SAMATHA & VIPASSANĀ

SUTTA STUDY

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© Aggacitta Bhikkhu, January 2014

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Composed and translated by Aggacitta Bhikkhu

Book layout by Aggacitta Bhikkhu
Proofreading by Ariyadhammika Bhikkhu, Jhānanandī Sikkhāvatī, Lim Lay Hoon,
Looi Sow Fei, Sandy Lim, Yeoh Kar Kheng and Yong Song Kong

Printed by Majujaya Indah, Ampang, Selangor.

First Edition – 1,000 copies, January 2014.
This revised edition – 01 July 2014.
 Contents
Course Outline 6
Preface 7
Structure of this Course Book 8
The Pāli Texts 8
Pāli in Roman Script 9
Special Notations 9
About the English Translation 11
Surveying Popular Notions 13
Popular Notions of Samatha and Vipassanā 14
Establishing the Hierarchy of Doctrinal Authority 17
From the Early Pāli Canon 18
Mahāpadesa Sutta (AN 4.180) 18
Pañcakaṅga Sutta (SN 36.19) 26
From the Late Pāli Canon 28
Yuttihāra·Vibhaṅga (KN Nett 4.3) 28
From the Vinaya Commentary 30
Catubbidha·Vinaya·Kathā (Vin-a 1.45) 30
From the Sutta Commentary 38
Catu·mahāpadesa·vaṇṇanā (DN-a 2.188) 38
Exploring Scriptural References 53
What is Samatha & Vipassanā? 54
Tatiya·samādhi Sutta (AN 4.94) 54
The Range of How Samādhi Is Attained in the Pāli Suttas 64
1. MOSTLY WILFULLY CULTIVATED 64
Vitakka·Saṇṭhāna Sutta (MN 20) 64
Dvedhā·vitakka Sutta (MN 19) 72
Kāya·gatāsati Sutta (MN 119) 74
Mahā·suññata Sutta (MN 122) 76
 Jhāna Sutta (AN 9.36) 78
Paṭhama·jhāna·pañhā Sutta (SN 40.1) 82
Āpaṇa Sutta (SN 48.50) 84
2. MOSTLY NATURALLY CULTIVATED 86
Cetanā·karaṇīya Sutta (AN 10.2) 86
Vimuttāyatana Sutta (AN 5.26) 90
Upanisa Sutta (SN 12.23) 96
Pamāda·vihārī Sutta (SN 35.97) 98
Jīvakambavana·samādhi Sutta (SN 35.160) 100
3. TYPES OF DEVELOPMENT OF SAMĀDHI 104
Samādhi·bhāvanā Sutta (AN 4.41) 104
4. SAMMĀSAMĀDHI 110
Samādhi·parikkhāra Sutta (AN 7.45) 110
Cūlavedalla Sutta (MN 44) 110
Micchatta Sutta (AN 10.103) 112
Sammā·samādhi Sutta (AN 5.113) 112
Vibhaṅga Sutta (SN 45.8) 114
Saṅkhāra w.r.t. Vipassanā in the Pāli Suttas 116
1. WHAT IS SAṄKHĀRĀ? 116
Parinibbāna Sutta (SN 6.15) 116
Khajjanīya Sutta (SN 22.79) 116
2. HOW TO “VIEW” SAṄKHĀRĀ 118
Dhammapada (#277 – #279) 118
Cūḷasaccaka Sutta (MN 35) 120
Yadanicca Sutta (SN 22.15) 120
Yaṁdukkha Sutta (SN 22.16) 122
Yadanattā Sutta (SN 22.17) 124
Channa Sutta (SN 22.90) 124
Relationship Between Samatha & Vipassanā 128
1. FUNCTION OF SAMATHA & VIPASSANĀ 128
Vijjā·bhāgiya Sutta (AN 2.32) 128
Accharā·saṅghāta·vagga (AN 1.51) 130
Mahāvedalla Sutta (MN 43) 130
 2. HOW TO ABANDON THE DEFILEMENTS OF THE MIND 132
Upakkilesa Sutta (SN 46.33) 132
Cūḷahatthi·padopama Sutta (MN 27) 134
Meghiya Sutta (AN 9.3) 138
Nīvaraṇa Sutta (AN 9.64) 138
Uttiya Sutta (AN 10.95) 140
Āvaraṇa·nīvaraṇa Sutta (SN 46.38) 142
3. SEQUENCE OF SAMATHA AND VIPASSANĀ 144
Yuganaddha Sutta (AN 4.170) 144
Samādhi Sutta (SN 22.5) 148
Samādhi Sutta (SN 56.1) 148
Paṭhama·pubbārāma Sutta (SN 48.45) 150
Samatha Sutta (AN 10.54) 152
Mahā·saḷāyatanika Sutta (MN 149) 156
Patiṭṭhita Sutta (SN 48.56) 164
Abhiṇha·paccavekkhitabba·ṭhāna Sutta (AN 5.57) 166
Dīghanakha Sutta (MN 74) 170
4. SUPPORTS FOR LIBERATION 172
Anuggahita Sutta (AN 5.25) 172
Mahāparinibbāna Sutta (DN 16) 174
Meghiya Sutta (AN 9.3) 176
Assessing Current Views and Practices 185
Appendix 190
Jhāna: Commentarial & Canonical 190
Choice of English Translation for Jhāna 192
Usage of Jhāna in the Suttas 193
Jhāna Is Not an Absorbed State 194
Absorptions in the Suttas 195
Meditation 195
Bibliography 198
Abbreviations 198
 Course Outline

1 Surveying Popular Notions

1.1 Discussion
1.2 Compilation of Findings
2 Establishing the Hierarchy of Doctrinal Authority
2.1 Discussion & Presentation
2.2 Q&A
3 Exploring Scriptural References
3.1 Discussion & Presentation
3.2 Guided Meditation
3.3 Q&A
4 Assessing Current Views and Practices
4.1 Discussion & Presentation
4.2 Q&A
5 Summary and Conclusion
6 Sharing Merits, Making Aspirations
 Preface

T he revitalisation of Buddhist meditation based on the Pāli scrip-

tures and its popularisation among the laity began more than a
century ago. Pioneer yogis who had profound life-transforming
experiences through meditation began to teach according to their own
understanding, temperaments and inclinations. Consequently there were
differences in their techniques, approaches and emphases, resulting in dis-
agreements, debates, conflicting claims and confusion among yogis. As the
numbers of people interested in meditation increased, these have become
widespread and perhaps even paralysing for some yogis today because of
their inability to decide which is right or wrong. These issues revolve
around how to interpret and put into practice certain key concepts of medit-
ation, such as samatha, vipassanā, samādhi, jhāna, saṅkhāra, sati, paññatti
(concept) and paramattha·dhamma (experiential or ‘ultimate’ reality).
This Samatha & Vipassanā Sutta Study with Meditation Workshop
hopes to address these issues both theoretically and, to some extent, prac -
tically in an interactive way. It is divided into four parts: Part 1 surveys
popular notions of samatha and vipassanā so that a comprehensive list can
be compiled after group discussions; Part 2 establishes—through critical
study and discussion—the hierarchy of doctrinal authority needed to
assess the credibility and authenticity of these notions; Part 3 explores the
relevant scriptural references in theory and practice; and finally Part 4
utilises the findings of Parts 2 and 3 in order to evaluate the comprehens-
ive list of current views and practices compiled in Part 1. Throughout this
workshop, participants will be urged to maintain an open-minded spirit of
true enquiry while critically scrutinising the scriptural references and
meditation techniques presented here.
8 PREFACE

Structure of this Course Book

The Pāli text and its corresponding English translation are on the same
page. This is followed by a “note-page” for you to make notes, but on
which sometimes there are also printed notes and discussion topics. Two
articles on the controversy about the nature and translation of jhāna are
appended to the book.
The Pāli Texts
In my previous Sutta Study Course Books published in 2011 and 2012, the
Pāli texts were copied from or collated with eTipiṭaka Quotation http://stud-
ies.worldtipitaka.org, based on The B.E. 2500 Great International Council Pāḷi
Tipiṭaka, World Tipiṭaka Edition, and reformatted after the removal of special
characters, footnotes and cross-references not within the scope of the
workshops. This was done in order to promote the World Tipiṭaka Edition
(WTE) in Nalanda Centre’s library.
However, since studies.worldtipitaka.org announced in 14 July 2012
that it was moving to a new server, the digital Pāli texts are no longer
available online. Thus in this Course Book the Pāli texts are copied from
Āyasmā Yuttadhammo’s Digital Pāli Reader (DPR) 4.3, pasted and reformat-
ted. One exception is a missing passage in Vitakka·Saṇṭhāna Sutta (MN 20)
which was extracted instead from the Buddha Jayanti Tripitaka (see N18
on p69). In the process of proofreading the final draft, Sandy Lim collated
the Pāli Canonical texts with the hard copy of the WTE in Nalanda Centre’s
library. She spotted some minor typo errors and two major differences in
indexing: Pamāda·vihārī Sutta is (SN 35.80) in DPR, but (SN 35.97) in WTE;
and Jīvakambavana·samādhi Sutta is (SN 35.143) in DPR, but (SN 35.160) in
WTE. I have used the latter indexing because this series of Course Books
have been prepared in order to promote the WTE.
Another important feature of the Pāli texts is that they are almost
entirely excerpts, unlike the complete Suttas in my previous Course Books.
To keep the size of the book small, I have elided repetitive and irrelevant
passages, indicated by “...”. However, whenever required I have inserted
 PREFACE 9

certain passages which were originally elided in the Pāli source text, indi -
cated within angle brackets “<_>”.
Pāli in Roman Script
DPR uses Roman transliterations from the Burmese script in Vipassana
Research Institute’s Chattha Sangayana CD v3.0. The Burmese script does not
have upper or lower cases (capital and small letters) and originally used
only two punctuation marks, (†) and (††). According to context, the former
roughly corresponds to the comma (,) or semi-colon (;) while the latter to
the semi-colon (;) or full stop (.). Modern editors of Burma who produced
the Sixth Choral Chanting (Chaṭṭha Saṅgāyana) Edition of the Pāli scriptures
introduced additional punctuation marks such as commas and quotation
marks, but not in a systematic or consistent manner.
In this Course Book, I largely followed the transliterations in DPR but
complemented the efforts of the Burmese editors with more systematic
and consistent usage of the additional punctuation marks. As Pāli syntax is
not the same as that of English, this usage may differ from what the Eng-
lish reader is familiar with. I also introduced the capitalisation of proper
nouns and of the first word that begins a sentence. Another minor change
is representing the niggahita by ṁ instead of ṃ to be consistent with the
usage of the dot below to represent retroflex consonants and the dot
above, nasals.
Special Notations
While compiling and formatting this Course Book, I inserted three special
characters (·), (‹), and (›) in order to facilitate the reading and pronunci-
ation of relatively long Pāli words.
If you are a casual reader, all you need to know is that the three special
characters are “word-breakers” which will assist you in pronouncing the
syllables more accurately. Note that the hyphen is not a “word-breaker”
but a “letter-breaker” used to indicate that the spelling of a word is to be
continued in the next line.
If you are a student of Pāli or are interested in how Pāli words are
joined together, you might want to know the additional significance of
10 PREFACE

each of these special characters. Note that not all words are broken down
into their component parts, but only relatively long ones. First, without
going into technical details and just for this book, let me roughly define
“word” as “a cluster of two or more letters that conveys a meaning or a
number of meanings”. Pāli words are joined together for three main reas-
ons:
1. To modify the meaning of a basic word, e.g. jānāti > ava·jānāti,
pa·jānāti, sam·pa·jānāti, vi·jānāti, sañ·jānāti, paṭi·jānāti, jānanto, jāna·
māno.
2. To make a compound word, e.g. adhipaññā·dhamma·vipassanāya,
kappiyā›kappiya·vinicchaye.
3. For the sake of euphony, i.e. so that words can be pronounced
smoothly and fluently, e.g. compare ahaññeveko with ahaṁ yeva
eko.
The additional significance of each of the three special characters is as
follows.
(·) is used to indicate a separation between two component words in a
compound word. For example,
Without (·) adhipaññādhammavipassanāya

With (·) adhipaññā·dhamma·vipassanāya

(‹) and (›) are used to indicate a sandhi (euphonic joint) between two
words. The direction of the arrow head shows the word that the
consonant “rightly” belongs to, e.g.
Without sandhi adukkhaṁ asukhaṁ

With sandhi adukkhamasukhaṁ

With (‹) adukkha‹masukhaṁ

Popular notation adukkham’asukhaṁ / adukkham asukhaṁ

With (›) catub›bidhaṁ, pañcu›pādānak›khandhā

Popular notation catu’bbidhaṁ, pañc’upādāna’kkhandhā

 PREFACE 11

In the case of a vowel, the direction of the arrow head shows the word
that the vowel is shared with or derived from, e.g.
Without sandhi sabbapāṇabhūtahitaanukampī

With sandhi sabbapāṇabhūtahitānukampī

With (·) & (›) sabba·pāṇa·bhūta·hitā›nukampī

Popular notation sabbapāṇabhūtahitânukampī

Note that I introduced these two special characters to avoid the ambi -
guity to the reciter that can be caused by the popular notation of using an
apostrophe (’), or (ˆ) above the vowel, or a space between a vowel and the
preceding consonant when the latter replaces (ṁ).
About the English Translation
I have endeavoured to make the English translation as verbatim as possible
so that you can easily identify the corresponding Pāli words. Nonetheless
there are occasions when additional words have had to be added in order
to make the English comprehensible; these are within parentheses (_)
when used to clarify the rendering, and within square brackets [_] when
extra words are inserted.
A few words are left untranslated because they are common, e.g.
kamma and nibbāna, or because they will later be the subject of further dis-
cussion, e.g. sutta, vinaya, and saṅkhāra. However, when dhamma is paired
with vinaya, I render it “Discipline” as its meaning is unambiguous in such
a context. Whenever dhamma obviously refers to the Teachings, I leave it
untranslated in upper case; otherwise, I render it “thing” in its widest
sense, except for dhamma·cakkhuṁ which is rendered “Dhamma-eye”.
To produce this translation, I consulted the works of several transla-
tors cited at the end of this booklet.
Last but not least, I am most grateful to Āyasmā Ariyadhammika for
not only his meticulous proofreading, but also his incisive comments and
profound suggestions to polish my English translation.
Aggacitta Bhikkhu
January 2014
 1
SURVEYING
POPULAR NOTIONS
 SURVEYING POPULAR NOTIONS 14

Popular Notions of Samatha and Vipassanā

D1. Discuss and compile a list of popular notions of samatha and vipassanā.

Aspect Samatha Vipassanā

Aim

Object

Mode

Feature

State

Thoughts

Hindrances
 NOTES 15

Aspect Samatha Vipassanā

 2
ESTABLISHING
THE HIERARCHY OF
DOCTRINAL AUTHORITY
 ESTABLISHING THE HIERARCHY OF DOCTRINAL AUTHORITY 18

From the Early Pāli Canon

Mahāpadesa Sutta (AN 4.180)
Katame, bhikkhave, cattāro mahāpadesā?
Idha, bhikkhave, bhikkhu evaṁ vadeyya:
“Sammukhā metaṁ, āvuso, Bhagavato
sutaṁ sammukhā paṭiggahitaṁ:
‘Ayaṁ dhammo, ayaṁ vinayo, idaṁ
Satthu·sāsanan’ti.”
The Great References1
What, monks, are the four great references?
Here, monks, a monk might say:
“In the presence of the Blessed One, friend,
this was heard by me; in his presence this was learned:
‘This is the Dhamma; this is the Discipline; this is the
Teacher’s instruction!’ ”

Tassa, bhikkhave, bhikkhuno bhāsitaṁ neva Monks, that monk’s statement

abhi·nanditabbaṁ nappaṭik›kositabbaṁ. is neither to be delighted in nor scorned.
Anabhi·nanditvā appaṭik›kositvā tāni pada· Without delighting in or scorning it, those words and
byañjanāni sādhukaṁ uggahetvā sutte letters are to be thoroughly learned and checked for
otāretabbāni, vinaye sandassetabbāni. in the sutta, sought in the vinaya.

Tāni ce sutte otāriya·mānāni vinaye sandassiya· If, when they are checked for in the sutta and sought
mānāni na ceva sutte otaranti na vinaye san· in the vinaya, they do not fit in the sutta and are not
dissanti, niṭṭhamettha gantabbaṁ: seen in the vinaya, the conclusion is here to be
“Addhā, idaṁ na ceva tassa Bhagavato vacanaṁ reached: “Surely, this is not the word of the
NOTES 19

N1. These four great references are also found in Mahā-

parinibbāna Sutta (DN 16).
 ESTABLISHING THE HIERARCHY OF DOCTRINAL AUTHORITY
Arahato Sammāsambuddhassa; imassa ca
bhikkhuno duggahitan”ti.
iti hetaṁ, bhikkhave, chaḍḍeyyātha.
… Tāni ce sutte otāriya·mānāni vinaye
sandassiya·mānāni sutte ceva otaranti vinaye
ca sandissanti, niṭṭhamettha gantabbaṁ:
“Addhā, idaṁ tassa Bhagavato vacanaṁ
Arahato Sammāsambuddhassa; imassa ca
bhikkhuno suggahitan”ti. Idaṁ, bhikkhave,
paṭhamaṁ mahāpadesaṁ dhāreyyātha.
Idha pana, bhikkhave, bhikkhu evaṁ
vadeyya: “Asukasmiṁ nāma āvāse saṅgho
viharati sathero sapāmokkho. Tassa me
saṅghassa sammukhā sutaṁ sammukhā
paṭiggahitaṁ: ‘Ayaṁ dhammo, ayaṁ vinayo,
idaṁ Satthu·sāsanan’ti.” … Idaṁ, bhikkhave,
dutiyaṁ mahāpadesaṁ dhāreyyātha.
20
Blessed One, the Arahant, the Perfectly Awakened One.
And it has been badly learned by this monk.”
Thus, monks, you should discard it.
… If, when they are checked for in the sutta and
sought in the vinaya, they fit into the sutta and are
seen in the vinaya, the conclusion is here to be
reached: “Surely, this is the word of the Blessed One,
the Arahant, the Perfectly Awakened One. And it has
been well learned by this monk.” This first great
reference, monks, you should remember.
Then here, monks, a monk might say: “In such and
such a residence a Saṅgha is living with elder and
eminent monks. In the presence of that Saṅgha this
was heard by me; in its presence this was learned:
‘This is the Dhamma; this is the Discipline; this is the
Teacher’s instruction.’ ” … This second great refer-
ence, monks, you should remember.
NOTES 21
 ESTABLISHING THE HIERARCHY OF DOCTRINAL AUTHORITY
“… sambahulā therā bhikkhū viharanti
bahussutā āgatāgamā dhamma·dharā
vinaya·dharā mātikā·dharā. Tesaṁ me
therānaṁ sammukhā sutaṁ sammukhā
paṭiggahitaṁ: ‘Ayaṁ dhammo, ayaṁ vinayo,
idaṁ Satthu·sāsanan’ti.” … Idaṁ, bhikkhave,
tatiyaṁ mahāpadesaṁ dhāreyyātha.
Idha pana, bhikkhave, bhikkhu evaṁ
vadeyya: “Asukasmiṁ nāma āvāse eko thero
bhikkhu viharati bahussuto āgatāgamo
dhamma·dharo vinaya·dharo mātikā·dharo.
Tassa me therassa sammukhā sutaṁ
sammukhā paṭiggahitaṁ:
‘Ayaṁ dhammo, ayaṁ vinayo, idaṁ
Satthu·sāsanan’ti.”
Tassa, bhikkhave, bhikkhuno bhāsitaṁ neva
abhi·nanditabbaṁ nappaṭik›kositabbaṁ.
22
“… several elder monks are living who are learned,
recipients of the tradition,2 upholders of the Dhamma,
upholders of the Discipline, upholders of the summar-
ies.3 In the presence of those elders I heard this; in their
presence I learned this: ‘This is the Dhamma; this is the
Discipline; this is the Teacher’s instruction!’ ” … This
third great reference, monks, you should remember.
Then here, monks, a monk might say: “In such and
such a residence one elder monk is living who is
learned, a recipient of the tradition, upholder of the
Dhamma, upholder of the Discipline, upholder of the
summaries. In the presence of that elder this was
heard by me; in his presence this was learned:
‘This is the Dhamma; this is the Discipline; this is the
Teacher’s instruction!’ ”
Monks, that monk’s statement
is neither to be delighted in nor scorned.
 NOTES 23

N2. Word Analysis of āgatāgama N3. Mātikā·dhara = upholder of the summaries

āgata (has come) + āgama (coming) The Commentary says mātikā = dve mātikā, which refer
āgatāgama = one to whom the “coming down” (= oral tradition to the two Pātimokkhas for monks and nuns respectively.
of transmitting the teachings) has come down. However, I would think that mātikā here refers to the
In the Vinaya Piṭaka and Aṅguttara Nikāya the term lists/summaries that were later developed into the Abhid-
āgama is used to refer to the oral scriptural tradition, but
hamma Piṭaka, as the books therein each begin with a
strangely the term nikāya cannot be found to be used in list/summary except for the Kathāvatthu, the fifth book
this way throughout our current four Nikāyas. The usage of
composed by Āyasmā Moggalli·putta·Tissa Thera during
nikāya as a collection of the Buddha’s teachings is first
Emperor Asoka’s reign.
found in Cūlavagga (the fourth book of the Vinaya
Recommended reading: “Controversies on the Origin of the
Piṭaka) in its account of the 1st Saṅgīti and also in the his-
Theravāda Abhidhamma-piṭaka” by Bhikkhu Karmananda
torically later Parivāra (the fifth book of the Vinaya
Tanchangya in
Piṭaka) with reference to the lineage of monks who passed
http://newlotus.buddhistdoor.com/en/news/d/33158
down the oral tradition from Āyasmā Upāli until probably
the time when the Parivāra was finalised in Sri Lanka.
 ESTABLISHING THE HIERARCHY OF DOCTRINAL AUTHORITY
Anabhi·nanditvā appaṭik›kositvā tāni
pada·byañjanāni sādhukaṁ uggahetvā sutte
otāretabbāni, vinaye sandassetabbāni.
Tāni ce sutte otāriya·mānāni vinaye
sandassiya·mānāni na ceva sutte otaranti na
vinaye sandissanti, niṭṭhamettha gantabbaṁ:
“Addhā, idaṁ na ceva tassa Bhagavato
vacanaṁ Arahato Sammāsambuddhassa;
tassa ca therassa duggahitan”ti. Iti hetaṁ,
bhikkhave, chaḍḍeyyātha.
… Tāni ce sutte otāriya·mānāni vinaye
sandassiya·mānāni sutte ceva otaranti vinaye
ca sandissanti, niṭṭhamettha gantabbaṁ:
“Addhā, idaṁ tassa Bhagavato vacanaṁ
Arahato Sammāsambuddhassa; tassa ca
therassa suggahitan”ti. Idaṁ, bhikkhave,
catutthaṁ mahāpadesaṁ dhāreyyātha.
Ime kho, bhikkhave, cattāro mahāpadesā’ti.
24
Without delighting in or scorning it, those words and
letters are to be thoroughly learned and checked for in
the sutta, sought in the vinaya.
If, when they are checked for in the sutta and sought
in the vinaya, they do not fit in the sutta and are not
seen in the vinaya, the conclusion is here to be
reached: “Surely, this is not the word of the Blessed
One, the Arahant, the Perfectly Awakened One. And it
has been badly learned by that elder.” Thus, monks,
you should discard it.
… If, when they are checked for in the sutta and
sought in the vinaya, they fit in the sutta and are seen
in the vinaya, the conclusion is here to be reached:
“Surely, this is the word of the Blessed One, the
Arahant, the Perfectly Awakened One. And it has been
well-learned by that elder.” This fourth great
reference, monks, you should remember.
These, monks, are the four great references.
NOTES 25
 ESTABLISHING THE HIERARCHY OF DOCTRINAL AUTHORITY
Pañcakaṅga Sutta (SN 36.19)
… Evaṁ pariyāya·desite kho, Ānanda, mayā
dhamme ye aññamaññassa subhāsitaṁ
sulapitaṁ na samanu·maññissanti, na
samanu·jānissanti, na samanu·modissanti,
tesaṁ etaṁ pāṭikaṅkhaṁ—‘bhaṇḍana·jātā
kalaha·jātā vivādā›pannā aññamaññaṁ
mukha·sattīhi vitudantā viharissantī’ti ...
Evaṁ pariyāya·desite kho, Ānanda, mayā
dhamme ye aññamaññassa subhāsitaṁ
sulapitaṁ samanu·maññissanti, samanu·
jānissanti, samanu·modissanti, tesaṁ etaṁ
pāṭikaṅkhaṁ—‘samaggā sammoda·mānā
avivada·mānā khīrodakī·bhūtā aññamaññaṁ
piya·cakkhūhi sampassantā viharissantī’ti.
26
Five-Tools
… While the Dhamma has been thus taught by me in
different ways, Ānanda, there are those who will not
approve, allow, and rejoice at what is well-stated and
well-spoken by one another.
This is to be expected of them: being quarrelsome,
contentious and engaged in disputes, they will live
piercing each other with verbal spears ...
While the Dhamma has been thus taught by me in dif-
ferent ways, Ānanda, there are those who will
approve, allow, and rejoice at what is well-stated and
well-spoken by one another. This is to be expected of
them: being harmonious, rejoicing, without disputing,
blending like milk and water, they will live viewing each
other with loving eyes.
NOTES 27
 ESTABLISHING THE HIERARCHY OF DOCTRINAL AUTHORITY 28

From the Late Pāli Canon

Yuttihāra·Vibhaṅga (KN Nett 4.3)4
Tattha katamo yutti·hāro? ... Cattāro mahā·
padesā: Buddhā›padeso saṅghā›padeso
sambahulattherā›padeso ekattherā›padeso—
ime cattāro mahāpadesā.
Tāni pada·byañjanāni sutte otārayi›tabbāni,
vinaye sandassayi›tabbāni, dhammatāyaṁ
upanikkhipi›tabbāni.
Analysis of the Conveyance of Plausibility
Therein what is Conveyance of Plausibility? ... The four
great references: the Buddha’s reference, the Saṅgha’s
reference, several elder monks’ reference, an elder
monk’s reference—these four great references.
Those words and letters are to be checked for in the
sutta, sought in the vinaya
[and] tested in [terms of] nature.

Katamasmiṁ sutte otārayi›tabbāni? Catūsu
ariyasaccesu. Katamasmiṁ vinaye
sandassayi›tabbāni? Rāga·vinaye dosa·vinaye
moha·vinaye. Katamissaṁ dhammatāyaṁ
upanikkhipi›tabbāni? Paṭiccasamuppāde.
In which sutta are they to be checked for? In the four
noble truths. In which vinaya are they to be sought? In
the discipline of lust, in the discipline of hate, in the
discipline of delusion. In [terms of] which nature are
they to be tested? In [terms of] dependent origination.
NOTES 29

N4. The Netti·pakaraṇa (Book of Guidance) was composed

by Āyasmā Kaccāna and is currently included in the Khud-
daka Nikāya of the 6th Saṅgīti. It sets out methods for
interpreting and explaining canonical texts and was used
by Āyasmā Buddhaghosa and other commentators. Modern
scholars generally date it somewhere around the beginning
of the common era. For more details see
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nettipakarana#cite_ref-1 .
 ESTABLISHING THE HIERARCHY OF DOCTRINAL AUTHORITY 30

Yadi catūsu ariyasaccesu avatarati, kilesa·
vinaye sandissati, dhammatañca na vilometi,
evaṁ āsave na janeti. Catūhi mahāpadesehi
yaṁ yaṁ yujjati, yena yena yujjati, yathā
yathā yujjati, taṁ taṁ gahetabbaṁ.
If it fits in the four noble truths, is seen in the vinaya
and does not conflict with nature, thus it does not
generate the inflows. Whatever conforms with the
four great references, by whichever reason it con-
forms, in whichever way it conforms, that is to be
taken.

From the Vinaya Commentary

Catubbidha·Vinaya·Kathā (Vin-a 1.45) Discussion on the Fourfold Vinaya
Catub›bidhañhi vinayaṁ, Indeed the fourfold vinaya
Mahātherā mahiddhikā; The powerful great elder monks
Nīharitvā pakāsesuṁ, Proclaimed having drawn them up—
Dhamma·saṅgāhakā purā. The ancient Dhamma collators.

Katamaṁ catub›bidhaṁ? ‘Suttaṁ, suttā› Which fourfold? Sutta, corollary to the sutta,
nulomaṁ, ācariya·vādaṁ, attano·matin’ti ... teachers’ doctrine, personal opinion ...

Tattha suttaṁ nāma sakale vinaya·piṭake pāḷi. Sutta means the text in the entire Basket of Discipline.
NOTES 31
 ESTABLISHING THE HIERARCHY OF DOCTRINAL AUTHORITY
Suttā›nulomaṁ nāma cattāro mahāpadesā;
ye Bhagavatā evaṁ vuttā: (1) “Yaṁ,
bhikkhave, mayā ‘idaṁ na kappatī’ti appaṭik›
khittaṁ, taṁ ce akappiyaṁ anulometi;
kappiyaṁ paṭibāhati, taṁ vo na kappati.
(2) Yaṁ, bhikkhave, mayā ‘idaṁ na kappatī’ti
appaṭik›khittaṁ, taṁ ce kappiyaṁ
anulometi; akappiyaṁ paṭibāhati,
taṁ vo kappati.
(3) Yaṁ, bhikkhave, mayā ‘idaṁ kappatī’ti
ananuññātaṁ, taṁ ce akappiyaṁ anulometi,
kappiyaṁ paṭibāhati;
taṁ vo na kappati.
(4) Yaṁ, bhikkhave, mayā ‘idaṁ kappatī’ti
ananuññātaṁ, taṁ ce kappiyaṁ anulometi,
akappiyaṁ paṭibāhati;
taṁ vo kappatī”ti
32
Corollary to the sutta means the four great references, as
said thus by the Blessed One: (1) “Monks, whatever I
have not objected to, saying, ‘This is not allowable,’ if it
fits in with what is not allowable, if it goes against what
is allowable, that is not allowable for you.
(2) Whatever, monks, I have not objected to, saying,
‘This is not allowable,’ if it fits in with what is allow-
able, if it goes against what is not allowable,
that is allowable for you.
(3) Whatever, monks, I have not permitted, saying,
‘This is allowable,’ if it fits in with what is not allow-
able, if it goes against what is allowable,
that is not allowable for you.
(4) Whatever, monks, I have not permitted, saying,
‘This is allowable,’ if it fits in with what is allowable,
if it goes against what is not allowable,
that is allowable for you.5
NOTES 33

N5. Modern-day examples below:

(1) The rule states that gold and silver are not allowed;
therefore now paper money, cheques, credit cards, etc.
should also not be allowable.
(2) The rule allows only five types of natural robe materials
and leather footwear; therefore now synthetic materials
should also be allowable.
(3) Computers, electronic mobile devices and their
paraphernalia were not yet invented at the Buddha’s time.
Whether or not they should be allowed now depends on the
motive and self-discipline of the monk.
(4) Stationery, alarm clock, spectacles, were unheard of
when the rules were made, but should be allowable in this
modern age if the motive is pure.
 ESTABLISHING THE HIERARCHY OF DOCTRINAL AUTHORITY 34

Ācariya·vādo nāma dhamma·saṅgāhakehi Teachers’ doctrine means the commentarial tradition,

pañcahi arahanta·satehi ṭhapitā pāḷi· independent of the Pāli Canon, consisting of verdicts
vinimuttā okkanta·vinicchayap›pavattā arrived at by the 500 arahants who were Dhamma col-
aṭṭhakathā·tanti. lators [at the 1st Saṅgīti (Choral Chanting)].6

Attano·mati nāma sutta·suttānuloma· Personal opinion means the exposition—apart from the
ācariyavāde muñcitvā anumānena attano sutta, the corollary to the sutta and the teachers’ doc-
anubuddhiyā nayaggāhena trine—in the mode established by using the method
upaṭṭhitā›kāra·kathanaṁ. through one’s own intelligence, by inference.

Apica suttantā›bhidhamma· In fact the entire doctrine of the elder monks found in
vinayaṭṭhakathāsu āgato sabbopi the commentaries to the suttas, abhidhamma and
theravādo “attano·mati” nāma. vinaya is also personal opinion.7

Taṁ pana attano·matiṁ gahetvā kathentena Now one who speaks based on personal opinion is not
na daḷhag›gāhaṁ gahetvā voharitabbaṁ. to do so tenaciously. He is to speak after having con-
Kāraṇaṁ sallakkhetvā atthena pāḷiṁ, pāḷiyā sidered the reasoning, compared the meaning with
ca atthaṁ saṁsanditvā kathetabbaṁ. the Canon and the Canon with the meaning.
NOTES 35

N6. Note that the views of teachers other than the 500
arahants at the 1st Saṅgīti are NOT ācariya·vāda but
attano·mati. This includes all the theravāda—views and
interpretations of the ancient theras—recorded in the Pāli
exegetical literature currently available.

N7. The term “Theravāda Buddhism”, in reference to the

form of Buddhism based on the Pāli scriptures and preval-
ent in Myanmar, Sri Lanka and Thailand, was coined by the
English monk Āyasmā Ananda Metteyya in 1908 and adop-
ted by the World Fellowship of Buddhists on 25 May 1950 to
replace the derogatory term “Hīnayāna Buddhism”. One of
the main proponents of the new name was the Sinhalese
activist monk Āyasmā Walpola Rāhula. For more details,
see “Theravada Buddhism? A Case for Moving beyond Tra-
ditions” by Dr Jeffrey Samuels in ONE DHARMA—Many
Buddhist Traditions, compiled and edited by Benny Liow
Woon Khin. Petaling Jaya: Buddhist Gem Fellowship.
 ESTABLISHING THE HIERARCHY OF DOCTRINAL AUTHORITY
Attano·mati ācariya·vāde otāretabbā. Sace
tattha otarati ceva sameti ca, gahetabbā.
Sace neva otarati na sameti, na gahetabbā.
Ayañhi attano·mati nāma sabba·dubbalā.
Attano·matito ācariya·vādo balava·taro.
Ācariya·vādopi suttā›nulome otāretabbo.
Tattha otaranto samentoyeva gahetabbo,
itaro na gahetabbo. Ācariya·vādato hi
suttā›nulomaṁ balava·taraṁ.
Suttā›nulomampi sutte otāretabbaṁ. Tattha
otarantaṁ samentameva gahetabbaṁ,
itaraṁ na gahetabbaṁ. Suttā›nulomato hi
suttameva balava·taraṁ. Suttañhi
appaṭivattiyaṁ kāraka·saṅgha·sadisaṁ
Buddhānaṁ ṭhita·kāla·sadisaṁ.
36
Personal opinion is to fit in the teachers’ doctrine. If it
fits in and conforms, it is to be taken. If it neither fits
in nor conforms, it is not to be taken—for personal
opinion is the weakest of all. The teachers’ doctrine is
stronger than personal opinion.
The teachers’ doctrine also is to fit in the corollary to
the sutta. If it fits in and conforms only is it to be
taken. Otherwise it is not to be taken—for stronger
than the teachers’ doctrine is the corollary to the
sutta.
The corollary to the sutta also is to fit in the sutta. If it
fits in and conforms only is it to be taken. Otherwise it
is not to be taken—for stronger than the corollary to
the sutta is the sutta itself. Indeed, the sutta cannot be
rolled back (overturned); it is like the executive
Saṅgha, like the time of the Buddhas.
NOTES 37
 ESTABLISHING THE HIERARCHY OF DOCTRINAL AUTHORITY 38

From the Sutta Commentary

Catu·mahāpadesa·vaṇṇanā (DN-a 2.188)
… Ettha ca suttan’ti vinayo. Yathāha: “Kattha
paṭikkhittaṁ? Sāvatthiyaṁ suttavibhaṅge”ti.
Vinayo’ti khandhako. Yathāha: “Vinayātisāre”ti.
Evaṁ vinaya·piṭakampi na pariyādiyati.
‘Ubhato·vibhaṅgā pana suttaṁ, khandhaka·
parivārā vinayo’ti evaṁ vinaya·piṭakaṁ
pariyādiyati. Atha vā ‘suttanta·piṭakaṁ suttaṁ,
vinaya·piṭakaṁ vinayo’ti evaṁ dveyeva
piṭakāni pariyādiyanti. ‘Suttantā›bhidhamma·
piṭakāni vā suttaṁ, vinaya·piṭakaṁ vinayo’ti
evampi tīṇi piṭakāni na tāva pariyādiyanti.
Asutta·nāmakañhi Buddha·vacanaṁ nāma
atthi; seyyathidaṁ—Jātakaṁ, Paṭi·sambhidā,
Niddeso, Sutta·nipāto, Dhamma·padaṁ,
Udānaṁ, Itivuttakaṁ, Vimāna·vatthu, Peta·
vatthu, Theragāthā, Therīgāthā, Apadānan’ti.
Commentary on the Four Great References
… Herein the sutta = the vinaya, as it says [in Vin Cv]:
“Where was it prohibited? In Sāvatthī, in the Sutta-
analysis.”8 The Vinaya = [rules in the] Chapters [of Vin
Mv and Cv], as it says [in Vin Cv]: “in transgressing the
vinaya.” Thus even the Basket of Discipline is not
exhausted (completely covered). But “Both Analyses9
are the sutta; the Chapters [of Vin Mv and Cv] plus
Parivāra are the vinaya”—in this way the Basket of Dis-
cipline is exhausted. Alternatively, “The Basket of Dis-
courses is the sutta; the Basket of Discipline is the
vinaya”—in this way only the two Baskets are
exhausted. Alternatively, “The Baskets of Discourses
and Higher Doctrine are the sutta; the Basket of Discip-
line is the vinaya”—in this way even the Three Baskets
are not yet exhausted; for there are Buddha-Words
that are not called “sutta”, namely ...
NOTES 39

N8. In the Vinaya Piṭaka, sutta is invariably used to refer

to the Pātimokkha, never to the Buddha’s discourse as we
now understand it to mean. Sutta·vibhaṅga refers to the
Analysis of the Pātimokkha, a section of the Vinaya Piṭaka
which scrutinises the terms and offences related to the
Pātimokkha. In the four Nikāyas, sutta refers to only one of
the nine types of Dhamma taught by the Buddha. However,
there are a few cases in the Vinaya Piṭaka, Saṁyutta
Nikāya and Aṅguttara Nikāya where the term suttanta is
used to refer to the discourses of the Buddha as a whole. In
the Khuddaka Nikāya, especially in the later books, it is
used quite extensively.

N9. Ubhato·vibhaṅga = Both Analyses

These refer to the analyses of the Pātimokkhas of the monks
and nuns respectively. The Vinaya Piṭaka can be classified
into Mahā·vibhaṅga + Bhikkhuni·vibhaṅga + Khand-
hakas (=Mahāvagga + Cūlavagga) + Parivāra.
 ESTABLISHING THE HIERARCHY OF DOCTRINAL AUTHORITY
Sudinnatthero pana: “Asutta·nāmakaṁ
Buddha·vacanaṁ na atthī”ti taṁ sabbaṁ
paṭipakkhipitvā, “Tīṇi piṭakāni suttaṁ, vinayo
pana kāraṇan”ti āha. Tato taṁ kāraṇaṁ
dassento idaṁ suttamāhari—
“Ye kho tvaṁ, Gotami, dhamme jāneyyāsi: ime
dhammā sarāgāya saṁvattanti no virāgāya,
saññogāya saṁvattanti no visaññogāya,
ācayāya saṁvattanti no apacayāya,
mahicchatāya saṁvattanti no appicchatāya,
asantuṭṭhiyā saṁvattanti no santuṭṭhiyā,
saṅgaṇikāya saṁvattanti no pavivekāya,
kosajjāya saṁvattanti no vīriyārambhāya,
dubbharatāya saṁvattanti no subharatāya.
Ekaṁsena, Gotami, dhāreyyāsi: ‘Neso
dhammo, neso vinayo, netaṁ
Satthu·sāsanan’ti.
40
However, the Elder Sudinna, saying: “There are no
Buddha-Words that are not called ‘sutta’,” rejected all
that and said: “The Three Baskets are the sutta. But the
vinaya is the means.” Then, showing the means he
brought up this discourse—
“The things of which you, Gotami, may know: these
things lead to passion, not to dispassion;
lead to being fettered, not to being unfettered;
lead to accumulating, not to diminishing;
lead to greatness of desires, not to fewness of desires;
lead to non-contentment, not to contentment;
lead to gregariousness, not to seclusion;
lead to laziness, not to arousing of energy;
lead to being difficult to support, not to being easy to
support—you should, Gotami, definitely hold: ‘This is
not the Dhamma, this is not the Discipline, this is not
the Teacher’s instruction.’
NOTES 41
 ESTABLISHING THE HIERARCHY OF DOCTRINAL AUTHORITY
Ye ca kho tvaṁ, Gotami, dhamme jāneyyāsi:
ime dhammā virāgāya saṁvattanti no
sarāgāya, visaññogāya saṁvattanti no
saññogāya, apacayāya saṁvattanti no
ācayāya, appicchatāya saṁvattanti no
mahicchatāya, santuṭṭhiyā saṁvattanti no
asantuṭṭhiyā, pavivekāya saṁvattanti no
saṅgaṇikāya, vīriyārambhāya saṁvattanti no
kosajjāya, subharatāya saṁvattanti no
dubbharatāya. Ekaṁsena, Gotami,
dhāreyyāsi: ‘Eso dhammo, eso vinayo,
etaṁ Satthu·sāsanan’ti.” (AN 8.53).
Tasmā sutte’ti tepiṭake Buddha·vacane
otāretabbāni. Vinaye’ti etasmiṁ
rāgādi·vinaya·kāraṇe saṁ·sandetabbānī’ti
ayamettha attho ...
42
And the things of which you, Gotami, may know:
these things lead to dispassion,
not to passion; lead to being unfettered,
not to being fettered; lead to diminishing,
not to accumulating; lead to fewness of desires,
not to greatness of desires; lead to contentment,
not to non-contentment; lead to seclusion,
not to gregariousness; lead to arousing of energy,
not to laziness; lead to being easy to support,
not to being difficult to support—you should, Gotami,
definitely hold: ‘This is the Dhamma, this is the Discip-
line, this is the Teacher’s instruction.’ ”
Therefore, in the sutta = in the Buddha-Words of the
Three Baskets [they] are to be checked for. In the
vinaya = in the means of disciplining lust and so forth
[they] are to be sought. This is the meaning here ...
NOTES 43
 ESTABLISHING THE HIERARCHY OF DOCTRINAL AUTHORITY
Imasmiṁ pana ṭhāne imaṁ pakiṇṇakaṁ
veditabbaṁ: (1) sutte cattāro mahāpadesā,
(2) khandhake cattāro mahāpadesā,
(3) cattāri pañha·byākaraṇāni,
(4) suttaṁ, (5) suttā›nulomaṁ,
(6) ācariya·vādo, (7) attano·mati, (8) tisso
saṅgītiyo’ti.
Tattha—“Ayaṁ dhammo, ayaṁ vinayo”ti
dhamma·vinicchaye patte ime cattāro
mahāpadesā pamāṇaṁ. Yaṁ ettha sameti
tadeva gahetabbaṁ, itaraṁ viravantassapi na
gahetabbaṁ.
“Idaṁ kappati, idaṁ na kappatī”ti
kappiyā›kappiya·vinicchaye patte ...
khandhake vuttā cattāro mahāpadesā
pamāṇaṁ ...
44
Now, in this context this miscellany is to be known:
(1) the four great references in the sutta [piṭaka],
(2) the four great references in the Chapters [of Vin
Mv and Cv], (3) the four [modes of] answering ques-
tions, (4) sutta, (5) corollary to the sutta, (6) teachers’
doctrine, (7) personal opinion and (8) the three Choral
Chantings.
Therein, in arriving at a verdict on the Dhamma [when
there is a claim of] “This is the Dhamma , this the Dis-
cipline,” these four great references are the measure.
Here, only what conforms is to be taken, not otherwise
even when [the claimant is] screaming.
In arriving at a verdict on what is or is not allowable
[when there is a claim of] “This is allowable, this is not
allowable,” … the four great references stated in the
Chapters [of Vin Mv and Cv] are the measure ...
NOTES 45
 ESTABLISHING THE HIERARCHY OF DOCTRINAL AUTHORITY 46

Ekaṁsa·byākaraṇīyo pañho, vibhajja· A question to be answered plainly, a question to be

byākaraṇīyo pañho, paṭipucchā·byākaraṇīyo answered analytically, a question to be answered by
pañho, ṭhapanīyo pañho’ti imāni cattāri cross-questioning, a question to be put aside—these
pañha·byākaraṇāni nāma. are the four [modes of] answering questions.

Tattha “Cakkhuṁ aniccan”ti puṭṭhena— Therein, when asked, “Is the eye impermanent?” one
“Āma aniccan”ti ekaṁseneva byākātabbaṁ. is to answer very definitely: “Yes, impermanent.”
Esa nayo sotādīsu. Ayaṁ ekaṁsa· This is the way for the ear, etc. This is a question to be
byākaraṇīyo pañho. answered definitely.

“Aniccaṁ nāma cakkhun”ti puṭṭhena—“Na When asked, “Is impermanence the eye?” one is to
cakkhumeva, sotampi aniccaṁ ghānampi answer analytically thus: “Not only the eye, but the
aniccan”ti evaṁ vibhajitvā byākātabbaṁ. ear also is impermanent, the nose also is imperma-
Ayaṁ vibhajja·byākaraṇīyo pañho. nent.” This is a question to be answered analytically.

“Yathā cakkhu tathā sotaṁ, yathā sotaṁ When asked, “As the eye, is the ear so? As the ear, is
tathā cakkhun”ti puṭṭhena “Kenaṭṭhena the eye so?” one cross-questions [thus]: “In what sense
pucchasī”ti paṭipucchitvā “Dassanaṭṭhena do you ask?” When replied to, “I ask in the sense of
pucchāmī”ti vutte “Na hī”ti byākātabbaṁ. seeing,” one is to answer: “No indeed.”
NOTES 47
 ESTABLISHING THE HIERARCHY OF DOCTRINAL AUTHORITY 48

“Aniccaṭṭhena pucchāmī”ti vutte When replied to, “I ask in the sense of impermanence,”
“Āmā”ti byākātabbaṁ. Ayaṁ one is to answer: “Yes.” This is a question to be
paṭipucchā·byākaraṇīyo pañho. answered by cross-questioning.

“Taṁ jīvaṁ taṁ sarīran”ti·ādīni puṭṭhena However, when asked, “Is the life(-force) the body?”
pana “Abyākatametaṁ Bhagavatā”ti and so forth, one is to put it aside (saying): “This was
ṭhapetabbo. Esa pañho na byākātabbo. unanswered by the Blessed One.” This question is not
Ayaṁ ṭhapanīyo pañho. to be answered. This is a question to be put aside.

Iti tenākārena pañhe sampatte imāni cattāri Thus when a question arrives in that mode, these four
pañha·byākaraṇāni pamāṇaṁ. Imesaṁ [modes of] answering questions are the measure. By
vasena so pañho byākātabbo. virtue of these, that question is to be answered.

Suttādīsu pana suttaṁ nāma tisso saṅgītiyo Regarding sutta, etc., sutta is the Three Baskets formal-
ārūḷhāni tīṇi piṭakāni. Suttā›nulomaṁ nāma ised at the three Choral Chantings. Corollary to the sutta
anuloma·kappiyaṁ. is what is allowable by corollary.

Ācariya·vādo nāma aṭṭhakathā. Teachers’ doctrine is the Commentary.

Attano·mati nāma nayag›gāhena Personal opinion is personal understanding by using
anubuddhiyā attano paṭibhānaṁ. the method through one’s own intelligence.
NOTES 49
 ESTABLISHING THE HIERARCHY OF DOCTRINAL AUTHORITY
Tattha suttaṁ appaṭibāhiyaṁ, taṁ paṭibā-
hantena Buddhova paṭibāhito hoti.
Anuloma·kappiyaṁ pana suttena
samentameva gahetabbaṁ, na itaraṁ.
Ācariya·vādopi suttena samentoyeva
gahetabbo, na itaro. Attano·mati pana
sabba·dubbalā, sāpi suttena samentāyeva
gahetabbā, na itarā.
‘Pañca·satikā, satta·satikā, sahassikā’ti imā
pana tisso saṅgītiyo. Suttampi tāsu
āgatameva pamāṇaṁ, itaraṁ
gārayha·suttaṁ na gahetabbaṁ. Tattha
otarantānipi hi pada·byañjanāni na ceva
sutte otaranti, na ca vinaye sandissantī’ti
veditabbāni.
50
Therein, the sutta cannot be rejected; by one
who rejects it, the Buddha is likewise rejected.
Now what is allowable by corollary is to be taken only
when it conforms with the sutta, not otherwise.
The teachers’ doctrine too is to be taken only when it
conforms with the sutta, not otherwise. Personal opin-
ion is the weakest of all; that too is to be taken only
when it conforms with the sutta, not otherwise.
The Five Hundreds’, the Seven Hundreds’, the Thou-
sand’s—these are the three Choral Chantings. 10 A sutta
too, only when found in them is the measure; another
censurable sutta is not to be taken. Therein even when
the words and letters are checked for, they neither fit
in the sutta nor are seen in the vinaya—thus are they
to be understood.
 NOTES 51

D2. As noted earlier, the term sutta is never used in the N10. The 1st Choral Chanting was attended by 500 monks,
four Nikāyas and the Vinaya Piṭaka to refer to all the the 2nd, 700 and the 3rd a thousand monks.
discourses which we now call “suttas”. After having scru-
tinised the various interpretations, what do you think
sutta and vinaya refer to in the context of the the four
great references? Rate your choice with reference to the
fourfold vinaya on p30.
 3
EXPLORING
SCRIPTURAL REFERENCES
 EXPLORING SCRIPTURAL REFERENCES 54

What is Samatha & Vipassanā?

Tatiya·samādhi Sutta (AN 4.94) Third Discourse on Composure

Cattārome, bhikkhave, puggalā santo These four types of individuals, monks, are to be
saṁvijja·mānā lokasmiṁ. Katame cattāro? found existing in the world. Which four?

Idha, bhikkhave, ekacco puggalo lābhī hoti Here, monks, some individual is an obtainer of
ajjhattaṁ ceto·samathassa, na lābhī internal stilling11 of the mind, but not an obtainer of
adhipaññā·dhamma·vipassanāya. distinct seeing12 of things through higher wisdom.

Idha pana, bhikkhave, ekacco puggalo lābhī Then here, monks, some individual is an obtainer of
hoti adhipaññā·dhamma·vipassanāya, distinct seeing of things through higher wisdom, but
na lābhī ajjhattaṁ ceto·samathassa. not an obtainer of internal stilling of the mind.

Idha pana, bhikkhave, ekacco puggalo na Then here, monks, some individual is neither an obtai-
ceva lābhī hoti ajjhattaṁ ceto·samathassa na ner of internal stilling of the mind, nor an obtainer of
ca lābhī adhipaññā·dhamma·vipassanāya. distinct seeing of things through higher wisdom.
NOTES 55

N11. Meanings of samatha

Stilling (e.g. of saṅkhārā), settlement (of an issue), calmness

N12. Word Analysis of vipassanā

vi (clear, distinct; distinguished, separate; special; various) +
passanā (seeing) = distinct seeing
 EXPLORING SCRIPTURAL REFERENCES
Idha pana, bhikkhave, ekacco puggalo lābhī
ceva hoti ajjhattaṁ ceto·samathassa lābhī ca
adhipaññā·dhamma·vipassanāya.
Tatra, bhikkhave, yvāyaṁ puggalo lābhī ajjhat-
taṁ ceto·samathassa na lābhī adhipaññā·
dhamma·vipassanāya; tena, bhikkhave,
puggalena yvāyaṁ puggalo lābhī adhipaññā·
dhamma·vipassanāya; so upasaṅkamitvā
evamassa vacanīyo: “Kathaṁ nu kho, āvuso,
saṅkhārā daṭṭhabbā? Kathaṁ saṅkhārā sam-
masitabbā? Kathaṁ saṅkhārā vipassitabbā”ti?
Tassa so yathā·diṭṭhaṁ yathā·viditaṁ byākaroti
“Evaṁ kho, āvuso, saṅkhārā daṭṭhabbā; evaṁ
saṅkhārā sammasitabbā; evaṁ saṅkhārā
vipassitabbā”ti. So aparena samayena lābhī
ceva hoti ajjhattaṁ ceto·samathassa lābhī ca
adhipaññā·dhamma·vipassanāya.
56
Then here, monks, some individual is an obtainer of
internal stilling of the mind, as well as an obtainer of
distinct seeing of things through higher wisdom.
Therein, monks, the individual who is an obtainer of
internal stilling of the mind, but not an obtainer of
distinct seeing of things through higher wisdom—that
individual, monks, is to approach the individual who is
an obtainer of distinct seeing of things through higher
wisdom and say to him: “How, friend, are saṅkhārā to
be viewed? How are saṅkhārā to be investigated?
How are saṅkhārā to be distinctly seen?”
He answers him according to what he has seen and
experienced: “Thus, friend, are saṅkhārā to be viewed;
thus are saṅkhārā to be investigated; thus are
saṅkhārā to be distinctly seen.” On a later occasion he
becomes an obtainer of internal stillness of the mind,
as well as an obtainer of distinct seeing of things
through higher wisdom.
NOTES 57
 EXPLORING SCRIPTURAL REFERENCES
Tatra, bhikkhave, yvāyaṁ puggalo lābhī
adhipaññā·dhamma·vipassanāya na lābhī
ajjhattaṁ ceto·samathassa; tena, bhikkhave,
puggalena yvāyaṁ puggalo lābhī ajjhattaṁ
ceto·samathassa; so upasaṅkamitvā evamassa
vacanīyo: “Kathaṁ nu kho, āvuso, cittaṁ
saṇṭhapetabbaṁ? Kathaṁ cittaṁ sannisāde-
tabbaṁ? Kathaṁ cittaṁ ekodi kātabbaṁ?
Kathaṁ cittaṁ samādahātabban”ti?
Tassa so yathā·diṭṭhaṁ yathā·viditaṁ
byākaroti “Evaṁ kho, āvuso, cittaṁ
saṇṭhapetabbaṁ; evaṁ cittaṁ sannisāde-
tabbaṁ; evaṁ cittaṁ ekodi kātabbaṁ;
evaṁ cittaṁ samādahātabban”ti. So aparena
samaye lābhī ceva hoti adhipaññā·
dhamma·vipassanāya lābhī ca ajjhattaṁ
ceto·samathassa.
58
Therein, monks, the individual who is an obtainer of
distinct seeing of things through higher wisdom but
not an obtainer of internal stillness of the mind—that
individual, monks, is to approach the individual who is
an obtainer of internal stillness of the mind and say to
him: “How, friend, is the mind13 made steady?14
How is the mind made to settle down? 15
How is the mind made unified?
How is the mind made composed?”16
He answers him according to what he has seen and
experienced: “Thus, friend, is the mind made steady;
thus is the mind made to settle down;
thus is the mind made unified;
thus is the mind made composed.” On another occa-
sion he becomes an obtainer of distinct seeing of
things through higher wisdom, as well as an obtainer
of internal stillness of the mind.
 NOTES 59

N13. Pāli Canonical terms related to “mind”

N14. Word Analysis of saṇṭhapetabbaṁ

D3. Continuing with the imagery pointed out in N14 –
N16, what do you think is the missing link between N15
and N16?
saṁ (properly) + ṭhāpe (cause to stand) + tabba (is to be)
= is to be made to stand properly
N15. Word Analysis of sannisādetabbaṁ
saṁ (properly) + nisāde (cause to sit) + tabba (is to be)
= is to be made to sit properly
N16. Word Analysis of samādahātabbaṁ
saṁ (properly) + ā (bring) + dahā (cause to place)
+ tabba (is to be) = is to be brought and placed properly
 EXPLORING SCRIPTURAL REFERENCES
Tatra, bhikkhave, yvāyaṁ puggalo na ceva
lābhī ajjhattaṁ ceto·samathassa na ca lābhī
adhipaññā·dhamma·vipassanāya; tena, bhik-
khave, puggalena yvāyaṁ puggalo lābhī ceva
ajjhattaṁ ceto·samathassa lābhī ca adhipaññā·
dhamma·vipassanāya; so upasaṅkamitvā
evamassa vacanīyo “Kathaṁ nu kho, āvuso,
cittaṁ saṇṭhapetabbaṁ? Kathaṁ cittaṁ
sannisādetabbaṁ? Kathaṁ cittaṁ ekodi
kātabbaṁ? Kathaṁ cittaṁ samādahātabbaṁ?
Kathaṁ saṅkhārā daṭṭhabbā?
Kathaṁ saṅkhārā sammasitabbā?
Kathaṁ saṅkhārā vipassitabbā”ti?
Tassa so yathā·diṭṭhaṁ yathā·viditaṁ
byākaroti “Evaṁ kho, āvuso, cittaṁ
saṇṭhapetabbaṁ; evaṁ cittaṁ
sannisādetabbaṁ; evaṁ cittaṁ ekodi
kātabbaṁ; evaṁ cittaṁ samādahātabbaṁ.
60
Therein, monks, the individual who is neither an
obtainer of internal stillness of the mind, nor an
obtainer of distinct seeing of things through higher
wisdom—that individual, monks, is to approach an
individual who is an obtainer of internal stillness of
the mind, as well as an obtainer of distinct seeing of
things through higher wisdom and say to him: “How,
friend, is the mind made steady? How is the mind
made to settle down? How is the mind
made unified? How is the mind made composed?
How are saṅkhārā to be viewed?
How are saṅkhārā to be investigated?
How are saṅkhārā to be distinctly seen?”
He answers him according to what he has seen and
experienced: “Thus, friend, is the mind made
steady; thus is the mind made
to settle down; thus is the mind made unified;
thus is the mind made composed.
NOTES 61
 EXPLORING SCRIPTURAL REFERENCES
Evaṁ saṅkhārā daṭṭhabbā; evaṁ saṅkhārā
sammasitabbā; evaṁ saṅkhārā vipassi-
tabbā”ti. So aparena samayena lābhī ceva
hoti ajjhattaṁ ceto·samathassa lābhī ca
adhipaññā·dhamma·vipassanāya.
Tatra, bhikkhave, yvāyaṁ puggalo lābhī ceva
hoti ajjhattaṁ ceto·samathassa lābhī
adhipaññā·dhamma·vipassanāya; tena,
bhikkhave, puggalena tesu ceva kusalesu
dhammesu patiṭṭhāya uttari āsavānaṁ
khayāya yogo karaṇīyo.
Ime kho, bhikkhave, cattāro puggalā santo
saṁvijjamānā lokasmin’ti.
62
Thus are saṅkhārā to be viewed; thus are saṅkhārā to
be investigated; thus are saṅkhārā to be distinctly
seen.” On a later occasion he becomes an obtainer of
internal stillness of the mind, as well as an obtainer of
distinct seeing of things through higher wisdom.
Therein, monks, the individual who is an obtainer of
internal stillness of the mind, as well as an obtainer of
distinct seeing of things through higher wisdom—that
individual, monks, based on those very same skilful
things, is to make further effort for the
evaporation of the inflows.
These, monks, are four types of individuals to be
found existing in the world.
 NOTES 63

D4. From the definitions of samatha and vipassanā found

in this sutta, list out the salient characteristics that
distinguish one from the other, such as (a) object of
focus/attention, (b) steps in the process of development,
(c) end result.
 EXPLORING SCRIPTURAL REFERENCES 64

The Range of How Samādhi Is Attained in the Pāli Suttas

1. MOSTLY WILFULLY CULTIVATED

Vitakka·Saṇṭhāna Sutta (MN 20) The Stilling of Thoughts
Adhicitta‹manuyuttena, bhikkhave, Monks, five signs are to be attended to
bhikkhunā pañca nimittāni kālena kālaṁ at the appropriate times by a monk intent on the
manasi kātabbāni. Katamāni pañca? heightened mind. Which five?

Idha, bhikkhave, bhikkhuno yaṁ nimittaṁ
āgamma yaṁ nimittaṁ manasikaroto
uppajjanti pāpakā akusalā vitakkā
chandūpa·saṁhitāpi dosūpa·saṁhitāpi
mohūpa·saṁhitāpi; tena, bhikkhave,
bhikkhunā tamhā nimittā aññaṁ nimittaṁ
manasi kātabbaṁ kusalūpa·saṁhitaṁ.
Tassa tamhā nimittā aññaṁ nimittaṁ
manasi·karoto kusalūpa·saṁhitaṁ ye pāpakā
akusalā vitakkā chandūpa·saṁhitāpi
dosūpa·saṁhitāpi mohūpa·saṁhitāpi
Here, monks, when a monk refers to a particular sign,
attends to a particular sign,
evil, unskilful thoughts—connected with desire,
connected with hatred, or connected with delusion—
arise; monks, another sign, apart from that one,
connected with what is skilful is to be attended to
by that monk. When he is attending to this other sign,
apart from that one, connected with what is skilful,
then those evil, unskilful thoughts—
connected with desire, connected with hatred,
or connected with delusion—
NOTES 65
 EXPLORING SCRIPTURAL REFERENCES 66

te pahīyanti; te abbhatthaṁ gacchanti. Tesaṁ are abandoned; they go away. With their
pahānā ajjhattameva cittaṁ santiṭṭhati abandoning, right within the mind steadies,
sannisīdati ekodi hoti samādhiyati. settles, becomes unified, [and] is composed. 17

... tena, bhikkhave, bhikkhunā tesaṁ ... monks, the drawbacks of those thoughts are to be
vitakkānaṁ ādīnavo upa·parikkhitabbo: scrutinised by that monk thus: “Truly, these thoughts of
“Itipime vitakkā akusalā, itipime vitakkā mine are unskilful, these thoughts of mine are blame-
sāvajjā, itipime vitakkā dukkha·vipākā”ti ... worthy, these thoughts of mine result in suffering ...”

... tena, bhikkhave, bhikkhunā tesaṁ ... monks, those thoughts are to be forgotten, not to be
vitakkānaṁ asati·amanasikāro āpajjitabbo ... attended to by that monk ...

... tena, bhikkhave, bhikkhunā tesaṁ ... monks, the stilling of the thought-saṅkhārā
vitakkānaṁ vitakka·saṅkhāra·saṇṭhānaṁ of those thoughts is to be attended to
manasikātabbaṁ ... by that monk ...

Seyyathāpi, bhikkhave, puriso sīghaṁ Just as a man, monks, would

gaccheyya. Tassa evamassa: walk fast. It might occur to him thus:
“Kiṁ nu kho ahaṁ sīghaṁ gacchāmi? “Now why do I walk fast?
Yaṁnūnāhaṁ saṇikaṁ gaccheyyan”ti. What if I walked slowly?”
So saṇikaṁ gaccheyya. [And] he would walk slowly;
NOTES 67

N17. This sequence of samatha (= the mind steadies >

settles > becomes unified > is composed) is repeated at the
end of each subsequent step that is resorted to if the previ-
ous one did not work.
 EXPLORING SCRIPTURAL REFERENCES
Tassa evamassa: “Kiṁ nu kho ahaṁ saṇikaṁ
gacchāmi? Yaṁnūnāhaṁ tiṭṭheyyan”ti. So
tiṭṭheyya. Tassa evamassa: “Kiṁ nu kho
ahaṁ ṭhito? Yaṁnūnāhaṁ nisīdeyyan”ti.
So nisīdeyya. Tassa evamassa: “Kiṁ nu kho
ahaṁ nisinno? Yaṁnūnāhaṁ nipajjeyyan”ti.
So nipajjeyya. Evañhi so, bhikkhave, puriso
oḷārikaṁ oḷārikaṁ iriyāpathaṁ abhinivajjetvā
sukhumaṁ sukhumaṁ iriyāpathaṁ
kappeyya.
Evameva kho, bhikkhave < ... tassa tesaṁ
vitakkānaṁ vitakka·saṅkhāra·saṇṭhānaṁ
manasi·karoto ye pāpakā akusalā vitakkā
chandūpa·saṁhitāpi dosūpa·saṁhitāpi
mohūpa·saṁhitāpi >18 te pahīyanti
te abbhatthaṁ gacchanti. Tesaṁ pahānā
ajjhattameva cittaṁ santiṭṭhati sannisīdati
ekodi hoti samādhiyati.
68
[then] it might occur to him thus: “Now why do I walk
slowly? What if I stood?”
[And] he would stand; [then] it might occur to him
thus: “Now why do I stand? What if I sat?”
[And] he would sit; [then] it might occur to him thus:
“Now why do I sit? What if I lay down?”
[And] he would lie down. Thus, monks, that man
having avoided one grosser posture (after another)
would take up a subtler posture (after another).
So too, monks … when he gives attention to the stilling
of the thought-saṅkhārā of those thoughts,
then those evil, unskilful thoughts—
connected with desire, connected with hatred,
or connected with delusion—are abandoned;
they go away. With their abandoning,
right within the mind steadies, settles,
becomes unified, [and] is composed.
 NOTES
D5. Do you think this simile of changing postures has any
relation to the process of stilling the mind described in
Tatiya·samādhi Sutta (AN 4.94) on p58 above? Give
reasons for your answer.
69
N18. Change of source of Pāli text
This whole passage after the simile is missing in DPR 4.3
and WTE:
tena, bhikkhave, bhikkhunā tesaṁ vitakkānaṁ
vitakka·saṅkhāra·saṇṭhānaṁ manasi·kātabbaṁ.
tassa tesaṁ vitakkānaṁ vitakka·saṅkhāra·
saṇṭhānaṁ manasi·karoto ye pāpakā akusalā
vitakkā chandūpa·saṁhitāpi dosūpa·saṁhitāpi
mohūpa·saṁhitāpi
I have therefore based my excerpt on the digital copy of the
Sri Lankan Buddha Jayanti Tripitaka available via
accesstoinsight (Offline Edition 2013.03.12.10).
 EXPLORING SCRIPTURAL REFERENCES
... tena, bhikkhave, bhikkhunā
dantebhi·dantamādhāya jivhāya tāluṁ
āhacca cetasā cittaṁ abhi·niggaṇhitabbaṁ
abhi·nippīḷetabbaṁ abhi·santāpetabbaṁ ...
… Yato kho, bhikkhave, bhikkhuno ... ye
pāpakā akusalā vitakkā ... te pahīyanti
te abbhatthaṁ gacchanti. Tesaṁ pahānā
ajjhattameva cittaṁ santiṭṭhati sannisīdati
ekodi hoti samādhiyati ...
Ayaṁ vuccati, bhikkhave, bhikkhu vasī
vitakka·pariyāya·pathesu. Yaṁ vitakkaṁ
ākaṅkhissati taṁ vitakkaṁ vitakkessati,
yaṁ vitakkaṁ nākaṅkhissati na taṁ vitakkaṁ
vitakkessati. Acchecchi taṇhaṁ, vivattayi
saṁyojanaṁ, sammā mānā›bhisamayā
antamakāsi dukkhassā’ti.
70
... monks, with teeth gritted against teeth
[and] tongue pressed against the roof of the mouth—
the mind is to be mentally repressed,
suppressed, [and] quashed by that monk ...
… When, monks, the monk’s … those evil, unskilful
thoughts … are abandoned;
they go away; with their abandoning,
right within the mind steadies, settles,
becomes unified, [and] is composed ...
This monk, monks, is called a master of
the habitual ways of thought. Whatever thought
he wishes, that thought he will think; whatever
thought he does not wish, that thought he will not
think. He has cut off craving, turned back the fetters,
and with the complete comprehension of
conceit made an end of suffering.
 NOTES 71

D6. The five-fold strategy for stilling thoughts seems to be

a pure samatha exercise, judging from the phrasing of the
conclusion of each step. Yet the grand conclusion of the
Sutta states that this teaching results in arahantship, thus
suggesting that arahantship can be attained without prac-
tising vipassanā at all. What do you think?
 EXPLORING SCRIPTURAL REFERENCES
Dvedhā·vitakka Sutta (MN 19)
‘... Api ca kho me aticiraṁ anuvitakkayato
anuvicārayato kāyo kilameyya. Kāye kilante
cittaṁ ūhaññeyya. Ūhate citte ārā cittaṁ
samādhimhā’ti. So kho ahaṁ, bhikkhave,
ajjhattameva cittaṁ saṇṭhapemi sannisādemi
ekodiṁ karomi samādahāmi. Taṁ kissa hetu?
‘Mā me cittaṁ ūhaññī’ti ...
Āraddhaṁ kho pana me, bhikkhave, vīriyaṁ
ahosi asallīnaṁ, upaṭṭhitā sati asammuṭṭhā,
passaddho kāyo asāraddho, samāhitaṁ
cittaṁ ekaggaṁ. So kho ahaṁ, bhikkhave,
vivicceva kāmehi vivicca akusalehi
dhammehi savitakkaṁ savicāraṁ vivekajaṁ
pītisukhaṁ paṭhamaṁ jhānaṁ upasampajja
vihāsiṁ ...
72
Thoughts in Two parts
‘… But with prolonged repeated thinking
and examination, my body would tire. When the body
is tired, the mind would be disturbed. When the mind
is disturbed, the mind is far from composure.’ So then,
monks, I steadied the mind right within, settled it,
made it unified, and composed it. Why is that?
‘Let my mind not be disturbed,’ [I thought.] ...
Aroused, monks, was my energy, not slack; established
was mindfulness, not forgetful; tranquil was the body,
not heated up (by passion); composed was the mind, at
one place (not all over the place).19 Then, monks, quite
secluded from sensual desires, secluded from unskilful
things, I lived having attained the first meditation
accompanied by thought and examination, with rap-
ture and happiness born of seclusion ...
 NOTES
D7. The first paragraph says that when the body is tired
by prolonged repeated thinking and examination, the
mind is far from composure. Yet the second paragraph
shows that the first meditation, which is reached after
composing the mind, is accompanied by thought and
examination. How do you understand this apparent
contradiction?
73
N19. This sequence or concurrence of conditions for a com-
posed mind (energy > mindfulness > tranquillity of body >
one-placeness of mind) can be found in many suttas:
Bhaya·bherava Sutta (MN 4), Mahā·hatthi·padopama
Sutta (MN 28), Deva·daha Sutta (SN 35.117), Ādhi·
pateyya Sutta (AN 3.40), Dutiyānuruddha Sutta (AN
3.131), Sīla Sutta (AN 4.12), Verañja Sutta (AN 8.11),
Sampanna·sīla Sutta (KN It 111). See also N22.
 EXPLORING SCRIPTURAL REFERENCES
Kāya·gatāsati Sutta (MN 119)
… Kathaṁ bhāvitā ca, bhikkhave, kāya·gatā·
sati kathaṁ bahulīkatā mahapphalā hoti
mahānisaṁsā? Idha, bhikkhave, bhikkhu ...
satova assasati satova passasati ... “passam-
bhayaṁ kāya·saṅkhāraṁ passasissāmī”ti
sikkhati. Tassa evaṁ appamattassa ātāpino
pahitattassa viharato ye gehasitā sara·
saṅkappā te pahīyanti. Tesaṁ pahānā
ajjhattameva cittaṁ santiṭṭhati sannisīdati
ekodi hoti samādhiyati. Evaṁ, bhikkhave,
bhikkhu kāya·gatāsatiṁ bhāveti ...
Kāya·gatāya, bhikkhave, satiyā āsevitāya
bhāvitāya bahulī·katāya yānī·katāya
vatthu·katāya anuṭṭhitāya paricitāya
susamāraddhāya dasānisaṁsā
pāṭikaṅkhā ...
74
Mindfulness Gone to Oneself20
… And how, monks, is mindfulness gone to oneself
developed and made much of so that it is of great fruit
and great benefit? Here, monks, a monk …
ever mindful breathes in, ever mindful breathes out ...
he trains thus: “I shall breathe out tranquillising the
bodily saṅkhāra.” As he lives thus non-negligent,
ardent and resolute, running thoughts based on the
household life are abandoned; with their abandoning
his mind steadies right within, settles, becomes uni-
fied, and is composed.21a That is how, monks, a monk
develops mindfulness gone to oneself ...
When mindfulness gone to oneself, monks, has been
frequently practised, developed, made much of, made
as a vehicle, made as a basis, established, habituated,
and thoroughly undertaken, ten benefits
are to be expected ...
NOTES 75

N20. Kāya·gatāsati is often translated as “Mindfulness of

the Body”. In this context however, I prefer to translate
kāya as “oneself”, following Prof. Kuan Tse-fu’s well sub-
stantiated argument that it refers to “the locus of our sub-
jective experience through the senses”, and that “kāya·
gatāsati or kāya·sati is a … fundamental principle applied
to the path of liberation, and is not restricted to those spe-
cific exercises … given in different versions of the Kāya·
gatāsati Sutta.” (Tse-fu Kuan (2008), Mindfulness in
Early Buddhism: New approaches through psychology and
textual analysis of Pali, Chinese and Sanskrit sources,
Routledge, p103)

N21a. This samatha refrain applies to all the exercises

given in this Sutta, i.e. breathing, postures, clear knowing,
bodily parts, elements, corpses and the four meditations
(jhānas) including the similies about pervading the body
with the outstanding feature of each meditation.
 EXPLORING SCRIPTURAL REFERENCES
Mahā·suññata Sutta (MN 122)
“... Kathañcānanda, bhikkhu ajjhattameva
cittaṁ saṇṭhapeti sannisādeti ekodiṁ karoti
samādahati? Idhānanda, bhikkhu vivicceva
kāmehi vivicca akusalehi dhammehi
<savitakkaṁ savicāraṁ vivekajaṁ
pītisukhaṁ> paṭhamaṁ jhānaṁ
upasampajja viharati ... dutiyaṁ jhānaṁ ...
tatiyaṁ jhānaṁ ... catutthaṁ jhānaṁ
upasampajja viharati. Evaṁ kho, Ānanda,
bhikkhu ajjhattameva cittaṁ saṇṭhapeti
sannisādeti ekodiṁ karoti samādahati ...
76
Great Emptiness
“… And how, Ānanda, does a monk steady the mind
right within, settle it, make it unified, compose it?
Here, Ānanda, a monk, quite secluded from sensual
desires, secluded from unskilful things, lives having
attained the first meditation accompanied by thought
and examination, with rapture and happiness born of
seclusion… second meditation …
third meditation … he lives having attained the fourth
meditation. Thus, Ānanda,
does a monk steady the mind right within, settle it,
make it unified, compose it ...
NOTES 77
 EXPLORING SCRIPTURAL REFERENCES
Jhāna Sutta (AN 9.36)
Paṭhamam·pāhaṁ, bhikkhave, jhānaṁ
nissāya āsavānaṁ khayaṁ vadāmi;
dutiyam·pāhaṁ … tatiyam·pāhaṁ …
catuttham·pāhaṁ ... ākāsānañcā›yatanam·
pāhaṁ … viññāṇañcā›yatanam·pāhaṁ ...
ākiñcaññā›yatanam·pāhaṁ ... nevasaññā·
nāsaññā›yatanam·pāhaṁ ... saññā·vedayita·
nirodham·pāhaṁ, bhikkhave, nissāya
āsavānaṁ khayaṁ vadāmi.
… idha, bhikkhave, bhikkhu ... paṭhamaṁ
jhānaṁ … dutiyaṁ jhānaṁ ... tatiyaṁ
jhānaṁ ... catutthaṁ jhānaṁ upasampajja
viharati. So yadeva tattha hoti rūpa·gataṁ
vedanā·gataṁ saññā·gataṁ saṅkhāra·gataṁ
viññāṇa·gataṁ, te dhamme aniccato dukkhato
... suññato anattato samanupassati.
78
Meditation
Depending on the first meditation too, monks, I speak
of the evaporation of the inflows;
depending on the second meditation too … third med-
itation too ... fourth meditation too … the base of
infinite space too … the base of infinite consciousness
too … the base of nothingness too … the base of
neither-perception-nor-nonperception too … the ces-
sation of perception and the felt too, monks, I speak of
the evaporation of the inflows.
… Here, monks, a monk lives after having attained …
the first meditation … second meditation … third med-
itation … fourth meditation. Therein, whatever is
included in form, included in feeling, included in per-
ception, included in saṅkhārā, included in conscious-
ness—those things he contemplates as impermanent,
as suffering … as void, as not-self.21b
NOTES 79

N21b. Note that one can still contemplate the five aggre-
gates while practising meditation (jhāna) and the four
aggregates (not shown in this excerpt) while practising the
formless liberations (āruppā vimokkhā).
 EXPLORING SCRIPTURAL REFERENCES
So tehi dhammehi cittaṁ paṭivāpeti. so tehi
dhammehi cittaṁ paṭivāpetvā amatāya
dhātuyā cittaṁ upasaṁharati—‘etaṁ santaṁ
etaṁ paṇītaṁ yadidaṁ sabba·saṅkhāra·
samatho sabbūpadhi·paṭinissaggo
taṇhākkhayo virāgo nirodho nibbānan’ti.
So tattha ṭhito āsavānaṁ khayaṁ pāpuṇāti.
No ce āsavānaṁ khayaṁ pāpuṇāti, teneva
dhamma·rāgena tāya dhamma·nandiyā
pañcannaṁ oram·bhāgiyānaṁ
saṁyojanānaṁ parikkhayā opapātiko hoti
tattha parinibbāyī anāvatti·dhammo tasmā
lokā ...
80
He turns the mind away from those things. Having
turned the mind away from those things, he brings
the mind close to the deathless element (thus): ‘That
is peaceful, that is exalted—that is, the stilling of all
saṅkhārā, the relinquishment of all assets, the evapor-
ation of craving, dispassion, cessation, nibbāna.’
Steadfast there, he reaches the evaporation of the
inflows. If he does not reach the evaporation of the
inflows due to that very lust for that thing (state),
due to that delight in that thing (state), with the evap-
oration of the five lower fetters, he is born sponta-
neuosly, an attainer of final nibbāna there, with the
nature of not turning back from that world ...
NOTES 81
 EXPLORING SCRIPTURAL REFERENCES
Paṭhama·jhāna·pañhā Sutta (SN 40.1)
… So khvāhaṁ, āvuso, vivicceva kāmehi
vivicca akusalehi dhammehi savitakkaṁ
savicāraṁ vivekajaṁ pītisukhaṁ paṭhamaṁ
jhānaṁ upasampajja viharāmi.
Tassa mayhaṁ, āvuso, iminā vihārena
viharato kāma·sahagatā saññā·manasikārā
samudācaranti.
Atha kho maṁ, āvuso, Bhagavā iddhiyā
upasaṅkamitvā etadavoca: “Moggallāna,
Moggallāna! Mā, brāhmaṇa, paṭhamaṁ
jhānaṁ pamādo. Paṭhame jhāne cittaṁ
saṇṭhapehi, paṭhame jhāne cittaṁ ekodiṁ
karohi, paṭhame jhāne cittaṁ samādahā”ti.
So khvāhaṁ, āvuso, aparena samayena ...
paṭhamaṁ jhānaṁ upasampajja vihāsiṁ.
82
Question on the First Meditation
… Then, friends, quite secluded from sensual desires,
secluded from unskilful things, I dwelled having
attained the first meditation accompanied by thought
and examination, with rapture and happiness born of
seclusion. As I dwelled in this dwelling, friends,
attention to perceptions accompanied by sensuality
prevailed.
Then, friends, the Blessed One having
approached me by psychic power said this:
“Moggallaāna, Moggallaāna! Do not be negligent,
brahmin, regarding the first meditation. Steady the
mind in the first meditation, make the mind unified in
the first meditation, compose the mind in the first
meditation.” Then, friends, on a later occasion ...
I dwelled having attained the first meditation.
NOTES 83
 EXPLORING SCRIPTURAL REFERENCES
Āpaṇa Sutta (SN 48.50)
“… Saddho so, Sāriputta, ariya·sāvako
evaṁ padahitvā padahitvā
evaṁ saritvā saritvā
evaṁ samādahitvā samādahitvā
evaṁ pajānitvā pajānitvā evaṁ
abhi·saddahati: ‘Ime kho te dhammā ye me
pubbe sutāva ahesuṁ. Tenāhaṁ etarahi
kāyena ca phusitvā viharāmi, paññāya ca
ativijjha passāmī’ti. Yā hissa, Sāriputta,
saddhā tadassa saddhindriyan”ti.
84
At Āpaṇa
… A disciple of the noble ones who has faith, Sāriputta,
when he has again and again strived in such a way,
again and again recollected in such a way, again and
again composed [his mind] in such a way,22 again and
again understood [with wisdom] in such a way, gains
profound faith thus: “As to these things that previously
I had only heard about, now I live having contacted
them personally23 and, having penetrated them with
wisdom, I see.” Indeed, Sāriputta, that faith of his—
that is his faculty of faith.
NOTES 85

N22. Note the sequence of conditions for bringing about a

composed mind (energy > mindfulness > composure). Here
tranquillity of body is missing (compare with N19), possibly
because it is an effect rather than an active factor. Note
also the two types of faith: initial belief and experientially
verified confidence.

N23. Kāyena ca phusitvā does not mean “having contacted

with the physical body”, but rather, through personal
experience. This is a good example of how kāya refers to the
“subjective experiencer” rather than to the physical body.
 EXPLORING SCRIPTURAL REFERENCES
2. MOSTLY NATURALLY CULTIVATED
Cetanā·karaṇīya Sutta (AN 10.2)
Sīlavato, bhikkhave, sīla·sampannassa na
cetanāya karaṇīyaṁ: “Avippaṭi·sāro me
uppajjatū”ti. Dhammatā esā, bhikkhave,
yaṁ sīlavato sīla·sampannassa
avippaṭi·sāro uppajjati.
Avippaṭi·sārissa, bhikkhave, na cetanāya
karaṇīyaṁ: “Pāmojjaṁ me uppajjatū”ti.
Dhammatā esā, bhikkhave, yaṁ
avippaṭi·sārissa pāmojjaṁ jāyati ...
Dhammatā esā, bhikkhave, yaṁ
pamuditassa pīti uppajjati ...
Dhammatā esā, bhikkhave, yaṁ
pīti·manassa kāyo passambhati ...
86
Exertion by Volition
For a virtuous person, monks, one possessed of virtue,
there is no need for exertion by volition: “Let non-
remorse arise in me.” It is natural, monks,
for a virtuous person, one possessed of virtue
that non-remorse arises.
For one without remorse, monks, there is no need for
exertion by volition: “Let joy arise in me.”
It is natural, monks, for one
without remorse that joy arises ...
It is natural, monks, for one
who is joyful that rapture arises ...
It is natural, monks, for one
with a rapturous mind that the body becomes tranquil
...
NOTES 87
 EXPLORING SCRIPTURAL REFERENCES
Dhammatā esā, bhikkhave, yaṁ
passaddha·kāyo sukhaṁ vediyati...
Dhammatā esā, bhikkhave, yaṁ sukhino
cittaṁ samādhiyati ...
Dhammatā esā, bhikkhave, yaṁ samāhito
yathā·bhūtaṁ jānāti passati ...
Dhammatā esā, bhikkhave, yaṁ
yathā·bhūtaṁ jānaṁ passaṁ nibbindati
virajjati.
Nibbinnassa, bhikkhave, virattassa na
cetanāya karaṇīyaṁ: “Vimutti·ñāṇa·
dassanaṁ sacchikaromī”ti. Dhammatā esā,
bhikkhave, yaṁ nibbinno viratto
vimutti·ñāṇa·dassanaṁ sacchikaroti ...
88
It is natural, monks, that one
with a tranquil body feels happy ...
It is natural, monks, for one
who is happy that his mind is composed.
It is natural, monks, that one who is composed
knows and sees according to what has occurred.
It is natural, monks, that one who knows and sees
according to what has occurred becomes disen-
chanted, dispassionate.
For one who is disenchanted & dispassionate, monks,
there is no need for exertion by volition: “Let me real-
ise the knowledge & vision of liberation.” It is natural,
monks, that one who is disenchanted & dispassionate
realises the knowledge & vision of liberation ...
NOTES 89
 EXPLORING SCRIPTURAL REFERENCES
Vimuttāyatana Sutta (AN 5.26)
Pañcimāni, bhikkhave, vimuttā›yatanāni yattha
bhikkhuno appamattassa ātāpino pahitattassa
viharato avimuttaṁ vā cittaṁ vimuccati,
aparikkhīṇā vā āsavā parikkhayaṁ gacchanti,
ananuppattaṁ vā anuttaraṁ yogak›khemaṁ
anupāpuṇāti. Katamāni pañca?
Idha, bhikkhave, bhikkhuno satthā dhammaṁ
deseti aññataro vā garuṭṭhāniyo sabrahma·
cārī. Yathā yathā, bhikkhave, tassa bhikkhuno
satthā dhammaṁ deseti, aññataro vā
garuṭṭhāniyo sabrahma·cārī; tathā tathā so
tasmiṁ dhamme attha·paṭisaṁvedī ca hoti
dhamma·paṭisaṁvedī ca. Tassa attha·paṭisaṁ·
vedino dhamma·paṭisaṁ·vedino pāmojjaṁ
jāyati. Pamuditassa pīti jāyati. Pīti·manassa
kāyo passambhati. Passaddha·kāyo sukhaṁ
vedeti. Sukhino cittaṁ samādhiyati.
90
Bases of Liberation24
There are, monks, these five bases of liberation,
wherein when a monk lives non-negligent, ardent and
self-motivated, his unliberated mind is liberated, his
unevaporated inflows go to evaporation, and he
attains the as-yet-unattained unsurpassed security
from bondage. What five?
Here, monks, the Teacher or a fellow lofty practitioner
in the position of a teacher teaches the Dhamma to a
monk. In whichever way, monks, the Teacher or a fel-
low lofty practitioner in the position of a teacher
teaches the Dhamma to him; in that way he is one who
experiences the benefit25 and the dhamma in that
Dhamma (teaching). When one experiences the bene-
fit and the dhamma, joy arises; when one is joyful rap-
ture arises; for one with rapturous mind the body be-
comes tranquil; one with a tranquil body feels happy;
for one who is happy the mind becomes composed.26
NOTES 91

N24. Also mentioned in Saṅgīti Sutta (DN 33), Dasuttara

Sutta (DN 34.6).

N25. Attha·paṭisaṁvedī is often rendered “one who experi-

ences the meaning” but as attha also means “purpose, aim,
benefit”, I think it makes more sense to render it “one who
experiences the benefit”.

N26. Note the sequence of conditions leading to mental

composure: experiential verification > joy > rapture > tran-
quillity > happiness > composure.
 EXPLORING SCRIPTURAL REFERENCES
Idaṁ, bhikkhave, paṭhamaṁ vimuttā›
yatanaṁ yattha bhikkhuno appamattassa
ātāpino pahitattassa viharato avimuttaṁ vā
cittaṁ vimuccati, aparikkhīṇā vā āsavā
parikkhayaṁ gacchanti, ananuppattaṁ vā
anuttaraṁ yogak›khemaṁ anupāpuṇāti.
… bhikkhu yathā·sutaṁ yathā·pariyattaṁ
dhammaṁ vitthārena paresaṁ deseti ...
… bhikkhu yathā·sutaṁ yathā·pariyattaṁ
dhammaṁ vitthārena sajjhāyaṁ karoti...
… bhikkhu yathā·sutaṁ yathā·pariyattaṁ
dhammaṁ cetasā anuvitakketi
anuvicāreti manasānupekkhati ...
… api ca khvassa aññataraṁ samādhi·
nimittaṁ suggahitaṁ hoti sumanasi·kataṁ
sūpadhāritaṁ suppaṭi·viddhaṁ paññāya.
92
This, monks, is the first base of liberation,
wherein when a monk lives non-negligent,
ardent and self-motivated, his unliberated
mind is liberated, his unevaporated inflows go to
evaporation, and he attains the as-yet-unattained
unsurpassed security from bondage.
… the monk teaches the Dhamma in detail to others as
he has heard it and learnt it ...
… the monk recites the Dhamma in detail as he has
heard it and learnt it ...
… the monk repeatedly thinks, examines
and mentally investigates the Dhamma
as he has heard it and learnt it ...
… but a certain sign of composure
has been well learnt by him, well attended to,
well sustained, and well penetrated with wisdom.
NOTES 93
 EXPLORING SCRIPTURAL REFERENCES
Yathā yathā, bhikkhave, bhikkhuno
aññataraṁ samādhi·nimittaṁ suggahitaṁ
hoti sumanasi·kataṁ sūpadhāritaṁ suppaṭi·
viddhaṁ paññāya; tathā tathā so tasmiṁ
dhamme attha·paṭisaṁvedī ca hoti dhamma·
paṭisaṁvedī ca. Tassa attha·paṭisaṁ·vedino
dhamma·paṭisaṁ·vedino pāmojjaṁ jāyati.
Pamuditassa pīti jāyati. Pīti·manassa kāyo
passambhati. Passaddha·kāyo sukhaṁ vedeti.
Sukhino cittaṁ samādhiyati.
Idaṁ, bhikkhave, pañcamaṁ vimuttā›
yatanaṁ yattha bhikkhuno appamattassa
ātāpino pahitattassa viharato avimuttaṁ vā
cittaṁ vimuccati, aparikkhīṇā vā āsavā
parikkhayaṁ gacchanti, ananuppattaṁ vā
anuttaraṁ yogak›khemaṁ anupāpuṇāti ...
94
In whichever way, monks,
the certain sign of composure has been well-learnt by
the monk, well-attended to, well-sustained, and well-
penetrated with wisdom; in that way he is one who
experiences the benefit and the dhamma in that
Dhamma (practice). When one experiences the benefit
and the dhamma, joy arises; when one is joyful rap-
ture arises; for one with rapturous mind the body be-
comes tranquil; one with a tranquil body feels happy;
for one who is happy the mind becomes composed.
This, monks, is the fifth base of liberation,
wherein when a monk lives non-negligent,
ardent and self-motivated, his unliberated
mind is liberated, his unevaporated inflows
go to evaporation, and he attains the as-yet-
unattained unsurpassed security from bondage ...
 NOTES 95

D8. In practical terms, how do you understand the phrase

“one who experiences the benefit and the dhamma in that
Dhamma”when applied to each of the bases of liberation?

D9. Can the level of composure that qualifies to be a base

of liberation be similar or equivalent to that of the first
meditation (jhāna)? Substantiate your view with evidence
extracted from this Sutta. The standard formula for the
first meditation can be found on p82.
 EXPLORING SCRIPTURAL REFERENCES 96

Upanisa Sutta (SN 12.23) Supporting Conditions

Iti kho, bhikkhave, ... dukkhū›panisā saddhā, Thus, monks, ... suffering is the supporting condition
saddhū›panisaṁ pāmojjaṁ, for faith, faith is the supporting condition for joy,
pāmojjū›panisā pīti, joy is the supporting condition for rapture, rapture is
pītū›panisā passaddhi, the supporting condition for tranquillity, tranquillity
passaddhū›panisaṁ sukhaṁ, is the supporting condition for happiness, happiness
sukhū›paniso samādhi, is the supporting condition for composure,27 compos-
samādhū›panisaṁ ure is the supporting condition for knowledge and vis-
yathābhūta·ñāṇa·dassanaṁ, ion according to what has occurred, knowledge and
yathābhūta·ñāṇa·dassanū›panisā nibbidā, vision according to what has occurred is the support-
nibbidū›paniso virāgo, ing condition for disenchantment, disenchantment is
virāgū›panisā vimutti, the supporting condition for dispassion, dispassion is
vimuttū›panisaṁ khayeñāṇaṁ. the supporting condition for liberation, and liberation
is the supporting condition for the knowledge of the
evaporation [of the inflows].
NOTES 97

N27. Note the sequence of conditions leading to mental

composure: suffering > faith > joy > rapture > tranquillity >
happiness > composure.
 EXPLORING SCRIPTURAL REFERENCES
Pamāda·vihārī Sutta (SN 35.97)
… Kathañca, bhikkhave, appamāda·vihārī
hoti? Cakkhundriyaṁ saṁvutassa, bhikkhave,
viharato cittaṁ na byāsiñcati
cakkhu·viññeyyesu rūpesu, tassa
abyāsitta·cittassa pāmojjaṁ jāyati.
Pamuditassa pīti jāyati. Pīti·manassa kāyo
passambhati. Passaddha·kāyo sukhaṁ
viharati. Sukhino cittaṁ samādhiyati.
Samāhite citte dhammā pātu·bhavanti.
Dhammānaṁ pātubhāvā ‘appamāda·vihārī’
tveva saṅkhaṁ gacchati.
Sotindriyaṁ ... Ghānindriyaṁ ...
Jivhindriyaṁ ... Kāyindriyaṁ ... Manindriyaṁ
saṁvutassa, bhikkhave, viharato cittaṁ na
byāsiñcati manoviññeyyesu dhammesu,
tassa abyāsittacittassa pāmojjaṁ jāyati.
98
One Who Lives Negligently
… And how, monks, does one live non-negligently?
When one lives with restraint over the faculty of the
eye, monks, the mind is not soaked in forms cogniz-
able by the eye. For one whose mind is not soaked, joy
arises. For one who is joyful, rapture arises. For one
with a rapturous mind, the body becomes tranquil.
One with a tranquil body lives happily. For one who is
happy, the mind is composed.28 When the mind is
composed, things become manifest. Due to the mani-
festation of things, one comes to be simply reckoned
as “one who lives non-negligently”.
When one lives with restraint over the faculty of the
ear ... nose ... tongue ... body ... mind,
the mind is not soaked
in things cognizable by the mind.
For one whose mind is not soaked, joy arises.
NOTES 99

N28. Note the sequence of conditions leading to mental

composure: sense restraint > joy > rapture > tranquillity >
happiness > composure.
Akkhama Sutta (AN 5.139) also states that one who is not
attracted by attractive objects of the five senses can com-
pose his mind.
 EXPLORING SCRIPTURAL REFERENCES 100

Pamuditassa pīti jāyati. Pīti·manassa
kāyo passambhati. Passaddha·kāyo
sukhaṁ viharati. Sukhino cittaṁ
samādhiyati. Samāhite citte dhammā
pātu·bhavanti. Dhammānaṁ pātubhāvā
‘appamāda·vihārī’tveva saṅkhaṁ gacchati ...
For one who is joyful, rapture arises. For one with a
rapturous mind, the body becomes tranquil. One with
a tranquil body lives happily. For one who is happy,
the mind is composed. When the mind is composed,
things become manifest. Due to the manifestation of
things, one comes to be simply reckoned as “one who
lives non-negligently”.

Jīvakambavana·samādhi Sutta (SN 35.160) Composure at Jīvaka’s Mango Grove29

… Samāhitassa, bhikkhave, bhikkhuno … To a monk who is composed, monks, [it] appears as

yathā·bhūtaṁ okkhāyati. Kiñca yathā·bhūtaṁ
okkhāyati? Cakkhuṁ ‘aniccan’ti yathā·bhūtaṁ
okkhāyati. Rūpā ‘aniccā’ti yathā·bhūtaṁ
okkhāyati. Cakkhu·viññāṇaṁ ‘aniccan’ti
yathā·bhūtaṁ okkhāyati. Cakkhu·samphasso
‘anicco’ti yathā·bhūtaṁ okkhāyati.
it has occurred. And what appears as it has occurred?
“The eye is impermanent” appears as it has occurred.
“Forms are impermanent” appears as it has occurred.
“Eye-consciousness is impermanent” appears as it has
occurred. “Eye-contact is impermanent” appears as it
has occurred.
NOTES 101

N29. This Sutta (SN 35.160) elaborates on what the previ-

ous excerpt states: “When the mind is composed, things
become manifest”.
 EXPLORING SCRIPTURAL REFERENCES
Yampidaṁ cakkhu·samphassa·paccayā
uppajjati vedayitaṁ sukhaṁ vā dukkhaṁ vā
adukkha‹masukhaṁ vā tampi ‘aniccan’ti
yathā·bhūtaṁ okkhāyati ...
Sotaṁ … Ghānaṁ … Jivhā … Kāyo … Mano
‘anicco’ti yathā·bhūtaṁ okkhāyati. Dhammā
‘aniccā’ti yathā·bhūtaṁ okkhāyati. Mano·
viññāṇaṁ ‘aniccan’ti yathā·bhūtaṁ okkhāyati.
Mano·samphasso ‘anicco’ti yathā·bhūtaṁ
okkhāyati. Yampidaṁ mano·samphassa·
paccayā uppajjati vedayitaṁ sukhaṁ vā
dukkhaṁ vā adukkha‹masukhaṁ vā tampi
‘aniccan’ti yathā·bhūtaṁ okkhāyati ...
102
What is felt that arises with eye-contact as condition—
whether pleasure, pain or neither-pleasure-nor-pain
—“That too is impermanent” appears as it has
occurred ...
“The ear … nose … tongue … body … mind is imper-
manent” appears as it has occurred. “Things are
impermanent” appears as it has occurred. “Mind-con-
sciousness is impermanent” appears as it has
occurred. “Mind-contact is impermanent” appears as
it has occurred. What is felt that arises with mind-con-
tact as condition—whether pleasure, pain or neither-
pleasure-nor-pain—“That too is impermanent”
appears as it has occurred ...
NOTES 103
 EXPLORING SCRIPTURAL REFERENCES 104

3. TYPES OF DEVELOPMENT OF SAMĀDHI

Samādhi·bhāvanā Sutta (AN 4.41) Development of Composure30
Catasso imā, bhikkhave, samādhi·bhāvanā. These, monks, are the four developments of
Katamā catasso? composure. Which four?

Atthi, bhikkhave, samādhi·bhāvanā bhāvitā There is, monks, the development of composure that,
bahulīkatā diṭṭha·dhamma·sukha·vihārāya when developed and made much of, leads to a pleas-
saṁvattati. ant abiding in the here and now.

Atthi, bhikkhave, samādhi·bhāvanā bhāvitā There is, monks, the development of composure that,
bahulīkatā ñāṇa·dassanap›paṭilābhāya when developed and made much of, leads to the
saṁvattati. attainment of knowledge and vision.

Atthi, bhikkhave, samādhi·bhāvanā bhāvitā There is, monks, the development of composure that,
bahulīkatā sati·sampajaññāya saṁvattati. when developed and made much of, leads to mindful-
ness and clear knowing.

Atthi, bhikkhave, samādhi·bhāvanā bhāvitā There is, monks, the development of composure that,
bahulīkatā āsavānaṁ khayāya saṁvattati … when developed and made much of, leads to the evap-
oration of the inflows ...
NOTES 105

N30. Also mentioned in Saṅgīti Sutta (DN 33).

 EXPLORING SCRIPTURAL REFERENCES
Idha, bhikkhave, bhikkhu … paṭhamaṁ ...
dutiyaṁ ... tatiyaṁ ... catutthaṁ jhānaṁ
upasampajja viharati. Ayaṁ, bhikkhave,
samādhi·bhāvanā bhāvitā bahulīkatā
diṭṭha·dhamma·sukha·vihārāya saṁvattati.
… bhikkhu āloka·saññaṁ manasi karoti,
divāsaññaṁ adhiṭṭhāti—yathā divā tathā
rattiṁ, yathā rattiṁ tathā divā. Iti vivaṭena
cetasā apariyo›naddhena sappabhāsaṁ
cittaṁ bhāveti. Ayaṁ, bhikkhave,
samādhi·bhāvanā bhāvitā bahulīkatā
ñāṇa·dassanap›paṭilābhāya saṁvattati.
… bhikkhuno viditā vedanā uppajjanti, viditā
upaṭṭhahanti, viditā abbhatthaṁ gacchanti;
viditā saññā uppajjanti, viditā upaṭṭhahanti,
viditā abbhatthaṁ gacchanti;
106
(1) Here, monks, a monk lives having attained the first
meditation ... the second ... the third ... the fourth
meditation ... This, monks, is the development of com-
posure that, when developed and made much of, leads
to a pleasant abiding in the here and now.
(2) ... a monk attends to the perception of light. He
resolves on the perception of daytime—as in the day
so is (it) at night, as at night so is (it) in the day. Thus
by means of an open and uncovered mind, he develops
a bright mind. This, monks, is the development of
composure that, when developed and made much of,
leads to the attainment of knowledge and vision.
(3) … to a monk feelings are known as they arise,
known as they persist, known as they go away;
perceptions are known as they arise, known as they
persist, known as they go away;
NOTES 107
 EXPLORING SCRIPTURAL REFERENCES
viditā vitakkā uppajjanti, viditā upaṭṭhahanti,
viditā abbhatthaṁ gacchanti. Ayaṁ,
bhikkhave, samādhi·bhāvanā bhāvitā
bahulīkatā sati·sampajaññāya saṁvattati ...
Idha, bhikkhave, bhikkhu pañcasu upādānak›
khandhesu udayab›bayānupassī viharati: “Iti
rūpaṁ, iti rūpassa samudayo, iti rūpassa
atthaṅgamo; iti vedanā, iti vedanāya
samudayo, iti vedanāya atthaṅgamo; iti
saññā, iti saññāya samudayo, iti saññāya
atthaṅgamo; iti saṅkhārā, iti saṅkhārānaṁ
samudayo, iti saṅkhārānaṁ atthaṅgamo;
iti viññāṇaṁ, iti viññāṇassa samudayo, iti
viññāṇassa atthaṅgamo”ti. Ayaṁ, bhikkhave,
samādhi·bhāvanā bhāvitā bahulīkatā
āsavānaṁ khayāya saṁvattati.
Imā kho, bhikkhave, catasso samādhi·bhāvanā.
108
thoughts are known as they arise, known as they per-
sist, known as they go away. This, monks, is the devel-
opment of composure that, when developed and made
much of, leads to mindfulness and clear knowing ...
(4) Here, monks, a monk lives contemplating the
arising and falling away in reference to the five
aggregates subject to clinging: “Such is form, such its
origination, such its passing away. Such is feeling,
such its origination, such its passing away.
Such is perception, such its origination, such its
passing away. Such are saṅkhārā, such their
origination, such their passing away.
Such is consciousness, such its origination, such its
passing away.” This, monks, is the development of
composure that, when developed and made much of,
leads to the evaporation of the inflows.
These, monks, are the four developments of composure.
 NOTES 109

D10. (a) Are these four developments of composure mutu-

ally exclusive or can they overlap?
(b) Both Types 3 & 4 seem to be about contemplating
impermanence; so, is there any difference between them?
Substantiate your answers with good reasons.
 EXPLORING SCRIPTURAL REFERENCES
4. SAMMĀSAMĀDHI
Samādhi·parikkhāra Sutta (AN 7.45)
‘Sattime, bhikkhave, samādhi·parikkhārā.
Katame satta? Sammādiṭṭhi, sammāsaṅkappo,
sammāvācā, sammākammanto, sammāājīvo,
sammāvāyāmo, sammāsati. Yā kho, bhikkhave,
imehi sattahaṅgehi cittassekaggatā parikkhatā,
ayaṁ vuccati, bhikkhave, ‘ariyo sammāsamādhi
saupaniso itipi saparikkhāro itipī’ti.
Cūlavedalla Sutta (MN 44)
‘… Yā kho, āvuso Visākha, cittassa ekaggatā
ayaṁ samādhi; cattāro satipaṭṭhānā samādhi·
nimittā; cattāro sammappadhānā samādhi·
parikkhārā. Yā tesaṁyeva dhammānaṁ
āsevanā bhāvanā bahulī·kammaṁ, ayaṁ
ettha samādhi·bhāvanā’ti ...
110
Requisites of Composure
These seven, monks, are the requisites of composure.
Which seven? Right view, right thought,
right speech, right action, right livelihood,
right effort, and right mindfulness. The one-placeness
of mind, monks, equipped with these seven factors—
this, monks, is called noble right composure,
thus with its supports, thus with its requisites. 31
The Lesser Q & A
… The one-placeness of mind, friend Visākha—this is
composure; the four establishments of mindfulness are
the basis of composure; the four right kinds of striv-
ing32 are the requisites of composure; the frequent prac-
tice, development, and making much of these very
things—this is the development of composure therein ...
NOTES 111

N31. Same terms used in Janavasabha Sutta (DN 18),

Mahā·cattārīsaka Sutta (MN 117), Samādhi Sutta (SN
45.28). Samādhi·parikkhārā is defined differently in
Cūla·vedalla Sutta (MN 44).

N32. The four right kinds of striving are: the effort to

(1) prevent the arising of unskilful states that are yet
unarisen, (2) abandon unskilful states that have arisen,
(3) arouse skilful states that have yet to arise, (4) maintain
skilful states that have arisen and develop them to fulfil-
ment.
 EXPLORING SCRIPTURAL REFERENCES
Micchatta Sutta (AN 10.103)
… Sammādiṭṭhikassa, bhikkhave, sammā·
saṅkappo pahoti, sammā·saṅkappassa sammā·
vācā pahoti, sammā·vācassa sammā·
kammanto pahoti, sammā·kammantassa
sammā·ājīvo pahoti, sammā·ājīvassa sammā·
vāyāmo pahoti, sammā·vāyāmassa sammā·sati
pahoti, sammā·satissa sammā·samādhi pahoti,
sammā·samādhissa sammā·ñāṇaṁ pahoti,
sammā·ñāṇissa sammā·vimutti pahoti ...
Sammā·samādhi Sutta (AN 5.113)
Pañcahi, bhikkhave, dhammehi samannāgato
bhikkhu abhabbo sammā·samādhiṁ
upasampajja viharituṁ. Katamehi pañcahi?
112
Wrongness
… For one with right view, monks, right
thought can occur; for one with right thought, right
speech; for one with right speech, right action;
for one with right action, right livelihood;
for one with right livelihood, right effort;
for one with right effort, right mindfulness; for one
with right mindfulness, right composure; for one with
right composure, right knowledge; for one with right
knowledge, right liberation can occur ...33
Right Composure
Possessed of five things, monks,
a monk is incapable, after having attained
right composure, of remaining so. Which five?
NOTES 113

N33. This sequence is also listed in Vijjā Sutta (AN

10.105) where vijjā is placed before sammādiṭṭhi, Pub-
baṅgama Sutta (AN 10.121), Mahā·cattārīsaka Sutta
(MN 117), Janavasabha Sutta (DN 18).
 EXPLORING SCRIPTURAL REFERENCES
Idha, bhikkhave, bhikkhu akkhamo hoti
rūpānaṁ, akkhamo saddānaṁ, akkhamo
gandhānaṁ, akkhamo rasānaṁ, akkhamo
phoṭṭhabbānaṁ. Imehi kho, bhikkhave,
pañcahi dhammehi samannāgato bhikkhu
abhabbo sammā·samādhiṁ upasampajja
viharituṁ.
Vibhaṅga Sutta (SN 45.8)
Katamo ca, bhikkhave, sammā·samādhi?
Idha, bhikkhave, bhikkhu ... paṭhamaṁ
jhānaṁ ... dutiyaṁ ... tatiyaṁ … catutthaṁ
jhānaṁ upasampajja viharati—ayaṁ vuccati,
bhikkhave, ‘sammā·samādhī’ti.
114
Here, monks, a monk is impatient of forms,
impatient of sounds, impatient of smells,
impatient of tastes, impatient of
bodily sensations. Possessed of these
five things, monks, is a monk
incapable, after having attained right composure,
of remaining so.
Analysis
And what, monks, is right composure?
Here, monks, a monk lives
after having attained … the first meditation … second
… third … fourth meditation—this, monks,
is called right composure.34
 NOTES 115

D11. (a) Identify and list the different types of sequence N34. Also in Sacca·vibhaṅga Sutta (MN 141), Mahā-
involved in the development of samādhi. satipaṭṭhāna Sutta (DN 22), Pañcaṅgika Sutta (AN
(b) Attempt to grade the range of samādhi (from low-end 5.28)
to high-end) and to evaluate if this has any connection to
the sequence of its development.
(c) In the light of these findings what do you think would
be the most appropriate English translation for samādhi?

D12. Relate the range of samādhi graded in D11 (b) to

sammāsamādhi.
 EXPLORING SCRIPTURAL REFERENCES 116

Saṅkhāra w.r.t. Vipassanā in the Pāli Suttas

1. WHAT IS SAṄKHĀRĀ?
Parinibbāna Sutta (SN 6.15)
… Handa dāni, bhikkhave, āmantayāmi vo
“vaya·dhammā saṅkhārā;
appamādena sampādethā”ti ...
Final Nibbāna
… Now, monks, let me address you:
“Saṅkhārā35 have the nature of vanishing;
with heedfulness be fulfilled.” ...

Aniccā vata saṅkhārā, Impermanent indeed are saṅkhārā,

uppāda·vaya·dhammino. Their nature is that of arising and vanishing;
Uppajjitvā nirujjhanti, Having arisen they cease.
tesaṁ vūpasamo sukho. Their appeasement is happiness.36

Khajjanīya Sutta (SN 22.79) Chewable

… Kiñca, bhikkhave, saṅkhāre vadetha? … And what, monks, do you call ‘saṅkhārā’?
‘Saṅkhatama›bhisaṅkharontī’ti kho, Because they construct the constructed—
bhikkhave, tasmā ‘saṅkhārā’ti vuccati ... thus they are called ‘constructions’ ...37
NOTES 117

N35. Word Analysis of saṅkhāra

saṁ (together) + √kar (make) = things which put together, con-
struct, and compound other things; things that are put together,
constructed, and compounded.
Saṅkhāra occurs in six major doctrinal and other contexts.

N36. This stanza was uttered by Sakka the king of devas

upon the Buddha’s passing away. The Buddha himself also
uttered this at the end of two other Suttas:
Mahāsudassana Sutta (DN 17) and Vepulla·pabbata
Sutta (SN 15.20).

N37. This definition in SN 22.79 was given by the Buddha in

the context of the fourth aggregate. “Constructions” is Prof.
Peter Harvey’s rendering. Other renderings include “voli-
tional formations” (Bodhi), “fabrications” (Ṭhānissaro),
“conditioners” (Dhammavuddho Hye).
 EXPLORING SCRIPTURAL REFERENCES 118

2. HOW TO “VIEW” SAṄKHĀRĀ

Dhammapada (#277 – #279)

“Sabbe saṅkhārā aniccā”ti, “All constructions are impermanent”—

Yadā paññāya passati. when one sees thus with wisdom,
Atha nibbindati dukkhe, one wearies of (the) suffering [of the aggregates].
Esa maggo visuddhiyā. This is the path to purification.

“Sabbe saṅkhārā dukkhā”ti, “All constructions are suffering”—

Yadā paññāya passati. when one sees thus with wisdom,
Atha nibbindati dukkhe, one wearies of (the) suffering [of the aggregates].
Esa maggo visuddhiyā. This is the path to purification.

“Sabbe dhammā anattā”ti, “All things are not-self”—

Yadā paññāya passati. when one sees thus with wisdom,
Atha nibbindati dukkhe, one wearies of (the) suffering [of the aggregates].
Esa maggo visuddhiyā. This is the path to purification.
NOTES 119
 EXPLORING SCRIPTURAL REFERENCES
Cūḷasaccaka Sutta (MN 35)
“ ‘… Rūpaṁ, bhikkhave, aniccaṁ, vedanā
aniccā, saññā aniccā, saṅkhārā aniccā,
viññāṇaṁ aniccaṁ. Rūpaṁ, bhikkhave,
anattā, vedanā anattā, saññā anattā,
saṅkhārā anattā, viññāṇaṁ anattā. Sabbe
saṅkhārā aniccā, sabbe dhammā anattā’ti.
Evaṁ kho ahaṁ, Aggivessana, sāvake vinemi,
evaṁbhāgā ca pana me sāvakesu anusāsanī
bahulā pavattatī”ti.
Yadanicca Sutta (SN 22.15)
Rūpaṁ, bhikkhave, aniccaṁ. Yadaniccaṁ taṁ
dukkhaṁ; yaṁ dukkhaṁ tadanattā; yadanattā
taṁ ‘netaṁ mama, nesohamasmi, na meso
attā’ti evametaṁ yathā·bhūtaṁ sammap›
paññāya daṭṭhabbaṁ ...
120
The Lesser Discourse to Saccaka
“ ‘... Form, monks, is impermanent, feeling is imper-
manent, perception is impermanent, constructions
are impermanent, consciousness is impermanent.
Form, monks, is not-self, feeling is not-self, perception
is not-self, constructions are not-self, consciousness is
not-self. All constructions are impermanent; all things
are not-self.’ Such is how, Aggivessana, I train my dis-
ciples, and such are the parts of the instructions that
often circulate among my disciples.”
What is Impermanent
Form, monks, is impermanent. What is impermanent—
that is suffering; what is suffering—that is not-self;
what is not-self—‘this is not mine, this is not me, this
is not my self,’ thus is it to be seen with right wisdom
as it has occurred ...
 NOTES 121

D13. (a) Note that saṅkhārā is used twice in the excerpt

from MN 35 and obviously with different meanings that
are not defined in the suttas. What do you think could be
the difference?
(b) According to the excerpts from the Dhammapada and
MN 35, all constructions are impermanent, suffering and
not-self, but all things (dhammā) are not-self only. Why
do you think it was never stated anywhere: “All things
are impermanent” or “All things are suffering”?
 EXPLORING SCRIPTURAL REFERENCES
Evaṁ passaṁ ... sutavā ariya·sāvako ...
nibbindati. Nibbindaṁ virajjati; virāgā
vimuccati ...
Yaṁdukkha Sutta (SN 22.16)
… Rūpaṁ, bhikkhave, dukkhaṁ. Yaṁ
dukkhaṁ tadanattā; yadanattā taṁ ‘netaṁ
mama, nesohamasmi, na meso attā’ti
evametaṁ yathā·bhūtaṁ sammappaññāya
daṭṭhabbaṁ ...
Evaṁ passaṁ ... sutavā ariya·sāvako ...
nibbindati. Nibbindaṁ virajjati; virāgā
vimuccati ...
122
Thus seeing ... the informed disciple of the noble
ones ... wearies [of the five aggregates]. Being weary,
he becomes dispassionate; due to dispassion, he is lib-
erated ...
What is Suffering
… Form, monks, is suffering. What is suffering—that is
not-self; what is not-self—‘this is not mine, this is not
me, this is not my self,’ thus is it to be seen with right
wisdom as it has occurred ...
Thus seeing ... the informed disciple of the noble
ones ... wearies [of the five aggregates]. Being weary,
he becomes dispassionate; due to dispassion, he is lib-
erated ...
NOTES 123
 EXPLORING SCRIPTURAL REFERENCES
Yadanattā Sutta (SN 22.17)
… Rūpaṁ, bhikkhave, anattā. yadanattā taṁ
‘netaṁ mama, nesohamasmi, na meso attā’ti
evametaṁ yathā·bhūtaṁ sammap›paññāya
daṭṭhabbaṁ ...
Evaṁ passaṁ ... sutavā ariya·sāvako ...
nibbindati. Nibbindaṁ virajjati; virāgā
vimuccati ...
Channa Sutta (SN 22.90)
“... Mayhampi kho etaṁ evaṁ hoti: ‘Rūpaṁ
aniccaṁ ... viññāṇaṁ aniccaṁ. Rūpaṁ
anattā ... viññāṇaṁ anattā. Sabbe saṅkhārā
aniccā, sabbe dhammā anattā’ti. Atha ca pana
me sabbasaṅkhāra·samathe … nibbāne cittaṁ
na pakkhandati ... nādhimuccati. Paritassanā
124
What is Not-self
… Form, monks, is not-self; what is not-self—
‘this is not mine, this is not me, this is not my self,’
thus is it to be seen with right wisdom
as it has occurred ...
Thus seeing ... the informed disciple of the noble ones ...
wearies [of the five aggregates]. Being weary, he becomes
dispassionate; due to dispassion, he is liberated ...
About Channa
“... To me, too, this occurs thus: ‘Form is impermanent
... consciousness is impermanent. Form is not-self ...
consciousness is not-self. All constructions are imper-
manent; all things are not-self.’ But then, towards the
stilling of all constructions … (i.e.) nibbāna my mind
does not spring … does not incline. [Instead] agitation
 NOTES 125

D14. What significant conclusion can you deduce from

these seemingly repetitive Suttas SN 22.15 – 17?
 EXPLORING SCRIPTURAL REFERENCES
upādānaṁ uppajjati; paccudāvattati
mānasaṁ: ‘Atha ko carahi me attā’ti? Na kho
panevaṁ dhammaṁ passato hoti. Ko nu kho
me tathā dhammaṁ deseyya yathāhaṁ
dhammaṁ passeyyan”ti ...
“Sammukhā metaṁ, āvuso Channa,
Bhagavato sutaṁ … Kaccāna·gottaṁ
bhikkhuṁ ovadantassa: ‘Dvaya·nissito
khvāyaṁ, Kaccāna, loko yebhuyyena
atthitañceva natthitañca … Ete te, Kaccāna,
ubho ante anupagamma majjhena Tathāgato
dhammaṁ deseti: Avijjā·paccayā saṅkhārā …
Evametassa kevalassa dukkhak›
khandhassa nirodho hotī’ti.”
“Evametaṁ, āvuso Ānanda … Idañca pana
me Āyasmato Ānandassa dhamma·desanaṁ
sutvā dhammo abhisamito”ti.
126
and clinging arise, and the mind turns back,
(thinking): ‘Then who is my self?’ But it doesn’t
occur thus to one who sees the Dhamma. Who might
teach me the Dhamma so that I might see the
Dhamma?” ...
“Face-to-face with the Blessed One, friend Channa,
have I heard this … when he was exhorting the monk
Kaccānagotta: ‘Dependent on duality, Kaccāna, is this
world for the most part—on [the notions of] existence
and non-existence ... Avoiding these two extremes,
Kaccāna, the Tathāgata teaches the Dhamma by the
middle: From ignorance as condition come construc-
tions … Such is the cessation of this entire
mass of suffering.’ ”
“That’s how it is, friend Ānanda … And now, having
listened to Ven. Ānanda’s Dhamma-discourse, the
Dhamma has been comprehended by me.”
 NOTES 127

D15. Āyasmā Channa’s enigma seems very familiar to all

of us. In his case, what do you think could be the main
cause for his inability to comprehend the Dhamma prior
to listening to Āyasmā Ānanda’s Dhamma talk?
 EXPLORING SCRIPTURAL REFERENCES 128

Relationship Between Samatha & Vipassanā

1. FUNCTION OF SAMATHA & VIPASSANĀ

Vijjā·bhāgiya Sutta (AN 2.32) A Share in Gnosis
Dveme, bhikkhave, dhammā vijjā·bhāgiyā. These two things, monks, have a share in gnosis.
Katame dve? Samatho ca vipassanā ca. Which two? Stilling (of the mind) and distinct seeing.

Samatho, bhikkhave, bhāvito kamattha‹manu· When stilling is developed, monks, what purpose does it
bhoti? Cittaṁ bhāvīyati. Cittaṁ bhāvitaṁ serve? The mind is developed. When the mind is deve-
kamattha‹manubhoti? Yo rāgo so pahīyati. loped, what purpose does it serve? Passion is abandoned.

Vipassanā, bhikkhave, bhāvitā kamattha‹manu· When distinct seeing is developed, monks, what purpose
bhoti? Paññā bhāvīyati. Paññā bhāvitā does it serve? Wisdom is developed. When wisdom is
kamattha‹manubhoti? Yā avijjā sā pahīyati. developed, what purpose does it serve? Ignorance is
abandoned.

Rāgupak›kiliṭṭhaṁ vā, bhikkhave, cittaṁ na Defiled by passion, monks, the mind is not liberated. Defiled
vimuccati, avijjupak›kiliṭṭhā vā paññā na by ignorance, wisdom is not developed. Thus, monks,
bhāvīyati. Iti kho, bhikkhave, rāga·virāgā from the fading of passion there is liberation of the mind;
ceto·vimutti, avijjā·virāgā paññā·vimuttī’ti. from the fading of ignorance, liberation by wisdom.
NOTES 129
 EXPLORING SCRIPTURAL REFERENCES
Accharā·saṅghāta·vagga (AN 1.51)
“Pabhassara‹midaṁ, bhikkhave, cittaṁ. Tañca
kho āgantukehi upakkilesehi upak›kiliṭṭhaṁ.
Taṁ assutavā puthujjano yathā·bhūtaṁ nap›
pajānāti. Tasmā ‘assutavato puthujjanassa
citta·bhāvanā natthī’ti vadāmī”ti.
Mahāvedalla Sutta (MN 43)
… Yā cāvuso, paññā yañca viññāṇaṁ—ime
dhammā saṁsaṭṭhā, no visaṁsaṭṭhā. Na ca
labbhā imesaṁ dhammānaṁ vinibbhujitvā
vinibbhujitvā nānā·karaṇaṁ paññāpetuṁ.
… imesaṁ dhammānaṁ saṁsaṭṭhānaṁ no
visaṁsaṭṭhānaṁ paññā bhāvetabbā,
viññāṇaṁ pariññeyyaṁ. Idaṁ nesaṁ
nānā·karaṇan’ti ...
130
Snapping of the Fingers
“Luminous, monks, is this mind. But it is
defiled by visiting defilements.
That the uninformed worldling knows not, as it has
occurred. Therefore, ‘For the uninformed worldling
there is no mental development,’ I say.”
The Greater Q&A38
… Friend, wisdom and consciousness—these things are
conjoined, not disjoined. It is impossible
to separate these things from each other
in order to describe the difference between them.
… between these things that are conjoined,
not disjoined: wisdom is to be developed,
consciousness is to be fully understood.
This is the difference between them ...39
 NOTES
D16. Based on these three citations (AN 2.32, AN 1.51 &
MN 43), how would you answer these questions: (a)
Since defilements are just visitors, where does wisdom
come from? (b) How about other mental phenomena such
as vitakka (thought), vicāra (examination), pīti (rapture),
sati (mindfulness), samādhi (composure), mettā, karuṇā,
etc.—are they also visitors or what? (c) Do you agree
with the Commentary’s explanation?
131
N38. In this dialogue, Āyasmā Sāriputta answers Āyasmā
Mahākoṭṭhita’s profound questions.
N39. According to the Commentary: “The two are conjoined
in that they arise and cease simultaneously and share a
single sense base and object. However, the two are not
inseparably conjoined since, while wisdom always requires
consciousness, consciousness can occur without wisdom.”
 EXPLORING SCRIPTURAL REFERENCES
2. HOW TO ABANDON THE DEFILEMENTS OF THE MIND
Upakkilesa Sutta (SN 46.33)
... Pañcime cittassa upakkilesā, yehi
upakkilesehi upakkiliṭṭhaṁ cittaṁ na ceva
mudu hoti na ca kammaniyaṁ, na ca
pabhassaraṁ pabhaṅgu ca, na ca sammā
samādhiyati āsavānaṁ khayāya ...
Kāmacchando, bhikkhave, cittassa upakkileso,
yena upakkilesena upakkiliṭṭhaṁ cittaṁ na
ceva mudu hoti na ca kammaniyaṁ, na ca
pabhassaraṁ pabhaṅgu ca, na ca sammā
samādhiyati āsavānaṁ khayāya.
Byāpādo … Thinamiddhaṁ … Uddhacca·
kukuccaṁ … Vicikicchā cittassa upakkilesā,
yena upakkilesena upakkiliṭṭhaṁ cittaṁ na
ceva mudu hoti na ca kammaniyaṁ, na ca
pabhassaraṁ pabhaṅgu ca, na ca sammā
samādhiyati āsavānaṁ khayāya …
132
Defilements
… There are these five defilements of the mind,
defiled by which the mind is neither
supple nor wieldy
nor luminous but brittle and not rightly
composed for the evaporation of the inflows ...
Sensual desire, monks, is a defilement of the mind,
defiled by which the mind is neither
supple nor wieldy
nor luminous but brittle and not rightly
composed for the evaporation of the inflows.
Ill will … Sloth and torpor … Restlessness and
remorse … Doubt is a defilement of the mind,40
defiled by which the mind is neither
supple nor wieldy
nor luminous but brittle and not rightly
composed for the evaporation of the inflows ...
NOTES 133

N40. The five hindrances are the most commonly men-

tioned defilements of the mind, but there are more, e.g. 16
gross ones are listed in Vattha Sutta (MN 7):
covetousness & unrighteous greed, ill will, anger,
resentment, contempt, insolence, envy, avarice, deceit,
fraud, obstinacy, rivalry, conceit, arrogance, vanity,
and negligence [trans. Bodhi];
while 11 subtler ones encountered during meditation are
mentioned in Upakkilesa Sutta (MN 128):
doubt, inattention, sloth & torpor, fear, elation, inertia,
excess of energy, deficiency of energy, longing, percep-
tion of diversity, and excessive meditation (atinijjhāyi-
tatta) [trans. Bodhi].
 EXPLORING SCRIPTURAL REFERENCES
Cūḷahatthi·padopama Sutta (MN 27)
… So iminā ca ariyena sīlak›khandhena
samannāgato, iminā ca ariyena indriya·
saṁvarena samannāgato, iminā ca ariyena
sati·sampajaññena samannāgato vivittaṁ
senāsanaṁ bhajati araññaṁ rukkha·mūlaṁ
… So pacchā·bhattaṁ piṇḍapāta·paṭikkanto
nisīdati pallaṅkaṁ ābhujitvā, ujuṁ kāyaṁ
paṇidhāya, parimukhaṁ satiṁ upaṭṭhapetvā.
So abhijjhaṁ loke pahāya vigatā›bhijjhena
cetasā viharati, abhijjhāya cittaṁ
parisodheti.
Byāpādap›padosaṁ pahāya abyāpanna·citto
viharati, sabbapāṇa·bhūtahitā›nukampī
byāpādap›padosā cittaṁ parisodheti.
134
The Lesser Simile of the Elephant’s Foot
… Possessing this aggregate of noble virtue,
and this noble restraint of the faculties,
and possessing this noble mindfulness
and clear knowing, he resorts to a secluded resting
place: the forest, the root of a tree …
After meal-time, on returning from almsround, he sits
down, folding his legs crosswise, setting his body
erect, and establishing mindfulness before him.
Having abandoned covetousness for the world, he
lives with a mind free from covetousness; he purifies
his mind from covetousness.
Having abandoned ill will and hate, he lives with a
mind free from ill will, compassionate for the welfare
of all living beings; he purifies his mind from ill will
and hate.
NOTES 135
 EXPLORING SCRIPTURAL REFERENCES
Thina·middhaṁ pahāya vigata·thina·middho
viharati āloka·saññī sato sampajāno,
thina·middhā cittaṁ parisodheti.
Uddhacca·kukkuccaṁ pahāya anuddhato
viharati, ajjhattaṁ vūpasanta·citto
uddhacca·kukkuccā cittaṁ parisodheti.
Vicikicchaṁ pahāya tiṇṇa·vicikiccho viharati
akathaṁ·kathī kusalesu dhammesu,
vicikicchāya cittaṁ parisodheti.
So ime pañca nīvaraṇe pahāya
cetaso upakkilese paññāya dubbalī·karaṇe,
vivicceva kāmehi vivicca akusalehi
dhammehi savitakkaṁ savicāraṁ
vivekajaṁ pītisukhaṁ paṭhamaṁ jhānaṁ
upasampajja viharati ...
136
Having abandoned sloth and torpor, he lives free from
sloth and torpor, percipient of light, mindful and clearly
knowing; he purifies his mind from sloth and torpor.
Having abandoned restlessness and remorse, he lives
unagitated with a mind inwardly peaceful; he purifies
his mind from restlessness and remorse.
Having abandoned doubt, he lives having gone beyond
doubt, unperplexed about skilful things; he purifies
his mind from doubt.
Having thus abandoned these five hindrances,
defilements of the mind that weaken wisdom, quite
secluded from sensual desires, secluded from unskilful
things, he lives having attained the first meditation,
accompanied by thought and examination, with rap-
ture and happiness born of seclusion ...41
NOTES 137

N41. The gradual training sequence (sīla > sense restraint >
mindfulness & clear knowing > contentment > seclusion >
abandonment of the 5 hindrances > samādhi > attainment
of 4 jhānas), with slight variations, is repeatedly found in
many suttas in DN, MN and AN, a few in KN, but surpris-
ingly none in SN. For more details visit
http://www.buddha-vacana.org/formulae/sekha.html
 EXPLORING SCRIPTURAL REFERENCES
Meghiya Sutta (AN 9.3)
… asubhā bhāvetabbā
rāgassa pahānāya, mettā bhāvetabbā
byāpādassa pahānāya, ānāpānassati
bhāvetabbā vitakku›pacchedāya,
aniccasaññā bhāvetabbā
asmi·māna·samugghātāya. Anicca·saññino,
Meghiya, anatta·saññā
saṇṭhāti. Anatta·saññī
asmi·māna·samug›ghātaṁ pāpuṇāti
diṭṭheva dhamme nibbānan’ti.
Nīvaraṇa Sutta (AN 9.64)
… Imesaṁ kho, bhikkhave, pañcannaṁ
nīvaraṇānaṁ pahānāya cattāro satipaṭṭhānā
bhāvetabbā ...
138
Meghiya
… [the perception of] non-beauty is to be developed
for abandoning lust. Loving-kindness is to be deve-
loped for abandoning ill will. Mindfulness of breathing
is to be developed for cutting off thoughts. The per-
ception of impermanence is to be developed for
uprooting the conceit ‘I am’. For one who perceives
impermanence, Meghiya, the perception of not-self is
established. One who perceives not-self reaches the
uprooting of the conceit ‘I am’, [which is] nibbāna in
this very life.
Hindrances
… For the abandoning of these five hindrances, monks,
the four establishments of mindfulness are to be
developed ...
NOTES 139
 EXPLORING SCRIPTURAL REFERENCES
Uttiya Sutta (AN 10.95)
“… atha kho evamettha Tathāgatassa hoti:
‘Ye kho keci lokamhā nīyiṁsu vā nīyanti vā
nīyissanti vā, sabbe te
pañca nīvaraṇe pahāya cetaso
upakkilese paññāya dubbalī·karaṇe,
catūsu satipaṭṭhānesu
suppatiṭ›ṭhita·cittā,
satta bojjhaṅge yathā·bhūtaṁ bhāvetvā.
Evamete lokamhā nīyiṁsu vā nīyanti vā
nīyissanti vā’ti ...”
140
To Uttiya
“… but herein this occurs to the Tathāgata thus: ‘Who-
soever were led, are led, or will be led [to liberation]
from the world—all of them [did so, are doing so, or
will do so] after having abandoned the five hind-
rances, defilements of the mind that weaken wisdom,
(and then) with (their) minds well-established in the
four establishments of mindfulness, after having
developed the seven factors of Awakening as they
have occurred. Thus they were led, are led, or will be
led [to liberation] from the world ...” 42
NOTES 141

N42. This passage was spoken by Āyasmā Ānanda to Uttiya

the wanderer because the Buddha remained silent when
asked whether the whole world, half of it or one-third of it
will be led by his teachings to liberation. A similar state-
ment on the process of awakening of all Buddhas of the
past, present and future was made by Āyasmā Sāriputta
and applauded by the Buddha in Nālanda Sutta (SN
47.12).
 EXPLORING SCRIPTURAL REFERENCES 142

Āvaraṇa·nīvaraṇa Sutta (SN 46.38) Obstructions and Hindrances

… Yasmiṁ, bhikkhave, samaye ariya·sāvako
aṭṭhiṁ katvā manasi katvā
sabbaṁ cetaso samannāharitvā ohitasoto
dhammaṁ suṇāti, imassa pañca nīvaraṇā
tasmiṁ samaye na honti.
Satta bojjhaṅgā tasmiṁ samaye
bhāvanā·pāripūriṁ gacchanti ...
… When, monks, a disciple of the noble ones having
made it a matter of personal concern, paid attention,
and brought together his whole mind, listens to the
Dhamma with ears cocked, on that occasion the five
hindrances do not occur in him; on that occasion the
seven factors of awakening go to the completion of
development ...
 NOTES 143

D17. Discuss and compile a list of possible methods for

abandoning the defilements of the mind and comment on
how those methods can be utilised according to varying
circumstances.
 EXPLORING SCRIPTURAL REFERENCES
3. SEQUENCE OF SAMATHA AND VIPASSANĀ
Yuganaddha Sutta (AN 4.170)
Āyasmā Ānando etadavoca: “Yo hi koci, āvuso,
bhikkhu vā bhikkhunī vā mama santike arahat›
tappattiṁ byākaroti, sabbo so catūhi maggehi,
etesaṁ vā aññatarena. Katamehi catūhi?
Idha, āvuso, bhikkhu samatha·pubbaṅ·gamaṁ
vipassanaṁ bhāveti. Tassa samatha·pubbaṅ·
gamaṁ vipassanaṁ bhāvayato maggo
sañjāyati. So taṁ maggaṁ āsevati bhāveti
bahulī·karoti. Tassa taṁ maggaṁ āsevato
bhāvayato bahulī·karoto saṁyojanāni
pahīyanti, anusayā byantī·honti.
Puna caparaṁ, āvuso, bhikkhu vipassanā·
pubbaṅ·gamaṁ samathaṁ bhāveti. Tassa
vipassanā·pubbaṅ·gamaṁ samathaṁ
bhāvayato maggo sañjāyati ...
144
Yoked Together
Ven. Ānanda said this: “Whoever, friends—monk or
nun—declares the attainment of arahantship in my
presence, they all do so by means of four paths or any
one of them. By which four?
Here, friends, a monk develops distinct seeing pre-
ceded by tranquillity. As he develops distinct seeing
preceded by tranquillity, the path is born.
He frequently practises that path, develops it,
makes much of it. As he frequently practises that path,
develops it and makes much of it, his fetters are aban-
doned, his underlying tendencies are uprooted.
Then again, friends, a monk develops tranquillity
preceded by distinct seeing. As he develops
tranquillity preceded by distinct seeing,
the path is born ...
NOTES 145
 EXPLORING SCRIPTURAL REFERENCES
Tassa taṁ maggaṁ āsevato bhāvayato
bahulī·karoto saṁyojanāni pahīyanti, anusayā
byantī·honti.
Puna caparaṁ, āvuso, bhikkhu samatha·
vipassanaṁ yuganaddhaṁ bhāveti. Tassa
samatha·vipassanaṁ yuganaddhaṁ
bhāvayato maggo sañjāyati … Tassa taṁ
maggaṁ āsevato bhāvayato bahulī·karoto
saṁyojanāni pahīyanti, anusayā byantī·honti.
Puna caparaṁ, āvuso, bhikkhuno
dhammuddhacca·viggahitaṁ mānasaṁ hoti.
Hoti so, āvuso, samayo yaṁ taṁ cittaṁ
ajjhattameva santiṭṭhati sannisīdati ekodi hoti
samādhiyati. Tassa maggo sañjāyati. So taṁ
maggaṁ āsevati bhāveti bahulī·karoti. Tassa
taṁ maggaṁ āsevato bhāvayato bahulī·
karoto saṁyojanāni pahīyanti,
anusayā byantī·honti.
146
As he frequently practises that path, develops it and
makes much of it, his fetters are abandoned, his
underlying tendencies are uprooted.
Then again, friends, a monk develops tranquillity
yoked together with distinct seeing. As he
develops tranquillity yoked together with distinct see-
ing, the path is born … As he frequently practises that
path, develops it and makes much of it, his fetters are
abandoned, his underlying tendencies are uprooted.
Then again, friend, a monk’s
mind is seized by agitation about the Dhamma.
There is, friend, an occasion when his mind steadies
right within, settles down, becomes unified and is
composed. To him the path is born. He frequently
practises that path, develops it, makes much of it.
As he frequently practises that path, develops it and
makes much of it, his fetters are abandoned,
his underlying tendencies are uprooted.
 NOTES 147

D18. (a) After scrutinising the following eight excerpts

from the suttas (pp148 – 170), categorise the methods /
processes of awakening stated therein according to these
four paths.
(b) The fourth path seems to be a “none-of-the-above” type
of classification. What do you think it is? How does it
work?
 EXPLORING SCRIPTURAL REFERENCES
Samādhi Sutta (SN 22.5)
… Samādhiṁ, bhikkhave, bhāvetha; samāhito,
bhikkhave, bhikkhu yathā·bhūtaṁ pajānāti.
Kiñca yathā·bhūtaṁ pajānāti? Rūpassa
samudayañca atthaṅgamañca, vedanāya ...
saññāya ... saṅkhārānaṁ ... viññāṇassa
samudayañca atthaṅgamañca ...
Samādhi Sutta (SN 56.1)
… Samādhiṁ, bhikkhave, bhāvetha.
Samāhito, bhikkhave, bhikkhu yathā·bhūtaṁ
pajānāti. Kiñca yathā·bhūtaṁ pajānāti?
‘Idaṁ dukkhan’ti yathā·bhūtaṁ pajānāti,
‘Ayaṁ dukkha·samudayo’ti ...
‘Ayaṁ dukkha·nirodho’ti ...
‘Ayaṁ dukkha·nirodha·gāminī paṭipadā’ti
yathā·bhūtaṁ pajānāti.
148
Composure
… Develop composure, monks. A monk who is com-
posed, monks, knows according to what has occurred.
And what does he know as it has occurred? The origin-
ation of form and its passing away … of feeling … of
perception … of constructions … the origination of
consciousness and its passing away ...
Composure
… Develop composure, monks. A monk who is com-
posed, monks, knows according to what has occurred.
And what does he know as it has occurred?
‘This is suffering.’ he knows as it has occurred.
‘This is the origination of suffering,’ ...
‘This is the cessation of suffering,’ ...
‘This is the path leading to the cessation of suffering,’
he knows as it has occurred.
NOTES 149
 EXPLORING SCRIPTURAL REFERENCES
Paṭhama·pubbārāma Sutta (SN 48.45)
… Ekassa kho, bhikkhave, indriyassa bhāvitattā
bahulī·katattā khīṇāsavo bhikkhu aññaṁ
byākaroti: “ ‘Khīṇā jāti, vusitaṁ brahma·
cariyaṁ, kataṁ karaṇīyaṁ, nāparaṁ
itthattāyā’ti pajānāmī’ti.”
Katamassa ekassa? Paññindriyassa.
Paññavato, bhikkhave, ariyasāvakassa
tadanvayā saddhā saṇṭhāti;
tadanvayaṁ vīriyaṁ saṇṭhāti;
tadanvayā sati saṇṭhāti;
tadanvayo samādhi saṇṭhāti.
150
The Eastern Park (1)
… Monks, because of the development and making
much of one faculty a monk who has evaporated the
inflows declares final knowledge: “ ‘Evaporated is
birth, lived is the lofty practice, done is what has to be
done, there is no more for this state of being,’ I know.”
Of which one faculty? Of the faculty of wisdom.
For a disciple of the noble ones, monks, who possesses
wisdom, the faith that follows from it stabilises,
the energy that follows from it stabilises,
the mindfulness that follows from it stabilises,
the composure that follows from it stabilises.
NOTES 151
 EXPLORING SCRIPTURAL REFERENCES
Samatha Sutta (AN 10.54)
No ce, bhikkhave, bhikkhu paracitta·pariyāya·
kusalo hoti, atha ‘Sacitta·pariyāya·kusalo
bhavissāmī’ti evañhi vo, bhikkhave, sikkhi-
tabbaṁ. Kathañca, bhikkhave, bhikkhu
sacitta·pariyāya·kusalo hoti?
… Evamevaṁ kho, bhikkhave, bhikkhuno
paccavekkhaṇā bahukārā hoti kusalesu
dhammesu: ‘Lābhī nu khomhi ajjhattaṁ ceto·
samathassa? Na nu khomhi lābhī ajjhattaṁ
ceto·samathassa? Lābhī nu khomhi adhipaññā·
dhamma·vipassanāya? Na nu khomhi lābhī
adhipaññā·dhamma·vipassanāyā’ti?
Sace, bhikkhave, bhikkhu paccavekkha·māno
evaṁ jānāti: ‘Lābhīmhi ajjhattaṁ ceto·
samathassa, na lābhī adhipaññā·dhamma·
vipassanāyā’ti, tena, bhikkhave, bhikkhunā
152
Tranquillity
Monks, if a monk is not skilled in the ways of the
minds of others, he is to train himself thus: ‘I will be
skilled in the ways of my own mind.’ And how, monks,
does a monk become skilled in the ways of his own
mind?
… So too, monks, for a monk self-examination is very
helpful in terms of skilful things: ‘Am I an obtainer of
internal tranquillity of mind, or am I not an obtainer
of internal tranquillity of mind? Am I an obtainer of
distinct seeing of things through higher wisdom, or
am I not an obtainer of distinct seeing of things
through higher wisdom?’
If, monks, while examining a monk knows, ‘I am an
obtainer of internal tranquillity of mind, but not an
obtainer of distinct seeing of things through higher
wisdom,’ then, monks, that monk is to make an effort
NOTES 153
 EXPLORING SCRIPTURAL REFERENCES
ajjhattaṁ ceto·samathe patiṭṭhāya adhipaññā·
dhamma·vipassanāya yogo karaṇīyo.
So aparena samayena lābhī ceva hoti ajjhattaṁ
ceto·samathassa lābhī ca adhipaññā·dhamma·
vipassanāya.
Sace pana, bhikkhave, bhikkhu paccavekkha·
māno evaṁ jānāti: ‘Lābhīmhi adhipaññā·
dhamma·vipassanāya, na lābhī ajjhattaṁ
ceto·samathassā’ti, tena, bhikkhave, bhikkhunā
adhipaññā·dhamma·vipassanāya patiṭṭhāya
ajjhattaṁ ceto·samathe yogo karaṇīyo. So
aparena samayena lābhī ceva hoti
adhipaññā·dhamma·vipassanāya lābhī ca
ajjhattaṁ ceto·samathassa ...
154
based on internal tranquillity of mind for the sake of
distinct seeing of things through higher wisdom.
On a later occasion he becomes an obtainer of internal
tranquillity of mind as well as an obtainer of distinct
seeing of things through higher wisdom.
But if, monks, while examining a monk knows, ‘I am
an obtainer of distinct seeing of things through higher
wisdom but not an obtainer of internal tranquillity of
mind,’ then, monks, that monk is to make an effort
based on distinct seeing of things through higher wis-
dom for the sake of internal tranquillity of mind. On a
later occasion he becomes an obtainer of distinct see-
ing of things through higher wisdom as well as an
obtainer of internal tranquillity of mind.
NOTES 155
 EXPLORING SCRIPTURAL REFERENCES
Mahā·saḷāyatanika Sutta (MN 149)
... Cakkhuñca kho, bhikkhave, jānaṁ passaṁ
yathā·bhūtaṁ, rūpe ... cakkhu·viññāṇaṁ ...
cakkhu·samphassaṁ ... yamidaṁ cakkhu·
samphassa·paccayā uppajjati vedayitaṁ
sukhaṁ vā dukkhaṁ vā adukkha‹masukhaṁ
vā tampi jānaṁ passaṁ yathā·bhūtaṁ,
cakkhusmiṁ na sārajjati, rūpesu ...
cakkhu·viññāṇe ... cakkhu·samphasse ...
yamidaṁ cakkhusam·phassa·paccayā
uppajjati vedayitaṁ sukhaṁ vā dukkhaṁ vā
adukkha‹masukhaṁ vā tasmimpi na sārajjati.
Tassa asārattassa asaṁyuttassa asam·
mūḷhassa ādīnavā›nupassino viharato āyatiṁ
pañcupādānak›khandhā apacayaṁ
gacchanti. Taṇhā cassa ponob›bhavikā
nandī·rāga·sahagatā tatra·tatrā›bhinandinī,
sā cassa pahīyati.
156
The Great Sixfold Base
… Monks, knowing and seeing the eye as it has
occurred, knowing and seeing forms ... eye-conscious-
ness ... eye-contact ... what is felt
that arises with eye-contact as condition—whether
pleasure, pain or neither-pleasure-nor-pain—
as it has occurred,
one is not charmed by the eye ... by forms ...
by eye-consciousness ... by eye-contact ... by what is
felt that arises with eye-contact as condition—
whether pleasure, pain or neither-pleasure-nor-pain,
one also is not charmed.
When he lives—uncharmed, unfettered, unconfused—
contemplating on [their] drawbacks, the five aggreg-
ates subject to clinging go to diminution in the future.
And his craving which causes repeated becoming, is
accompanied by delight and lust, and delights in this
or that—that too is abandoned by him.
NOTES 157
 EXPLORING SCRIPTURAL REFERENCES
Tassa kāyikāpi darathā pahīyanti, cetasikāpi
darathā pahīyanti; kāyikāpi santāpā
pahīyanti, cetasikāpi santāpā pahīyanti;
kāyikāpi pariḷāhā pahīyanti, cetasikāpi
pariḷāhā pahīyanti. So kāya·sukhampi
ceto·sukhampi paṭi·saṁvedeti.
Yā tathā·bhūtassa diṭṭhi sāssa hoti sammā·
diṭṭhi; yo tathā·bhūtassa saṅkappo svāssa
hoti sammāsaṅkappo; yo tathā·bhūtassa
vāyāmo svāssa hoti sammāvāyāmo; yā
tathā·bhūtassa‚ sati sāssa hoti sammāsati;
yo tathā·bhūtassa samādhi svāssa hoti
sammā·samādhi. Pubbeva kho panassa kāya·
kammaṁ vacī·kammaṁ ājīvo supari·suddho
hoti. Evamassāyaṁ ariyo aṭṭhaṅgiko maggo
bhāvanā·pāripūriṁ gacchati.
158
His bodily woes too are abandoned; mental
woes too are abandoned; bodily torments too
are abandoned; mental torments too are abandoned;
bodily fevers too are abandoned; mental
fevers too are abandoned. He experiences
bodily happiness as well as mental happiness too.
The view of one who has become thus is his right
view; the thought of one who has become thus is his
right thought; the effort of one who has become thus
is his right effort; the mindfulness of one who has
become thus is his right mindfulness;
the composure of one who has become thus is his
right composure. Earlier his actions, speech, and live-
lihood have already been well-purified.
Thus for him the noble eightfold path
goes to the completion of development.
NOTES 159
 EXPLORING SCRIPTURAL REFERENCES
Tassa evaṁ imaṁ ariyaṁ aṭṭhaṅgikaṁ
maggaṁ bhāvayato cattāropi satipaṭṭhānā
bhāvanā·pāripūriṁ gacchanti, cattāropi
sammappadhānā ... cattāropi iddhipādā ...
pañcapi indriyāni ... pañcapi balāni ... sattapi
bojjhaṅgā bhāvanā·pāripūriṁ gacchanti.
Tassime dve dhammā yuganandhā vattanti—
samatho ca vipassanā ca.
So ye dhammā abhiññā pariññeyyā te
dhamme abhiññā parijānāti. Ye dhammā
abhiññā pahātabbā te dhamme abhiññā
pajahati. Ye dhammā abhiññā bhāvetabbā te
dhamme abhiññā bhāveti. Ye dhammā
abhiññā sacchikātabbā te dhamme abhiññā
sacchikaroti.
160
When he thus develops this noble eightfold path, the
four establishments of mindfulness go to the comple-
tion of development. The four right exertions also ...
the four bases of success also ... the five
faculties also ... the five powers also ... the seven
factors for Awakening also go to the completion of
development. [And] for him these two things occur
yoked together: tranquillity and distinct seeing.
He knows through direct knowledge those things to
be known through direct knowledge, abandons
through direct knowledge those things to be aban-
doned through direct knowledge, develops through
direct knowledge those things to be developed
through direct knowledge, [and] realises through
direct knowledge those things to be realised through
direct knowledge.
NOTES 161
 EXPLORING SCRIPTURAL REFERENCES
Katame ca, bhikkhave, dhammā abhiññā
pariññeyyā? ‘Pañcu›pādānak›khandhā’ tissa
vacanīyaṁ, seyyathidaṁ—rūpu›pādānak›
khandho, vedanu›pādānak›khandho, saññu›
pādānak›khandho, saṅkhāru›pādānak›
khandho, viññāṇu›pādānak›khandho. Ime
dhammā abhiññā pariññeyyā.
Katame ca, bhikkhave, dhammā abhiññā
pahātabbā? Avijjā ca bhavataṇhā ca—ime
dhammā abhiññā pahātabbā.
Katame ca, bhikkhave, dhammā abhiññā
bhāvetabbā? Samatho ca vipassanā ca—ime
dhammā abhiññā bhāvetabbā.
Katame ca, bhikkhave, dhammā abhiññā
sacchikātabbā? Vijjā ca vimutti ca—ime
dhammā abhiññā sacchikātabbā ...
162
And what things, monks, are to be known through
direct knowledge? ‘The five aggregates subject to
clinging,’ is to be replied. Namely, the form aggregate
subject to clinging ... the feeling ... the perception ...
the constructions ... the consciousness aggregate sub-
ject to clinging. These things are to be known through
direct knowledge.
And what things, monks, are to be abandoned through
direct knowledge? Ignorance and craving for becom-
ing: these things are to be abandoned through direct
knowledge.
And what things, monks, are to be developed through
direct knowledge? Tranquillity and distinct seeing: these
things are to be developed through direct knowledge.
And what things are to be realised through direct
knowledge? Gnosis and liberation: these things are to
be realised through direct knowledge ...
NOTES 163
 EXPLORING SCRIPTURAL REFERENCES
Patiṭṭhita Sutta (SN 48.56)
Ekadhamme patiṭṭhitassa, bhikkhave,
bhikkhuno pañcindriyāni bhāvitāni honti
subhāvitāni. Katamasmiṁ ekadhamme?
Appamāde. Katamo ca bhikkhave, appamādo?
Idha, bhikkhave, bhikkhu cittaṁ rakkhati
āsavesu ca sāsavesu ca dhammesu. Tassa
cittaṁ rakkhato āsavesu ca sāsavesu ca
dhammesu saddhindriyampi bhāvanā·pāripūriṁ
gacchati. Vīriyindriyampi ...
Satindriyampi ... Samādhindriyampi ...
Paññindriyampi bhāvanā·pāripūriṁ gacchati.
Evampi kho, bhikkhave, ekadhamme
patiṭṭhitassa bhikkhuno pañcindriyāni bhāvitāni
honti subhāvitānī’ti.
164
Established
Monks, for a monk established in one thing
the five faculties are developed, well-developed.
In which one thing? In non-negligence.
And what, monks, is non-negligence?
Here, monks, a monk guards the mind in regard to
inflows and things accompanied by inflows. As he
guards the mind in regard to inflows and things
accompanied by inflows, the faith faculty goes to the
completion of development; the energy faculty also …
the mindfulness faculty also … the composure faculty
also … the wisdom faculty also goes to the completion
of development. Thus monks, for a monk established
in one thing the five faculties are developed, well-
developed.
NOTES 165
 EXPLORING SCRIPTURAL REFERENCES
Abhiṇha·paccavekkhitabba·ṭhāna Sutta
(AN 5.57)
… Sa kho so, bhikkhave, ariya·sāvako iti
paṭi·sañcikkhati: ‘Na kho ahaññeveko
jarā·dhammo, jaraṁ anatīto. Atha kho yāvatā
sattānaṁ āgati gati cuti upapatti, sabbe
sattā jarā·dhammā jaraṁ anatītā’ti. Tassa
taṁ ṭhānaṁ abhiṇhaṁ paccavekkhato
maggo sañjāyati. So taṁ maggaṁ āsevati
bhāveti bahulī·karoti. Tassa taṁ maggaṁ
āsevato bhāvayato bahulī·karoto
saṁyojanāni sabbaso pahīyanti anusayā
byantī·honti.
Sa kho so, bhikkhave, ariya·sāvako iti paṭisañ·
cikkhati: ‘Na kho ahaññeveko byādhi·dhammo
byādhiṁ anatīto … maraṇa·dhammo maraṇaṁ
anatīto …
166
Conditions to Be Often Reflected on
… Now, monks, this disciple of the noble ones reflects
thus: ‘Not only I alone am subject to ageing, who has
not gone beyond ageing. But to the extent that there
are the coming and going, passing away and re-arising
of beings—all beings are subject to ageing, have not
gone beyond ageing.’ To him who often reflects on
this condition, the path is born. He frequently prac-
tises that path, develops it, makes much of it. As he
frequently practises that path, develops it and makes
much of it, his fetters are abandoned, his underlying
tendencies are uprooted.
Now, monks, this disciple of the noble ones reflects
thus: ‘I am not the only one subject to illness, who has
not gone beyond illness … subject to death, who has
not gone beyond death …
NOTES 167
 EXPLORING SCRIPTURAL REFERENCES
Na kho mayhe›vekassa sabbehi piyehi
manāpehi nānā·bhāvo vinā·bhāvo …
Na kho ahaññeveko kammassako
kamma·dāyādo kamma·yoni
kamma·bandhu kammap›paṭisaraṇo,
yaṁ kammaṁ karissāmi—kalyāṇaṁ vā
pāpakaṁ vā—tassa dāyādo bhavissāmi. Atha
kho yāvatā sattānaṁ āgati gati cuti upapatti,
sabbe sattā kammassakā
kamma·dāyādā kamma·yoni
kamma·bandhu kammap›paṭisaraṇā, yaṁ
kammaṁ karissanti—kalyāṇaṁ vā pāpakaṁ
vā—tassa dāyādā bhavissantī’ti. Tassa taṁ
ṭhānaṁ abhiṇhaṁ paccavekkhato maggo
sañjāyati. So taṁ maggaṁ āsevati bhāveti
bahulī·karoti. Tassa taṁ maggaṁ āsevato
bhāvayato bahulī·karoto saṁyojanāni
sabbaso pahīyanti, anusayā byantīhontī’ti.
168
Not only for me alone is there separation and parting
from all that are dear and pleasing ...
‘I am not the only one who is the owner of [my]
kamma, is the heir of [my] kamma, has kamma as [my]
origin, has kamma as [my] relative, has kamma as [my]
refuge; the kamma that I will do—whether good or evil
—of that I shall be the heir. But to the extent that
there are the coming and going, passing away and re-
arising of beings—all beings are the owners of [their]
kamma, are the heirs to [their] kamma, have kamma
as [their] origin, have kamma as [their] relative, have
kamma as [their] refuge; the kamma that they will do
—whether good or evil—of that they shall be the heirs.
To him who often reflects on this condition, the path
is born. He frequently practises that path, develops it,
makes much of it. As he frequently practises that path,
develops it and makes much of it, his fetters are aban-
doned, his underlying tendencies are uprooted.
NOTES 169
 EXPLORING SCRIPTURAL REFERENCES
Dīghanakha Sutta (MN 74)
… Tena kho pana samayena Āyasmā
Sāriputto Bhagavato piṭṭhito ṭhito hoti
Bhagavantaṁ bījaya·māno. Atha kho
Āyasmato Sāriputtassa etadahosi: “Tesaṁ
tesaṁ kira no Bhagavā dhammānaṁ
abhiññā pahānamāha. Tesaṁ tesaṁ kira no
Sugato dhammānaṁ abhiññā
paṭinissaggamāhā”ti. Iti hidaṁ Āyasmato
Sāriputtassa paṭisañcikkhato anupādāya
āsavehi cittaṁ vimucci.
Dīgha·nakhassa pana paribbājakassa virajaṁ
vītamalaṁ dhamma·cakkhuṁ udapādi:
“Yaṁ kiñci samudaya·dhammaṁ
sabbaṁ taṁ nirodha·dhamman”ti.
170
Long-Nails
… Now on that occasion the venerable
Saāriputta was standing behind the Blessed One,
fanning the Blessed One. Then this
occurred to the venerable Saāriputta: “The Blessed One,
indeed, speaks to us of the abandoning of these things
through direct knowledge; the Sublime One, indeed,
speaks to us of the relinquishing of these things
through direct knowledge.” Thus while the venerable
Saāriputta was considering this, through not clinging
his mind was liberated from the inflows.43
But in the wanderer Long-Nails (to whom the Buddha
was speaking) the spotless stainless Dhamma-eye
arose: “Whatever that is subject to arising—
all that is subject to cessation.”
NOTES 171

N43. In Anupada Sutta (MN 111), however, Āyasmā

Sāriputta is portrayed as having attained liberation in con-
junction with the attainment of the cessation of perception
and the felt (saññā·vedayita·nirodha·samāpatti). This
inconsistency, together with many other evidence related
to literary style and terminology, have led modern scholars
to suspect that MN 111 is a later addition to the Pāli
Canon.
 EXPLORING SCRIPTURAL REFERENCES
4. SUPPORTS FOR LIBERATION
Anuggahita Sutta (AN 5.25)
Pañcahi, bhikkhave, aṅgehi anuggahitā
sammādiṭṭhi ceto·vimutti·phalā ca hoti ceto·
vimutti·phalā›nisaṁsā ca, paññā·vimutti·
phalā ca hoti paññā·vimutti·phalā›nisaṁsā
ca. Katamehi pañcahi?
Idha, bhikkhave, sammādiṭṭhi sīlā›nuggahitā
ca hoti, sutā›nuggahitā ca hoti, sākacchā›
nuggahitā ca hoti, samathā›nuggahitā ca
hoti, vipassanā›nuggahitā ca hoti.
Imehi kho, bhikkhave, pañcahi aṅgehi
anuggahitā sammādiṭṭhi ceto·vimutti·phalā
ca hoti ceto·vimutti·phalā›nisaṁsā ca,
paññā·vimutti·phalā ca hoti paññā·vimutti·
phalā›nisaṁsā cā’ti.
172
Supported
Supported by five factors, monks, right view has liber-
ation of the mind as its fruit and liberation of the
mind as its benefit; it has liberation by wisdom as its
fruit and liberation by wisdom as its benefit.
By which five?
Here, monks, right view is supported by virtue,
supported by learning, supported by
discussion, supported by tranquillity, and
supported by distinct seeing.
Supported by these five factors, monks,
right view has liberation of the mind as its fruit
and liberation of the mind as its benefit; it has libera-
tion by wisdom as its fruit and liberation
by wisdom as its benefit.
NOTES 173
 EXPLORING SCRIPTURAL REFERENCES
Mahāparinibbāna Sutta (DN 16)
… Tatrapi sudaṁ Bhagavā Bhoga·nagare
viharanto Ānande Cetiye etadeva bahulaṁ
bhikkhūnaṁ dhammiṁ kathaṁ karoti: “Iti
sīlaṁ, iti samādhi, iti paññā. Sīla·paribhāvito
samādhi mahapphalo hoti mahānisaṁso;
samādhi·paribhāvitā paññā mahapphalā hoti
mahānisaṁsā. Paññā·paribhāvitaṁ cittaṁ
sammadeva āsavehi vimuccati, seyyathidaṁ
—kāmāsavā, bhavāsavā, avijjāsavā”ti ...
174
The Great Final Passing Away
… And while staying there too—in Bhoga·nagara, at
Ānanda Shrine—the Blessed One often gave this very
Dhamma talk to the monks: “Such is virtue; such is
composure; such is wisdom. Composure fostered by
virtue is of great fruit, of great benefit; wisdom
fostered by composure is of great fruit, of great bene-
fit. The mind fostered by wisdom is rightly liberated
from the inflows, namely—sensual inflow, becom-
ing-inflow, ignorance-inflow ...”
NOTES 175
 EXPLORING SCRIPTURAL REFERENCES
Meghiya Sutta (AN 9.3)
… Aparipakkāya, Meghiya, ceto·vimuttiyā
pañca dhammā paripakkāya saṁvattanti.
Katame pañca?
Idha, Meghiya, bhikkhu kalyāṇa·mitto hoti
kalyāṇa·sahāyo kalyāṇa·sampavaṅko.
Aparipakkāya, Meghiya, ceto·vimuttiyā ayaṁ
paṭhamo dhammo paripakkāya saṁvattati.
Puna caparaṁ, Meghiya, bhikkhu sīlavā hoti,
pātimokkha·saṁvara·saṁvuto viharati ācāra·
gocara·sampanno aṇumattesu vajjesu bhaya·
dassāvī, samādāya sikkhati sikkhāpadesu …
ayaṁ dutiyo dhammo ...
176
Meghiya
… When, Meghiya, liberation of mind has not matured,
five things lead to its maturation.
Which five?
Here, Meghiya, a monk is one who has good (spiritual)
friends, good companions, good comrades. When,
Meghiya, liberation of mind has not matured, this is
the first thing that leads to its maturation.
Again, Meghiya, a monk is virtuous; he lives restrained
by the restraint of the Monastic Code, possessed of
(good) conduct and resort, seeing danger in minute
faults. Having undertaken the training rules, he trains
in them ... this is the second thing ...
NOTES 177
 EXPLORING SCRIPTURAL REFERENCES
Puna caparaṁ, Meghiya, yāyaṁ kathā abhi·
sallekhikā ceto·vivaraṇa·sappāyā, seyyathidaṁ
—appiccha·kathā santuṭṭhi·kathā paviveka·
kathā asaṁsagga·kathā vīriyā›rambha·kathā
sīla·kathā samādhi·kathā paññā·kathā vimutti·
kathā vimutti·ñāṇa·dassana·kathā; evarūpiyā
kathāya nikāma·lābhī hoti akiccha·lābhī
akasira·lābhī … ayaṁ tatiyo dhammo ...
Puna caparaṁ, Meghiya, bhikkhu āraddha·
vīriyo viharati akusalānaṁ dhammānaṁ
pahānāya, kusalānaṁ dhammānaṁ
upasampadāya, thāmavā daḷha·parakkamo
anikkhitta·dhuro kusalesu dhammesu ...
ayaṁ catuttho dhammo ...
178
Again, Meghiya, the talk concerned with the austere
life that is conducive to opening up the mind, that is,
talk on fewness of desires, on contentment, on seclu-
sion, on non-gregariousness, on arousing energy, on
virtue, on composure, on wisdom, on liberation, on
knowledge and vision of liberation—of such talk he is
an obtainer as desired, without trouble or difficulty …
this is the third thing ...
Again, Meghiya, a monk lives with aroused
energy for the abandonment of unskilful things
and the consummation of skilful things;
he is one with strength, firmness in exertion,
not one with his duty cast away in regard to skilful
things ... this is the fourth thing ...
NOTES 179
 EXPLORING SCRIPTURAL REFERENCES
Puna caparaṁ, Meghiya, bhikkhu paññavā
hoti udayattha·gāminiyā paññāya
samannāgato ariyāya nibbedhikāya sammā
dukkhak›khaya·gāminiyā. Aparipakkāya,
Meghiya, ceto·vimuttiyā ayaṁ pañcamo
dhammo paripakkāya saṁvattati.
Kalyāṇa·mittassetaṁ, Meghiya, bhikkhuno
pāṭikaṅkhaṁ … ‘sīlavā bhavissati …
samādāya sikkhissati sikkhāpadesu’ …
Yāyaṁ kathā abhisallekhikā ceto·vivaraṇa·
sappāyā … evarūpiyā kathāya nikāmalābhī
bhavissati akicchalābhī akasiralābhī ...
‘āraddhavīriyo viharissati ... anikkhittadhuro
kusalesu dhammesu’.
180
Again, Meghiya, a monk is wise; possessed of the wis-
dom leading to [the discernment of] arising and
passing away, which is noble and penetrative and
leads to the complete evaporation of suffering. When,
Meghiya, liberation of mind has not matured, this is
the fifth thing that leads to its maturation.
Of a monk who has good friends, Meghiya, …
it can be expected that he will be virtuous … Having
undertaken the training rules, he will train in them ...
The talk concerned with the austere life that is condu-
cive to opening up the mind … of such talk he will be
an obtainer as desired, without trouble or difficulty ...
he will live with aroused energy … not one with his
duty cast away in regard to skilful things.
NOTES 181
 EXPLORING SCRIPTURAL REFERENCES
Kalyāṇa·mittassetaṁ, Meghiya, bhikkhuno
pāṭikaṅkhaṁ …‘paññavā bhavissati
<udayattha·gāminiyā paññāya samannāgato>
… sammā·dukkhak›khaya·gāminiyā’.
Tena ca pana, Meghiya, bhikkhunā imesu
pañcasu dhammesu patiṭṭhāya cattāro
dhammā uttari bhāvetabbā—(1) asubhā
bhāvetabbā rāgassa pahānāya,
(2) mettā bhāvetabbā byāpādassa pahānāya,
(3) ānāpānas›sati bhāvetabbā vitakku›
pacchedāya, (4) anicca·saññā bhāvetabbā
asmi·māna·samug›ghātāya.
Anicca·saññino, Meghiya, anatta·saññā
saṇṭhāti; anatta·saññī asmi·māna·samug›
ghātaṁ pāpuṇāti diṭṭheva dhamme nibbānan’ti.
182
Of a monk who has good friends, Meghiya, it can be
expected that he will be wise, possessed of the wisdom
leading to [the discernment of] arising & passing away
... that leads to the complete evaporation of suffering.
That monk, Meghiya, based on these five things
is to further develop four things: (1) [the perception
of] non-beauty is to be developed for the abandon-
ment of lust; (2) loving-kindness is to be developed for
the abandonment of ill will; (3) mindfulness of breath-
ing is to be developed for cutting off thoughts; (4) the
perception of impermanence is to be developed for
the uprooting of the conceit ‘I am’. For one who per-
ceives impermanence, Meghiya, the perception of not-
self is established. One who perceives not-self reaches
the uprooting of the conceit ‘I am,’ [which is] nibbāna
in this very life.
 NOTES 183

D19. Compile a list of the supports for liberation (without

repeating similar items) and discuss how many of them
are applicable to your own life. Each participant should
give a percentage and each group an average of its
members’ percentages.
 4
ASSESSING
CURRENT VIEWS
AND PRACTICES
 ASSESSING CURRENT VIEWS AND PRACTICES 186

Assessment of Current Views and Practices of Samatha and Vipassanā

D20. Assess current views and practices found in or implied by the list of popular notions of samatha and vipassanā
compiled in Part I. The assessment should be rated according to the hierarchy of doctrinal authority established in Part II,
i.e. (1) sutta, (2) corollary to the sutta, (3) teacher’s doctrine, (4) personal opinion. Note that a notion may be a combina-
tion of several sources in varying proportions.

Aspect Samatha Vipassanā Rating

Aim

Object

Mode

Feature

State
 NOTES 187

Aspect Samatha Vipassanā Rating

Thoughts

Hindrances
 ASSESSING CURRENT VIEWS AND PRACTICES 188

D21. Has this workshop helped to clarify your doubts

about samatha and vipassanā or has it made you more
confused? Substantiate your answer with details of what
it has clarified or made even more confusing.
NOTES 189
 Appendix

Jhāna: Commentarial & Canonical

Ṭhānissaro Bhikkhu
Extracted and reformatted from
http://www.accesstoinsight.org/lib/authors/thanissaro/wings/part3.html#part3-f

The role of jhāna as a condition for transcendent discernment is one of the

most controversial issues in the Theravada tradition. Three basic positions
have been advanced in modern writings.
1. One, following the commentarial tradition, asserts that jhāna is
not necessary for any of the four levels of Awakening and that
there is a class of individuals—called “dry insight” meditators—
who are “discernment-released” based on a level of concentration
lower than that of jhāna.
2. A second position, citing a passage in the Canon [AN 3.88; MFU,
pp. 103] stating that concentration is mastered only on the level of
non-returning, holds that jhāna is necessary for the attainment
of non-returning and Arahantship, but not for the lower levels
of Awakening.
3. The third position states that the attainment of at least the first
level of jhāna is essential for all four levels of Awakening.
Evidence from the Canon supports the third position, but not the other
two. As §106 points out, the attainment of stream-entry has eight
factors, one of which is right concentration, defined as jhāna. In fact,
according to this particular discourse, jhāna is the heart of the streamwin -
ner’s path. Secondly, there is no passage in the Canon describing the
development of transcendent discernment without at least some skill in
jhāna. The statement that concentration is mastered only on the level of
non-returning must be interpreted in the light of the distinction between
mastery and attainment. A streamwinner may have attained jhāna without
 JHĀNA: COMMENTARIAL & CANONICAL 191

mastering it; the discernment developed in the process of gaining full mas-
tery over the practice of jhāna will then lead him/her to the level of non-
returning. As for the term “discernment-released,” passage §168 shows
that it denotes people who have become Arahants without experiencing
the four formless jhānas. It does not indicate a person who has not experi-
enced jhāna.
Part of the controversy over this question may be explained by the fact
that the commentaries define jhāna in terms that bear little resemb-
lance to the canonical description. The Path of Purification—the corner-
stone of the commentarial system—takes as its paradigm for meditation
practice a method called kasina, in which one stares at an external object
until the image of the object is imprinted in one’s mind. This image then
gives rise to a countersign that is said to indicate the attainment of
threshold concentration, a necessary prelude to jhāna. The text then tries
to fit all other meditation methods into this mold, so that they too give rise
to countersigns, but even by its own admission, breath meditation does
not fit the mold very well. With the other methods, the stronger one’s
focus, the more vivid the object and the closer it is to producing a counter -
sign; but with the breath, the stronger one’s focus, the more subtle the
breath and the harder it is to detect. As a result, the text states that only
Buddhas and Buddhas’ sons find the breath a congenial focal point for
attaining jhāna.
None of these assertions have any support in the Canon. Although a
practice called kasina is mentioned tangentially in some of the dis-
courses, the only point where it is described in any detail [MN 121; MFU,
pp. 82-85] makes no mention of staring at an object or gaining a coun-
tersign. If breath meditation were congenial only to Buddhas and their
sons, there seems little reason for the Buddha to have taught it so fre -
quently and to such a wide variety of people. If the arising of a counter-
sign were essential to the attainment of jhāna, one would expect it to
be included in the steps of breath meditation and in the graphic analo-
gies used to describe jhāna, but it isn’t. Some Theravadins insist that
192 APPENDIX

questioning the commentaries is a sign of disrespect for the tradition, but

it seems to be a sign of greater disrespect for the Buddha—or the com-
pilers of the Canon—to assume that he or they would have left out some-
thing absolutely essential to the practice.
All of these points seem to indicate that what jhāna means in the com-
mentaries is something quite different from what it means in the Canon.
Because of this difference we can say that the commentaries are right in
viewing their type of jhāna as unnecessary for Awakening, but
Awakening cannot occur without the attainment of jhāna in the canon-
ical sense.

Note
In order to access the cross-references in the above article, please visit the source URL
where hyperlinks are provided.

Choice of English Translation for Jhāna

Kumāra Bhikkhu
Excerpts from an unfinished manuscript (30 December 2013)
What You May Not Know about Jhāna & Samādhi

What then would be a useful English translation for jhāna? Since the begin-
ning of Pāli-English translation work, people have used various words to
translate jhāna. Among the attempts are “absorption”, “mental (or medita-
tive) absorption”, “meditation”, “musing”, “trance” and even “ecstasy”. I
suppose they are translating according to their notions of jhāna, which can
be based on various combinations of personal experience, scholarly learn-
ing (such as from Visuddhimagga), and plain musing.
Then, some decided to leave it untranslated. As mentioned earlier,
while this strategy has an advantage, it leaves the Pāli word wide open for
the reader to interpret according to whatever preconceived notions he has
for it. As demonstrated by the translations shown above, interpretations
 CHOICE OF ENGLISH TRANSLATION FOR JHĀNA 193

can lead to exotic ideas. Then again, jhāna is indeed one of the most con-
troversial words in the Buddhist world. So, I can understand why some
have resorted to leaving this ‘problematic’ word untranslated. Nonethe-
less, since jhāna has taken the orthodox Theravādin meaning in the minds
of the many, it is a good idea to at least qualify what one means by this
word.
At any rate, if asked to choose an English word for it, I would again
return to word analysis for inspiration. Jhāna (Sanskrit: dhyāna) comes
from the verb jhāyati (Sanskrit: dhyāyati). Its meaning is “to meditate, con-
template, think upon, brood over” 1. So, this is the same as the original
meaning of the English word “meditate”. Whenever you meet an English
translation of the Buddha exhorting his monks “Practice jhāna, monks.” or
“Do jhāna, monks.”, the original texts in Pāli is simply “Jhāyatha,
bhikkhave.” (Jhāyatha is a plural imperative form of jhāyati.) It can be more
plainly translated as just “Meditate, monks.”
Now, some readers may object to this, saying that in the Suttas jhāna
has a special meaning, and should not be translated as just “meditation”. If
we look at the descriptions of the first to the fourth jhāna, we would cer -
tainly find a basis for saying so. However, the word jhāna in itself—without
being qualified with “first”, “second”, “third”, and “fourth”, has a much
wider meaning.
Usage of Jhāna in the Suttas
In AN 1.394-574, we see that one is said to be “not devoid of jhāna” (arit -
tajjhāno) “if for just the time of a finger snap” one
• develops any one of the four jhānas,
• develops liberation of mind by any one of the four brahma·vihāras
(divine livings),
• dwells contemplating any one of the four satipaṭṭhānas (establish-
ments of mindfulness),
• generates any one of the four sammappadhānas (right modes of
diligence),

1 Pāli-English Dictionary, Pāli Text Society

194 APPENDIX

• develops any one of the four iddhi·pādas (foundations of success),

• develops any one of the five indriyas (spiritual faculties),
• or does any one of a long list of many other things, including develop-
ing asubha·saññā (perception of unattractiveness), maraṇa·saññā
(perception of death), etc.
According to Mahāsaccaka Sutta (MN 36), one of the Buddha’s pre-
awakening experiments was “appāṇaka jhāna”. Appāṇaka literally means
“breathless”. He said, “I stopped the in-breaths and out-breaths through
my mouth and nose.” Understandably, it only resulted in exhaustion. Yet,
the Buddha called it jhāna. In Gopaka·Moggallāna Sutta (MN 108), Āyasmā
Ānanda says that the Buddha did not praise the kind of jhāna of one whose
mind is obsessed by the five hindrances. Yet, he called it jhāna.2
Yet, if we replace these instances of jhāna with “meditation”, they
would fit in just fine. In fact, in all the above examples, modern Pāli-Eng-
lish translators have consistently rendered jhāna as “meditation”, which is
most natural. Yet elsewhere, such as for the four jhānas, they have left it
untranslated. This is why most people are unaware that these instances of
“meditation” are translated from jhāna.
Jhāna Is Not an Absorbed State
Now let’s look at jhānas as in the four jhānas. “Absorption” has been widely
used to translate and describe jhāna. While it befits the orthodox
Theravādin jhānas, it’s unsuitable for the Sutta jhānas … [A]s I have poin-
ted out earlier, jhāna in the Suttas does not mean a state where one is so
engrossed with a certain object that it disables contemplation on the true
nature of things. Evidence of this is found in many places, an example
being Suppabuddha·kuṭṭhi Sutta (Ud 5.3) ...
How is it possible that Suppabuddha the leper (who went to the
assembly because he thought someone was distributing food there), and
many others mentioned in the Suttas, could awaken while listening to the
Dhamma?

2 I am grateful to truth_aerator (Alex) who pointed these out at

http://groups.yahoo.com/group/SariputtaDhamma/message/7849
 CHOICE OF ENGLISH TRANSLATION FOR JHĀNA 195

Why not? With their own wisdom to understand the teachings and
reflect upon it, the mind became freed from the hindrances ... Then while
they listened to the teachings on the Four Noble Truths, they were prac-
tising the Noble Eightfold Path, which includes the jhānas (of the Suttas).
If we regard jhāna as an absorbed state, then these people either can-
not be listening or, if they were, cannot be in jhāna. So, it’s reasonable to
think that they were listening. So, does that mean they were not in jhāna?
If we were to take that to be true, we would have to accept that awakening
is possible without practising the whole of the Noble Eigthfold Path. How
would that agree with the Buddha’s teachings?
So, we are left with just one possibility: Jhāna is not an absorbed state ...
Absorptions in the Suttas
Actually, the Suttas do speak of some states of samādhi that we may
rightly call “absorptions”. These are not referred to as jhānas though, but
āruppā vimokkhā3 or formless liberations; namely, the base of the infinity of
space, the base of the infinity of consciousness, the base of nothingness,
and the base of neither-perception-nor-nonperception. The post-canonical
texts often refer to them as arūpajjhānas (formless jhānas), but this name
does not occur anywhere in the Suttas.
We often find them spoken of after the fourth jhāna, beginning with
these words: “with the complete transcendence of perceptions of form,
with the passing away of perceptions of sensory impingement, with non-
attention to perceptions of diversity”. 4 This implies that before that—i.e.
while in the jhānas—there is perception of form (meaning physicality),
there is sensory impingement, there are perceptions of diversity ...
Meditation
Returning to the choices of English words to translate jhāna, I see that I.B.
3 A note from Āyasmā Aggacitta: “Āruppa is an adjective and does not occur by itself in the
early suttas, except only once each in Saṅgīti Sutta (DN 33) & Itivuttaka. Paṭisambhidā-
magga quotes from Itivuttaka and uses it as a noun. As a stand-alone, it looks like a later
usage.”
4 Adapted from The Connected Discourses of the Buddha, p672. I only changed “forms” to “form”
(rūpa). Original Pāli: sabbaso rūpa·saññānaṁ samatikkamā paṭigha·saññānaṁ atthaṅgamā
nānatta·saññānaṁ amanasikārā.
196 APPENDIX

Horner was justified in using “meditation” for jhāna in her translation of

the Majjhima Nikāya. The word “contemplation” seems reasonable too.
Furthermore, the Chinese world has all along been using the word
ch’an (禪/禅) for jhāna, and it has long been used to mean simply “medita-
tion”. Besides, what better translation is there for the verb jhāyati but
“meditate”? Some prefer to translate that as practice jhāna, which is accept-
able if the reader understands jhāna correctly. (Often people use this indir-
ect translation to justify the need for absorption jhānas.) Another related
word is jhāyī, which is quite universally translated as “meditator”. What
else could be more appropriate? Even those who prefer to leave jhāna
untranslated would usually translate jhāyī in this way, and not as “jhāna
practitioner”.
And, yes, we would then have “first meditation”, “second meditation”
and so forth, just as it has been through all the centuries in the Chinese
world. Considering how these terms are described in the standard jhāna
formula, we can take them to mean “first state of meditation”, “second
state of meditation” and so forth. In this context, we can consider an
alternative translation: “meditative state”.
I am partial to this ‘simple’ translation for jhāna: “meditation” or “med-
itative state”. Although it can seem rather general, its simplicity conduces
to less exotic perceptions. I see value in this, since meditation is supposed
to be uncomplicated. Only an uncomplicated mind can see things as they
are, which is what proper samādhi is meant to achieve.

Note
The main titles of these two articles in the Appendix are given by me; the sub-headings
and the italicisation in the latter are provided by Āyasmā Kumāra, as in his manuscript.
197
198

Bibliography
Source of Pāli Text
Digital Pali Reader 4.3 collated with World Tipiṭaka Edition.

References for the English Translation

Access to Insight http://www.accesstoinsight.org. Translation by Ṭhānis-
saro Bhikkhu.
The Middle Length Discourses of the Buddha: A Translation of the Majjhima
Nikāya, translated by Bhikkhu Ñāṇamoli and Bhikkhu Bodhi. Boston: Wis-
dom Publications, 2005.
The Connected Discourses of the Buddha: A Translation of the Saṁyutta Nikāya,
translated by Bhikkhu Bodhi. Boston: Wisdom Publications, 2000.
The Numerical Discourses of the Buddha: A Translation of the Aṅguttara Nikāya,
translated by Bhikkhu Bodhi. Boston: Wisdom Publications, 2012.

Abbreviations
Pāli Text Reference according to
AN Aṅguttara Nikāya Book number : Sutta number
DN Dīgha Nikāya Sutta number
KN Khuddaka Nikāya Book name
MN Majjhima Nikāya Sutta number
SN Saṁyutta Nikāya Saṁyutta number : Sutta number
It Itivuttaka Sutta number
Nett Netti·pakaraṇa Section : Chapter
Ud Udāna Chapter : Sutta number
Vin Cv Vinaya Cūḷavagga
Vin Mv Vinaya Mahāvagga
Vin-a Vinaya Commentary Book number : Paragraph number
DN-a DN Commentary Book number : Paragraph number