SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE IN INDIA

Submitted to:
Prof.Dr. Hanumant Yadav
(Prof. OF ECONOMICS)

Submitted by:
Aniruddha Mishra
B.A. LLB (HONOURS)

Semester3, Section -B ,Roll no. 22

HIDAYATULLAH NATIONAL LAW UNIVERSITY

CHHATTISGARH RAIPUR

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 ACKNOWLEDGMENT
I, Aniruddha Mishra, would like to humbly present this project to Prof. HanumantYadav. I would
first of all like to express my most sincere gratitude to Prof. HanumantYadav for his
encouragement and guidance regarding several aspects of this project. I am thankful for being
given the opportunity of doing a project on‘ Sustainable Agriculture in India’. I am also thankful
to the library staff as well as the IT lab staff for all the conveniences they have provided me with,
which have played a major role in the completion of this project.

I would like to thank God for keeping me in good health and senses to complete this project.Last
but definitely not the least, I am thankful to my seniors for all their support, tips and valuable
advice whenever needed. I present this project with a humble heart.

ANIRUDDHA MISHRA

SEMESTER 3, SECTION-B,

ROLL NUMBER-22

BA LLB (HONS.)

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 CONTENTS
ACKNOWLEDGMENT............................................................................................................................... 2

INTRODUCTION ........................................................................................................................................ 5

OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY .................................................................................................................. 6

RESEARCH METHODOLOGY ................................................................................................................ 7

LITERATURE REVIEW ............................................................................................................................. 8

What is Sustainable Agriculture?.................................................................................................................. 9

Key Principals ............................................................................................................................................ 9

Farming Essentials..................................................................................................................................... 9

Water ...................................................................................................................................................... 10

Soil ........................................................................................................................................................... 12

Phosphate ............................................................................................................................................... 12

Land......................................................................................................................................................... 14

Energy ..................................................................................................................................................... 15

Socio-Economic Aspects ............................................................................................................................ 16

Sustainable Agriculture in India .................................................................................................................. 17

Agriculture in India.................................................................................................................................. 17

Present Situation..................................................................................................................................... 17

Sustainability in agriculture .................................................................................................................... 18

Current situation ..................................................................................................................................... 19

Future needs ........................................................................................................................................... 24

Policies for sustainable Agriculture in India ............................................................................................... 25

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 Environmental Challenges in Indian Agriculture..................................................................................... 25

Promoting organic farming in india ........................................................................................................ 27

Extent of Indian Organic Area and Production ....................................................................................... 28

Organic Certification and Marketing in India .......................................................................................... 29

Challenges for Indian Organic Farming ................................................................................................... 30

Conclusion .................................................................................................................................................. 33

References ................................................................................................................................................... 34

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 INTRODUCTION
The goal of sustainable agriculture is to meet society‘s food and textile needs in the present
without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs. Practitioners of
sustainable agriculture seek to integrate three main objectives into their work: a healthy
environment, economic profitability, and social and economic equity. Every person involved in
the food system—growers, food processors, distributors, retailers, consumers, and waste
managers—can play a role in ensuring a sustainable agricultural system.

There are many practices commonly used by people working in sustainable agriculture and
sustainable food systems. Growers may use methods to promote soil health, minimize water use,
and lower pollution levels on the farm. Consumers and retailers concerned with sustainability
can look for ―values-based‖ foods that are grown using methods promoting farmworker
wellbeing, that are environmentally friendly, or that strengthen the local economy. And
researchers in sustainable agriculture often cross disciplinary lines with their work: combining
biology, economics, engineering, chemistry, community development, and many others.
However, sustainable agriculture is more than a collection of practices. It is also process of
negotiation: a push and pull between the sometimes competing interests of an individual farmer
or of people in a community as they work to solve complex problems about how we grow our
food and fiber.

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OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY

 To know about Sustainable Agriculture;

 To Study the pattern of sustainable agriculture in India ;

 To find out in brief about prevailing sustainable agricultural practices in Different states
of India;

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 RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

NATURE OF RESEARCH

This research work is descriptive and Analytical in nature. It describes the spread of sustainable

agriculture in India and its selective states, various problems faced by the states in development ,

various govt. schemes, etc.

SOURCES OF DATA

This study is done with the help of secondary data. This secondary information has been

obtained from published sources such as books, journals, newspapers, official websites,

government publications etc.

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 LITERATURE REVIEW
The modern agricultural practices which are heavily dependent on the use of chemical pesticides,
inorganic fertilizers and growth regulators has raised the agricultural production manifold but at
the cost of resource depletion, environmental deterioration and loss of crop diversity. Therefore
it was realized that the modern agriculture is not sustainable in long run, hence the concept of
sustainable agriculture emerged which not only emphasizes on the conservation of the natural
resources but also maintains the quality of environment. Often there is misconception that
sustainable agriculture and organic agriculture is the same thing.

However, it is not true, as both are different concepts. In sustainable agriculture chemical
fertilizers and pesticides are often used in a limit that has no any disruptive effect on the soil and
the environment. However, organic agriculture strictly avoids the use of chemical fertilizers and
pesticides. Therefore, sustainable agriculture is a broad term which includes organic agriculture
as well. Sustainable agriculture is in fact the successful management of resources for agriculture
to satisfy the changing human needs, while maintaining or enhancing the quality of environment
and conserving the natural resources.

It is a balanced management system of renewable resources including soil, wildlife, forests,

crops, fish, livestock, plant genetic resources and ecosystems without degradation and to provide
food, livelihood for current and future generation maintaining and improving productivity and
ecosystem services of these resources.

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 What is Sustainable Agriculture?

Key Principals

There are several key principles associated with sustainability in agriculture:

1. The incorporation of biological and ecological processes into agricultural and food
production practices. For example, these processes could include nutrient cycling, soil
regeneration, and nitrogen fixation.
2. Using decreased amounts of non-renewable and unsustainable inputs, particularly the
ones that are environmentally harmful.
3. Using the expertise of farmers to both productively work the land as well as to promote
the self-reliance and self-sufficiency of farmers.
4. Solving agricultural and natural resource problems through the cooperation and
collaboration of people with different skills. The problems tackled include pest
management and irrigation.

Farming Essentials
Sustainable agriculture can be understood as an ecosystem approach to agriculture.Practices that
can cause long-term damage to soil include excessive tilling of the soil (leading to erosion)
and irrigation without adequate drainage (leading to salinization ). Long-term experiments have
provided some of the best data on how various practices affect soil properties essential to
sustainability. In the United States a federal agency, USDA-Natural Resources Conservation
Service, specializes in providing technical and financial assistance for those interested in
pursuing natural resource conservation and production agriculture as compatible goals.

The most important factors for an individual site are sun, air, soil, nutrients, and water. Of the
five, water and soil quality and quantity are most amenable to human intervention through time
and labor.

Although air and sunlight are available everywhere on Earth, crops also depend on soil nutrients
and the availability of water. When farmers grow and harvest crops, they remove some of these
nutrients from the soil. Without replenishment, land suffers from nutrient depletion and becomes

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either unusable or suffers from reduced yields. Sustainable agriculture depends on replenishing
the soil while minimizing the use or need of non-renewable resources, such as natural gas (used
in converting atmospheric nitrogen into synthetic fertilizer), or mineral ores (e.g., phosphate).
Possible sources of nitrogen that would, in principle, be available indefinitely, include:

1. recycling crop waste and livestock or treated human manure

2. growing legume crops and forages such as peanuts or alfalfa that form symbioses
with nitrogen-fixing bacteria called rhizobia
3. industrial production of nitrogen by the Haber process uses hydrogen, which is currently
derived from natural gas (but this hydrogen could instead be made by electrolysis of
water using electricity (perhaps from solar cells or windmills)) or
4. genetically engineering (non-legume) crops to form nitrogen-fixing symbioses or fix
nitrogen without microbial symbionts.

The last option was proposed in the 1970s, but is only gradually becoming feasible. Sustainable
options for replacing other nutrient inputs such as phosphorus and potassium are more limited.

More realistic, and often overlooked, options include long-term crop rotations, returning to
natural cycles that annually flood cultivated lands (returning lost nutrients indefinitely) such as
the flooding of the Nile, the long-term use of biochar, and use of crop and
livestock landraces that are adapted to less than ideal conditions such as pests, drought, or lack of
nutrients. Crops that require high levels of soil nutrients can be cultivated in a more sustainable
manner with appropriate fertilizer management practices.

Water

In some areas sufficient rainfall is available for crop growth, but many other areas
require irrigation. For irrigation systems to be sustainable, they require proper management (to
avoid salinization) and must not use more water from their source than is naturally replenishable.
Otherwise, the water source effectively becomes a non-renewable resource. Improvements in
water well drilling technology and submersible pumps, combined with the development of drip
irrigation and low-pressure pivots, have made it possible to regularly achieve high crop yields in
areas where reliance on rainfall alone had previously made successful agriculture unpredictable.

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However, this progress has come at a price. In many areas, such as the Ogallala Aquifer, the
water is being used faster than it can be replenished.

Several steps must be taken to develop drought-resistant farming systems even in "normal" years
with average rainfall. These measures include both policy and management actions:

1. improving water conservation and storage measures,

2. providing incentives for selection of drought-tolerant crop species,
3. using reduced-volume irrigation systems,
4. managing crops to reduce water loss, and
5. not planting crops at all.

Indicators for sustainable water resource development are:

 Internal renewable water resources. This is the average annual flow of rivers
and groundwater generated from endogenous precipitation, after ensuring that there is no
double counting. It represents the maximum amount of water resource produced within the
boundaries of a country. This value, which is expressed as an average on a yearly basis, is
invariant in time (except in the case of proved climate change). The indicator can be
expressed in three different units: in absolute terms (km³/yr), in mm/yr (it is a measure of
the humidity of the country), and as a function of population (m³/person per year).
 Global renewable water resources. This is the sum of internal renewable water resources and
incoming flow originating outside the country. Unlike internal resources, this value can vary
with time if upstream development reduces water availability at the border. Treaties ensuring
a specific flow to be reserved from upstream to downstream countries may be taken into
account in the computation of global water resources in both countries.
 Dependency ratio. This is the proportion of the global renewable water resources originating
outside the country, expressed in percentage. It is an expression of the level to which the
water resources of a country depend on neighbouring countries.
 Water withdrawal. In view of the limitations described above, only gross water withdrawal
can be computed systematically on a country basis as a measure of water use. Absolute or
per-person value of yearly water withdrawal gives a measure of the importance of water in
the country's economy. When expressed in percentage of water resources, it shows the

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 degree of pressure on water resources. A rough estimate shows that if water withdrawal
exceeds a quarter of global renewable water resources of a country, water can be considered
a limiting factor to development and, reciprocally, the pressure on water resources can affect
all sectors, from agriculture to environment and fisheries.

Soil
Soil erosion is fast becoming one of the world's severe problems. It is estimated that "more than
a thousand million tonnes of southern Africa's soil are eroded every year. Experts predict that
crop yields will be halved within thirty to fifty years if erosion continues at present rates." Soil
erosion is occurring worldwide. The phenomenon is being called peak soil as present large-scale
factory farming techniques are jeopardizing humanity's ability to grow food in the present and in
the future. Without efforts to improve soil management practices, the availability of arable
soil will become increasingly problematic. Intensive agriculture reduces the carbon level in soil,
impairing soil structure, crop growth and ecosystem functioning, and accelerating climate
change. Soil management techniques include no-till farming, keyline design, windbreaks to
reduce wind erosion, incorporating carbon-containing organic matter back into fields,
reducing chemical fertilizers, and protecting soil from water run-off.

Phosphate
Phosphate is a primary component in chemical fertilizer. It is the second most important nutrient
for plant after nitrogen, and is often a limiting factor. It is important for sustainable agriculture as
it can improve soil fertility and crop yields. Phosphorus is involved in all major metabolic
processes including photosynthesis, energy transfer, signal transduction, macromolecular
biosynthesis, and respiration. It is needed for root ramification and strength and seed formation,
and can increase disease resistance.

Phosphorus is found in the soil in both inorganic and organic forms and makes up approximately
0.05% of soil biomass. However, only 0.1% of that phosphorus present can be absorbed by
plants. This is due to poor solubility and phosphorus' high reactivity with elements in the soil
such as aluminum, calcium, and iron, causing the phosphorus to be fixed. Long-term use of
phosphate-containing chemical fertilizers cause eutrophication and deplete soil fertility, so
people have looked to other sources.

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An alternative is rock phosphate, a natural source already in some soils. In India, there are almost
260 million tons of rock phosphate. However, rock phosphate is a non-renewable resource and it
is being depleted by mining for agricultural use: reserves are expected to be exhausted in 50–100
years; peak phosphorus will occur in about 2030.This is expected to increase food prices as
phosphate fertilizer costs increase.

A way to make rock phosphate more effective and last longer is to implement microbial
inoculants such as phosphate-solubilizing microorganisms, known as PSMs. A source of these
PSMs is compost or the recycling of human and animal waste. Specific PSMs can be added to
soil. These solubilize phosphorus already in the soil and use processes like organic acid
production and ion exchange reactions to make that phosphorus available for plants. When these
PSMs are present, there has been an increase in crop growth, particularly in terms of shoot
height, dry biomass, and grain yield.

Phosphorus uptake is even more efficient with the presence of mycorrhizae in the
soil. Mycorrhiza is a type of mutualistic symbiotic association between plants and fungi,which
are well-equipped to absorb nutrients, including phosphorus, in soil. These fungi can increase
nutrient uptake in soil where phosphorus has been fixed by aluminum, calcium, and
iron. Mycorrhizae can also release organic acids that solubilize otherwise unavailable
phosphorus.

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Although the number of people below the poverty line might be lower than the national average,
the intensity of poverty in these states is much higher, according to the National Institute of
Rural Development (NIRD).

Poverty in the northeast, like the rest of India, is a more rural phenomenon than urban: 11.6
million people of the 12.8 million living below the poverty line are in rural areas.

The two main reasons for poverty are under-developed agriculture and unskilled labour,
according to NIRD.

To address the region‘s development challenges, including infrastructure, the Central

government created the Ministry of Development of North Eastern Region in 2004, allocating Rs
2,362 crore to the ministry in 2015-16. The grants from the Centre and their share in Central
taxes together form 79% of their total revenue, according to the Reserve Bank of India.

Some of the grants like the ones given out by the Ministry are influenced by politics as well. For
example, from 2010-11 to 2012-13, Arunachal Pradesh received the highest grants with almost
19% of the total allocations. Later, when the government wanted to sign the Naga
Peace accord of 2015, the allocation to Nagaland was increased (to 20%) and Arunachal Pradesh
had come down.

Land

As the global population increases and demand for food increases, there is pressure on land
resources. In land use planning and management, considering the impacts of land use changes on
factors such as soil erosion can support long-term agricultural sustainability, as shown by a study
of Wadi Ziqlab, a dry area in the Middle East where farmers graze livestock and grow olives,
vegetables, and grains.

Looking back over the 20th century shows that for people in poverty, following environmentally
sound land practices has not always been a viable option due to many complex and challenging
life circumstances. Currently, increased land degradation in developing countries may be
connected with rural poverty among smallholder farmers when forced into unsustainable
agricultural practices out of necessity.

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Land is a finite resource on Earth. And although expansion of agricultural land can
decrease biodiversity and contribute to deforestation, the picture is complex; for instance, a study
examining the introduction of sheep by Norse settlers (Vikings) to the Faroe Islands of the North
Atlantic concluded that, over time, the fine partitioning of land plots contributed more to soil
erosion and degradation than grazing itself.

The Food and Agriculture Organisation of the United Nations estimates that in coming decades,
cropland will continue to be lost to industrial and urban development, along with reclamation of
wetlands, and conversion of forest to cultivation, resulting in the loss of biodiversity and
increased soil erosion. Many tools will be called upon to offset these projections. In Europe, one
such tool is a geo-spatial data system called SoilConsWeb which is being developed to inform
soil conservation minded decision making within agricultural sectors and other areas of land
management.

Energy

Energy is used all the way down the food chain from farm to fork. In industrial agriculture,
energy is used in on-farm mechanisation, food processing, storage, and transportation
processes. It has therefore been found that energy prices are closely linked to food prices. Oil is
also used as an input in agricultural chemicals. the International Energy Agency projects higher
prices of non-renewable energy resources as a result of fossil fuel resources being depleted. It
may therefore decrease global food security unless action is taken to 'decouple' fossil fuel energy
from food production, with a move towards 'energy-smart' agricultural systems
including renewable energy. The use of solar powered irrigation in Pakistan has come to be
recognized as a leading example of energy use in creating a closed system for water irrigation in
agricultural activity.

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 Socio-Economic Aspects
Socioeconomic aspects of sustainability are also partly understood. Regarding less concentrated
farming, the best known analysis is Netting's study on smallholder systems through history.

Given the finite supply of natural resources at any specific cost and location, agriculture that is
inefficient or damaging to needed resources may eventually exhaust the available resources or
the ability to afford and acquire them. It may also generate negative externality, such as pollution
as well as financial and production costs. There are several studies incorporating these negative
externalities in an economic analysis concerning ecosystem services, biodiversity, land
degradation and sustainable land management. These include The Economics of Ecosystems and
Biodiversity study led by Pavan Sukhdev and the Economics of Land Degradation
Initiative which seeks to establish an economic cost benefit analysis on the practice of
sustainable land management and sustainable agriculture.

The way that crops are sold must be accounted for in the sustainability equation. Food sold
locally does not require additional energy for transportation (including consumers). Food sold at
a remote location, whether at a farmers' market or the supermarket, incurs a different set of
energy cost for materials, labour, and transport.

Pursuing sustainable agriculture results in many localized benefits. Having the opportunities to
sell products directly to consumers, rather than at wholesale or commodity prices, allows farmers
to bring in optimal profit.

Triple bottom line frameworks (including social and environmental aspects alongside the
financial) show that a sustainable company can be technologically and economically feasible.
For this to happen, growth in material consumption and population need to be slowed down and
there has to be a drastic increase in the efficiency of material and energy use. To make that
transition, long- and short-term goals will need to be balanced enhancing equity and quality of
life.

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 Sustainable Agriculture in India

Agriculture in India

In India, >65% of the population is dependent directly or indirectly on agricultural activities. As

in earlier plans, Central Government envisaged in the tenth 5-yr plan (2002-07), at least 3.5-4 per
cent growth rate per annum in agriculture from the present rate of 2 per cent with emphasis on
food security and employment opportunities in rural areas. Also, irrigated area increased from
22.5 m ha to 97 m ha during last 50 years. The national agricultural policy aimed to strengthen
current economic growth through efficient marketing to accelerate foreign trade from the major
crop growing areas where technical know-how and facilities for export have been established.
There is a shift from sustainable to commercial agriculture in some areas where farmers can avail
the opportunities to increase their income in agriculture. The increasing demand for organic
foods and fibre, and the by-products would certainly open a new vista in consumerism. In future,
the agricultural production on a large scale by adopting improved farming techniques would
transform small farmers into viable commercial producers, link production with consumption
would bring about real economic changes in the present conventional non-sustainable
agriculture.

Present Situation
At present, the total area available for cultivation accounts for 180 m ha, of this 122 m ha (65%)
is in dry land areas from where 42-44 per cent of total food and 75 per cent of cotton is
produced. The characteristics of these areas are: shallow/light to deep/black alluvial soils with
poor fertility levels and low moisture retention capacity, poor crop stand, erratic weather,
inadequate crop inputs and farming infrastructure, uncertain and low rainfall (500 mm or
less/year) coupled with late onset and early cessation of rains or prolonged dry spells during crop
season, subsistence/conventional farming, lack of improved technology, soil salinity or
alkalinity, water and soil erosion, low productivity of cattle and lack of fodder and minimum
crop yields. These situations result in socioeconomic constraints such as, poverty, illiteracy and
poor standard of living. In reality, concerted efforts for maintaining sustainability in these areas
are urgently needed.

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Sustainability in agriculture

Sustainable agriculture is often restricted to conventional/traditional farming and creates

confusion. In fact, it helps to improve soil health by integrating all possible measures so that crop
productivity is maintained for a longer time. According to United Nations Development
Programme, sustainable development means national food security, upgrading living standard of
farmers, and conservation of the natural resources. Therefore, various traditional and modern
methods of cultivation are included in sustainable agriculture. Nevertheless, unless scientific
agriculture is practiced, average per capita income will not attain to a desirable level and
disparity between rich and poor would widen further. For example, government declared in
1999-2000 the population below poverty line (BPL = $ 1/day) at 28.6 per cent whereas
international survey reported it at 35.3 per cent ($1/ day) and 80.6 per cent ($2/day) (World
Development Report, 2005). Similarly, the National Sample Survey Organization reported the
average per capita expenditure of Rs. 503 only (lowest being Rs. 225 in Madhya Pradesh); of
which 50 per cent is spent on food alone. These figures denote the present economic status of
farmers‘ families in dry land areas where 60 per cent of the potential remains unexploited for the
future needs. Poverty alleviation may be possible only when more broad based approach of
village improvement reaches out to these people. With introduction of the Green Revolution
(GR) in Indian agriculture in the seventies, there had been considerable increase in crop
production from 50-8 m t in post-independence period to 210 m t in 2000. Unfortunately, its
success had been confined to few states and few crops probably because of vast heterogeneity
reflected to15 agro-ecological zones. Subsequently, the growth rate lowered from 3.54 per cent
in 1980 to1.92 per cent in 2000-01, and share of agriculture that contributes roughly 23 per cent
to the national Gross Domestic Product (GDP) has been falling consistently over the last years,
which is attributable to number of farming challenges. For example, high cost of farm inputs and
nearly stagnant market price of harvested produce made the dry land cultivation unprofitable. In
future, sustainable agriculture should be improved and farmers should be encouraged to adopt
proper technologies and not to abandon crop cultivation particularly in dry land areas.

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Current situation

Overuse of land:

The available cultivable land is presently overused mainly due to fragmentation, e.g. nearly a
half of the population in farming communities own only 0.01-0.04 ha of land, respectively
(Table 1). These lands had been exploited through intensive agriculture introduced during GR
era. Cropping system with monoculture became predominant as it replaced the traditional
systems intercropping, mixed cropping, crop rotations, and made the soil infertile. Fields were
used for 2-3 crops/year without rest. This system yielded in higher production and greater profits
than in conventional farming but failed to sustain for a longer time. Also, this concept was
successful only in fields of progressive farmers who could cope up with yield losses and natural
calamities.

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Low crop productivity:

Although soil fertility decreased to a greater extent, farm inputs are not applied in required
quantity and at proper stage of plant growth natural calamities are frequent. As a result, crop
production remains standstill. The average productivity of major crops is below global average
(Table 2) even after putting some wasteland under cultivation and with irrigation facilities.

Looking at the present situation of availability of food and fodder, it is evident that requirement
for essential goods and foods has increased and it would be difficult to feed ever-increasing
population of over 109 crore because the population is growing at 1.9 per cent annually as
against the 1.5 per cent growth in food grain production. At present, food availability is only 400
g per capita against normal quota of 500 g and pulses (major source of protein) are available only
at 26 g per capita. Country may therefore face the hunger due to non-availability of essential
foods. Also, farmers need income support through agriculture although a fourth of the rural
population is landless and needs help to survive.

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Market imperfection, and lack of capital and industrialization:

With international agreement signed by the government for liberalization, globalization and
privatization of the trade and commerce through World Trade Organization (WTO), it is now
imperative for Indian Government to follow certain guidelines to enter in the international
market/trade. In India, import of various items including those based on agriculture and related
fields has nearly doubled during last decade, e.g. US $23.32 billion in 1994 to US $ 42.2 billion
in 2000. On the contrary, export is export Argentina. It means some of the developing countries
are ahead of India. Under such circumstances, national economy may be jeopardized and may
face difficulties to compete with other developing and developed countries. Imbalance between
prices of farm inputs and market sale: With GR philosophy, farmers have become totally
dependent on others. Unless they buy these inputs, land cultivation is impossible. The «
Swadeshi Movement » had disappeared fast and farmers have to buy at least seeds, fertilizers and
pesticides at enormous price. Apart from these inputs, labour cost has gone up in rural areas also.
To compensate these costs, farmers expected the proportionate rise in the Minimum Support
Price (MSP) of farm produce and commodities but again they were disappointed as input rates
are increasing every year reaching up to 300 per cent whereas prices of farm produce increased
up to 60 per cent. It means some of the developing countries are ahead of India. Under such
circumstances, national economy may be jeopardized and may face difficulties to compete with
other developing and developed countries. Imbalance between prices of farm inputs and market
sale: With GR philosophy, farmers have become totally dependent on others. Unless they buy
these inputs, land cultivation is impossible. The « Swadeshi Movement » had disappeared fast
and farmers have to buy at least seeds, fertilizers and pesticides at enormous price. Apart from
these inputs, labour cost has gone up in rural areas also. To compensate these costs, farmers
expected the proportionate rise in the Minimum Support Price (MSP) of farm produce and
commodities but again they were disappointed as input rates are increasing every year reaching
up to 300 per cent whereas prices of farm produce increased up to 60 per cent.

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Inadequate loan facilities:

Marginal and small farmers earn and live. No extra amount is generally generated for savings.
Under such situation, they borrow cash from money lenders in the villages for planting of next
year crops. If natural calamities occur during the period of crop cultivation and crop failure is
eminent, they again borrow money for necessary field operations and family expenses. At
present, loan facilities by govt. agencies, nationalized and cooperative banks are available only in
towns and at quite higher interest rates. Farmers are therefore unable to repay the loans to avail
the new loans as the terms and conditions are dictated by financial firms.

Lack of extension at grass root level:

Awareness and provision of information on new/ improved technologies of crop production is

very poor among farmers. The interaction between farming community and research institutions
and development agencies seems to be too weak to reach the recent technologies at the grass-root
level. Though the results under controlled conditions are better, the same potential could not be
attained in farmers‘ fields (Table 4). It means that innovation does not take place in tune with
ground reality. Probably because firstly, only 0.9% of the farmers have access to information
from Krishi Vigyan Kendras, Agricultural extension farms and village libraries. Secondly,
experimental farms operate without constraints of capital, land and inputs.

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Future needs

Any cropping system comprising crops with varied maturity period, crop canopy, high yielding
potential is today‘s need for an average farmer. Single crop system consisting of red gram,
cluster beans, frenchbeans, castor, setaria, groundnut, pearl millet, ragi, mustard, sunflower are
best suited. However, several cropping systems depending upon the soil type, total rainfall and
commencement of the rains in the region have to be executed (Table 5, 6, 7) so that soil and
water conservation, full utilization of ground water, maintenance of soil fertility is possible.
Although the cropping systems would depend upon the agro-climatic factors, it is certainly
profitable to adopt double cropping, intercropping and mixcropping since these systems help to
increase land use efficiency. In fact, any cropping system comprising crops with varied maturity
period and crop canopy, having high yield potential is today‘s need in dry land areas where
double crop system proved to be potential and cost-effective.

Intercropping :

helps to enrich soil fertility, retain soil moisture, reduce the incidence of weeds, pests and
diseases, make fodder available throughout year fodder, and to obtain additional money. . The
recommended intercrops with number of rows are as follows, The recommended intercrops with
number of rows are as follows, The recommended intercrops with number of rows are as
follows: Cotton : green gram/black gram (1 :1), Sorghum : green gram/pigeon pea (3 :3),Pigeon
pea : green gram/ black gram (1 :2 or 2 :4), Pigeon pea : Soybean (1 :2), Cotton :sorghum :
pigeon pea : sorghum (6 :1 :2 :1), Pearl millet: pigeon pea (2:1), Sunflower: pigeon pea (2:1 or
2:2), Pigeon pea: cluster bean (1:2), Sorghum: pigeon pea (2:1), Castor: cluster bean/ridge gourd
(1:2) The present overgrazing is leading to land degradation. On the contrary, number of
cattle/village is decreasing because India has 20 per cent of the world‘s livestock population (450
million) but only 13 m ha of grazing land is available.

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 Policies for sustainable Agriculture in India

Environmental Challenges in Indian Agriculture

The challenge for Indian agriculture, to put simply, is to increase production, while minimizing
environmental impact. This includes conserving and protecting the quality of the resources that
determine the performance of agriculture like land, water and air. Reductions in yield, although
determined by many factors, may be partially a consequence of land and water exploitation.
Land degradation5 is one major constraint for Indian agriculture. By the early 1980s
approximately 53 percent (173.6 million hectares) of India‘s geographical area had been
considered degraded according to the Ministry of Agriculture (GoI, 2001a): Water logging
affected about 6 percent of the cultivated area, while alkali and acidic soils both affected about 3
percent. The major process of land degradation is soil erosion (due to water and wind erosion)
contributing to over 71 percent of the land degradation (GoI 2001a). Data compiled by the
National Remote Sensing Agency (NRSA) indicated that 15 percent of India‘s total geographical
area was comprised of degraded cultivatable wasteland6 (NRSA 2000). One third of this land
was degraded by human activities, while nearly one half was degraded by a combination of
human and natural causes (NRSA 2000). Chadha et al. (2004) found a negative and significant
negative relationship between land degradation and foodgrain productivity in both the 1980s and
1990s. Water is another major constraint for Indian agriculture. Agriculture, through irrigation,
accounted for 83 percent of the total water use in the country during 1990 (Vyas 2003). During
the Green Revolution period water consumption in agriculture rose sharply as the net irrigated
area increased from 31.1 to 54.68 million hectares between 1970-71 and 2000-01, while the area
irrigated more than once per year increased from 7.09 million to 20.46 million hectares during
the same period. Groundwater, one of the India‘s major sources for irrigation7 , is being rapidly
depleted. The number of dark blocks (taluk or mandals), where groundwater extraction is more
than 85 percent of the availability, increased from 253 to 428 out of over 5700 blocks between
1984-85 and 1998-99 (GoI 2002). The problem of groundwater depletion has been reported from
rainfed states like Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, Rajastan, Madhya Pradesh, Chattisgarh and
Gujarat. The introduction of modern technology based agricultural systems, in addition to
encouraging increased water usage, meant the application of inputs like chemical fertilizers,

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chemical pesticides and high yielding varieties (HYVs) . Fertilizer application rose more than
five-fold between 1970 and 2002 to 17360 thousand tonnes. Imbalanced proportioning8 of
chemical nutrients is a major problem associated with fertilizer application in India. Pesticide
consumption increased from 24.32 million tonnes in 1970-71 to 46.2 million tonnes in 1999-00,
with a peak application of 75.42 million tonnes during 1988-89 (CSE 1999). High yielding seed
varieties have lead to mono-cropping of certain grains reducing farmers‘ cropping flexibility and
reducing agricultural biodiversity. Although, the Indian government has recognized the necessity
of managing and conserving resources for agricultural development since the First Five Year
Plan9 , the measures initiated have been inadequate. For example, the government‘s efforts have
only been able to regenerate 17.28 percent of the total degraded area (173.6 million hectares; GoI
2001a). India‘s National Agricultural Policy (NAP) (GoI 2000) has stressed the importance of
management and conservation of resources by stating that, ‗the policy will seek to promote
technically sound, economically viable, environmentally nondegrading, and socially acceptable
use of country‘s natural resources – land, water and genetic endowment to promote sustainable
development of agriculture‘. The Central and state governments have initiated several measures
to promote sustainable agricultural development. The NAP stated that improving the quality of
land and soil, rational utilisation and conservation of water, and sensitizing the farming
community to environmental concerns would receive high priority (GoI 2000). The Tenth Five
Year Plan (GoI 2002), for 2002 through 2007, has put emphasis on natural resource management
through rainwater harvesting, groundwater recharging measures and controlling groundwater
exploitation, watershed development, treatment of waterlogged areas. With regard to application
of agricultural inputs like fertilizer and pesticides, the Plan stated that factors such as imbalanced
use of nitrogenous (N), phosphatic (P) and postassic (K), increased deficiency of micronutrients
and decreased soil organic carbon would be addressed through a holistic agri-environmental
approach stressing Integrated Plant Nutrient and Pest Management. Further, the Tenth Plan
document recognizes organic farming as a ‗thrust area‘ in the sustainable use and management of
resources in agriculture.

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Promoting organic farming in india

Realizing the challenges facing Indian agriculture, the Central and state governments, non-
governmental organisations, civil society groups and concerned individuals are promoting
organic farming. Economic and environmental factors have motivated the Indian Government to
promote organic farming. Perhaps, its major motivator in encouraging organic farming is to
capitalize on the burgeoning global organic market, which was estimated at US$ 23 billion in
200210. The global market for organic products is expected to grow over the medium term from
10 to 30 percent (Yussefi and Willer 2002, as quoted in Garibay and Jyoti 2003). There is a large
gap between the supply and demand of various organic products. This vast market opportunity,
combined with high price premiums of organic products over conventional products, has
attracted many developing countries, including India, to encourage organic farming. The Indian
Government has initiated various promotional activities, such as setting up a National Institute of
Organic Farming in Ghaziabad, Uttar Pradesh in 2003, appointment of accreditation and
certifying agencies for organic farm products, developing norms for certifying organic products
and providing financial support to implement promotional activities for organic farming. Many
state governments have also encouraged farmers to adopt organic farming, by including organic
farming as a component in their State Agricultural policies. The Governments of Maharashtra,
Karnataka, Madhya Pradesh, Gujarat, Tamil Nadu and Kerala have included organic farming in
their agricultural policies. Karnataka and Maharashtra have provided Rs. 20 crores and Rs. 10
crores respectively for promoting organic method, and Uttaranchal and Mizoram have declared
themselves "fully organic farming states" (Venkateshwarlu 2004). The Kerala Government also
has launched a programme and policy for ―Organic Sustainability of Kerala‖ or ―Jaivakeralam‖
to promote and popularize organic farming. The Government stated that it would compensate
losses during conversion period, besides extending its support to farmers in certification, organic
manure production and marketing (Surendranath 2003). Apart from State initiatives, many
farmers have shifted to organic farming either on their own accord or with support from NGOs
and civil society groups. Farmers‘ motivations for shifting from intensive practices to organic
practices are various. A survey conducted in Gujarat and Karnataka revealed that three factors
influenced farmers‘ transition to organic farming: (1) Environmental problems associated with
intensive agriculture; (2) Institutional factors, such as NGOs intervention (3) Own initiatives by
farmers owing to philosophical influence (Puttaswamaiah 2005).

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Extent of Indian Organic Area and Production

Currently, the extent of certified organic farming in terms of area and production is small in
India. The total area covered by certified organic farms in the country is about 37050 hectares,
which accounts for about 0.03 percent of the total agricultural area, while the total number of
farmers is about 5147 (Willer and Yussefi 2004). In comparison to the total agricultural
production of over 200 million tonnes, the country produced only about 14000 tonnes of organic
food products from about 1426 certified organic farms (Brook and Bhagat 2004). Many crops are
however cultivated under organic farming methods in the country (GoI 2001b): 1. Cereals:
wheat, paddy, jowar, bajra, maize 2. Pulses: pigeonpea, chickpea, greengram, blackgram, chana
3. Oilseeds: groundnut, castor, mustard, sesame 4. Commodities: cotton, sugarcane, particularly
for sugarcandy (gur) 5. Spices: ginger, turmeric, chillies, cumin 6. Plantation crops: tea, Coffee,
Cardamom 7. Fruits: banana, sapota, custard apple and papaya 8. Vegetables: tomato, brinjal,
cucurbits, cole crops, leafy vegetables Although organic in the sense of non-chemical farming is
obviously not new in India, in its modern sense it is a recent development. The majority Indian
farmers have not adopted the intensive green revolution technologies, particularly in some of the
north and northeastern states and in that sense have been described as being ‗organic by default‘
(Brook and Bhagat 2004). This is often because of modern inputs are unaffordable or farmers
prefer to farm in their traditional manner. Despite the lack of chemicals, however, their methods
of farming are not necessarily inherently sustainable. With regard to this point, the IFOAM‘s
Hanoi Declaration stated: ‗the Asian history of agriculture spanning into thousands of years is in
deep connection with cultural and ecological diversity, but the erstwhile colonial rule as well as
misdirected policies have undermined this balance‘ (GoI 2001b). The requirement of strict
adherence to the procedures of modern organic farming and certification of the product keeps
large number of ―organic by default‖ Indian farmers outside the brand labeled by modern organic
practices. Few empirical farm-level studies have been done in India to examine the productivity
and profitability of organic farming as compared to ―organic by default‖ or input-intensive
conventional farming. In terms of cotton cultivation, field trials have been done by the Central
Institute for Cotton Research (CICR), Nagpur. The results suggest that during the first one or two
years following conversion, yields were much smaller than control group non-organic yields;
however, in subsequent years yields were similar and even higher than nonorganic yields (CICR

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2000). The CICR report (2000) notes that organic cultivation improved soil health, reduced
environmental pollution and the cost of cultivation.

Organic Certification and Marketing in India

As organic farming is making only a small dent in Indian agricultural practices in the recent
years, market for organic products remains at an evolutionary stage. Organic outlets are sure to
be found in major urban centres like Mumbai, Bangalore, Delhi, Chennai, Hyderabad, and
Ahmedabad. In smaller centers the coverage is spotty and the market often non-existent. To be
branded ―organic‖ produce must go through several procedures from field to market, unlike the
traditional produce. These procedures are outlined in the Central Government‘s norms and
standards for certifying organic products, which are equivalent to international standards of the
FAO (Codex Alimentarius) for preparation and marketing of organic products. The Ministry of
Commerce has identified six organisations as accreditation agencies of organic products, they are
(1) Agricultural and Processed Food Products Export Development Authority (APEDA), (2) Tea
Board, (3) Spices Board, (4) Coconut Development Board, (5) Directorate of Cashew and Cocoa,
and (6) Coffee Board. These accreditation boards give permission to certifying agencies for
certifying organic products, following the prescribed norms. Certification through these boards
and agencies has been made compulsory, particularly for export market, as ‗the Government of
India has issued a public notice according to which no certified organic products may be
exported unless they are certified by an inspection and certifying agency duly accredited by one
of the accreditation agencies designated by the Government of India‘ (Garibay and Jyoti, 2003).
Several certifying agencies are functioning in India. The growth of organic farming is dependent
on market development, both international and domestic. Currently most of the Indian organic
production is sent for export. The domestic market consumes only about 7.5 percent of the
organic production (Garibay and Jyoti, 2003). However, it is projected that the domestic organic
market will increase by 49 percent by 2006-07 (1568 tonnes) over 2002 (1050 tonnes) (Garibay
and Jyoti, 2003). India has a comparative advantage as compared to northern countries, in the
production of many agricultural products, such as tea, spices, coffee, fruits and vegetables, rice
and ayurvedic herbs (Garibay and Jyoti, 2003). As such, India has been promoting organic
produce for export markets. Particularly since, relative to domestic market, demand is higher
internationally. The export market for Indian products is expected to rise by 80 percent by 2006-

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07 (21525 tonnes) over 2002 (11925 tonnes) (Garibay and Jyoti, 2003). Despite the relatively
small domestic demand, organic products can command price premiums in Indian markets. For
instance, in Mumbai the price of organic products have been reported to almost double the price
of conventional agricultural products (Garibay and Jyoti 2003). Internationally, the price
premiums obtained for organic products generally ranges between 30 to 50 percent (trade level)
(Garibay and Jyoti 2003). Clearly, organic farming in its modern sense is taking hold in India for
both financial and environmental reasons. The growth in the next years has been projected to be
significant – however there are clearly major challenges facing the Indian organic movement.

Challenges for Indian Organic Farming

Organic farming in the Indian context has to resolve several issues at both micro and macro
level. The micro level issues confronting organic farming include economic viability,
particularly for small and marginal farmers, marketing, etc. For example, one of the greatest
barriers for organic farming is the so-called conversion period due to the direct and indirect
costs. The conversion of a conventional farm to an organic farm requires strictly adhering the
rules and 23 standards of production, processing and labeling at prescribed international levels.
During the conversion period all the standards required for certifying a product as ‗organic‘ must
be fulfilled and verified by a certifying agency. Costs due to things such as information,
marketing charges, inspection and certification expenses also increase the cost of organic
farming. For instance, fees for the inspection and certification can be prohibitively high at Rs.
5000, since this equals the returns from agriculture for many small farmers (Brook and Bhagat
2004). The often reduced yields of organic farming, as compared to conventional farming
particularly during the conversion period before soil nutrients and organic matter are replenished
with biofertilizers, are an additional liability to the farmer. Particularly during the conversion
period when the products are not certified as organic, and thus, they cannot be sold at the organic
market price. Farmers often incur expenditures for things such as farm machinery, bunding,
purchase of bioinputs to augment soil fertility and yield. In addition, various barriers like
transaction costs (lack of access to relevant knowledge on cultivation practices, market),
mandatory documentation required for inspection and certification, lack of demand in domestic
market and constraints to enter international market and institutional factors restrict the spread of
organic farming (Das 2004). The macro challenges include impacts mainly on food security,

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employment , and environment. The question of food security assumes significance considering
potential yield reductions of organic farming vis-à-vis conventional farming, particularly in the
two to three year conversion period. Given India‘s history of inadequate food production, it is
necessary to examine food security related issues, taking into account the large number of
marginal and small farmers, before organic farming is promoted en masse. Another macro
dimension of promoting organic farming is its impacts on rural employment. Organic farming is
expected to increase employment opportunities owing to requirement of producing various
agricultural inputs, like bio-fertilisers and bio-pesticides, using locally available materials. The
scope for increased employment opportunities needs to be assessed at the regional and national
level. From the environmental point of view, apprehensions have been raised that organic
farming might also lead to unsustainable problems, due to increased land and water use to offset
decreases in yield. Considering the Indian case, even in organic practices water conservation
must ultimately remain the paramount concern. Considering the various challenges to the
adoption of oCommission (GoI 2001b) suggested examination of some important issues for
effective promotion and practice of organic farming and sustainable agriculture. These include,
economics of organic crop production, economic and environmental externalities associated with
conversion to organic farming, comparative study of chemical based and organic farming
covering social, environmental and economic costs rganic farming the Working Group on
Organic and Bio-dynamic Farming of the Planning.

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 Conclusion
The central state government should provide farmers who are ready to practice with improved
technologies, should establish remunerative marketing links for sale of farm produce, introduce
strong extension activities, impart training to progressive farmers, initiate post-harvest
processing of farm produce etc. Special attention to disaster management is needed particularly
in the hilly areas and drought-prone zones. - Improvement in the existing infrastructure facilities
such as, electricity supply, meteorologicalstations, irrigation resources would encourage farmers
to cultivate farms in dry land areas. For this, it is expected that government may create a separate
department for dry land agriculture to do research and development although Central Research
Institute for Dryland Agriculture, International Crops Research Institute for the Semi-Arid
Tropics and other institutions are actively participating in farmer-oriented programs. - Working
of Agri-clinics in selected villages should be able to solve farmers‘ difficulties by ―on spot
examination‖ and give recommendations to farmers. - There is urgency to assess systematically
the economic and social status relevant to local needs, conditions and resources. This study
would reveal the ways and means to make agriculture not only sustainable but also as profitable
business. Farmers are apt to follow the recommendations from all concerned agencies and
institutions for the crop management practices. Concerted and intensive efforts are however
needed from farming communities and government agencies, non-government organizations and
farmers‘ cooperative societies. This strategy would certainly fulfill the dreams of drown-trodden
villagers including farmers through integrated village development.

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 References
 http://www.researchjournal.co.in/upload/assignments/5_1-7-11.pdf
 http://gidr.ac.in/pdf/WP-162.pdf

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