Paper 1 Physical Core

UNIT 1 Hydrology and fluvial geomorphology

Recommended Prior Knowledge Students require little prior knowledge for this unit. They may have some foundation from earlier studies, such as IGCSE.
However it is recommended that the key concept of the hydrological cycle is introduced in the first or second lesson.

Context Although this is a discrete unit, close links exist with all the units that follow, as water is a vital resource without which none of the other physical
units could operate. Processes introduced here, such as evaporation and condensation, are fundamental to the whole of physical geography and to some
human geography topics.

Outline The unit covers the functioning of the hydrological, fluvial and human aspects of drainage basins.

Recent recommended text Hordern B; Rivers and Coasts; 2006 Philip Allan Updates

Content Objectives Terminology Teaching Strategies (TS) and Activities (A) Resources

• Understanding of Hydrology • TS To introduce the idea of a system by

hydrology Hydrological cycle analogy.
• Open systems e.g. car, computer, Waugh p.45
domestic water supply.
• Knowledge of the System • Closed systems e.g. central heating, air
global hydrological Open system conditioning.
cycle Closed system
• The global hydrological cycle - why a closed Hart OCR text pp.1-2
system? fig.1.4
Ross et al. p.221 fig. 7.1
• Understand the Components: • A Flow diagram Fig. 1 Boxes for stores, Bowen and Pallister p.6
distinction between flows/stores/ arrows for flows. Could be completely blank or Fig.1
open and closed inputs/outputs partially filled in. Same diagram on OHP or Guinness and Nagle p.1
systems board to be filled in by teacher as discussion Fig.1
with class proceeds and they complete their Prosser, Raw and Bishop
diagrams. Written definition of global p.41
hydrological cycle comprising three ideas Fig. 1 The Global
1. Closed 2. Water 3. Scale. May or may not Hydrological Cycle
contain volumes of water involved. Useful to See Prosser, p.41
suggest climatic variation in volumes of water. Waugh, p.58 fig. 3.1
excellent flow diagram.

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1.1 The • An open system Watershed
drainage • Appreciate that it is Catchment area • TS Teacher uses an OHP or board to build up June 2007 and Nov 2006
basin system a spatial unit Precipitation the drainage basin diagram with class. have useful diagrams to
Interception • A Compile a cross-sectional diagram or flow use as teaching aids.
(a) The Throughfall diagram of a drainage basin. Fig 2 The Hordern p.1 flow diagram.
hydrological Stemflow pictorial version may be easier to appreciate
cycle Runoff/overland than the flow diagram. Outline of surface, soil,
flow rock, water table could be given or done from Fig 2 Flow diagram of the
Discharge scratch. Sun, vegetation, urban areas, water drainage basin system
• Know its bodies and river channel added. Different Hart pp.5-7 Good pictorial
components - flows Infiltration colours used for flows, stores inputs and diagram fig. 1.13 p.7
(b) stores, inputs, Throughflow outputs to distinguish them. Students could be
Components outputs Percolation introduced to flow diagram as consolidation. Ross et al. pp.222-224, good
of the • Understand the Baseflow • A The component groups of flows, stores, cross sectional diagram
drainage links between the Groundwater inputs and outputs could be coloured. p.224
basin system components Recharge • A Written definitions of the processes. Bowen and Pallister pp.7-10
• Each component of Water tables • A A written account of the drainage basin Guinness and Nagle p.2
the system should Springs system. Good definitions of
be developed Evaporation • The concept of discharge needs to be components of interception.
Evapotranspiration introduced at an early stage. Prosser et al. p.44 , a useful
• Remember that the Gauging station • TS and A Details of all the processes at work diagram fig. 2.8
channel is an within the system and factors that influence
important store and those processes and the inter-relationships Hordern p.3 changes in
flow within the between the processes, e.g. soil moisture flows during a storm, is
basin system affects infiltration capacity, etc. useful as a teaching aid.
TS Relationship between infiltration capacity and
rainfall intensity is significant in producing different Nagle p.61 Good cross
• Appreciate reasons for overland flow. If infiltration capacity is section and definitions
operation of some greater than rainfall intensity then the stores will fill
of the components before overland flow occurs. This situation is typical Ross et al p.224 useful
e.g. overland flow of humid climates, e.g. UK. This type of overland practice questions
especially in Saturated overland flow is known as saturated overland flow. If rainfall
relation to climatic flow intensity exceeds infiltration capacity then Hortonian p.19 Hart passing reference
variations (or infiltration excess flow) flow occurs. The water but no detail
Hortonian or cannot enter the ground so it runs straight off the June 2007 Q. 1 Questions
infiltration excess surface. This occurs in arid and semi-arid on flows and stores are
flow environments where the rain is intense or in areas popular in both Sections A
of impermeable surfaces. and B of 9696/01

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 TS and A Begin with a theoretical diagram of
1.2 Rainfall - • Understand how a the storm hydrograph. Label fully including the
discharge drainage basin axes. Give some data and a graph can be
relationships responds to a given constructed.
within input of rainfall
drainage • Ability to draw a A This could be reinforced by a “living graph”
basins hydrograph (labelled exercise – give students a basic outline of a
well) hydrograph with a series of explanatory
• Understand the captions which need to be inserted/attached
storm (flood) around the diagram. This can be very effective
hydrograph way of promoting discussion of the relative
influence of different processes as well as a
possible revision exercise. This could then be
developed to look at the effects of different
factors.
Hordern pp. 5-9 Good
The factors that influence Storm hydrograph introduction to the factors
the hydrograph of a river Lag time A range of different hydrographs could then be that influence hydrographs.
Rising limb shown as a springboard to discussion about the
Falling limb factors which influence the nature of
Peak hydrographs.
Baseflow
• Understanding of separation line
factors Flashy hydrograph Drainage basin characteristics: size, shape, Prosser p.48
• Knowledge of a Attenuated peak drainage density, soil moisture, rock type, Ross et al p.229 Fig. 3
range of factors slope, vegetation, land use. Bowen and Pallister p. 14
• Understanding the It is worth emphasising that shape is a factor Waugh p.61
inter-relationships Land use when area is the same. Attenuated response in Nagle pp. 62-3 Fig.3. Storm
between the factors Rainfall duration elongated basins whereas flashy in round ones. hydrograph
and intensity Case studies could be effective in illustrating
• Knowledge and these general principles.
understanding of Drainage density
land use changes Porosity Suggested Extension Study: Detailed
and their effects on Permeability drainage basin morphometry in terms of
inputs, outputs Aquifer bifurcation ratios, etc. (This is not essential as
stores, flows in the Wilting point it is not specified in the syllabus.)
drainage basin and Field capacity
hydrographs

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 TS Introduce the idea of permeability: ability to Prosser p. 49 has a good
transmit water and porosity: volume of pore detailed table of factors
space. The two are linked via the connectivity Ross, p.230, example p.231
of the pore space. If the pores are Hart p.24 has a summary table
interconnected then the rock/soil may be Waugh p.62
porous and permeable e.g. sandstone. If the Waugh pp.65-6
pores are tightly packed water holding is Ross pp.236-7
possible but transmission is very slow e.g. clay. Nagle pp.83-86
Optional - Introduce idea of a pervious rock
which is one which is permeable via joints and
bedding planes.
• Clays are porous but not permeable,
• sandstones are porous and permeable, Waugh p.63
• chalk is not as porous as clay and is Hart p.14
permeable, Prosser p.46
• limestone is pervious, but not porous.
Analogies can be used like sponges -
real and synthetic and sieves. Links to
water tables, aeration zone and
saturation zone.

Study a range of annual hydrographs/river

regimes to appreciate the impact of climatic
Appreciate annual variations on discharge, e.g. comparison of
hydrographs/river Mediterranean, arid, cool temperate, alpine
regimes hydrographs can be instructive.

The important aspect here is how these factors

and combination of factors influence the nature
of the response of the river. Therefore they
should be studied together with a selection of
hydrographs.
Develop ideas of how changes in these factors
cause different responses and changes to the
volumes and nature of the flows.
Human activities are a significant factor in

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 influencing hydrographs. It may be useful to
include human activities in this section as well Nagle pp. 64-5 has very good
in terms of river basin management (1.4). detailed diagrammatic visual
Equally, human activities could be considered material on urban hydrology.
in that section only, e.g. land use changes such Also good on deforestation
as deforestation, afforestation, pasture to p.69 and dams p.68.
arable farming or vice versa, dam and reservoir Waugh p.100
building, urbanisation - concrete surfaces are Prosser p.51
impermeable hence their inability to transmit Ross pp.232-3
water therefore increased surface runoff. Make Hart p.28
sure students can develop a full explanation,
rather than assuming that it can be assumed
that concrete is impermeable. Water Waugh pp.69-70
abstraction and water quality should be
consideration either as part of a relevant case
study or in general terms. Depending on the Waugh p.72
river basin chosen, political factors may be
relevant where the river crosses international For data on UK drainage
boundaries. basins, try the National Water
Archive at
www.nwl.ac.uk/ih/nrfa/river_flo
w_data

Also hydrology web on

http://etd.pnl.gov.2080/hydrow
eb.html

For rivers and dams, try

www.im.org/basics/ard

1.3 River TS In discussion with the group, the basic ideas Ross et al. pp.241-3 This is
channel and concepts can be introduced. a good source with practical
processes exercises on hydraulic radius
and • Revise the concept of a system - inputs and channel efficiency
landforms outputs, flows, discharge. Idea of
The channel moving water because of gradient,
as a system therefore energy to carry out work. Nagle pp.79-81

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 • Ask what the work would be in a
channel.
Gradient of channel • Introduce idea of dynamic equilibrium
bed with respect to a river channel, i.e.
Load - capacity and adjustment of channel bed to transport Hordern part 3 pp.21-30
competence its load.
Dynamic equilibrium • Suggest that there would be a
• Knowledge and changing dynamic downstream as a
understanding of result of a number of aspects of the
channel variables channel which vary, i.e. variables.
• Relationships • What are they and how may they
between the change downstream?
variables Discharge • Discharge. Define and use as a
Velocity springboard for discussion of cross
sectional area which links directly to
hydraulic radius via wetted perimeter.
Look at two or three comparative
diagrams of cross sectional area.

Introduce idea of how variable discharge can

influence channel efficiency by changing the level of
water in the channel. (This idea will be picked up
again in relation to landforms like braided
channels).
• The other variables can be discussed once
this has been understood, to form the
foundations of the succeeding sections on
process and form
Channel efficiency • Channel roughness
Nagle p.103
• Gradient
• Velocity
• Competence
• Capacity
Channel roughness • Friction/flow characteristics
Capacity
Competence A To reinforce all these ideas fieldwork or use of a
sand tank would be ideal. However if this is not

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Fluvial processes
Knowledge and
Understanding of
processes of erosion
transportation and
deposition
• Direction of erosion
• Hjulstrom curve -
link between
process and load
possible then discussion of measurement in the
field in theory can aid understanding, e.g. difficulty
of measuring discharge in low / high flow
Flows - laminar, conditions. Use of orange peel and cork versus flow
turbulent, helicoidal meters in terms of accuracy and practicality.
At the outset emphasise that these processes
are influenced by the dynamics of the channel, Erosion Nagle p.87
interrelate and produce landforms which will be Prosser p.54
the next section of the work. Ross p.240. Good exercises
Result from the energy possessed by the river. pp.242-244
For processes of erosion, most authorities Bowen and Pallister p.19
consider that abrasion and corrasion result from Waugh pp.72-3 Contains a
the action of the transported load. The load is good case study of the Afon
the tool for erosion. Closest analogy ‘like Glaslyn, Wales, UK. There is
sandpaper’. Assists in undercutting and bank a video to go with it.
caving. More especially linked to turbulent flow
and potholes in river bed. Hydraulic action
Abrasion/corrasion sheer power of water. Cavitation is the
Corrosion/solution implosion of gas bubbles in turbulent flow
Hydraulic action as causing shock waves and weakening the banks
erosion and of the channel in particular. Both processes
transportation lead to bank caving. Bowen and Pallister p.20
Traction
Suspension Vertical, headward and lateral erosion should
Saltation be covered, either here, or in connection with Nagle pp.88-91
Entrainment landform development. Bowen and Pallister p.21
Critical erosion and Prosser p.55
deposition velocity Processes of transportation can be done easily Ross p.240
Bed load by means of one diagram, which shows Fig. 5 Hjulstrom curve
Solute load traction/bed load, saltation, suspension and Waugh p.72
solution. Bowen and Pallister p.21
Ross p.241
TS Hjulstrom curve Fig. 5 Begin with a diagram of Nagle p.95, good whole
the graph. Emphasise what it demonstrates via the page spread
axes of the graph. Explanation can be done by
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 annotating the graph, highlighting critical erosion
and deposition velocities in relation to fraction of the
load. Reasons why clay needs such a high velocity June 2006 Q. 1 Fig. 1 is an
when they are such small particles. Distinguish aerial view of a flood plain.
between entrainment and settling location of these Prosser p.62
curves on the graph. Entrainment (ability of the river
to transport material) is the velocity line between Nagle p.93 very good on
erosion and transportation and the settling velocity meandering channels
marks the division between transportation and Ross p.248 ‘The Great
deposition Meander Debate’ contains
The nature of channels useful graph correlating
bankfull discharge and
channel slope and plots
Link between process and TS Use survey maps of Zimbabwe (Victoria Falls) meandering and braided
form (June 2004) and Port Antonio (Nov 2007) and channels. This has been
June 2006 Q. 1 as teaching tools. Very useful. For used as stimulus material in
meandering channels and floodplain characteristics. examination questions.
• Straight Discussion can focus on the contrasts and reasons
• Meandering for the contrasts. Conditions under which each Geofile 529 Sept 2006 River
• Braided occur, e.g. braided channels found in areas of channels fieldwork
variable discharge and large loads, whereas
gradient variation causes meandering channels

Waugh pp.75-80
Bowen and Pallister pp.23-
Floodplain 31
Braided channel Ross pp.245-252
Eyot Prosser pp.58-65
Meander
Pool Good floodplain diagrams
Riffle Ross p.257 and Prosser p.64
Flows - laminar,
turbulent, helicoidal

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 Landforms Description, explanation and an example or Geofile 563 Jan 2008 Deltas
examples of these landforms is needed.
Classification according Annotated diagrams can be a useful way of Hordern part 4 pp.30-45
to processes of condensing the material. The floodplain with its
formation assemblage of features can be considered as a
• Erosional forms - River cliff section of work. This could be a way of creating
waterfalls, gorges Slip-off slope the link between the geomorphology and the
• Meander Point bar human impact on the physical environment, i.e.
characteristics Waterfall the final section of work in this unit.
• Depositional - point Plunge pool
bars, floodplains, Rapids
levées, alluvial Gorge
fans, deltas Bluff
Floodplain
Levée
Cut-off/ox-bow lake
Alluvial fan
Delta

1.4 The Floods Nagle pp.100-1

human • Knowledge of Causes of floods Guinness and
impact causes of river Nagle p.18
flooding. (The unit Bowen and Pallister p.32
is about fluvial Ross p.259
processes so Flood prediction Hart pp.29-30
examination www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/flood/
questions refer to deluge.html
river flooding as
opposed to flooding
by the sea.)

• Understanding of Flood risk, prediction in terms of measurement

effects. Floods as a like recurrence intervals. (Prediction is often
hazard Bankfull discharge given insufficient attention and it may be
• Prediction Overbankfull examined in its own right). Prosser pp.68-73 Good on soft
• Prevention discharge engineering p.71
Factors such as global warming and climate
• Amelioration
Recurrence interval change could be covered as factors influencing Management - Guinness and
• Management

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 prediction and management. Nagle AS concepts Several
Inadvertent changes versus management case studies. pp.18-34 Also
strategies, which are part of possible found in AL Concepts and
Hard engineering amelioration, could be considered. cases pp.249-292
Soft engineering Mississippi and Yangtze.
(Internet sites will provide up-
Management TS A case study would be the obvious way. River to-date material on the Three
strategies - wing basin management and river channel management. Gorges Dam scheme)
dykes, levées, etc. There are many well-documented examples other
than the Mississippi. The use of local examples is Ross distinguishes between
encouraged. channel and basin
management pp.253-268.
Hard and soft engineering techniques. Hordern Part 5 pp.46-56
General principles of physical geography could
be the starting point for instance, increasing
channel capacity, decreasing discharge and Bowen and Pallister Case
then how the engineering schemes can achieve Studies in LEDCs and MEDCs
these objectives rather than just a catalogue of Severn, UK and Bangladesh
measures. Perhaps the catalogue can be the 1998 4 further case studies
starting point and students are asked what the Waugh Mississippi very
objective is and then a classification can be detailed pp.87-90
drawn up. Yangtze pp.91-7
Emphasise the impact of the human activities Hart pp.31-2 Good on
upon the physical environment rather than the protection measures.
human activities as ends in themselves, i.e.
hydrograph changes, modifications to channel Nov 2006 Q. 6(c) Flood plain
and impact on discharges which then result in development – risk
floods. The case study could include assessment.
consideration of human use of, and impact on, June 2006 Q. 6(c)
flood plains.

Note Make sure there is an emphasis in the

presentation on channel flow, i.e. volume and
velocity. Candidates are expected to be able to
distinguish between flooding and channel flow
and appreciate what flooding is, i.e. over
bankfull discharge.

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