e qk via the bilinear interpola-
tion functions
Subdivide the unit cell domain Y into ®nite element
v3k e k
3q ˆ N q …33†
subdomains Ye , such that [Ye ˆ Y , Ya \ Yb ˆ ; and
oYa \ oYb ˆ Sab (a, b are arbitrary elements). where
In each element, v3k
3 is divided into a compatible part
v3k and an incompatible part v3k N ˆ ‰ N1 N2 N3 N4 Š
3q 3k , so that the functional
(28) can be rewritten as and
PP …v3k
3 ˆ v3k
‡3q v3k
3k † Ni ˆ 14…1 ‡ ni n†…1 ‡ gi g†
X Z 1 ov3k ov3k
Z
ov3k
3q
ˆ 3
Cji 3 dY ‡ Cjk dY …n; g† represent the isoparametric coordinates, …ni ; gi † are
e Ye 2 oyj oyi Ye oyj the isoparametric coordinates of point i with the global
…31† coordinates …xi ; yi †, i ˆ 1, 2, 3, 4.
The incompatible term v3k 3k is related to the element
Taking the variation of the above functional, integrating inner parameters e kk via the shape functions Nk
by parts and making use of the periodicity condition on
e k
the outer boundary of the unit cell, yields v3k
3k ˆ Nk k …34†
1650 B.L. Karihaloo et al. / Computers and Structures 79 (2001) 1645±1660

Substituting Eq. (38) into Eq. (31) and making use of the
stationary condition, yields
e e e qk ˆ e f k
K …39†

where the element sti€ness matrix and nodal vector are

Z  
ee C1k
K ˆ Kqq Kqk Kkk1 Kqk
T
; ef k ˆ BT dY
Ye C2k
…40†

in which
  Z  T
Kqq Kqk B
T ˆ T C‰ B Bk ŠdY
Kqk Kkk Ye Bk

The element inner parameters e kk are recovered as fol-

lows
e k
k ˆ Kkk1 Kqk
Te k
q
Fig. 2. A four-noded element.
This element is designated NQ6, and 2  2 Gauss
quadrature is employed for the element formulation.

Here, two incompatible terms are employed in each ele-

ment as derived in Refs. [19,20]
5. Enhanced-strain element based on the Hu±Washizu
Nk1 ˆ n2 D Nk2 ˆ g2 ‡ D …35† principle
 
2 J1 J2 Only the compatible displacement ®eld is used here,
Dˆ n g and the strain ®eld is enhanced by appending to the
3 J0 J0
strain corresponding to the compatible displacement an
where J0 , J1 and J2 are related to the element Jacobian as incompatible ®eld as follows [21,22]
follows ov3k
c~k3i ˆ 3
‡ c~kk3i
oyi
jJ j ˆ J0 ‡ J1 n ‡ J2 g
ˆ …a1 b3 a3 b1 † ‡ …a1 b2 a2 b1 †n ‡ …a2 b3 a3 b2 †g The Hu±Washizu functional (30) can now be rewritten
as
…36†
XZ 1
3k k k
PHW …v3 ; c~k3j ; s~3j † ˆ c~k3i Cij c~k3j s~k3i c~kk3i
and coecients ai and bi …i ˆ 1; 2; 3† are dependent on e Ye 2
the element nodal coordinates 
ov3k
2 3 2 3 ‡ Cjk 3 dY …41†
a1 b1 2 3 x y oyj
1 1 1 1 6 1 17
6 7 1 x 2 y2 7
4 a2 b2 5 ˆ 4 1 1 1 1 564 x 3 y3 5 …37† Taking the variation of the above functional, integrating
4
a3 b3 1 1 1 1 by parts and making use of the periodicity condition on
x 4 y4
the outer boundary of the unit cell, yields
With the above assumed displacements (33) and (34), we
XZ  o
have 3k k
~ ~k
dPHW …v3 ; ck3j ; s3j † ˆ dv3k …Cji c~k3i ‡ Cjk †
8 3k 9 ( ) 3
oy j
< ov3 = o e k  e k  e Ye

oy1 oy1 q q
ˆ o ‰ N Nk Š e k ˆ ‰ B B k Š e k ‡ d~ckk3i …Cij c~k3j s~k3i † dY
: ov3k3 ; oy2
k k
oy2
XI
…38† ‡ dv3k ~k3i ‡ Cjk †nj Š…a†
3 f‰…Cji c
a;b Sab
where
( ) ( ) ‡ ‰…Cji c~k3i ‡ Cjk †nj Š…b† gds
o
oy1
o
oy1
XZ
Bˆ o N; Bk ˆ o Nk d~ sk3i c~kk3i dY
oy2 oy2 e Ye
 B.L. Karihaloo et al. / Computers and Structures 79 (2001) 1645±1660
The stationary condition of the functional (41) gives the
equilibrium equation (23), the stress±strain relations and
the equilibrium of traction between the elements if the
following condition is met a priori
XZ
d~sk3i c~kk3i dY ˆ 0
e Ye
Following the procedure employed in Section 4, the
above constraint can be simpli®ed to the PTC [20,23]
Z Rqk ˆ 0
c~kk3i dY ˆ 0 …42†
Ye
It is evident that Eq. (42) is an alternative formulation of
the PTC (32), if the enhanced strain c~kk3i corresponds to
the incompatible displacement v3k 3k .
The ®nite element based on the stationary condition
of functional (41) requires an independent approxima-
tion of three ®elds: v3k ~kk3j and s~k3j . In the enhanced-
3 , c
strain element, however, the independent stress ®eld is
eliminated by selecting it to be orthogonal to the en-
hanced strain ®eld, i.e.
Z penalty function technique the functional (46) is modi-
s~k3i c~kk3i dY ˆ 0 …43†
Ye
Thus, the two independent ®elds for the enhanced-strain
formulation are the displacement v3k 3 and the enhanced
assumed strains c~kk3j . The formulation here is the same as
in Section 4 above, provided c~kk3j are interpolated from
the element inner parameters as follows
( )
c~kk31
ˆ Bk kk …44†
c~kk32
Moreover, if the assumed strains c~kk3j in Eq. (44) corre-
spond to the incompatible displacement v3k 3k in Eq. (34),
the enhanced-strain formulation will be equivalent to
the incompatible-displacement formulation discussed in
Section 4. Therefore, only NQ6 introduced in Section 4
will be employed in the computations to follow. Note
however that the stress in the enhanced-strain formula-
tion can be recovered with the help of the orthogonal-
ization condition (43), as suggested in Ref. [21].
6. Enforcing the periodicity boundary condition in the
analysis of the RUC
Assembling the discretized equations of equilibrium
of all elements, yields the following system of equilib-
rium equations
Kqk ˆ f k …45†
Two di€erent loading cases need to be analyzed in order
to determine the characteristic deformations of the unit
1651
cell. The periodicity condition of the boundary dis-
placement can conveniently be enforced by a penalty
function technique [24]. Eq. (45) is the Euler±Lagrange
equation of the following functional
1 T T
P…qk † ˆ qk Kqk qk f k …46†
2
The periodicity condition yields the following constraint
If a couple of nodes, i and j, on the boundary have the
same displacement because of the periodicity condition,
i.e.
qki ˆ qkj
the above condition is equivalent to
R…i; i† ˆ 1 R…i; j† ˆ 1 R…i; l 6ˆ i; j† ˆ 0
In order to satisfy the above periodicity constraint by a
®ed as
e k † ˆ 1 qkT Kqk
P…q
T a T
qk f k ‡ qk RT Rqk …47†
2 2
where a is a large positive number and taken to be 104 in
our computations. Thus, instead of Eq. (45), we will
solve the following equations
…K ‡ aRT R†qk ˆ f k …48†
7. Numerical examples
As the performance of the element using incompati-
ble functions de®ned in Eq. (35) and of the hybrid stress
element to be used here for torsion of shafts has been
extensively studied in Refs. [5,19,20], no standard per-
formance tests for both elements are included in this
paper. However, to illustrate the method described
above, we solve the torsion of a composite shaft with
square cross-section (length of side ˆ 80), as shown in
Fig. 3(a). Assume that the microstructure of the cross-
section is locally periodic with a period de®ned by a
RUC shown in Fig. 3(b), i.e. it consists of an isotro-
pic circular ®ber of diameter 2a embedded in an iso-
tropic square matrix with side 4a. a ˆ 5 is adapted in
this study. The problem is solved in two stages. First,
we solve the RUC by using the incompatible element
NQ6 introduced in Section 4, with the periodicity
boundary condition enforced by the penalty function
approach discussed in Section 6. We obtain the ®eld v3k3
1652 B.L. Karihaloo et al. / Computers and Structures 79 (2001) 1645±1660
Fig. 3. Geometry of a composite shaft of square pro®le: (a) square pro®le, (b) RUC, (c) square shaft with 16 ®bres.
and its derivatives …o=oyj †v3k
3 and calculate the homog-
enized moduli from Eq. (26). Second, we solve the tor-
sion of the square shaft shown in Fig. 3(a) with the
homogenized moduli obtained at step one above, by
using the hybrid stress element introduced in Ref. [5]. In
this way, we calculate the warping displacement, tor-
sional rigidity and the angle of twist per unit length, as
well as the shear stresses and strains. With the results so
obtained, we can calculate the ®rst order warping dis-
placement from Eq. (22) and the local strain and stress
®elds from Eqs. (10) and (13), respectively. For the
present illustrative purpose, we choose e ˆ 0:25. The
complete shaft section from which the RUC has been
extracted is shown in Fig. 3(c). In the ®gures to follow,
®lled triangles represent computed data. In all the ®gures
that illustrate the stress distribution, a line segment
represents the distribution within an element. In Figs. 5,
6(b) and (c), the solid line represents the polynomial ®t
of the corresponding computed data that is not satis-
factorily smooth.
The RUC shown in Fig. 3(b) is discretized into 896
quadrilateral elements and 929 nodes, as shown in Fig.
4(a). According to the de®nition of the RUC, its size
should be enlarged four times as e ˆ 0:25. However,
numerical results show that the results are una€ected by
whether or not the RUC size is enlarged, allowing us to
use the original RUC size. Care must be taken in en-
forcing the periodicity boundary condition at corner
nodes. For the four corner nodes, i, j, k and l, shown in
Fig. 3(b), the periodicity condition yields
qki ˆ qkj ˆ qkk ˆ qkl
The above condition can be rewritten as
qki ˆ qkj
qkj ˆ qkk
qkk ˆ qkl
 B.L. Karihaloo et al. / Computers and Structures 79 (2001) 1645±1660 1653

Fig. 4. Discretised meshes used in the computation: (a) mesh of the RUC shown in Fig. 3(b), (b) mesh of a quarter of the cross-section
shown in Fig. 3(a), (c) mesh of a quarter of the cross-section shown in Fig. 3(c).

and treated conveniently by the procedure discussed in
Section 6. The ®ber and the matrix are considered to be
isotropic with the shear moduli, Gf ˆ 10 and Gm ˆ 1,
respectively. The computed homogenized shear moduli
are
section with its units being consistent with those of the
shear moduli. The computed result for the torsional ri-
gidity 4  1:9927  106 is very close to the accurate value
7:9856  106 obtained from the formula [16]

    Torsional rigidity ˆ 0:141G…2b†4 …50†

C11 C12 1:38271 0:00138
ˆ …49†
Sym C22 Sym 1:38467
Thus the macroscopic behavior of the composite shaft is
also isotropic. The numerical results for the character-
istic displacements v3k
3 and their derivatives …o=oyj †v3
3k
are saved for later use.
The isotropic shaft of square cross-section shown in
Fig. 3(a) is now analyzed with the homogenized shear
moduli (49) obtained above. Only a quarter of the cross-
section, the shaded part shown in Fig. 3(a), is dicretized
because of symmetry. The warping displacements are
®xed on the axes of symmetry. The employed FE mesh
with 400 quadrilateral elements and 441 nodes is shown
in Fig. 4(b). One unit of torque is applied on the quarter
where the shear modulus G ˆ 1:38271, and the length of
side of the square cross-section 2b ˆ 80 in the present
example. The numerical results for the local ®elds near
or along the interface between the ®ber and the matrix
adjacent to the point with global co-ordinates …x1 ˆ 30,
x2 ˆ 30† are shown in Figs. 5 and 6. Fig. 5(a)±(c) show
the results along the line 3 6 y1 6 7, y2 ˆ 0 near the point
P in Fig. 3(b). Fig. 5(a) shows the distribution of
warping displacement. Fig. 5(b) shows the polynomial
®tting of the computed shear stress sxz , on the scale of
the ®gure results given by the upper and lower ele-
ments adjacent to the line cannot be distinguished. Fig.
5(c) shows the computed shear stress syz , data linked by
solid and broken lines represent respectively the results
1654 B.L. Karihaloo et al. / Computers and Structures 79 (2001) 1645±1660

Fig. 5. Numerical results on the line 3 6 y1 6 7, y2 ˆ 0, from the homogenisation method: (a) distribution of warping displacement, (b)
distribution of sxz , (c) distribution of syz .

obtained from the upper and lower elements adjacent to sxz but not of syz is continuous across the interface. The
the line in question. From the results it is seen that the distribution of warping displacement, and of normal
gradient of the warping displacement changes rapidly and tangential shear stresses along the interface, which
across the interface …y1 ˆ 5† and that the distribution of are given by
 B.L. Karihaloo et al. / Computers and Structures 79 (2001) 1645±1660 1655

Fig. 6. Numerical results along the interface from the homogenisation method: (a) distribution of warping displacement, (b) distri-
bution of the normal shear stress sn , (c) distribution of the tangential shear stress st .

sn ˆ sxz cos u ‡ syz sin u data linked by broken lines represent the results ob-
…51† tained from the matrix side, the continuous solid line
st ˆ sxz sin u ‡ syz cos u
represents the polynomial ®t of the results obtained
where u is the angle from the axis y1 as shown in Fig. from the ®ber side of the interface. These results show
3(b), are plotted in Fig. 6 (a)±(c). In Fig. 6(b) and (c), that the warping displacement and normal shear stress
1656 B.L. Karihaloo et al. / Computers and Structures 79 (2001) 1645±1660
sn vary continuously across the interface, whereas the
tangential shear stress st has a signi®cant discontinuity.
Although it will not be possible to compare the re-
sults with those obtained by the present homogenization
method, we will still solve directly the torsion of the
composite shaft shown in Fig. 3(c) by the hybrid stress
element introduced in Ref. [5] to illustrate some typical
features of local ®elds adjacent to the interface. Again,
only a quarter of the cross-section is needed to be
dicretized because of symmetry. The warping displace-
ments are ®xed on the axes of symmetry. The FE mesh
with 3584 quadrilateral elements and 3649 nodes is
shown in Fig. 4(c). One unit of torque is applied on the
quarter section with its units being consistent with those
of the shear modulus. The computed result for torsional
rigidity is 4  1:9456356  106 , which according to the
formula (50) corresponds to an isotropic shaft with
shear modulus 1.34754. The result is reasonably close to
that obtained by the homogenization method (49). The
latter predicts larger values of moduli because the em-
ployment of the periodic boundary condition makes the
system sti€er. The result given by the homogenization
method is also within the lower bound 1.215 and the
upper bound 2.767 as per the Voigt±Reuss theory [4].
Zhao and Weng [25] have derived the nine e€ective
elastic constants of an orthotropic composite reinforced
with monotonically aligned, uniformly dispersed elliptic
cylinders using the Eshelby±Mori±Tanaka method. The
problem studied above is the special case that the rein-
forcements are ®bers with circular cross-section. The
two shear moduli relevant to torsion given by Zhao and
Weng [25] are
C11 cf C22 cf
ˆ 1 ‡ cm a Gm
; ˆ 1 ‡ cm Gm
…52†
Gm 1‡a
‡ G Gm
Gm 1‡a
‡ G Gm
f f
where cf and cm are volume fractions of ®ber and matrix,
respectively, and a is the cross-sectional aspect ratio of
the reinforced ®ber. In our case, cf ˆ p=4, cm ˆ 1 p=4
and a ˆ b=a ˆ 1, and hence the e€ective shear moduli
C11 ˆ 4:595947 ˆ C22 given by Eq. (52) are unreason-
ably higher than the results by the direct FE analysis, as
well as the results (49) by the homogenization method
mentioned above. They are also above the upper bound
of the Voigt±Reuss theory. The Eshelby±Mori±Tanaka
method cannot give good results, especially for high
volume fraction of reinforcements, because Eshelby's
tensor is based on the inclusion in an in®nite matrix,
which takes into account of the interaction between re-
inforcements in a very weak sense. On the other hand, it
is evident that the homogenization method has the ad-
vantage of taking the interaction between phases into
account naturally and of not having to make assump-
tions such as isotropy of material.
The distribution of warping displacement and shear
stresses along the line corresponding to Fig. 5 and the
interface corresponding to Fig. 6 are plotted in Figs. 7
and 8. (51) has been used to obtain the normal and
tangential shear stresses in Fig. 8(b) and (c). A com-
parison of Figs. 5 and 6 with Figs. 7 and 8, respectively,
shows the obvious di€erences of the results obtained by
the homogenization method and the direct hybrid stress
element. The di€erences are to be expected in view of the
limited number of ®bers that can be economically han-
dled by the hybrid stress element. The homogenization
method is suitable for problems involving a large num-
ber of periodically distributed reinforcements so that the
RUC occupies only a ``point'' in the physical domain
[12]. The computed stress ®elds by the hybrid stress
element are smoother than those obtained by the ho-
mogenization method and smoothing techniques are
unnecessary for the former since di€erentiations are
avoided in the computations. Notwithstanding these
di€erences, the results by the two methods reveal the
common features of the local ®elds: a signi®cant dis-
continuity exists in the tangential shear stress, while
other ®elds are continuous adjacent to the interface.
Having gained con®dence in the accuracy of the in-
compatible element NQ6 developed from the homoge-
nization theory in predicting the e€ective shear moduli,
we study below the e€ect of the cross-sectional shape of
the reinforcing ®bers. The RUC used is illustrated in
Fig. 9(a), i.e. an elliptic cylindrical ®ber is embedded in
the matrix of rectangular shape; the pattern of discreti-
zation is similar to Fig. 4(b). The material properties of
the ®ber as well as the matrix and their volume fractions
are selected as above. The variation of the computed C11
and C22 with the aspect ratio of the ®ber is plotted in
Fig. 9(b). Again, the results from Eq. (52), i.e., the
Eshelby±Mori±Tanaka method, are unreasonably high-
er. However, the predicted trend is the same ± with an
increase in b=a, C11 decreases, and C22 increases.
8. Conclusions and discussion
The homogenization method is most suitable for
problems involving a large number of periodically dis-
tributed reinforcements so that the RUC can be re-
garded as a ``point'' in the physical domain. It gives not
only the equivalent material properties but also detailed
information of local ®elds with much lower computa-
tional cost. Such detailed information of the ®elds on
the scale of microconstituents is almost impossible to
obtain by using the hybrid stress element, because of the
enormous degrees of freedom needed to model the en-
tire macrodomain with a grid size comparable to that of
the microscale features. When the number of the rein-
forcement is not very large, numerical results by the
 B.L. Karihaloo et al. / Computers and Structures 79 (2001) 1645±1660 1657

Fig. 7. Numerical results on the line 3 6 y1 6 7, y2 ˆ 0, from the hybrid stress element method: (a) distribution of warping displace-
ment, (b) distribution of sxz , (c) distribution of syz .

homogenization method without the terms of order characteristic displacement v3k

higher than one are usually quantitatively di€erent from
those obtained by the direct hybrid stress element. The
inclusion of higher terms may improve numerical ac-
curacy, but it inevitably complicates the procedure. In
the determination of the equivalent properties and in the
evaluation of the local ®elds, the derivatives of the
3 are needed. Therefore,
the widely used isoparametric elements are not suitable
for the analysis of the RUC. The hybrid stress element is
also limited because it is dicult to enforce the period-
icity condition on the assumed stresses. From a practical
point of view, the incompatible element based on the
modi®ed potential principle and the enhanced-strain
1658 B.L. Karihaloo et al. / Computers and Structures 79 (2001) 1645±1660

Fig. 8. Numerical results along the interface from the hybrid stress element method: (a) distribution of warping displacement,
(b) distribution of the normal shear stress sn , (c) distribution of the tangential shear stress st .

element based on the 3-®eld Hu±Washizu principle are For torsion of ®ber reinforced composite shafts, a
the most appropriate for the analysis of RUC, whereas signi®cant discontinuity exists in the tangential shear
the hybrid stress element is appropriate for the macro- stress, while other ®elds are continuous along the in-
homogenized problem. terface between the ®ber and the matrix.
 B.L. Karihaloo et al. / Computers and Structures 79 (2001) 1645±1660 1659

Fig. 9. E€ect of the cross-sectional shape of the ®ber on the e€ective shear moduli: (a) a RUC of rectangular shape with an embedded
elliptic cylindrical ®ber, (b) variation of C11 and C22 with the aspect ratio of the ®ber.

Acknowledgements [5] Xiao QZ, Karihaloo BL, Li ZR, Williams FW. An

CC Wu and QZ Xiao acknowledge the ®nancial
support from the National Natural Science Foundation
of China under grant number 19772051.
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