IGCSE Chemistry

The Particulate Nature of Matter

Numerous substances exist around us that we can see, touch, feel and smell. Other things like air are
not seen by the naked eye but we feel or see their effect on the surroundings. Thus, everything in the
universe has a chemical connection and referred to as matter.
Matter: is anything that occupies space and has mass.
Nature of matter:
Matter is made up of tiny particles called atoms.
When atoms of the same kind are combined, the substance formed is called an element. Examples
of elements are carbon, iron, and sulphur.
Presently we know of 109 elements. About 90 of the elements can be obtained from natural sources.
The remainders do not occur naturally and can only be created artificially.
When atoms of different elements are combined with one another, a substance called a compound is
formed.
Elements and compounds are called substances

States of matter:
All substances can exist in three states of matter depending upon temperature and pressure. These
three states of matter are: Solid, Liquid and Gas.

Solids:
• Definite shape and volume can only change their shape by force, as when broken or cut.
• The particles are packed closely together.
• Normally hard and rigid
• High density
• Incompressible
• The particles cannot move freely but can only vibrate in fixed position.
• In crystalline solids, the particles are packed in a regularly ordered, repeating pattern.

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• Solids can be transformed into liquids by melting, and liquids can be transformed into solids by
freezing.
• Solids can also change directly into gases through the process of sublimation.
Liquids:
• Definite volume but no shape (it conform to the shape of its container).
• High density
• slightly compressible
• Occur in clusters with molecules slightly further apart compared to solids
• Free to move about within a confined vessel
Gases:
• No Fixed volume and no fixed shape.
• A gas is compressible.
• Low density
• Very far apart
• Travel at high speed
• Independent and random motions
• Negligible forces of attraction between them
• A liquid may be converted to a gas by heating to the boiling point

Comparing properties of solids, liquids and gases:

Solid Liquid Gas

Molecular
Structure

Very closely
Very far apart
Particles packed Closely packed
Very irregular
Arrangement Regularly arranged Irregular arrangement
arrangement
in lattice
Intermolecular Almost none Minimal
Very large
Spaces Negligible Tiny spaces
Intermolecular
Extremely strong Very weak
Forces Weaker than in solids
Movement of Vibrating in a fixed Slowly slide over each Fast movement in
Particles position other randomly random direction

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No fixed shape
Fixed definite
Shape Depends on the No fixed shape
shape
container
No fixed volume
Volume fixed fixed Depends on the
container
Cannot be Can be hardly
Compressibility Very compressible
compressed compressed
Diffusion Cannot diffuse Diffuses slowly Diffuses quickly

Physical changes (change in state):

Physical changes: are changes in which no new substance is formed.
For example melting an ice cube or dissolving salt in water.
• Physical changes are reversible.
• For instance if you heat and melt an ice cube to water, you can put it in a freezer and have it changed
back to ice.
• Changing the state of a matter is a physical change. And it is done by either heating or cooling. The
following diagram represents changes in state:

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Melting:
• The change of state from solid to liquid.
• The temperature at which a solid melts is called the melting point.
Evaporation:
• The change of state from liquid to gas.
•
The temperature at which a liquid evaporates is called the boiling point.
•
Some substances never exist in a liquid form. If they are solid and you heat them they turn into a gas, and
if they are a gas and you cool them they turn into a solid. This process is called Sublimation.
•
The change in state occurs when the temperature is raised or dropped.
•
Melting occurs when you heat a solid because heating gives the particles more kinetic energy making
them move faster and further apart, making the solid expand. Until at some point they have enough
energy to break the forces of attraction between them and the lattice turning into liquid.
•
If you keep heating the liquid, particles will gain even more kinetic energy and start moving even faster,
pushing each other away.
•
The particles at the surface have the highest amount of energy that they can break the forces of attraction
and escape as a gas, this is the start of evaporation.
•
At some point, particles will try to escape so quickly that they form bubbles of gas in the liquid. This is
the boiling point at which the pressure of the gas forming above the liquid is the same as atmospheric
pressure.
•
On the other hand, cooling a gas will make its particles lose their kinetic energy and move closer
and slower. Eventually the forces of attraction will hold them together forming a liquid
(condensation). And if a liquid is cooled, its particles will move closer and slower until the forces of
attraction are strong enough to hold them tight together forming a solid (freezing).
•
During the actual change of the state, the temperature of the matter is constant because any heat energy
supplied is used to break the bonds. So if you record the temperature change during heating a solid,
the temperature will first rise, then it will remain constant for a while (this is the melting point) and then
it will rise again.

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Heating curve of solid:

Cooling curve of a gas:

The kinetic theory of matter:

• The kinetic theory is a theory put together by the finest chemists and physicians of all time.
• It consists of a number of true facts related to matter and their states.
• The theory explains the behaviour of matter and their physical properties.
The kinetic theory of matter states:
• All matter is made up of tiny, microscopic moving particles. And each matter has a different type of
particles with different size and mass.
• Particles are in continuous movement. All particles are moving all the time in random
directions (Brownian motion).
• Brownian motion: the constant random movement of tiny particles (e.g. smoke particles, or pollen on
a drop of water) is caused by collision with (invisible) air or water molecules, which are themselves in
continuous and random motion

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• The speed of movement depends on the mass of the particle, temperature and several other factors
that you will know later on.

How gas pressure changes with temperature and volume:

When you blow up a balloon, you fill it with air particles moving at speed. The particles knock against
the sides of the balloon and exert pressure on it. The pressure is what keeps the balloon inflated. In
the same way, all gases exert pressure. The pressure depends on the temperature of the gas and
volume it fills.
• The higher the temperature of the gas particle the higher pressure and vice versa.
• The bigger the volume of container the lower the pressure and vice versa.
Evidence of particle movement in matter:
Diffusion: this is the process by which solute particles of substance spread uniformly into any
available space.

Example; spread of odours (use of perfume, smell of petrol, smoke particles)

Diffusion rate depends on several factors, these are:
• Mass of the substance. The lighter the substance (lower Mr or Ar) the faster it diffuses
• Temperature. The more kinetic energy the particles have, the faster they move and diffuse.
• Presence of other substance. Diffusion is faster when it occurs in an area where there are fewer
particles of other substances present. This is why diffusion is extremely fast in vacuums. This is
because the diffusing particles have less other particles to stand in their way.
• Intermolecular spaces. This is why gases diffuse faster than liquids and solids do not diffuse.
Diffusion in gases:
Experiment 1

• A two gaseous molecule diffusion experiment is illustrated above and explained below!

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• A long glass tube is filled at one end with a plug of cotton wool soaked in conc. hydrochloric acid sealed in with
a rubber bung (for health and safety).
• A similar plug of conc. ammonia solution is placed at the other end.
• The soaked cotton wool plugs will give off fumes of HCl and NH3 respectively, and if the tube is left undisturbed
and horizontal, despite the lack of tube movement, a white cloud forms about 1/3rd along from the conc.
hydrochloric acid tube end
Explanation:
• What happens is the colourless gases, ammonia and hydrogen chloride, diffuse down the
tube and react to form fine white crystals of the salt ammonium chloride.
NH3(g) + HCl(g) ==> NH4Cl(s)
The smaller the molecular mass, the greater the average speed of the molecules
• Therefore the smaller the molecular mass, the faster the gas diffuses.
• e.g. Mr (NH3) = (14 x1) + (1 x 3) = 17g, moves faster than
Mr (HCl) = (1 x 1) + (35.5 x 1) = 36.5g
• And that's why they meet nearer the HCl end of the tube!
• So the experiment is not only evidence for molecule movement, it is also evidence that molecules of
different molecular masses diffuse at different speeds.
Experiment 2
• Diffusion of gases, also can be prove by putting some bromine liquid in a cylinder and sealing it,
• Then putting another inverted cylinder above it.
• When the bromine liquid evaporates, we remove the lid between the two cylinders,
• The brown bromine gas will diffuse upwards filling the available space as shown below.

Diffusion in liquid:

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We can also prove diffusion in liquids by a very simple experiment.

• Pour some water in a beaker, then add a drop of blue ink in the water.
• After a period of time, you will find that the black ink spread throughout the water and turned it into a
blue solution.
• This was caused by diffusion.