Received: 25 July 2019 Accepted: 2 December 2019

DOI: 10.1002/agg2.20011

ORIGINAL RESEARCH ARTICLE

Agrosyste ms

Comparison of four warm-season turfgrass species to natural

rainfall or supplemental irrigation in a semiarid climate

Travis Culpepper1 Joseph Young1 Benjamin Wherley2

1 Plant
and Soil Science Department, Texas
Tech University, Lubbock, TX 79409
2 Soil
and Crop Sciences Department, Texas
A&M University, College Station, TX 77843
Correspondence
Joseph Young, Plant and Soil Science Depart-
ment, Texas Tech University, Lubbock, TX
79409
Email: joey.young@ttu.edu
Abstract
Increased urban populations and drought conditions strain municipal water supplies,
often resulting in activation of water conservation plans. Supplemental irrigation can
be eliminated in extreme situations, which diminishes functional and visual benefits
of turfgrass landscapes. The objective of this research was to evaluate differential
responses of four warm-season turfgrasses receiving supplemental irrigation (sub-
surface drip) or natural rainfall only in semiarid climate. Celebration bermudagrass
[Cynodon dactylon (L.) Pers.] and Legacy buffalograss [Buchloe dactyloides (Nutt.)
Engelm.] were sodded in 2014; Jamur Japanese lawngrass (Zoysia japonica Steud.)
and Zeon Manilagrass [Zoysia matrella (L.) Merr.] were sodded in 2016. Species were
split with mowing treatments at 5 or 9 cm. Limited mowing effects on response vari-
ables led to pooling mowing heights for species. Supplemental irrigation supplied 69
and 173 mm of water from July to September in 2017 and 2018, respectively. Vol-
umetric water content (VWC) in the upper 3.8 cm, canopy temperature, normalized
difference vegetation index (NDVI), and visual turf quality were recorded weekly.
Drought stress symptoms were evident both years. Manilagrass experienced greatest
drought stress, which lowered NDVI and turf quality with significant canopy tem-
perature increase in 2017. Bermudagrass maintained lowest canopy temperature with
greatest NDVI and turf quality with natural rainfall each year. Supplemental irriga-
tion was required to lower canopy temperature and enhance NDVI and turf quality
for other species. Results suggest bermudagrass maintains best functional and aes-
thetic quality under 123 mm rainfall. Japanese lawngrass and buffalograss improved
with supplemental irrigation, but Manilagrass required supplemental irrigation to
provide acceptable quality.

1 I N T RO D U C T I O N

Increased urbanization throughout the United States has

resulted in land use shifts from agricultural, grassland, or for-
Abbreviations: ANOVA, analysis of variance; ETo, reference
est to urban in many locations (Alig, Kline, & Lichtenstein,
evapotranspiration; LSD, least significant difference; NDVI, normalized
difference vegetation index; SDI, subsurface drip irrigation; VWC,
2004). Increased urbanization and desires for aesthetics have
volumetric water content. resulted in greater water usage within home lawns (Kjelgren,

This is an open access article under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits use, distribution and reproduction in any medium, provided the original
work is properly cited.
© 2019 The Authors. Agrosystems, Geosciences & Environment published by Wiley Periodicals, Inc. on behalf of Crop Science Society of America and American Society of Agronomy

Agrosyst Geosci Environ. 2020;3:e20011. wileyonlinelibrary.com/journal/agg2 1 of 9

https://doi.org/10.1002/agg2.20011
2 of 9
Rupp, & Kilgren, 2000; St. Hilaire et al., 2008). This has
led municipalities to enact stricter water conservation plans
as water resources dwindle during periods of high evapotran-
spiration in summer months (Abbey, 1998; St. Hilaire et al.,
2008), which has effectively reduced urban water usage in
some cases (Mini, Hogue, & Pencetl, 2014). Therefore, land-
scape plants must be selected and managed to withstand these
most restrictive ordinances. Lubbock, TX, is a moderate size
city in the Texas Panhandle. This region of Texas is in the
transition zone (Bell, 2011; Fu, Fry, & Huang, 2004). The tur-
fgrasses best suited for this portion of the transition zone are
bermudagrass (Cynodon spp.), buffalograss [Buchloe dacty-
loides (Nutt.) Engelm.], and zoysiagrass (Zoysia spp.).
The most common forms of water application to land-
scapes are from aboveground irrigation through spray
nozzles or rotor type irrigation heads (Leinauer, Sevos-
tianova, Serena, Schiavon, & Macolino, 2010; Schiavon,
Leinauer, Sevastionova, Serena, & Maier, 2011). There are
many factors that may increase inefficiency of this type of
irrigation system including: system design, water pressure,
nozzle selection, or precipitation rate (St. Hilaire et al.,
2008; Kjelgren et al., 2000; Sevostianova & Leinauer, 2014).
High temperature, wind, or solar radiation during irrigation
events increase evaporative loss potential or movement of
water from the target (St. Hilaire et al., 2008). Subsurface
drip irrigation (SDI) avoids these atmospheric interactions
by providing water directly to plant roots in soil (Schiavon
et al., 2011; Schiavon, Leinauer, Serena, Maier, & Sallenave,
2014; Serena, Leinauer, Schiavon, Maier, & Sallenave, 2014;
Suarez-Rey, 2002). Shallow depth (10 cm) and close spacing
(30 cm) are required to avoid variations in growth and color
of turfgrass typically observed with unequal distribution of
water (Camp, 1998; Devitt & Miller, 1988).
Drought responses of turfgrass species are often evalu-
ated through chronic or acute drought studies (Colmer &
Barton, 2017). Chronic drought stress encompasses differ-
ent levels of deficit irrigation to estimate a minimum water
requirement to maintain acceptable turfgrass quality and
green cover (Fu et al., 2004; Qian & Engelke, 1999; Wher-
ley, Heitholt, Chandra, & Skulkaew, 2019). Acute drought
stress research involves completely eliminating water from
a study site via rain shelter or other cover mechanisms for
an extended period (Karcher, Rush, Hignight, & Richard-
son, 2008; Steinke, Chalmers, Thomas, & White, 2011). The
period of no water is frequently followed by reapplication
of water to determine recovery potential of the species. This
evaluation type mimics a worst-case scenario with no natu-
ral rainfall or supplemental irrigation for an extended period
to evaluate drought response and survivability. The semiarid
climate of Lubbock frequently provides periods of limited
rainfall whereas evapotranspiration demand increases during
summer (Li, Zhao, & Ying, 2017). These dry periods strain
municipal water supply with increased use. Research is lack-
CULPEPPER ET AL.
Core Ideas
• Bermudagrass was best with average 138 mm nat-
ural rainfall in this semiarid climate.
• Irrigation was required for acceptable quality in
buffalograss and zoysiagrass.
• Manilagrass reached highest canopy temperature
during peak dryness in 2017.
• High weed encroachment into buffalograss lack-
ing canopy density lowered turf quality.
• Consecutive years of drought limited zoysiagrass
recovery.
ing on development of homeowner decision-making aids on
minimal water application amounts to ensure turfgrass sur-
vival and acceptable turfgrass quality. Therefore, the objective
of this research was to evaluate responses of four warm-season
turfgrasses under supplemental irrigation with SDI or natural
rainfall only in a semiarid climate.
2 M AT E R I A L S A N D M E T H O D S
This study was conducted at the Texas Tech Quaker Research
Farm in Lubbock, TX (33◦ 33′ 59″ N, 101◦ 53′ 12″ W) from
July through September in 2017 and 2018. The soil was clas-
sified as a Brownfield sandy clay loam (loamy, mixed, super-
active, thermic Arenic Aridic Paleustalfs). Soil pH was 7.9
with organic matter content of 1.2%. Subsurface drip irri-
gation (Techline CV, Netafim USA) was installed in March
2014. Drip line was placed approximately 10 cm into soil and
spaced 30 cm apart with 30 cm between emitters. Drip line
was pressure compensating with emitters designed to provide
water at 1.5 L h−1 . Independent irrigation zones were random-
ized over the study area with two strips 2 by 55 m assigned to
each zone. Turfgrass species were established in 2 by 3 m plots
as a randomized complete block with four replications per
irrigation zone. Celebration bermudagrass [Cynodon dactylon
(L.) Pers.] and Legacy buffalograss were sodded in June 2014,
whereas Jamur Japanese lawngrass (Zoysia japonica Steud.)
and Zeon Manilagrass [Zoysia matrella (L.) Merr.] were sod-
ded in June 2016. Turfgrasses were mown with a walk-behind
rotary mower (Honda HRX, Honda Power Equipment) at 5
or 9 cm to simulate residential lawn management. Mowing
treatments were randomly assigned as a strip-plot treatment
perpendicular to each species to create the smallest exper-
imental unit covering 2 by 1.5 m. Clippings were returned
with each mowing event. A complete fertilizer (Anderson’s
18-9-18 Contec DG, The Andersons Plant Nutrient) was
applied at 49 kg N ha−1 on 23 June 2017 and 11 June 2018
over the entire area.
CULPEPPER ET AL.
Groundwater from the Ogallala Aquifer was distributed
through the SDI system to maintain growth of the turfgrasses
from May to October each year. However, water was not
applied following high intensity rainfall events. Prior to initi-
ating studies each July, 2.5–3.2 cm wk−1 of water was applied
to the entire study area in May and June to promote growth
and recovery from winter dormancy. Likewise, at the con-
clusion of each year’s study, 2.5–3.2 cm wk−1 of water was
applied in September to promote recovery from drought stress
when rainfall was not sufficient to maintain growth. From
July to September, turfgrasses were evaluated for drought-
related responses comparing species receiving natural rain-
fall to the same species receiving supplemental irrigation from
SDI. Daily weather data from a weather station managed by
Wind Erosion and Water Conservation Research Unit at the
USDA Plant Stress Lab was used for reference evapotran-
spiration (ETo) calculations (Allen, Pereira, Raes, & Smith,
1998; Stout, 2017). Supplemental irrigation was provided
6 d wk−1 to ensure adequate soil water availability under
SDI. Water meters (Model 36M201T, Netafim USA) installed
prior to each irrigation valve were read weekly to calculate
depth of water applied.
Soil volumetric water content (VWC) and canopy tem-
perature were measured weekly to estimate plant-available
water. Soil VWC content was determined from a time domain
reflectometry instrument (TDR300, Spectrum Technologies,
Aurora, IL) using 3.8 cm turf rods. Soil VWC measurements
were recorded in triplicate and averaged for each experimen-
tal unit. Canopy temperature measurements were conducted
to provide evidence of root water uptake. Increased canopy
temperatures indicate reductions in transpiration from stom-
atal closure and soil water depletion (Peterson, Bremer, &
Blonquist, 2017). Canopy temperature measurements were
obtained with an infrared thermometer (IR Temp Meter, Spec-
trum Technologies) held approximately 1 m from the turf
canopy with an 8:1 distance to target ratio and ±2 ◦ C accuracy
between 1100 and 1300 h. Three subsamples per experimental
unit were averaged.
Digital image analysis was conducted on single images per
experimental unit collected with a light box (NexGen Turf
Research, Albany, OR). Percentage green cover was deter-
mined for each image using threshold settings in Turf Ana-
lyzer software (Green Research Services, LLC). Normalized
difference vegetation index measurements from red (660 nm)
and near infrared (850 nm) wavelengths were recorded in trip-
licate per experimental unit as a measure of turfgrass leaf fir-
ing and drought (Carrow, 1996) (TCM 500, Spectrum Tech-
nologies). The entire plot was visualized and rated for turf
quality by the same researcher each week. Turf quality ratings
considered density, color, coverage, and uniformity on a 1–9
scale with 1 being poorest, 9 being best, and 6 as minimum
acceptability (Morris & Shearman, 1998).
3 of 9
All data were analyzed using the Glimmix procedure
in SAS (SAS 9.4, SAS Institute). Because of significant
interaction with year and main treatment factors for each
response variable, each year was analyzed separately. The
experimental design was a split-plot with irrigation as main
treatment, species split, and mowing height split-strip.
Analysis of variance (ANOVA) was determined using all
combinations of the main treatment factors week, irrigation
treatment, turfgrass species, and mowing height. In most
cases, there were not significant interaction or mowing height
effects (P > .05), so mowing treatments were combined for
each species in analyses. Block and block × irrigation were
included as random factors in the model. The Kenward–
Roger method was used in calculating degrees of freedom
and fixed effects for ANOVA tests (Kenward & Roger, 1997).
Mean separation was conducted by Fisher’s least significant
difference (LSD) determined at significance level of α = .05.
3 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Increased rainfall limited drought stress symptoms in 2017
compared with 2018 (Table 1; Figure 1b). However, no
rainfall between Week 2 and 5 led to drought symptom
development on most turfgrass species in 2017. The large
accumulation of rainfall noted for Week 5 in 2017 occurred
after measurements were recorded from experimental units
(Table 1; Figure 1b). No further supplemental irrigation was
applied following intense rainfall. Reduced natural rainfall
in 2018 increased drought stress symptom development
and demonstrated benefits of supplemental irrigation on
maintaining growth and quality of turfgrass species.
A week × species × irrigation interaction occurred for
VWC in 2017 and 2018 (Table 2). Bermudagrass maintained
lower VWC with supplemental irrigation or natural rainfall
when compared with other species Weeks 3 and 5 in 2017
(Figure 2a). Thatch production was not measured directly
on any species, but bermudagrass treatments developed a
spongy, softer surface compared with other species under
subsurface drip irrigation, which may have contributed to
lower VWC. However, previous research has demonstrated
greater water depletion from transpiration, which lowered
VWC with bermudagrass compared with other turfgrass
species under controlled environment conditions or natural
field conditions (Baldwin, Liu, McCarty, Bauerle, & Toler,
2006; Fu et al., 2004). No supplemental irrigation was
provided following Week 5 in 2017 owing to higher intensity
and consistent rainfall (Table 1; Figure 1b). These conditions
limited differences in VWC for any species or irrigation
treatment during the remainder of 2017. Extended periods of
dry weather and greater reliance on supplemental irrigation
in 2018 (Table 1; Figure 1d) more clearly defined soil water
4 of 9
FIGURE 1 Daily mean air temperature (a and c) and rainfall accumulation (b and d) measured by a weather station within 500 m of the site
from 3 July to 1 Sept. 2017 and 9 July to 21 Sept. 2018. 10-yr mean air temperature and daily evapotranspiration for 89 yr in Lubbock, TX (see
USCD, 2019)
contents of these species in the semiarid climate. Soil VWC
increased in irrigated species compared with those only
receiving natural rainfall from Weeks 3 to 9 (Figure 2b).
Irrigated buffalograss had the greatest VWC when compared
with other species on all weeks in this range except Week
3. In contrast, bermudagrass and Japanese lawngrass were
intermediate, whereas Manilagrass generally had the lowest
VWC when receiving supplemental irrigation (Figure 2b).
These results are similar to evapotranspiration rates noted
for these species from previous studies (Qian & Fry, 1997;
Wherley et al., 2019). Under more limited water availability
with no irrigation, bermudagrass maintained greater VWC
when compared with the two Zoysia spp. (Figure 2b). The
additional year of establishment may have promoted greater
root production in both zoysiagrasses in 2018, which would
be expected closer to the measured surface (3.8 cm), as zoysi-
agrasses often have shallow root systems (Qian & Fry, 1997;
Wherley et al., 2019; Zhang et al., 2019). Therefore, canopy
temperature measurements provided additional evidence
of plant-available water and physiological function of each
species under natural rainfall or supplemental irrigation.
CULPEPPER ET AL.
A week × species × irrigation treatment interaction for
canopy temperature demonstrated differences in species in
2017 (Table 2). Canopy temperature differences were most
evident in Weeks 3 to 5 as limited rainfall increased drought
stress symptoms (Figure 3a). All irrigated species, other than
bermudagrass, had lower mean canopy temperature when
compared with natural rainfall treatments at peak drought
stress in Week 4. Manilagrass only receiving natural rain-
fall exhibited the highest canopy temperature each week dur-
ing this period with a 7◦ C increase compared with irri-
gated Manilagrass Weeks 4 and 5. In comparison, irrigated
Japanese lawngrass and buffalograss canopy temperature was
reduced by 4.5 and 2.6 ◦ C, respectively. Higher rainfall
depths moderated canopy temperature for all species and irri-
gation treatments after Week 5. However, Manilagrass had
greater canopy temperature when compared with Japanese
lawngrass and bermudagrass on the final date in 2017 (Fig-
ure 3a). These results are similar to previous research mea-
suring canopy temperature in an acute drought stress experi-
ment including many of the same species (Steinke, Chalmers,
Thomas, & White, 2009). Manilagrass reached greater canopy
CULPEPPER ET AL. 5 of 9

TABLE 1 Weekly accumulated reference evapotranspiration TABLE 2 Analysis of variance for each response variable and
(ETo), rainfall, total rainfall and irrigation applied with subsurface drip possible interactions or main treatment effects when evaluating weeks,
irrigation, and difference in irrigation and rainfall from 3 July to 1 Sept. four sod-established species, and two irrigation levels
2017 and 9 July to 21 Sept. 2018 Year Factor VWC Canopy temp. NDVI Quality
Rainfall + Irrigation 2017 Week (W) *** *** *** ***
ETo Rainfall irrigation – rainfall *** *** *** ***
Species (S)
Year Week mm W×S *** *** *** **
2017 Irrigation (I) ** ns † * *
1 48 25 25 0 W×I *** *** *** ***
2 54 4 22 18 S×I *** ** ** ***
3 54 2 28 26 W×S×I *** * *** **
4 55 0 25 25 2018 Week (W) *** *** *** ***
5 37 72 72 0 Species (S) *** ns *** ***
6 37 12 12 0 W×S *** ns *** ***
7 44 20 20 0 Irrigation (I) *** ns * ***
8 32 18 18 0 W×I *** *** *** ***
9 25 0 0 0 S×I *** ns *** ***
Sum 386 153 222 69 W×S×I *** ns *** ***
2018 1 49 9 9 0 Note. VWC, volumetric water content; NDVI, normalized difference vegetation
2 62 0 36 36 index.
* Significant at P ≤ .05. ** Significant at P ≤ .01. *** Significant at P ≤ .001.
3 46 1 32 31
† ns, nonsignificant.
4 53 0 31 31
5 39 18 49 31
6 39 19 29 10 Percentage green cover from digital image analysis and
7 50 0 15 15 NDVI exhibited similar results, so NDVI data are described
8 48 22 22 0
in more detail. Normalized difference vegetation index evalu-
ations consistently differentiated species and irrigation treat-
9 28 31 47 16
ments throughout both years of research (Table 2). Bermuda-
10 32 0 0 0
grass NDVI rarely exhibited differences between supplemen-
11 20 23 14 3
tal irrigation and natural rainfall in both years (Figure 4a
Sum 466 123 284 173 and b). As noted in previous research, this result demon-
strates the ability of bermudagrass to maintain healthy turf-
grass canopy under a range of soil moisture and environmen-
temperatures more rapidly when compared with Japanese tal conditions (Fu et al., 2004; Zhou, Lambrides, Roche, Duff,
lawngrass, and bermudagrass maintained the lowest canopy & Fukai, 2013). Irrigated buffalograss, Japanese lawngrass,
temperature. However, the highest temperatures recorded in and Manilagrass did not exhibit changes in NDVI from week
the previous study included 63, 57, and 50◦ C for Zeon Mani- to week during the driest portions of 2017 and 2018 (Fig-
lagrass, Jamur Japanese lawngrass, and Celebration bermuda- ure 4a and b). However, all three species experienced a signif-
grass, respectively (Steinke et al., 2009), which are much icant decline in NDVI during the driest portions of each year
higher than canopy temperatures measured in the current eval- without supplemental irrigation. Manilagrass had the sharpest
uation. There were minimal significant effects in 2018 for decline in NDVI as soil VWC declined from Week 3 to 5
canopy temperature with only a week × irrigation interaction in 2017 when only relying on natural rainfall (Figure 4a).
(Table 2). Canopy temperature differed between irrigation However, Manilagrass recovered with increased VWC from
treatments with supplemental irrigation lowering canopy tem- Week 5 to 7 in 2017 (Table 1; Figure 1b). Greater reliance and
perature when compared to rainfed treatments Weeks 6 and 7 consistency of supplemental irrigation in 2018 demonstrated
as expected (Figure 3b). However, natural rainfall treatment greater benefit with increased NDVI measurements from irri-
had lower temperatures during Week 8 (Figure 3b). Rainfall gated treatments compared with species only receiving natu-
events prior to measuring canopy temperature in Week 8 along ral rainfall. Increased NDVI of irrigated buffalograss in 2018
with combining all species may have resulted in increased may have been due to high bermudagrass or perennial weed
temperatures for irrigated compared with the natural rainfall encroachment as noted in previous research (Qian & Engelke,
treatment. Cloud cover prevented canopy temperature data 1999). The non-irrigated buffalograss NDVI measurements
collection beyond Week 9 in 2018. were intermediate compared with bermudagrass (Figure 4b).
6 of 9
FIGURE 2 Week × species × irrigation interactions for soil
volumetric water content to a 3.8-cm depth in 2017 (a) and 2018 (b).
Fisher’s least significant difference was calculated for this three-way
interaction at α = .05
Both zoysiagrass species exhibited decreased NDVI with
natural rainfall in 2018 (Figure 4b). Previous research has
suggested potential for consecutive years of drought stress
to slow recovery as water is returned (Hejl, Wherley, White,
Thomas, & Fontanier, 2016; Zhang et al., 2019). Both zoysi-
agrass species had diminishing NDVI reaching lowest values
at Weeks 5 and 8, which corresponded with driest conditions
in 2018 (Table 1; Figure 2b). Both species improved from
Week 5 to 6 with rainfall events, but recovery was slowed
for Manilagrass after Week 8 (Figure 4b). By the end of
2018, there was a clear distinction among species only receiv-
ing natural rainfall based on NDVI during summer months.
Bermudagrass and buffalograss provided greater NDVI mea-
surements than either zoysiagrass species (Figure 4b). This
difference in species helps distinguish drought tolerance char-
acteristics of these species in a semiarid environment that typ-
ically undergoes extended periods of limited to no rainfall.
Additionally, bermudagrass and buffalograss should produce
deeper roots to access more water deeper into the soil pro-
CULPEPPER ET AL.
FIGURE 3 Week × species × irrigation (a) interaction and week
× irrigation (b) interaction for canopy temperature from 2017 and 2018,
respectively. Fisher’s least significant difference was calculated for
these three-way and two-way interactions at α = .05
file, which may extend their drought tolerance compared with
the relatively shallow root system associated with zoysiagrass
species (Carrow, 1996; Huang, Duncan, & Carrow, 1997).
However, limited differences in canopy temperature described
for 2018 makes it difficult to fully ascertain if variations in
rooting depth are solely responsible for lower NDVI during
limited water conditions.
Week × species × irrigation treatment interactions were
identified in 2017 and 2018 for turf quality (Table 2). All
species and irrigation treatment combinations maintained
acceptable visual turf quality throughout 2017 with the
exception of Manilagrass only receiving natural rainfall
(Figure 5a). Drought-induced dormancy resulted in the tur-
fgrass declining in coverage, which diminished turf quality.
Once higher intensity and more consistent rainfall events
increased soil moisture following Week 5, Manilagrass began
to slowly recover, reaching acceptable levels again by Week 8
(Figure 5a). Reduced rainfall likely resulted in greater
reductions in turf quality for natural rainfall treatments
in 2018. All species, other than bermudagrass, receiving
only natural rainfall fell below the acceptable level of 6 by
Week 4 (Figure 5b), and those species required increased
rainfall toward the end of the season to regain acceptable
turf quality. Manilagrass started the 2018 season below
CULPEPPER ET AL.
FIGURE 4 Week × species × irrigation interactions for
normalized difference vegetation index (NDVI) in 2017 (a) and 2018
(b). Triplicate measurements were averaged per plot collected from a
TurfScout NDVI Color Meter (Spectrum Technologies). Fisher’s least
significant difference was calculated for these three-way interactions
at α = .05
acceptable levels and never recovered to acceptable turf
quality. In contrast, supplemental irrigation helped maintain
similar turf quality from week to week throughout 2018 for
turfgrass species, mostly remaining acceptable throughout
summer (Figure 5b). Reduced recovery potential from species
only receiving natural rainfall may demonstrate cumulative
effects from drought stress in consecutive years (Hejl et al.,
2016; Zhang et al., 2019). The one exception was bermuda-
grass, likely maintaining acceptable turf quality due to its
conservative water use characteristics (Zhou et al., 2013)
or deeper rooting potential (Carrow, 1996; Fu et al., 2004;
Huang et al., 1997), which lowered canopy temperature when
compared with other species receiving natural rainfall during
summer months (Figure 3a). In comparison with sodded
buffalograss, the aggressive growth habit of bermudagrass
improved density and uniformity in the leaf canopy compared
with less dense buffalograss, which may have still maintained
acceptable color in those plants remaining.
7 of 9
FIGURE 5 Week × species × irrigation interactions for visual
turf quality in 2017 (a) and 2018 (b). A single researcher evaluated turf
quality on a 1–9 scale with 1 being poorest, 9 being best. Minimum
acceptability is noted by the horizontal line at 6. Fisher’s least
significant difference was calculated for this three-way interaction
at α = .05
4 CONC LU SI ON S
Of species evaluated, bermudagrass was best suited for this
semiarid environment when receiving average natural rainfall
of 138 mm. Bermudagrass maintained greater NDVI and turf
quality with lower canopy temperatures when compared with
other turfgrass species evaluated during the driest portions
of both years. Intermittent rainfall events sustained bermuda-
grass to similar NDVI and quality compared with irrigated
bermudagrass. All other species had increased NDVI and
quality when supplemental irrigation was provided during
dry portions of the summer. Compared with other species,
buffalograss could withstand dry conditions without irriga-
tion, but lower NDVI from drought-induced dormancy and
unacceptable turf quality were common because of limited
canopy density. It was likely, shallower root development
8 of 9
from zoysiagrass species resulted in poorest performance dur-
ing the 2- to 3-wk rain-free periods. Japanese lawngrass and
Manilagrass experienced drought-induced dormancy each
year. Both species recovered fully with consistent, intense
rainfall in 2017, but Manilagrass was unable to recover to
the same visual turf quality following 2 yr of no supplemen-
tal irrigation during summer months. Homeowners may have
concerns about withholding irrigation from turfgrass land-
scapes due to limitations in visual quality or relative plant
health. However, these results provide clear evidence that
bermudagrass would be best when only receiving intermit-
tent rainfall. With the exception of Manilagrass, all turfgrass
species were capable of maintaining acceptable visual qual-
ity for 2–3 wk without supplemental irrigation, so reduc-
ing irrigation frequency in this semiarid climate is possible
with these warm-season turfgrasses. Continuing these evalu-
ations over longer periods will be important to determine the
effect of consecutive years of drought stress and recovery in
verifying these recommendations.
ORC ID
Joseph Young https://orcid.org/0000-0002-1355-4622
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How to cite this article: Culpepper T, Young J,
Wherley B. Comparison of four warm-season
turfgrass species to natural rainfall or supplemental
irrigation in a semiarid climate. Agrosyst Geosci
Environ. 2020;3:e20011.
https://doi.org/10.1002/agg2.20011