Revista Educatia Plus

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Year: 2010
Volume: VI
Number: 2
Month: December
http://scipio.ro/en/web/educatia-plus
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JOURNAL PLUS EDUCATION

A BIANNUAL INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL
PUBLISHED BY
“AUREL VLAICU” UNIVERSITY EDITING HOUSE, ARAD
ISSN 1842-077X
E- ISSN 2068–1151
Journal Plus Education (JPE) is a biannual peer-reviewed journal,

issued by the Faculty of Educational Sciences, Psychology and Social
Work, “AUREL VLAICU” UNIVERSITY, ARAD
JPE is classified by CNCSIS in B+ category
Journal Plus Education can be also found on the following editorial platform:
SCIPIO – SCIENTIFIC PUBLISHING & INFORMATION
Romanian Editorial Platform:
http://scipio.ro/en/web/educatia-plus
INDEXING & COVERAGE

• Ulrich’s
• IndexCopernicus
• EBSCO
• DOAJ
EDITORIAL NOTE: This issue is a Proceedings of International

Symposium Research and Education in Innovation Era, 3rd
Edition, Arad, November 11-12, 2010, Sciences of Education Section
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JPE Board
Editorial Board Members

Editor-in-chief: Assist.Prof. Gabriela KELEMEN, Ph.D.
Scientific manager: Prof. Anton ILICA, Ph.D.
Scientific Committee (in alphabetical order):

Yolanda BENITO, Ph.D., Huerta del Ray University, (Spain);
Muşata BOCOŞ, Ph.D., “Babes-Bolyai” University of Cluj-Napoca
(Romania);
Iohann DAMMA, Ph.D., University of Viena (Austria);
Grozdanka GOJKOV, Ph.D., member of the Educational Academy of
Virset (Serbia);
Dorin HERLO, Ph.D., “Aurel Vlaicu” University of Arad (Romania);
Lizica MIHUŢ, Ph.D., “Aurel Vlaicu” University of Arad (Romania);
Nicolae MITROFAN, Ph.D., University of Bucharest (Romania);
Catherine SELLENET, Ph.D., University of Nantes (France);
Matei ŞIMĂNDAN, Universitatea „Aurel Vlaicu” Arad;
Svetlana KURTES Ph.D., University of Cambridge, (United Kingdom)
Associate Editors:
Constantin CHEVERESAN, Ph.D. - University of the West, Timisoara
(Romania);
Patricia DAVIES, PhD. - Project Director, EUCEN (Great Britain);
Calin DRAGOI, PhD. – Pedagogue Gemeinnützige Schottener Reha
Ltd. (Germany).
Disclaimer:
The Editorial Board reserve the right to correct possible spelling
errors.
The authors assume responsibility for the contents of the materials
published.
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CONTENTS
DOLCETA: on-line consumer education – an innovative tool for teachers and

educators.............................................................................................................................9
By Patricia Davies
Pedagogy – „The Science of Education”- a speculative analysis of the concept -.15
By Anton Ilica
Facilitating the Transition from Residential Care into the Foster Care, Families
and into Community-Based Social Services. Changing Role of Families and
Social Care Staff..............................................................................................................25
By Calin Dragoi
Quality criteria for curriculum developers.................................................................45
By Dorin Herlo
L'Éducatrice de la Maternelle en Contexte de Crèche.............................................57
By Maria de Lourdes Cró, Ana Mafalda Pinho
Peer mediation: conflict as an opportunity of change ..............................................65
By Catarina Morgado, Isabel Oliveira
Methodology and Method in Scientific Research......................................................73
By Matei Şimandan
The formation of habits – the formation of reflexes..................................................81
By Gheorghe Schwartz
Developing intra and interpersonal competences in learning situations...............88
By Alina Roman
Personality profiles and risk behaviours in students from universities in Timis
county, Romania .............................................................................................................97
By Cristina Petrescu, Brigitha Vlaicu, Oana Suciu, Sorin Ursoniu, Adina
Bucur, Ionuţ Radu, Poesis Petrescu
Implement the transformative learning theory through Dolceta Project.......... 107
By Dorin Herlo
Methodological controversies and teaching process.............................................. 115
By Aleksandar Stojanovic
A new adaptive teaching method for engineering school...................................... 124
By Dorin Isoc, Teodora Isoc
Types of values - theoretical and practical perspectives........................................ 132
By Tiberiu Dughi
From Teaching to Learning....................................................................................... 141
By Gabriela Kelemen
Development of general and specific skills required for teaching activity ........ 152
By Evelina Balaş
Modern Toys - Way to Neverland .......................................................................... 159
By Miodrag V. Vuković
Modern strategies for teaching-learning of intercultural education................... 169
By Cosmin Valentin Blândul
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European Education: perspectives on the assessment ...........................................175
By Irina Maciuc
Conceptual delimitations regarding pedagogical competenc(i)e(s)......................189
By Andreia Irina Suciu, Liliana Mâţă
Role of rhetoric in the development of speech skills ...............................................201
By Ružica Petrović
Education and teaching ...............................................................................................207
By Laurenţiu Leucea
Style of managing teaching process as classroom management determinator..211
By Ante Kolak
Cultural diversity and minorities’s dynamics in the local and central press......219
By Andra Seceleanu, Cristina Gelan, Elena Predescu
Learning Approaches in Higher Education.............................................................230
By Camelia-Nadia Bran
Research concerning psychological abilities of the successful school manager..241
By Corneliu Novac
About school network decentralization in Gorj county.........................................246
By Vasile Liviu Andrei
Creativity Enhancement for Preschoolers through Mathematical Games........253
By Gheorghe Cheta, Vasilica Niculescu
Entrepreneurial competences from syntegrative perspective...............................262
By Alina Gîmbuţă
European and national educational policies between reality and expectations at
the level of adulthood....................................................................................................273
By Letitia Trif
Educators training tools annalysis and processing in elaboration and
implementing of some efficient managerial approach alternatives......................281
By Anca Petroi
Bloom’s taxonomy – valences and utility in pedagogical practice........................289
By Maria-Monica Popescu-Mitroi
Complementarity between the elements of moral education and religious
education ........................................................................................................................301
By Ionuţ Vlădescu
Multi - and intercultural education and its challenges...........................................314
By Adela Militaru, Andreia Nicoleta Maxim
Ultimele apariţii editoriale primite la redacţie: .......................................................320

Journal Plus Education, ISSN: 1842-077X, E-ISSN (online) 2068 – 1151
Vol VI (2010), No. 2, pp. 9-14
DOLCETA: on-line consumer education – an innovative

tool for teachers and educators
P. Davies
Patricia Davies
Project Director, EUCEN
Text and practical examples drawn from http://www.dolceta.eu
All EU countries and languages are available
Abstract: Why Consumer Education

Consumers of all ages need Consumer Education
We live in a consumer society. Consumption is an important
part of our everyday life and takes a significant proportion of
our money and of our time. This consumer society is changing
very quickly. During the last 60 years consumers have faced
major changes in their lifestyles and consumption habits due to
differing cultural, social, economical and technical influences.
The increasing mobility of populations, production, symbols,
money and information modifies identities and alters loyalties.
This has led to individuals constructing their identities in more
and different ways than previously. Consuming is for most
individuals a ‘natural’ and accepted way to construct identity –
“I am what and how I shop!”
This development has on the other hand created the need
for consumers who can interpret relevant information and
complex, sophisticated corporate messages in order to make
informed and prudent choices.
Due to the enormous amount of products available and to
the variation in the quality of products, consumers may not be
able to meet their personal needs effectively and commercial
development constantly creates new artificial needs. Not all
consumers will critically filter influences from industry and
from the advertising sector. Citizens need information and
education and an awareness of the difference between real and
perceived needs and how to be selective to truly match their
needs.
Copyright © 2004-2010 by ”Aurel Vlaicu” University Press
10 P. Davies
Rapid changes and potential risks in consumption make it

essential for the consumer to consider the consequences of their
consumption.
Keywords: consumer, education, innovative, tools, mobility
Business needs Consumer Education

There is also a need for commercial interests to keep the confidence
of consumers. Consumers need information but also need education for
gaining the greatest benefit from the market, for controlling their finances
and for making rational choices in their consumption. Business should see
improved consumer education not as a threat but as a source of commercial
advantage. Consumers making better choices with higher expectations, can
have a positive effect on competitiveness if companies respond and improve
their products and services.
Society needs Consumer Education
Thorelli and Thorelli (1977) have argued that a free market economy
only can function effectively with the support of an educated consumer.
They state: “Only when at least some consumers are making intelligent
decisions some of the time can an open market economy serve the needs of
modern society.”
Consumer Education is seen as an important way to help balance the
power between producers and consumers.
Consumer education aims to encourage individuals to analyse and
make value-based decisions at a personal level in terms of needs and wants.
It can also help individuals to make decisions which may be concerned with
the wider community. It is the transferability of skills conferred by consumer
education which sets it apart from consumer information - enabling people to
use consumer information, so they ultimately make informed decisions.
Consumer education needs to start early in formal education
(primary and secondary schools), non-formal education and training (course,
seminars, activities in a range of learning environments e.g. youth clubs) and
informal education (indirectly though a range of activities for citizenship,
volunteering, and so on). The consumer associations as well as educators of
all kinds have a role to play here and are often involved at all levels.
Consumer education is concerned with the skills, attitudes and
knowledge required for living in a consumer society; it is inextricably linked
to the basic skills necessary for living. For some, the term consumer
education has a negative overtone - encouraging people to consume more.
On the contrary, consumer education is about promoting an understanding of
the structures and systems within the market, of the impact of individual and
DOLCETA: on-line consumer education … 11
collective consumer behaviour on the economy, on the environment and on

health, and of not only the responsibilities but the rights of consumers in a
national and European context.
And in the current economic crisis consumer education is more not
less important.
The objectives of consumer education
• to reflect on own needs, wants and resources in order to make
conscious consumer choices
• to develop the skills and knowledge necessary to make efficient
use of their personal resources
• to promote learners awareness of their role as a consumer and
how s/he interacts with the economy, society and environment
• to understand the rights as consumers in order to protect
themselves or seek redress if necessary
• to understand and to reflect the impact of information and
marketing methods on their consumer behaviour and consumer choice
• to raise consumers awareness of initial responsibility for
herself/himself, for community life and ultimately for national and global
developments
• to widen learners knowledge of consequences of consumer
behaviour on environment, economy and social life
• to help learners to cope with new technologies and changes in the
market places.
Topics and Core Competences in Consumer Education
Central topics of Consumer Education are those that are relevant for
every-day life and aim at developing the following core-competences:
• health competence (nutrition, movement, leisure time, …)
• financial competence (budgeting, prevention of debt, pocket
money,…)
• media competence(mobile phones, Internet-shopping,…)
• information competence (life-long-learning; handling
information,...)
• safety competence (safety in using products and services, food,
hygiene)
• legal competence (Knowledge of and use of consumer rights)
• purchasing competence (dependencies, influences, needs,…)
• sustainability competence(globalisation, resources, …).
Integrating Consumer Education into the teaching process
a) Teaching units specifically concerned with Consumer Education
12 P. Davies
Consumer Education can be planned as a subject of its own in a school

curriculum. It has to be stressed, however, that the cross-curricular references
must not be neglected.
The advantages of a proper subject/course are that the teaching is
easier to plan and it is easier to work on a broad spectrum of consumer-specific
topics. The new demands of the times and society, however, invariably make
ever new demands on schools and what they should provide. This is a
challenge for national school politics.
Consumer Education could also be offered as an optional subject.
Naturally, only those children who choose the option would benefit from the
course/subject.
b) Integrating Consumer Education into the curriculum
Integrating Consumer Education makes it possible for individual
subjects to relate to real life and to train skills and impart attitudes alongside
with subject knowledge. Consumer Education complements a subject with a
variety of possible methods.
Examples of possible approaches:
• Didactic units within a compulsory school subject e.g. Maths:
training skills on how to organize and manage one’s pocket money
• A project which addresses topics mainly from a Consumer
Education point of view; aims and contents of Consumer Education are the
focus but at the same time contents of Geography, Psychology, History are
included.
• A cross-curricular topic (e.g. city centres) is dealt with in different
subjects with the respective sub-topics. In the case of the example sub-topics
like economic concepts, living in city centres, leisure time activities etc. are
dealt with.
• A project covers both the core subjects of the curriculum and
elements specific to Consumer Education e.g. topic Energy: consumer relevant
aspects are taken into consideration - how to save energy, services of energy
providers
• Consumer Education is mediated through a single activity (e.g.
workshop)
c) Consumers Day (e.g. annual event)
Every year a new specific topic from the field of Consumer Education
is chosen as a topic for the whole school to work on. Representatives of the
community could be invited. The teachers’ expertise could be tested and used
in adult education courses. Regional businesses and services could also be
included in the concept.
d) Other activities
DOLCETA: on-line consumer education … 13
As an incentive for Consumer Education in schools the responsible

ministry can initiate activities together with the Ministry of Education, (e.g. in
Austria: „Young Consumer Award“ – http://www.bmsg.gv.at).
DOLCETA – a consumer education website
• For consumers, consumer organisations, adult education, SMEs
• For teachers in primary and secondary schools and adult educators
• Content and structure designed by international team of experts
• Developed by national teams (universities, consumer associations – range
of expertise) adapted to national legislation and culture
• Tested by real users during development phase in each MS
• Evaluated by international experts
• Annually maintained and updated
• Managed by EUCEN (European University Continuing Education
Network): www.eucen.org
• 28 country versions (2 in BE)
• In 21 languages
• Almost 700 experts
• 49 national teams
• More than 110.000 web pages
• 2.000 attached documents
• 5.600 interactive quizzes
• 1.7m hits up to September 2010 (and its not finished yet!)
Topics for consumers:
Consumer rights, Financial Services, Product safety, Sustainable consumption,
General services (transport, energy telecommunications), and Food safety
(coming soon)
• Structured information
• Practical examples
• Interactivity – games, quizzes, feedback
• Web links to further information
• Links to EU and national authorities
• Getting redress
• Glossary
• Further reading…
14 P. Davies
What DOLCETA has to offer teachers

There are two main parts to the national homepage:
1) By clicking on the icons in the Teachers’ Corner you can access a
variety of lesson plans, fact sheets, resources or tools (e.g. worksheets,
PowerPoints, games, web links). These target different age groups and many
curriculum areas, such as home economics, maths, sciences, technology,
textiles, business, languages, health and citizenship. There are also
introductions to curriculum theory and implementation in the areas of
consumer, finance and sustainable consumption.
2) Clicking on the icons in the bottom row will lead you to hundreds
of articles on a range of consumer topics written with [NAME OF
COUNTRY] and the European aspect in mind. These include consumer
rights, financial services, product safety, sustainable consumption and services
of general interest (electricity, gas, transport and so on). Although the articles
target the general public, they also offer very useful background information
for teachers at all levels as you are planning your lessons, or as reference
material for your students.
The Dolceta website also has interactive quizzes which allow users
to have fun while learning. By clicking on the Quiz button in the horizontal
bar in the Homepage of every section you can access different types of quizzes
on a variety of related topics.
Topics for teachers:

Teaching Consumer Education; Introduction to Consumer
Education
The Why, How and What of Financial Education; Education for
Sustainable Consumption; Lesson Plans and Resources or Tools; Healthy and
Responsible Consumers; Healthy and Safe Consumers; Responsible
Consumers ; Using Services Wisely; Sustainable Consumption: Food and
Drink; Sustainable Consumption: At Home; Sustainable Consumption: Looking
Good ; Sustainable Consumption: Getting There ; Personal Finance; Finance
Management; Financial Literacy: Spending; Financial Literacy: Saving and investing;
Financial Literacy: Borrowing; Financial Literacy: Protecting and Insuring.
Vol VI (2010), No. 2, pp. 15-24
Pedagogy – „The Science of Education”

- a speculative analysis of the concept -
A. Ilica
Anton Ilica
„Aurel Vlaicu” University of Arad, Romania
The Faculty of Education, Psychology and Social Work
Abstract: I never set out to determine how to put up a

pedagogy of science education. I note that historically it had
difficulty enough to move away from philosophy (primarily),
then move away from the other two sciences: psychology and
sociology. However, four or five centuries ago, the evolution of
the new"science" had little chance of a rapid and authoritative
development, since every science needs a strong labor for
conceptual delineation to determine the "zone" that it theorize,
to establish principles and methods of analysis of spatial
reference. Finally, the pedagogy will need a sufficiently clear
distinction from psychology, a science oriented on grasping
human knowledge, including the young school apprentices.
Moreover, at least in the formative process of human, scientists
can build a science, which is not addressed to other scholars.
The area of education was mainly theorized by philosophers,
doctors, psychologists, sociologists, anthropologists, and, among
them, teachers have diminished their ambitions, not having a
scientific tradition observant enough. The lack of clear prospects
and of edifent successes and failure, the incapacity of
pedagogical theories to energize and vitalize the educational
beliefs and passions have created a distrust of any credible [1]
doctrine's opportunity to resolve the detail and depth of the
paideutic process.
When, finally, the pedagogy has defined its scope of knowledge
as opposed to the other human sciences, teachers have begun to
16 A. Ilica
usurp their own theoretical system and conceptual arsenal.

Accepting various borrowed views, they ignore a crucial fact: an
analysis (or experimental explanation) of the educational
process requires an abstraction, ie a doctrinal conceptualization.
They left this to the psychologists and sociologists who have
rebuilt the representation space and educational paradigms and
models. Therefore, in the "elite teachers, we can find names like
JJ Rousseau (writer), J. Piaget (physiologist and psychologist),
E. Durkheim (sociology), E. Kay, J. Dewey (psychologists), E.
Meumann ( psychologist), M. Montes (doctor), H. Maslow, D.
Goleman, H. Gardner (psychologists), or our Vaschide N., V.
Ghidionescu, D. Tudoran, E. Noveanu, V. Pavelcu, N.
Margineanu, Ion-Dobridor Negret, Radu Ion, Ion Al. Dumitru,
E. Bonchiş (psychologists).
Keywords: pedagogy theories, doctrinal conceptualization,
science education, perspective
The emergence of doctrines constructed from the perspective of the
social or the psychological was accompanied by the assimilation of a
borrowed terminology: curriculum, assessment, capability, management,
sintalitality, leadership training, goal etc. As teachers today we feel the
invasion over our field of analysis and activity - that of education - an entire
body of concepts, which describe the scientific issues with the support of
general education. We are allowed - something that doesn't happen in other
sciences - amateurism, but mostly we are allowed the freedom of scientists
from other fields of competence to make more representative suggestions
and more influential attitudes. I allow myselt, in this study, to draw attention
to the danger that usurps the confidence in the ability of teachers to dominate
with authority the scientific issues of education. In the case of "pedagogy"
and "education" not all are masters. As long as we leave others to solve the
field of education theoretically, we can not ignore the opinion of some that
"pedagogy is not a science." My intention is to draw attention to the
scientific responsibility of teachers.
1. Avatars of the concept. Pedagogy is in an epistemological
difficulty of demarcation, but also in terms of language teaching: "the
failures are due to the personalized configuration of information about
education, confusion, the ambiguity of certain concepts and definitions, the
unauthorized reduction or increase the meanings given to certain concepts,
excessive use of verbal cliches or of superconcentrated notions, removed in
content and form from the educational need." [2] A key flaw - the authors
Pedagogy – „The Science of Education”… 17
identified the quote above - is maintained by the language, by the invention

of language, by the strange codes that do not refer clearly enough to the
procedural field of education. The same danger is maintained by the
"saturation" to use a teaching speech without sufficient informational loading
(derived competences, a goal, curriculum, role and actor, evaluation,
performance, critical thinking and many others).
On the other hand, there is the tendency to dilute the general
epistemology in a teaching pedagogy extended to non-formal education,
self-education and adult education. In a broad definition, pedagogy is
intersected with didactics, which would make unnecessary the existence of
two words to describe the same reality of education [3]. There is even a
"generative model for explaining the concept of "science education system"
in which the word "pedagogy" hasn't got a place, ignoring the reality that it
would represent. In our opinion, the pedagogy is the science of education
and didactics is the teaching process. Teaching is a pedagogical science,
using the conceptual apparatus of general pedagogy.
The confusion sown by the title The Art and Science of Education
(1995) in Cesar Barzea's volume, lead, from its appearance, to reflection and
attitudes. Art has its somewhat subjective rigors and Science operates with
other demands, totally objective and rational. A copulative 'and' between
systematic reflections and aesthetic impressions about the educational
phenomenon was only an innocent challenge, which the author himself
isolates. General science pedagogy is speculative because it has won
"epistemic dignity", by fulfilling the conditions of the configuration logic of
science, says C. Cucos [4]:
• it has an object of questioning ("educational phenomenon");
• the type of investigative tools is methodological;
• it has principles and rules as regularities of the domain;
• gathers reflections in consistent theories.
A follower of the error made by some theorists of "jumping from
pedagogy to the sciences of education" [5](S. Cristea, C. Stork, etc.) is
teacher John Negret. The logical arguments justify the status of pedagogy as
an objective science, "a prescriptive regulatory scientific discipline", "fully
mature” [6]. At the same consensus, M. Bocos and D. Juncan (2008) [7]
believe that pedagogy is "integrative science of education, while
contemporary pedagogy as the reflection on education, is positioned in an
axiological-normative perspective and also has a theoretical, practical,
applicative and explanatory character.
One might identify other views of the Romanian educational
18 A. Ilica
literature, a reflection of the European or American ones. Unfortunately,

"pedagogy" didn’t even consolidate its place among the sciences than the
process of clear usurpation of the "teachers" begun, "by adopting a
proximate genus instead of logical definitions definition instead of the
definite, instead of the specific differences. The tendency to avoid the word
is unpleasant (and reality nominated) "pedagogy" from the system of
educational sciences, but also to challenge the ability to be a totally
speculative science (as in "Philology", "psychology", "sociology"
"Anthropology", "Biology"). Pedagogy is the science of education,
explaining the educational reality, based on general rules for appropriate
integration of the individual in society.
Pedagogy (general) is descriptive and normative, characteristics that
distinguish it from teaching, an applied discipline that uses the principles,
rules, models and pedagogical paradigms in educational practice. Pedagogy
can not be an annex to its seconded sciences (psychology, biology,
sociology, anthropology) or diluted in the impersonal array of "educational
sciences." The statements above do not exclude the intersections of the
human sciences (social and human) and even those of nature, but the status
of pedagogy in orchestrating the sciences that concern the fate of man in
universe can neither be challenged nor claimed. The former advocates in the
preservation of of pedagogy in the autonomous contemporary sciences
should be just those who serve the professional and scientific education.
2. Pedagogy and education. The need for a calm examination of
educational terminology is urgently required in order to decontaminate its
scientific territory from emotive statements, trivial ambiguity, scientific
inaccuracies or metaphysical expression. Language denotes a reality and
describes experiences; if a field of knowledge, as is that of education, can
afford to be theorized in abstractions and conclusions, then the logic of
language followes the logic of scientific defining. A thorough analysis of the
teaching language should begin with the determination of semantic
relationship between the dominant and denominated, namely between
education and pedagogy. Even in the texts of rigorous psychologists, persists
a negligent use of the word "education" instead of "pedagogy" and vice
versa. The confusion derives from a personal preference for a nuanced
speech (for others to the pedantry of "modernization" of terminology),
ignoring a fundamental logical rigor of perception. Replacing a relationship
with a theory on reality and the other way around and of the parareality with
reality itself resembles semantic doubt and suspicion. Defining pedagogy as
a science of education, science is given the status of being proportional,
logical, verbal and cognitive. In this position, pedagogy can claim the status
of science and, therefore, requires a clearly defined body of knowledge that
others might intersect (psychology, anthropology and sociology).
3. The teacher, as a scientist. As a scientist, the teacher is justified
to deliver primary and synthetic sentences about education. They have the
appearance of guiding principles and descriptive theories, valid for an
amount of realities and analyzed experiences. Education is a social process
that engages individuals and communities to improve personal and collective
behavior. Education is the training ground and the area of suggestibility for
pedagogy. When the teacher is dealing with the current processual issues of
education, he remains a descriptor of a social reality, in which language
games and have no restrictions. Such a teacher can provide solutions to some
of the structural components of education, under the umbrella of applied
didactics.
An authentic teacher designes a speculative theory, general for
education, suggesting a paradigm or building a theory. According to the
rigors of logic, a teacher can not allow any emotional statements or
moralistic preferences or amateurish linguistic inventions or deviations from
a logical structure. Starting from the idea that "current education doesn’t
satisfy”, the teacher will scientifically study the field of education and will
generate a theory that would change the relationship between domain
components. The validity of the theory would mean that "the new education
should satisfy”. Didactics waits for paradigmatic solutions from pedagogy.
4. The difficulties of pedagogy – as a science of education - is
based on the - justified - fear of not intersecting itself with its fellow sciences
which it barely managed to put away. Like psychology, philosophy,
sociology and anthropology, pedagogy aims at human issues, the human
condition. Philosophers have failed to provide a clear projection of the
development of man: "human condition defines the interconnection between
the psychological structure and the social one." [8] Every man is the result of
an ethos, and the educational is colored with its expressive fingerprints.
Education serves the collective behavior, transmitting mental and cultural
genetics to the new generation. It also suggests and creates facilities for the
enrichment (and improving) of genetics. A pedagogical model fits only an
education based on its representative ethos, excluding an imported vision,
even verified as effective.
Philosophers have the call "to provide teachers with the
configuration of a representative national ethos which the education should
reflect! They are intended to identify the profile specificity of the community
20 A. Ilica
(social, economic, cultural, behavioral) whose character and thinking we

intend to educate. "
School has a general function: to facilitate the integration of young
people in the society to which they belong. What happens outside the school,
in society, causes a continual chain of learning experiences and
development. Societal ethos causes adaptation "pressure" on youth, which
are too insistent to be ignored. Therefore, education is a much to complex
and individual process to enter an apriorical and apoftegmatică formula.
Pedagogy is reflected in a new error: will it be a science of general education
or is it a science of institutional education?
5. The systematic history of teaching patterns begins with [9] JA
Comenius (1592 - 1670), who designs a paradigm of organizing education as
"the arts to teach everyone everything." In this formula we notice the
manifestation of the Enlightenment vocation of creating a doctrine valid for
all times (Pansophia) and for all communities (panpaideia).
The main ameliorative suggestion to the comenian doctrine is the
doctrine of JJ Rousseau (1712 - 1778), which – in speculative phylosophing
- adds a variable: the compliance with "laws" of natural development of the
child's life. The purpose of education is to integrate naturally the child in a
society (or community) guided by an ethos or a collective psychology. The
integration is normative, and the child's natural development is based on its
inherited virtues.
The conflict between freedom and the normative in education has
not yet found a balance in any pedagogical theory. By indicating how to
rebuild a child's life so as to be desirable with the values shared by the
community, pedagogy can not discard accusations of manipulation. Through
education, we influence the "law" of the child's natural development.
Education conscienciously shapes the child’s positive developments in terms
of an ideal image, designed by the societal ethos. Changing the mentality of
the younger generation through cultural and organizational behavior of
society is a positive discrimination.
We prepare the speech of the second great reformer of pedagogy,
psychologist John Dewey (1859-1952). He says, "economic life underwent
three profound revolutions: the intellectual revolution through science; the
technical and industrial revolution in the social revolution through
democracy." John Dewey shares a pragmatic understanding from a
redefinition of "education." He believes that "all education is made through
the active participation of the individual to the social conscience of mankind.
This process begins, without being aware of it, almost at birth and it
continually models the individual’s powers, it strengthens its consciousness,
forming his habits, he awakens ideas, feelings and emotions." "Through

demands, the child is stimulated, said J. Dewey in" My Pedagogical Creed"
[10] (1897), to act as a member of a social unit, to release any of his original
habits and to evaluate himself on the basis of the happiness of the members
of the group to which he belongs. " We can not stop with the analysis of
Dewey's creed without selecting one more sentence: "Through the reactions
of others to his work, he (the child-nn) gets to know what they mean in social
terms." Dewey's pedagogical doctrine places education between psychology
(the child's own instincts and abilities) and sociology (social adaptation to the
environment as an "organic union of individuals"). Stimulating your child's
individual strengths and accommodating them to their social equivalents are
congruent attitudes. Therefore, in J. Dewey’s opinion, school is not
children’s preparation for life, but is the very process of life.
Current pedagogy delays in extending its preocupations beyond the
theorization of institutional education. Institutionalized education is achieved
through the promotion of political interests. We share the statements of some
ideologues who claim that society has a kind of school that represents its
interests. The school makes up the image and likeness of the community.
When institutional education is too far from the expectations of society,
pedagogy has the legitimacy to intervene. It also provides a paradigm for
normalizing the relationship between school and society. We are in such a
situation. The child's individual satisfaction and the social experiences of the
community do not provide a sufficiently secure existential comfort. Current
pedagogy does not provide sufficiently coherent and structured solutions,
although teaching has the availability to apply procedures for the spiritual
development of the generation in training. The effect of the congruence of
the two sciences is represented by education, in the form of a summary value
that each one treats to young to join the collective spiritual architecture.
6. Normativity and cultural value
Any rigurous theory is based on normativity. Pedagogy deals with
norms, principles, causalities, which have their bases on education’s
filosophy. The assumed norms watch that the spiritual and biological
evolution of the youngster can recommend him as a harmonious personality,
with a balanced psychologic life and morality structured by society.
Cognitive, esthetical, moral education are fragments of personality. The
relation between this synergist behaviours functions in congruency,
descending dynamically to crystallization of the personality’s centre.
On the other hand, culture is the cause, but it should be the aim of
education. Through culture is released the educative process, becoming the
22 A. Ilica
primary aim of this process: „cultural values are causes from the angle of
young generations, - which are integrating in the rhythm of culture”. A
balanced pedagogical docrine [11 ] structures in a coherent manner the
capacity (institutional and uninstitutional) of society to let the harmonization
of a satisfying individual biophysiology and resposible with social
represantation. She would be responsible of aspiration for a free assertion of
the individual, and of social obligations, norms of good cohabitations
required by the values of the group. The balance between the common duties
and personal liberty would represent the idea of pedagogical doctrine, able to
suggest an educative configuration conform with individual aspirations and
with the requirements of a comunity.
Current era - so complex by the globalization of information (which
allows anyone, anytime to identify or to differentiate) - requires a different
type of pedagogical discourse. The teacher doctrinaire surpasses the
didactician condition. Teaching is concerned with the programmatic
organization of institutionalized education. The current teacher, through his
speculative attitude, will generate an integrated educational system, aimed to
create an integral and integrated person. His theory will be that of the unified
man, seen as fully developed and complex.
7. The ideational support of a pedagogical project
The "seven years at home", the "school education" and "the
professional activity" don’t have a configuration from the point of view of
behavior sciences. Education expects teachers to provide a guiding principle,
but especially a paradigm (a model that is) by which to rank the actions. If
pedagogy wants to remain a science (of education), its dynamics would
involve a leap from the descriptive to the project. A pedagogical project is
only be a basis for a viable and credible paradigm. A pedagogical project,
tepid in a theory, would unify the idea of social welfare with the idea of
individual welfare. The suggestions that we now consider to create an
organizational model of education would be to:
• identify - for learning - the human resources to change the optics of
human happiness in group dynamics;
• determine an ideal personality profile (linked to the project of
European figures), which should not miss elements of character
development or those derived from normative society;
â• Global organization - integrated – of educational content, from the
determinination of the relationship between freedom and constraint,
science and dogma;
• promote new methods to reconstruct the viability and dynamism of the
educational program;
• design a social development discourse, through which each should take
their rightful place according to the personality profile that he displays.
Unfortunately, we no longer have enough time to organize a team
capable of thinking such a doctrine. We draw attention to the responsibility
of pedagogy (and teachers), designed to help improve the human condition.
As a science of education, pedagogy has the opportunity to assert its
vocation. Its innocence in training in its aspiration lured by questions
diminishes its chance to stay virtuous in the vecinity of other sciences.
Bibliography:
Antonescu, G.G. (1935), Pedagogia contemporană, Editura Cultura

Românească, Bucureşti
Bocoş, M., Jucan, D. (2008), Fundamentele pedagogiei. Teoria şi
metodologia curriculum-ului, Editura Paralela 45, Piteşti
Cerghit, I., Neacşu, I., Negreţ-Dobridor I., Pânişoară, I.-D, (2001),
Prelegeri pedagogice, Editura Polirom, Iaşi
Comănescu, Ioan (2008), Prelegeri de didactică şcolară, Editura
Imprimeria de Vest, Timişoara
Cucoş, C. (2002), Pedagogie, ediţia a II-a, revizuită şi adăugită, Editura
Polirom, Iaşi
Dewey, J. (1972), Democraţie şi educaţie, Editura Didactică şi
Pedagogică, Bucureşti
Ilica, A., (2010), Doctrine pedagogice, Editura Universităţii Aurel
Vlaicu, Arad
Ionescu M., (2007), Instrucţie şi educaţie, Editura Presa Universitară
Clujeană, Cluj-Napoca
Ionescu M., Bocoş, M., (2009), Tratat de didactică modernă, Editura
Paralela 45, Piteşti
Mărgineanu, Nicolae (1973), Condiţia umană. Aspectul ei bio-psiho-
social şi cultural, Editura Ştiinţifică, Bucureşti
Moscovici, Serge, (1995), Psihologia socială sau maşina de fabricat
zei, Editura Universităţii Al. I. Cuza, Iaşi
Negreţ-Dobridor, I. (2005), Didactica nova, Editura Aramis, Bucureşti.
Todoran, Dimitrie (1946), Introducere în pedagogie, Tipografia Cartea
Românească, Cluj
24 A. Ilica
[ 1 ] A theory, says S. Moscovici, can be described as the complex of connected

sentences which classify and explain a complex of phenomenons.
[2] M. Ionescu, M. Bocoş, (2009), Tratat de didactică modernă, Editura Paralela 45,
Piteşti, p. 13.
[3] „The aim of didactics isn’t exclusively to teach formally (education understood as
a process, although it used to be studied the most) Currently, the sphere of the term
„didactics” is very large, instruction and selfinstruction in unformal settings, as well
as the system of adults’ continuous learning” (M. Ionescu, M. Bocoş, Op. cit., p. 31).
[4] C. Cucoş (2002), Pedagogie, ediţia a II-a, revăzută şi adăugită, Editura Politom,
Iaşi, p. 17.
[5] I. Negreţ-Dobridor (2005), Didactica nova, Editura Aramis, Bucureşti, pp. 44-50.
[6] Ibidem, p. 46.
[7] M. Bocoş. D. Juncan (2008), Fundamentele pedagogiei. Teoria şi metodologia
curriculum-ului, Editura Paralela 45, Piteşti, pp. 80-81.
[8] N. Mărgineanu, Condiţia umană, Editura Ştiinţifică, Bucureşti, 1973, p. 14.
[9] A. Ilica, (2010), Doctrine pedagogice, Editura Universităţii Aurel Vlaicu, Arad, p. 259.
[ 10 ] J. Dewey, (1972), Democraţie şi educaţie, Editura Didactică şi Pedagogică,
Bucureşti, p. 23.
[ 11 ] Dimitrie Todoran, (1946), Introducere în pedagogie, Tipografia Cartea
Românească, Cluj, p. 92.
Vol VI (2010), No. 2, pp. 25-44
Facilitating the Transition from Residential Care into the

Foster Care, Families and into Community-Based Social
Services. Changing Role of Families and Social Care Staff
C. Dragoi
Calin Dragoi
Pedagogue Gemeinnützige Schottener Reha - Germany
Motto: “It is better to build a child than to repair an adult”

(Cumnock, T. M., - Report: Residential Child Care – Arkansas Sheriffs’ Youth
Ranches, Inc., 2007)
Abstract: The children and the care staff are central agents of
change in residential care institutions. They have major
contributions to helping children and adolescents negotiate the
transition back into their families of origin, into a foster care
family and the integration in some other specific community-
based social services.
This article presents: (1) some results of the actual researches
and studies concerning the transition from the centralized
residential care to a decentralized, multifaceted community-
based social care system; (2) changes in attitude and orientation
of the social care staff and decisional staff that can facilitate the
transition process; (3) expansion of the functions of child care
workers to enable family issues to be addressed on the residential
unit; (4) ways of helping adolescents engage in community
activities while still in residential care; and (5) strategies for
increasing the involvement of child care staff in discharge
planning and implementing.
Keywords: Residential child care, foster care, (re)integration in
the family of origins, professional-focused care policy, family –
focused care system, increasing parental competencies

26 C. Dragoi
Residential care – a temporary state on the way back to the family and
community
Although residential programs vary enormously in their size, organization,
and theoretical orientation, what unites them is a common underlying
principle: The essence of residential care lies in addressing the
institutionalized children as disturbed children negotiate basic tasks of
everyday life [1], [2], [3], [4]. This principle has a corollary that also is
common to residential programs: child care workers, who have most of the
responsibility for helping children, are central agents of change. “The child
care worker is the ‘hub of the wheel’ of residential care.” [5]
In well-functioning residential care programs and institutions (care

centers) child care staffs traditionally have served five sets of functions, four
of them being “parental” in nature [6].
• Providing the formal structures. First, by providing the structure and
benign discipline lacking in the lives of troubled adolescents, they seek to
foster the acceptance of reasonable authority and the development of
self-control that are essential to growing up in reasonably healthy ways
[7].
• Offering safety. Second, they offer safe, dependable relationships with
caretakers that have been sorely lacking in the lives of many children
who have come for treatment because of the absence of secure
attachments [8].
• Encouraging relationships and integration in different social nets. Third,
in so far as the unit milieu resembles life in an extended family and
throws adolescents into intimate contact with one another, child care staff
has a wealth of opportunities to work with children on handling relation-
ships with peers and siblings [9].
• Mastering skills of everyday living. Finally, like parents, educators and
child care workers must help adolescents master skills of everyday
living. They must constantly work on such basic issues as getting up in
the morning and getting organized for the day; grooming and personal
hygiene; eating appropriately; going to school, behaving decently there,
and doing homework; handling chores; engaging in satisfying
recreational and leisure pursuits; and getting to sleep
• Dealing with therapeutic issues. In addition to the kind of therapeutic
work involved in accomplishing these “parenting tasks” with disturbed
children, residential care also requires that child care staff deal directly
with a host of specific therapeutic issues. The educators and the care staff
also might have to work with psychotic youngsters, having sometimes
paranoid ideation, with depressed children having difficulties getting
Facilitating the Transition from Residential Care into the Foster Care... 27
mobilized, and low self-esteem, with delinquents on their antisocial

attitudes and behavior; with ADHD youngsters, with borderline
adolescents having self-injurious behavior and volatile relationships, with
anxious youngsters, with narcissists and so forth
What is required in order to help adolescents negotiate the transition

into the community more effectively are not fundamental changes in
any of these basic components of residential social care process but, to
the contrary, what is needed is a broadening of the focus of unit work
and an expansion of roles of the care staff, social workers and
specialists (psychologists, pedagogues) involved.
This article explores some of ways in which staff attitudes and
practices can be adapted to realize these ends.
Changes in attitude and orientation
Changes in attitude are critical in this process with regard to five
issues. As will be seen, many are changes that must be made if short-
term placement in a residential care center is to be successful, but most
of them are equally applicable at some point in longer term programs.
1. Focusing “outward” as well as “inward”. In traditional long-

term placement, the most salient issues are those related to life within
the residence. Workers’ discussions with adolescents center on
relationships with staff and peers, behavior on the unit, and managing
tasks of daily living. Family issues and off-residence activities are
usually secondary since returning to the community may be a long way
off. To facilitate a later integration in the community and a return to the
families, the educators and other categories of staff working in the
residential care centers must also help the children and adolescents to
understand and manage the conflicts with their families and to deal
with the earlier, present and forthcoming experiences in the
community.
2. Changing priorities in care process. The perspective or the
imminence of the return to the community affects not only the topics
workers discuss with the children and adolescents, but the care process
priorities as well. In most long-term institutionalization programs, for
example, the frequency and length of family visits and off-grounds
passes are often used as rewards for achieving particular statuses on the
unit. Similarly, community activities are contingent largely on good
behavior in the residential setting.
In contrast, if a youngster is to return to his family soon, such
activities can no longer be treated as reinforcements for unit behavior.
28 C. Dragoi
To the contrary, they are an essential part of care process and may be
required in some cases even when children are misbehaving.
Diagram 1 – Model of socialisation of the children in residential care

institutions.
3. Changes in the step of the care process. In long-term placement

in a specialized institution, it is possible to move at a leisurely pace. If time is
short, respectively in short-term placement situations, family and community
issues must be addressed quickly or critical work will be left undone.
4. Caution versus risk: In long-term placement, staff tend to be
protective because they are sensitive to adolescents’ vulnerabilities. It is

desirable to remain cautious about moving adolescents into the community,
especially when you have doubts about their capacity to manage such chal-
lenges. The choice is often between giving youngsters experiences in the
community at which they may fail or not allowing them these experiences at
all and not being able to be of assistance to them in mastering needed skills.
For example, if we send teenagers about whom we have doubts to a
vocational workshop, they may have access to alcohol or drugs or even run
away. Yet if we do not, they will have missed out a training that could serve
them well when they return home. We have found that questionable
youngsters responded better to new challenges than we anticipated. In any
case, the latter errors are often the more costly
5. Attitudes toward “acting-out”: It is crucially important to adopt a
different attitude toward “acting-out” in the community and with families. In
the past, we were concerned that, if given too much freedom or moved too
quickly, our adolescents might misbehave. As we have challenged them
more, they have, in fact, done so. It is better to have relapses around alcohol,
involvement with problematic peers, or even antisocial behavior a month
before the discharge from the institution than one day after it. If there is no
possibility of failure, the adolescents may not be challenged enough.
Working with family – increasing parental competencies
Perhaps the most significant expansion in the roles of child care staff
in the social (re)integration of the institutionalized children has to be in the
work with families. The contacts with families have been in the past handled
largely by social workers and educators working in the institutions, and have
been considered as the main source of information for the family and as
factors with a remarkable influence on the families. It seems that the
responsible public authorities did accept the idea that the families usually
need a more complex aid as offered till now, and that some other institutions,
like the care offices (Social Care County Directorates) have to deal with
family issues in every stage of the social care process.
Some examples of activities that might be initiated in the care centers
to facilitate the reintegration of the children in their families of origin:
At the outset of the period in the institution, parents should be
encouraged to meet the institution staff in order to be (re)assured that their
children have been well cared for.
As long as their demands are not excessive, parents may call the
institutions to express for instance concerns about how their children are
settling into the residence.
The social workers and the educators working in the institution can
also initially monitor phone calls to families. In part doing so it provides
30 C. Dragoi
adolescents with support, in part it can correct misimpressions,

misimpressions mostly reinforced because of the skepticism of the media
related to the quality of the educational work done in the care institution In
also helps the staff to get informed about family issues that may need to be
brought into the care process. The goals of such work are to form “alliances”
with parents at every level of the care process, alleviate their anxiety about
entrusting their children to formal authorities, and begin active work on those
problems by simultaneously learning about the family problems and
controlling teenagers’ acting-out around them.
During the initial phase of the institutionalized care, the children and
the adolescents can bring family issues into their work in the institution. For
example, it could be expected from the institutionalized children and
adolescents to produce and share a written “contract” from the very first
month of the care period. The “contract” consists of a description of their
strengths and those of their family, their problems and those of their families,
and goals they have for themselves and their families during and after the
period of time they estimated they have to remain in the institution. The con-
tracts must first be processed with several care workers and some therapists
and only after that to be discussed at length in a meeting attended by all staff
and responsible persons belonging to the organizations and formal
authorities supporting the care programs.
In addition, it can be required that the teenagers have each week at
least three individual talks with the social workers on a care topic that the
educators team assigns them. Most talks in the early stages of the care
placement should be centered on unit issues (e.g., “How can I get along with
peers better?”, “How can I learn to trust staff more and be more open about
my issues?”, or “How can I manage my anger and gain a higher status?”).
At least one talk in the first month should also deals with family issues (e.g.,
“What are the most significant problems I need to work on with my
parents?”, “Why am I always fighting with my mother?”, or “How can I
have a positive visit next time?”).
As child care staff begin to form with the children and adolescents a
relationship based on confidence and respect in the initial and middle phases
of the institutionalization, they may expand their work around family issues.
Prior to visits and permissions to live the institution with the families, the
staff should help adolescents to anticipate problems and to plan activities.
For instance visits are often divided in segments with intervening time
during which parents and children can discuss with workers how the visits
are going and how to handle emerging problems. In the week after visits
staff can discuss with the children what went right, what went wrong, and
how to address problems better on the next visit.
Diagram 2 - Parent-professional in youth and children’s care [10]
Different tasks could be assigned to the children, tasks they are

expected to accomplish with their families. Even more important, parents
can be encouraged to think of themselves as part of the care team and to
work with their children on issues with which the staff of the institution is
struggling. For example, the parents of a boy who has atrocious table
manners may be given a report card (a behavior assessment check list for
instance) on which to grade him on different aspects of his behavior when
they go out to eat with him. In the middle and latter stages of the care period
in the institution, as discharge plans have already been developed and
officially acknowledged, the therapists, educators and child care staff might
further increase the range of family issues with which they deal. Their
activities can include working with children, adolescents and youngsters on a
variety of types of discharge plans that partly deal with family issues.
32 C. Dragoi
Facilitating adaptation and integration into the community

An important critical function of child care staff working in
residential care institutions is preparing adolescents for and facilitating their
participation in a variety of community activities and a latter integration in
their families and in the community.
Despite the fact that in some of the institutions, especially during the
initial phase of the placement, youngsters do not have the status to engage in
many off-grounds activities, staff nonetheless deal with community-focused
issues. Learning to live in an institution requires, among other things, doing
laundry and preparing snacks. Limited allowances require that adolescents
learn budgeting and handle money responsibly. Many living skills that may
involve a large spectrum of aspects, from cooking to a reasonable degree of
control over the social behavior, have to be trained. One week, for instance,
the group may go to the library, the next week to a lawn and garden show or
sales market they have looked up in the newspaper.
In institution, for example, many adolescents can reach the status of
“group off-grounds”, status that allows them to go with peers and staff to
shopping centers, local restaurants, and movies. A little later some can
individually engage themselves in community-activities that may include
job training programs, church, meetings. During the summer holidays the
institution may encourage that some youngsters get part-time jobs or attend
some classes at public school. The educators and the child care workers are
supposed to prepare the children and the institutionalized teenagers for each
of these experiences and to help them deal with the inevitable problems that
might arise as they become more active in the community.
In last stage of the residential care period of time, some of the
children in care may achieve an “off-grounds discretion” status that allows
them to go into the community unsupervised. They may attend movies, go
shopping, get job applications, or visit friends from the community on their
own. With some older, regressed youngsters, we may even force them to
accept this status and venture into the community, also when they do not
wish to. Typically staff work is to prepare carefully the young people for
“small adventures” outside the institution and process the experiences with
them afterward.
Moving from a professional-focused care policy to a family –focused care

system
In the early 90s the Romanian care system was confronted with the
imperious necessity to modernise the entire care system, to change
mentalities and the philosophy. A very large spectrum of changes was
needed, changes that involved structural large-scale modifications, completely

new approaches and innovative ways of working with children and
adolescents in care. The main goal was to give up the large scale care centres
(the well-known “children’s’ homes”) and to pass from institutionalisation, as
the only one care alternative, to a family-focused care system.
In that period of time, the Romanian authorities implemented three main
strategies:
• Reducing the size of the existing institutions. Many children and
teenagers had at that time to leave the institutions and to return to their
families. This policy was formally strongly supported by the
authorities and the government. It was hoped that the imposed
“reintegration” in the birth families will decrease the number of
children in care and will contribute substantially to the closing of the
existing big care centres. A policy of gate-keeping was also developed
and implemented, unfortunately with less efficiency as expected.
• Creating a network of foster care families. The foster care was
implemented at a very large scale. The social pedagogy, the experts
and the politicians considered the foster care as a very efficient
alternative to the institutionalisation. Sometimes the foster care have
been seen as an ideal alternative to the residential care as the only one
alternative.
• Reducing the international adoptions. The number of the international
adoptions was at the beginning of the 90s drastically reduced. The
legislation was completely changed, and a “National Committee” was
created that was in charge to manage (controlling and monitoring) the
adoption. The intention was to stop the wave of the so-called “wild-
adoptions”.
All that package of strategies was designed and intended for modernising an
obsolete, antediluvian system and to bring it at the European standards. After
a short period of time it became evident, that the policies elaborated from
different teams of foreign and Romanian experts do not function as expected
and some other problems occurred, like:
• The foster care alternative functioned differently from area to area.
There was an enormous lack of qualified staff to monitor the process
and the foster parents did not get the required competencies to take in
care most of the children having behavioural problems or the mentally
and physically handicapped children.
• The birth families were frequently overstrained with their new role
and the short of specific competencies and motivation became
obvious. For many children and especially for many teenagers
“returning home” turned out to be a flop. For some of them even a
34 C. Dragoi
drama… Some of them tried to rejoin the institutions but they were
rejected. There are not very many relevant research data, statistics and
records about the long-term effects of these rather empirical attempts
and nonprofessional amalgam of political and non-governmental
decisions.
Under these circumstances some new priorities occurred:
• Inevitability to create a network of competent foster parents (foster
care families) – necessity to implement on a large scale programs of
training-on-the-job and to reform the formal professional training
system and academic studies for social workers, social-pedagogues
and pedagogues, psychologists.
• Need to move form a system oriented towards residential care to a
family focused social care system.
• Need to increase the competencies of the birth families, foster families
and of the care staff working in different kinds of residential care
services and at the level of the County Directorates for Social
Protection.
• Need to establish networks and common actions programs and
projects between NGOs, residential care centres, schools and families,
community based services, in order to assure higher chances of a
better integration of the child into the community.
In the last decade the family-oriented approaches became more frequent and
have been strongly encouraged and supported by the formal institutions and
organisations responsible for the child care system. This development means
in the first line a deep adjustment of mentalities and standpoints (Diagram 1)
Diagram 3 - Differences between residential care-centered approaches and a

family-oriented system in children’s care
Professionals - Professionals -
Patterns of
Parents Parents
relationship
In residential care - in family-oriented
centered approaches) systems
Partners - Parents are
“Clients” - Parents are
viewed as having
viewed as being
knowledge about their
responsible for their
Parents’ role child and being capable
child’s problems and
of making decisions
recipients of care
about or carrying out
process.
the care of their child.
“Experts” -
Members of the team
Professionals are
- Professionals use their
considered as experts
expertise taking into
with the unique
account the
knowledge about the
Professionals’ role experiences, needs,
child’s needs and
hopes, and desires of
should use their
the individual child and
professional expertise
his/her parents as
to “solve” presenting
partners with parents.
problems.
Strength based - The

intervention aims to
Deficit oriented - strengthen parents in
Problems, which are their roles as nurturers
Assessment and conceptualized as and providers in order
care process residing in the child (or to yield optimal child
the family), are focused developmental
upon and addressed outcomes using
existing strengths to
address concerns.
Some common barriers in implementing a family-oriented care policy

still remain. The specialists express frequently for instance the idea that a
family integration “might be fine, but not for the families I work with”. These
concerns have been raised mostly in reference to families that may be at risk
for abusing or neglecting their children [ 11 ], caregivers with mental
retardation or who have a serious mental illness, teen parents, and parents of
lower socioeconomic status [12].
Some practitioners and social workers have also been concerned
about situations in which it is assumed that caregivers will be overwhelmed
and not able to think clearly (e.g., during the death of a child, during invasive
medical procedures).
Despite these assumptions, research data indicate that families who are
treated by the specialist and the implicated care staff as a respected partner in
their child’s social care are more likely to be satisfied with the care, less likely
to feel stressed and more likely to evidence an increase in self-efficacy and
empowerment. There are also data that there are improved child outcomes
36 C. Dragoi
[13] with family empowerment mediating the link between fidelity to family
centered care practices and improved child outcomes.
An adequate cooperation between all the institutions, organizations,
and care centers is desirable. Bur despite the recent changes in policies,
legislation, policy recommendations, and findings on effectiveness mentioned
above, research on professional practices suggests that the family-focused
approach is neither universally adopted nor easily implemented. It remains a
desire more than a fact. The idea of the importance of establishing partnerships
between professionals and parents to care and educate young children is in
most of the European countries not new. In Romania the concept of family-
focused care approaches represents an evolutionary approach and has to be
first formalized into a set of principles to guide policy and practice for children
with special care needs.
Improving of the quality of partnerships among families, children and
services should be a continuous process. Part of the challenge is to
operationalize the often abstract philosophical principles of family-focused
care into concrete core of competences and to build collaborative relationships
among teachers, multidisciplinary professionals and parents and to make
services work across agency lines in order to care and educate children with
special needs.
Walker, Koroloff, and Schutte [14] have proposed a set of conditions
imperiously needed at the level of the direct providers, the agencies and the
policy levels to implement family-focused care programs:
(1) Professionals and other team members must be able to use specific
techniques and procedures for shared decision making, defining and
prioritizing goals, obtaining feedback, building on strengths,
participating collaboratively, resolving conflicts, identifying effective
and high quality providers.
(2) The organizations and the formal care institutions have to choose a
practice model and provide professionals, parents and other staff
members with opportunities to learn this model and to share knowledge
and experience. Ongoing support is as important as initial training.
(3) Strengths-based practice can best be fostered within organizations
that take a strengths-based view of staff.
(4) Positive outcomes for professionals and for organizations (agencies)
are associated with building partnerships with organizations that also
support family-centered care values;
(5) Even when a common care plan format is not in place, agencies
must work together to avoid the lack of consistency across plans of
different agencies;
(6) Administrators have to avoid overloading workers in order to reduce

burnout. Building the sense of team among workers is an important
factor to avoid turnover among professionals and other categories of
staff
(7) Availability and a clear philosophy about funding required to meet
families’ unique (individual) needs are very helpful for both agency
members and community;
(8) Leaders in the policy and funding context play an important role in
recognizing and rewarding services that implement evidence-based
practices. Without support from these leaders family-focused care
programs can be implemented in isolated groups and only for short
periods of time.
(9) Policy and funding leaders have to provide incentives for the
implementation of interagency cooperation and they play a key
problem-solving role across agency boundaries;
(10) The model of continuous improvement requires well-designed and
documented plans and permanent review of goals, actions, and
indicators of progress at team, organization and system levels.
Conclusions
The ten recommendations mentioned before have clear implications for the
professional training of all categories of staff working in residential care
centers, foster care system, NGOs, other organizations, agencies and formal
structures of the Regional Directorates for Social Protection. The necessity of
continuous qualifying and training of the job of the care providers was
insistently suggested [15] but in most of the cases intermittently, sporadically
and uncoordinated done.
While increasing in number, many pre-service training programs do not
provide specific instruction in these family focused skills and it may be
difficult for service providers to find the time to gain these skills through in-
service training.
In order to provide individual skills development, it is important for all the
agencies, the care institutions, the General Directorates for Social Care to
create an environment that is supportive of these practices. This includes:
• building family-focused practices into job descriptions
• creating flexible funding streams
• demonstrating a commitment to work out conflicting
recommendations among professionals
• Evaluating and managing continuously the quality improvement (the
quality of the structures, processes and results).
38 C. Dragoi
• Monitoring not only family and staff satisfaction but also child
developmental outcomes as an important way of assuring effective
interventions.
FOSTER AND ADOPTIVE PARENT COMPETENCY MODEL
The model is based on the following competency categories:

professional parenting skills, ways of understanding the child and
lifelong learning. Each category includes specific competencies
(knowledge, skills, and abilities) needed in foster and adoptive care.
COMPETENCY COMPETENCY COMPETENCY COMPETENC COMPET

CATEGORY 1: CATEGORY 2: CATEGORY 3: Y ENCY
FAMILY POSITIVE PROFESSIONAL CATEGORY CATEGO
SYSTEMS BEHAVIOR TEAM MEMBER 4: HEALTH RY 5:
SUPPORT AND UNDERS
DEVELOPME TANDIN
NT G
SAFETY
NEEDS
Family-Oriented Basic Behavior Collaboration Human Physical/S
Priority Setting Management Serves as a Development exual
Makes a strong Understands and collaborative team Demonstrates Abuse
priority of meeting applies basic member with all familiarity with Demonstra
family needs by principles of other professional the principles of tes
treating every child behavior and family members developmental knowledge
in the home management that by willingly sharing process, of the
equitably and fairly, use appropriate information needed including sexual types of
including making techniques to to make sound development family
time for each child reduce negative decisions, assisting and situations
one-on-one and behavior and in development of developmental that can
ensuring the home encourage positive plans, and showing disabilities. A lead to
is a safe, warm, behaviors without consideration to the full, working abuse and
comfortable the use of physical needs and limits of knowledge of the effects
environment. To discipline. Positive other partners. To human of abuse.
demonstrate that behaviors are collaborate means to development A full,
family is a priority encouraged by maintain a includes working
means to show recognition of nonjudgmental, knowledge of knowledge
consideration for progress and open attitude when stages and of physical
the needs of the allowing communicating with milestones and sexual
family and the child developmentally children, parents, expected for abuse
in deciding about appropriate and other team children and, would
transitioning a child decision-making, members causes and include
into or out of the while setting and treatment for being able
household. communicating delays. to
limits and rewards recognize
that apply to all. the signs
Basic behavior and
management symptoms
consists of fair and of abuse
consistent and how to

application of respond.
behavior rules and
recognition of
appropriate and
positive behavior.
Negative behaviors
are discouraged by
firm, fair and
consistent
application of
limits and rules.
Household Management of Critical Thinking Health Issues Substance
Organization Severe Behavioral Forms independent Demonstrates Abuse
Provides a Problems judgments based on knowledge of Demonstra
consistent and well- Works with careful observations, medical/health tes
coordinated caseworkers, discussion and conditions that knowledge
household by therapists and research. A critical can result from of the
establishing house others to develop thinker searches for abuse/neglect signs of
rules and routines and implement a underlying reasons and substance/
and clearly plan tailored to the for behaviors and demonstrates alcohol
communicating the specific needs of statements and appropriate abuse and
expectation that the child. Plans verifies facts health practices the effects
everyone in the will describe which surrounding in the home. A of abuse
family will follow techniques will be conflicting stories full, working on the
them. To organize a used to respond to before making knowledge of family
household each behavior and decisions. health issues system,
efficiently is to how the safety of would include including
include others in other people and principles of substance-
major decisions, pets in the nutrition and exposed
establish ground household will be hygiene and infants. A
rules with clear protected. In basic emergency full
consequences and addition to care. working
ensure that all the planning, the knowledge
needs of household parent must assist of
members are taken the child to substance
into consideration. understand abuse
their behavior and issues
attempt to apply would
self-control include the
techniques. ability to
Management of identify
severe behavioral ways to
problems requires work with
a calm, well- children
organized response affected by
and an substance
understanding that abuse and
such problems are how the
not always quickly recovery
resolved. process
impacts
the family.
40 C. Dragoi
Coaching and Interpersonal Psychological Separatio

Counseling Sensitivity Understanding n and
Acts in the role of Demonstrates Demonstrates a Loss
coach and sensitivity to hidden general Responds
counselor for the meaning in understanding of supportivel
household by communication and the y to
serving as a role ability to view psychological children’s
model for healthy situations from dynamics feelings
family life and others’ perspectives. associated with and
creating an A parent with strong children who behaviors
environment for the interpersonal skills have been as they
safe discussion of applies these to the abused/neglecte deal with
feelings by giving child through respect d, including the grief and
children time, for the preferences emotional loss issues,
space, and support and uniqueness of impact of the including
to work through each child and placement those
their problems. listening for the process. A full, related to
Recognizes and child’s concerns, working multiple
promotes the while remembering knowledge of placements
child’s interests and what it was like to psychological and
abilities. Provides be a child. The issues would separation
praise and answers parent applies these include skills to from
all questions skills in other support children family
honestly and settings by effectively by members.
calmly. Provides a demonstrating respecting a An
non-judgmental empathy with child’s effective
space for discussion others’ perspectives emotional bonds response to
and acts when they and closely listening with birth the grief
perceive children and watching for parents, right to and loss
need assistance what is going on privacy, level of issues of
outside of the beneath the surface. readiness for others is
family to address new supported
their needs. experiences, by self-
development of awareness
self-esteem, regarding
need to express personal
emotions and loss issues.
knowing when
to seek
professional
attention.
Family Commitment to Working with
Relationships Children Adolescents
Respects and Expresses care about Works with
maintains a child’s the general welfare youth on
ties to birth family of children and has developing the
and previous foster faith that children necessary skills
and/or adoptive can be helped. This for independent
family commitment is put living. In order
relationships. into action in the to develop these
Understands the home by providing skills, the parent
importance of the best care must have
visitation including possible, including knowledge of

how to prepare putting the child’s the
children for visits long-term interest developmental
with their families before self-interest stages and tasks
and support them. and showing pride of adolescence
Is familiar with the when children and be able to
dynamics of family achieve even small identify
systems and how all steps forward. This indicators of
family members are commitment is put behavioral
impacted by the into action outside problems in
foster/adoptive the home by adolescents.
placement advocating strongly Parents working
experience. on issues important with adolescents
to children’s will be most
wellbeing. effective when
they can
demonstrate
sensitivity to
personal issues
common for this
age group.
Technical Cultural
Knowledge Sensitivity
Demonstrates Understands the
familiarity with importance of
policies, regulations, recognizing and
laws and judicial supporting the
processes that cultural, social
pertain to child and economic
welfare, including similarities and
the roles and differences
responsibilities of all between a
others involved with child’s birth
the child and the family and
need for foster/adoptive
documentation. The family.
parent’s technical
knowledge is
enhanced by the
partnership with
others that occurs in
planning, family
team meetings and
foster family events.
The parent knows
how to seek
information
regarding these
technical aspects of
practice.
42 C. Dragoi
Perspective
Can step back from
a situation, keep
own emotions in
check, and
determine what is
urgent and what is
not. A sense of
perspective allows a
parent to place the
current situation in
context of child’s
history and future.
Perspective allows a
parent to seek
appropriate support
when needed and to
assimilate new
information.
Equilibrium
Knows and
understands own
feelings and
recognizes own
limitations. A sense
of equilibrium
allows the parent to
maintain a positive
outlook and to know
he or she must set
aside quiet time for
self-regeneration and
to nurture adult
relationships. To
restore a sense of
equilibrium, it may
be necessary to seek
new information.
Flexibility: Shows
willingness to
change or revise
plans quickly when
necessary and can
juggle attention
between people and
tasks effectively. A
flexible parent can
cope with the
uncertainty of a
child’s length of stay
in their home and
adjust to changes in
the child welfare
system. In the home,

a flexible parent can
acknowledge
attempts, even when
tasks are not done
perfectly and is
patient with the
learning process,
even for his or
herself. Flexibility
allows a parent to
take advantage of
learning
opportunities when
they arise.
Self-Development
Continually
improves parenting
skills through
training and learning
resources and
reflection on
experience. A
commitment to self-
development means
a parent stays open
to new information
and actively seeks it.
Available: http://www.cwti.org/FF/Competencies.htm
[1] Bettelheim, B. & Sanders, J. - Milieu therapy: The Orthogenic School

model. In J. A. Noshpitz (Ed.), Basic handbook of child psychiatry: Vol. 3.
Therapeutic interventions, New York, Basic Books,1979, pp. 216-230
[2] Redl, F. & Wineman, D. - The aggressive child. Glencoe, IL: The Free Press, 1957
[3] Stone L. A. - Residential treatment. In J. A. Noshpitz (Ed.), Basic handbook
of child psychiatry: Vol. 3. Therapeutic interventions New York: Basic
Books,1979, pp. 231-262
[4] Trieschman, A. E., Whittaker, J. K., & Brendtro, L. K. - The other 23 hours.
Chicago, Aldine Publishing Company, 1969
[5] Maier, H. - The child care worker, in J. K. Whittaker & A. E. Trieschman (Eds.),
Children away from home: A sourcebook of residential treatment, 1972, pp. 267
[6] Mayer, M. F. - The parental figures in residential treatment. Social Service
Review, 24, 1960, pp. 273-285.
[7] Redl, F. & Wineman, D. - The aggressive child. Glencoe, IL: The Free Press, 1957
[8] Ainsworth, F. & Fulcher, L.C. - The culture of group care for children. In F.
Ainsworth and L. C. Fulcher (Eds.), Group care practice with children, London,
Tavistock, 1985, pp. 48-71
44 C. Dragoi
[9] Gwynn, C., Meyer, R., & Schaefer, C. - The influence of the peer culture in residential
treatment. In C. E. Schaefer & Swanson, A. J. (Eds.), Children in residential care: Critical
issues in treatment, New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold, 1988, pp. 104-133
[ 10 ] After Schneewind, K. A. Sozialisation in der Familie in Hurrelmann, K.,
Grundmann, M., Walper (Hrsg.) – Handbuch Sozialisationsforschung, Weinheim
und Basel, Beltz Verlag,1980, p. 259
[11] Barton, S. J. - Family-centered care when abuse or neglect is suspected. Journal
of the Society of Pediatric Nurses, 5, 96, 2000 and Bauchner, H., Waring, C., & Vinci,
R. - Parental presence during procedures in an emergency room: Results from 50
observations. Pediatrics, 87, 1991, pp.544-548.
[12] DeGangi, G. A., Wietlisbach, S., Poisson, S., Stein, E., & Royeen, C. - The
impact of culture and socioeconomic status on family-professional collaboration:
Challenges and solutions in Topics in Early Childhood Special Education, 14, 1994,
pp. 503-520.
[13] Dempsey, I., & Dunst, C. - Help giving styles and parent empowerment in
families with a young child with a disability. Journal of Intellectual and
Developmental Disability, 29, 2004, pp.40-52.
[ 14 ] Walker, J. S., Koroloff, N., & Schutte, K. - Implementing high quality
collaborative individualized service/support planning: Necessary conditions. Portland:
Portland State University, Research and Training Center on Family Support and
Children’s Mental Health, 2003
[15] Dragoi, C., - Protecţia socială de tip rezidenţial şi plasamentul familial în Europa.
Macro-tendinţe. în Protecţia socială a copilului - „Sisteme şi metode de protecţie
socială în Europa”, FICE Romănia, nr. 14-15, 2003, p. 12 - 13
Vol VI (2010), No. 2, pp. 45-56
Quality criteria for curriculum developers
D. Herlo
Dorin Herlo
Department for Teaching Staff Training
Bd. Revoluţiei, nr. 81, 310130 Arad
Abstract:
This paper describes an evidence-based quality assurance
system for curriculum developers, which takes as its starting
point a well-researched theoretical and practical perspective
on student learning needs in higher education, related with
criteria, standards and performance indicators in education.
Keywords: curriculum developers, curriculum quality
assurance, instrument for quality assurance of the
curriculum
Curriculum Development can be defined as the systematic

planning of what is taught and learned in educational institutions as
reflected in programmes of study, curriculum framework and
syllabuses. These curricula are embodied in official documents
(typically curriculum “guides” for professors) and made mandatory by
al the Faculties and Departments.
Curriculum developers are all specialists which contribute at
the design of the curriculum.
Curriculum developers, makes a design of the curriculum
under the guidance of the Methodology of The Romanian National
Agency for Quality Assurance in Higher Education (ARACIS, 2006)
which provide a set of guidelines for the improvement of quality of
education. In this methodology there are Criteria, Standards and
Performance indices on three basic domains: institutional capacity,
educational efficiency and quality management for all the curriculum
developers of study programmes from Higher Education Institutions.

46 D. Herlo
Those criteria, standards and performance indices belongs of

quality assurance, generally speaking, but in the mean time gives an
important input to the curriculum quality assurance being very helpful
for curriculum developers, specialy in education efficiency domain.
Taking in consideration the importance of curriculum
developers in the educational process, we can give some simple advices
for them, as follow:
First: Pay attention to the entire landscape of the standards
and performance indices. A developer should not head directly to the
content area of interest and overlook the landscape of recommendations
for good pedagogy in which the content section is embedded. In order to
produce curriculum material aligned with the standards of education,
the developer must look at aspects other than content (that is, subject
matter, history and nature of science, inquiry, technology). The
developer must devote equal attention to standards for assessment,
teaching, and professional development.
Second: Capture the spirit of the standards of education. The
standards document is a descriptive set of policies that present an
orientation toward good science instruction and curriculum. Inclusion of
a particular standard for the sole purpose of getting another check in a
rubric for standards-alignment makes no sense. Such additions are
trivial and transparent.
Third: A set of filters does exist. The standards are also
prescriptive and can be seen as a filtration system in which only the best
curricula will survive. The standards can provide operational definitions
to help curriculum developers decide on the merits of a program. For
instance, the standards address the need for a student to carry out a full
investigation, including hypothesis formation, experimental design for
hypothesis testing, data collection, and analysis. A developer must be
aware of this recommendation as a non-negotiable item in the design of
curriculum.
Fourth: The Educational Standards should not stifle creativity
in curriculum design. This recommendation could come as a bit of a
surprise, following the third admonition. However, an essential aspect
of using the standards is that creativity on the part of the curriculum
developer and the proffesors at work in the cours hall or seminar room
must be supported rather than thwarted. Flexibility exists in the way a
recommendation is carried out rather than in a choice between key
aspects of the standards. Once again, a cohesive view of the
standards will be helpful. The standards provide a sense of what is good

in science instruction, but a curriculum (and an individual proffesor’s
style) should not be limited by standards. The standards describe a
fundamental approach to sound instruction and support excellence in
design of curriculum and delivery of formation.
Fifth: Respect the educators who will use your standards-
based curriculum. An excellent textbook that sits on a shelf, unused, or
is given to students and misused, cannot achieve the goals of
the standards. Educators are the crucial ingredient in the implementation
of a new curriculum. The standards speak to professional development
of educators, in addition to outlining effective pedagogy. Educators
must be included in the process of curriculum development, regardless
of the group of players who are primary in the process. Educators are
the best source of information about what specifically will and will not
work in an educational space. They bring a strong note of reality to the
process, through their familiarity with university, communities, and the
course, seminar or lab environment. Development of an innovative
curriculum, however, requires the input of exemplary educators who
can see beyond what has been done to what could be accomplished.
Sixth: Keep in mind that curriculum development is all about
students. In the process of designing a new curriculum that is aligned
with standards, a developer must not lose sight of the
goals/aims/competences, which are good for all students. As the
recommendations of standards are applied, the ultimate target, the
students, must be in every consideration. One way to do this is to
consult students and listen carefully to what they say. Their comments
are not always sophisticated, but the views of students are a primary
source of data to guide curriculum development. For this reason, field
testing is an important component in the development process.
Seventh: All educators are different. The range of styles,
experiences, and skills among different educators varies considerably.
Some educators can use a simple outline of curriculum with success;
others need extensive help with implementation of even a complete
curriculum. A new curriculum aligned with the standards should take
into account the teaching and training standards as they relate to the
wide continuum of experience, style, and knowledge.
Eighth: All curriculum is not for all students. A strong
curriculum must reflect the range of interests, prior knowledge, learning
styles, and student abilities and attitudes. If the curriculum is to be used
48 D. Herlo
by a general class, this range will be wide. If a curriculum is suitable for

a narrow range of students, the target audience should be clearly
specified.
Considering all these, mentioned above, we can present,
further, some example of criteria for curriculum quality assurance at
curriculum developers availability.
We have designed a tool for curriculum developers from three
perspectives: procedural, structural and products, as part of the quality
assurance of a study program and wants to contribute at the
improvement of the “quality culture” for a curriculum. It was made for
seeing/observing the links between the quality standards of the
curriculum, at program level, with the standards of quality assurance at
system level, in compliance with quality standards at European level. In
the mean time which reflect the overall quality level of how the
curriculum accomplish his mission.
We can offer bellow an example of an instrument for
assessment of curriculum based on criteria related to mentioned three
perspectives:
CURRICULUM QUALITY CRITERIA

1. From process perspective / in terms of procedural (standing).
PROCEDURE Responsible Comments Actions for
(self reflection developments
/evaluation)
Establishing the
target group
Applying the
questionnaire for
needs analysis
applied to the target
group chosen.
Setting up the
general learning
outcomes of the
curriculum, based on
conclusions of needs
analysis and in
accordance to the
NQF and EQF
Designing the
Curriculum
Framework having
in attention the
general learning
outcomes
Designing the
Syllabus for the
module/unit/theme.
Creating teaching
and learning
tools/materials
Applying the
curriculum and the
learning tools on the
pilot / experimental
groups
Evaluating the
effects of curriculum
and learning tools,
applied
Adjusting whole
curriculum, based on
evaluation’s results
Retesting the new
curriculum and the
learning tools on the
pilot / experimental
groups
Acreditation /
validation of the
curriculum
Spreading the
curriculum, through
the potential users
Offering assistance
in applying the
curriculum and the
learning tools, for
the users
50 D. Herlo
Gathering feedbacks
concerning the
curriculum and its
learning tools, from
the users
2. From structure perspective / the structural perspective

(tick, in one of the columns; 1 poor, 5 excellent).
STATUS
ITEM
1 2 3 4 5
To what extent are
the learning
outcomes correctly
formulated, and
related with the
needs of students,
NQF and with EQF?
To what extent does
the curriculum
contain an
Curriculum
Framework,
Syllabuses, Learning
Materials,
Assessment
instruments etc.
To what extent does
the Curriculum
Framework, based on
the general learning
outcomes, contain:
a. Compulsory
subjects, speciality
subjects and elective
b. Number of
hours / subject
c. Number of
credits for each

subject
d. Type of
assessment (written
examination,
portfolio etc)
To what extent there
is an internal logic
between compulsory
subjects, speciality
subjects and elective
subjects
To what extent does
the Syllabuses for
each subject, based
on the general
learning outcomes,
contain:
i. specific learning
outcomes –
knowledge, skills
and attitudes;
ii. contents and
indicative learning
activities, related to
the specific learning
outcomes;
iii. approaches to
teaching and learning
(educational
strategies -
interactive, specific
to the students);
iv. teaching and
learning resources /
tools / materials;
v. assessment’s
activities and criteria.
52 D. Herlo
To what extent do
the learning
resources / tools /
materials, based on
the Syllabus, meet
and cover the
specific learning
outcomes and topics?
To what extent are
relevant proposed
assessment
instruments?
To what extent are
relevant proposed
assessment criteria?
To what extent does
the curriculum meets
identified students’
needs
To what extent the
curriculum is
oriented towards the
real world/labor
market
To what extent the
curriculum take into
consideration the
learning principles,
as: experiential, self-
directed, reflective
and transformative
To what extent is the
content
Relevant
Pertinent
Coherent
Applicable
Effective internal
Feasible
To what extent the

content
Provides a
holistic, integrated
approach on the key
concepts and relevant
for developing the
competences
designed,
Assure the
learning flexibility
by evaluating the
formal, non formal
and informal aspects
of education,
Is relevant for the
labor market / work-
life situations
Assure
interdisciplinary
approaches of the
topics
Assure not only
information
acquisition
(knowledge), but
also the development
of skills and attitudes
of the students.
Assure the
correspondence
between designed
learning outcomes
and student’s profile
To what extent the
curriculum assures
the coherence and
correspondence
between educational
54 D. Herlo
strategy and
scientific approach
To what extent the
curriculum assures
different
teaching/learning
methods: traditional
methods, individual
active learning
methods, group
active learning
methods, alternative
methods etc.
To what extent the
curriculum uses new
instruments of
assessment
To what extent the
curriculum uses the
instruments for self-
evaluation
To what extent the
curriculum offers to
the students access to
different resources
To what extent does
the curriculum
provide opportunities
for transfer and
sustainability of the
learning outcomes in
“future real life
meetings”
3. From product perspective / in terms of product
STATUS
PRODUCT Yes No
Is there a needs analysis?
Is there a Curriculum framework?
Are there Syllabuses?
Are there Learning resources / materials /

tools?
Are there Assessment instruments for the
curriculum?
Curriculum quality assurance and his criteria is a learning

exercise for all the curriculum developers being in the same time an
open stage for other contributors!
Bibliography:
Barnett, R., Parry, G., & Coate, K. (2001). Conceptualising curriculum

change. Teaching in Higher Education, 6(4), 435-449
Bruner, J. (1996). The process of education. Cambridge, MA: Harvard
University Press
Gibbs, G. (1992). Control and independence. In Teaching Large
Classes in Higher Education: How to Maintain Quality with Reduced
Resources. London: Kogan Page
McKernan, J.(1996). Curriculum action research: A handbook of methods
and resources for the reflective practitioner. London: Kogan Page.
Knight, P. T. (2001). Complexity and curriculum: A process approach
to curriculum-making. Teaching in Higher Education, 6(3), 369-381.
Parker, J. (2003), Reconceptualising the curriculum: From commodification to
transformation. Teaching in Higher Education, 8(4), 529-543
Smith, M. K. (2000). Curriculum theory and practice. The
Encyclopedia of Informal Education. Available at http://www.
infed.org/biblio/b-curric.htm.
56 D. Herlo
Stenhouse, L. (1975) An introduction to Curriculum Research and

Development. London: Kogan Page
Toohey, S. (1999). Designing courses for higher education.
Buckingham, England: SRHE Open University Press.
Wiggins, G. (2002). Toward assessment worthy of the liberal arts: The
truth may make you free, but the test may keep you imprisoned.
Mathematical Association of America. Available at http:// www.maa.
org/ SAUM/articles/wiggins_appendix.html
Agenţia Română de Asigurare a Calităţii în Învăţământul Superior
(2006), Metodologia de evaluare exeternă, standardele, standardele de
referinţă şi lista indicatorilor de performanţă, Bucureşti
Vol VI (2010), No. 2, pp. 57-64
L'Éducatrice de la Maternelle en Contexte de Crèche

M. L. Cró 1, A. M. Pinho 2
1
Maria de Lourdes Cró
School of Education Coimbra, Coimbra, Portugal.
Investigatrice de l’Úniversité de Aveiro. Aveiro. Portugal
2
Ana Mafalda Pinho
Master of Science de l'éducation - de l'enfance CPSAM,
Santa Maria da Feira, Portugal
Résumé: Étant donné que les contextes éducatifs des

services de garde au Portugal ne sont pas considérés comme
des lieux d'apprentissage, avec un programme spécifique, et
que les éducateurs qui travallent dans ces contextes, sont
généralement considérés comme inutiles dans ces crèches,
nous croyons qu’il serait pertinent d'examiner les pratiques
éducatives de certains de ces enseignants et l'importance
qu'ils attachent à leur présence dans la crèche, en particulier
en ce qui concerne le développement personnel et social des
enfants. Nous pensons que les enfants qui fréquentent ces
établissements d'enseignement éprouvent une experience
unique; que les éducateurs qui travaillent dans les garderies
reconnaissent l'importance de leur présence afin de promouvoir
une éducation de qualité; que les parents des enfants les plus
petits qui fréquentent ces contextes éducatifs reconnaissent l’
importance des enseignants dans le développement global de la
personnalité des enfants et que la qualité des contextes est un
facteur clé dans le développement du processus éducatif.
Mots-clés: L'apprentissage, l'écolle maternelle; les contexts
éducatifs de crèche; le développement; le programme.
Introduction
L’ éducation dans l’ école maternelle portugaise pour les enfants
jusqu'à trois ans n’a pas reçu une attention particulière. Toutefois, on

58 M. L. Cró, A. M. Pinho
constate que l' enfant, jusqu'à cet âge, acquiert beaucoup de compétences fort
importantes dans son développement ultérieur.
Au Portugal, on ne prend, souvent, pas compte de l'importance des
éducateurs dans l’ accompagnement des enfants dès un âge précoce; ils sont
fréquemment remplacés par des auxiliaries d’ education, sans formation
adéquate. Bien que les premiers mois de vie soyent considérés comme une
période consacrée au sommeil, où les enfants pleurent beaucoup et bien qu’
on se rend compte qu’ ils doivent être soignés, l'éducateur a un sens clair que
cette phase c'est aussi une période de développement extrêmement rapide.
Les bébés qui apparemment se limitent à l'inactivité sont dans une phase
d'une attention constante, capables d'absorber tout ce qui se passé autour d’
eux.
La crèche comme un lieu où l’ enfant éprouve l'expérience de la
séparation, l'émergence du langage, le renforcement des relations affectives,
la promotion de l'indépendance, entre autres acquisitions, c’est un contexte
éducatif extrêmement fertile. Parler de la crèche c’est beaucoup plus que
parler d’ une institution; c’est parler de l' enfant, d'un être humain en train
de développement. Comme le premier espace public habité par l' enfant,
pour qu’il puisse être promoteur de l'intégration sociale, il doit être
considéré comme un contexte éducatif. Les premières expériences de l'
enfant sont cruciales pour le développement du cerveau. La neurocience a
montré que l'interaction avec l'environnement n'est pas seulement un
accident de parcours dans le développement du cerveau, mais qu’ il est une
condition préalable. Les expériences vécues par les enfants dès les premiers
jours de vie ont un impact décisif sur l'architecture du cerveau et donc dans
la nature et l'étendue de leurs capacités en tant qu’ adultes (Portugal, 2009).
Le développement personnel et social de 0 à 3 ans
D’ après Zabalza (1992) le développement personnel et social des
enfants est étroitement liée au développement de la personnalité impliquant
le développement de leurs competences; il faut leur fournir des outils et des
ressources nécessaires pour qu’ ils puissant entreprendre un comportement
autonome et responsable qui les aide à résoudre les problèmes avec
souplesse et esprit d'innovation, en définissant les paramètres de la relation
entre l'enfant et d'autres, ce qui suppose l'apprentissage des valeurs, normes
et règles de conduite, les modes de penser et d'agir et l' appropriation des
capacités d'expression et de communication. Tout cela sera possible dans la
mesure où le travail de l' enseignant est bien structuré. Le rapport de
l'UNESCO renforce cette position et le fait que l'éducation doit contribuer au
développement intégral des enfants à travesrs ce qu'ils ont appelé piliers:
L'Éducatrice de la Maternelle en Contexte de Crèche... 59
apprendre à faire, apprendre à vivre ensemble, apprendre à être et apprendre

à se connaître.
Pour répondre à toutes leurs tâches, l'éducation doit s'organiser
autour de quatre apprentissages fondamentaux qui, tout au long de la vie,
seront, en quelque sorte, pour chaque individu, les piliers de la connaissance:
apprendre à connaître, c’ est à dire, acquérir les outils de compréhension;
apprendre à faire, afin d'agir sur leur environnement; apprendre à vivre
ensemble en vue de participer et de coopérer avec les autres dans toutes les
activités humaines; et, enfin, apprendre à être, voie essentielle, qui intègre les
trois dernières (Delors et al., 1996).
Le développement personnel et social englobe les compétences
nécessaires à l'enfant pour comprendre et faire face à ses sentiments, pour
interagir avec les autres et s'affirmer comme une personne. Ce
développement est basé sur sa relation avec les parents et les autres, couvre
ce qu'elle pense d'elle-même comme apprenti, et son sens des responsabilités
envers soi-même et les autres.
Parler de développement veut dire parler d'un changement qualitatif,
d’un changement de comportements et d’ attitudes. Il est de plus en plus
reconnue l'importance des contextes éducatifs et environnementaux comme
essentiels pour le développement de l'individu, soit dans ses relations
interpersonnelles, soit en termes de la totalité sociale (Cró, 2008).
Options méthodologiques
Considérant que le développement des enfants de moins de trois ans
est favorisée par l'accompagnement des enseignants qualifiés , on a étudiée
dans une enquête récente, le développement personnel et social des enfants
de 0 à 3 ans dans le contexte des soins de jour. L'objectif de la recherche
implique l'amélioration des pratiques pédagogiques des professionnels
impliqués dans l'éducation pour les enfants âgés entre 0 et 3 ans.
L'étude a eu la participation d’ enseignants de la maternelle qui ont
un rôle dans les soins de jour et s’ est base sur la conviction que la première
enfance va de la naissance jusqu'à l'âge de 3 ans, lorsque l'enfant a atteint une
autonomie minimum au niveau des différentes parties de sa personnalité:
psychomotricité langage, socio-affectivité et raisonnement; la plupart des
éducateurs croît que la fonction principale dans la crèche c’ est le
développement des compétences pour l'autonomie de l'enfant dans tous les
domaines du développement.
Conscient de l'impossibilité de connaître la pratique d'un grand
nombre d'enseignants de maternelle, notre échantillon a été composé
d'éducateurs qui exercent des fonctions de gardes éducatifs de la municipalité
portugaise, dans un total de 46. À partir des recherches que nous avons fait
nous nous sommes rendus compte que nous ne pouvions pas faire une étude
approfondie, optant plutôt pour une étude portant sur le plus grand
echantillon possible d'éducateurs.
La caractérisation des échantillons
Nous avons présenté au éducateurs des jardins d'enfance sélectionnés
un questionnaire de quatre groupes de questions: l'identification personnelle,
le travail développé par l'éducateur dans le contexte des soins de jour,
l'évaluation du processus d'enseignement et la planification du processus
éducatif. La même analyse a montré que tous les éléments sont les femmes
âgées entre 23 et 54 ans, et que la durée de leur service à la maternelle, est
entendue dans une période comprise entre un mois et douze ans. En outre, la
plupart des répondants ont un diplôme (licence littéraire).
Procédures et Instrumentation
Nous avions l'intention de connaître l'avis des enseignants à jouer des
rôles à la maternelle, en creche, par rapport à l'importance accordée à sa
résidence dans ce contexte. Nous avons fait l'observation indirecte par
conséquent, et l’ enquête par questionnaire.
Le questionnaire comportait un morceau de données d'identification,
les questions personnelles et professionnelles liées à la présence d'un
enseignant de maternelle à la crèche.
Présentation et analyse d'interprétation
Lorsque interrogées au sujet du rôle de l'éducateur au jardin
d'enfance, la majorité des éducatrices est convenu que les fonctions sont liées
aux soins de base aux enfants, avec l'achèvement d'une routine, à la
promotion des premières manifestations d'autonomie et de l'organisation et la
gestion du contexte éducatif. Cependant, elles ont manifesté son désaccord
avec l'énoncé selon lequel le rôle de l’ éducateur au jardin d'enfance est de
remplacer la figure maternelle. Les éducatrices ont souligné, en plus, que l'
éducateur a pour tâche d'identifier les troubles d'apprentissage précoce; de
motiver pour différentes apprentissages; de collaborer sur le dépistage
précoce d'une éventuelle assymétrie et / ou handicap, en faisant la
transmission correcte de chaque situation détectée. Ainsi, l'idée que chaque
individu possède sur les fonctions de l'éducation des enfants est étroitement
liée à sa formation initiale, mais aussi à sa formation continue, ce qui d’
après l’ avis de M.L.Cró (2006) peut faire des professionnels des pratiques
“scientifiques”, en les qualifiant pour l'évaluation et la gestion de leur travail
éducatif, comme le ferait un chercheur professionnel. L'implication directe
des enseignants à exercer dans une pratique contrôlée et scientifiquement
fondée peut entraîner l'annulation de la fracture qui existe entre la formation

théorique en psychologie et de la formation professionnelle, entre le
raisonnement scientifique et l'action.
En ce qui concerne les difficultés que les enseignantes éprouvent
quand elles travaillent avec les enfants jusqu'à trois ans, la plupart a
considéré l'aide individuelle comme le principal obstacle, qui est suivie par
un manque de crédibilité attribuée à la garderie de l'éducateur. L'aide
individuelle a été l'option choisie, probablement parce que le ratio
enseignant-enfant n'est pas le plus approprié. Selon Brazelton (2004) le
nombre d'enfants par adulte ne doit pas dépasser 3 ou 5, en ce qui concerne
les nourrissons, quatre en ce qui concerne les enfants de 1-2 ans et 6-8
enfants par adulte, lorsque les enfants ont 3 ans. Cette question a également
retenu l'attention de Bronfenbrenner qui la considère comme un facilitateur
clé ou un inhibiteur du développement de l'apprentissage.
En petits groupes l'enseignant assure une meilleure interaction
sociale avec les enfants, en questionnant, en répondant, en louant, en
réconfortant ... Dans les grands groupes, l'enseignant passe plus de temps à
observer les enfants en interaction avec des adultes ou avec des auxiliaires.
Les enfants en petits groupes montrent un plus grand nombre de
comportements tels que regarder attentivement, penser, contribuer avec des
idées, donner des avis, continuer de coopérer sur les tâches, que les enfants
des groupes plus grands. En général, ces grands groups manifestent avec une
plus grande fréquence la non-participation, l'apathie et l'isolement (Portugal,
1992).
La personnalisation de l'intervention éducative ne semble pas facile,
cependant, les éducateurs, à travers une analyse de sa propre manière
d'organiser des activités éducatives, peuvent garantir des conditions
similaires pour tous les enfants.
Pour les aspects les plus importants dans la réalisation de la qualité
des soins pour les enfants de moins de trois ans, la relation entre adultes et
enfants, l'espace, l'équipement et les ressources des contextes et des
expériences d'apprentissage offertes étaient les plus soulignés. En fait, les
relations sociales entre les adultes et les enfants ont été soulignées par
plusieurs auteurs, y compris Post et Hohmann (2003), car la qualité de ces
relations influence la qualité, le développement de plusieurs dimensions de
la personnalité de l'enfant et le développement des relations futures. Les
auteurs citent un psychologue du développement qui dit que lorsque les
jeunes enfants éprouvent le sentiment qu'ils peuvent compter sur d'autres
personnes importantes qui les aiment et les rassurent, ils obtiennent une base
solide de confiance qui leur permet d'explorer leur environnement.
Réflexions finales
L'enfant a joué, de plus en plis, un rôle de premier plan et de plus en
plus actif. De nombreux auteurs étudient le développement de l' enfant et,
plus récemment, son développement dans des contextes collectifs. Vu que
c’est dans les premières années de vie qui se construisent les bases pour le
développement intellectuel, affectif et moral, on considère essentiel l’
accompagnement des enfants par leurs familles, en particulier la mère.
Cependant, la mère qui travaille après la fin de son congé de maternité, qui
doit retourner à son emploi, a besoin de choisir un de plusieurs types
d'hébergement. Le choix d'un site qui répond qualitativement aux besoins de
chaque enfant et leur famille, doit tenir compte de l'importance des bonnes
relations affectives entre l'enfant et la personne qui prendra soin de lui parce
qu’ elle sera responsable par l'élaboration d'un nombre étonnamment élevé
de capacités mentales de l’ enfant. Les bébés ne sont pas «tábua rasa»; ils ont
une personnalité propre, qui dépend du type de relation qu'ils établissent avec
les autres. La crèche a été le mode le plus populaire de la réception et elle a
peu à peu été considéréé comme un espace éducatif par excellence, sa
fonction n'est plus uniquement la garde des enfants, elle a aussi sa fonction
éducative, puisqu ‘ il y a des expériences et des apprentissages que l'enfant
fait dans la crèche au niveau de l'interaction avec d'autres enfants et d'autres
adultes, qui ne seraient probablement pas possibles avec sa famille restreinte.
Le rôle des services de garde est extrêmement important, puisque,
comme cela concerne la formation affective, sociale et éducative des enfants
il doit y avoir un niveau de fonctionnement, ainsi que des contrôles fréquents
pour améliorer les conditions de ce contexte. Bien que la crèche soit en train
de jouer un rôle de plus en plus important, la qualité des soins fournis et le
contexte est variable et d'une grande importance pour le développement d' un
processus éducatif approprié. La qualité de ce contexte varie en fonction de
la présence ou de l'absence d'un enseignant de maternelle dans les salles
d'activités avec les enfants jusqu'à trois ans. Ainsi, la présence d'un éducateur
de la garderie est pertinent, on dirait même essentielle, parce qu’ il est
sensible aux besoins fondamentaux des enfants, mais surtout pour son
expertise dans ce niveau d'enseignement, avec une bonne connaissance et
formation appropriée aux expériences d'apprentissage parce qu’ il ne suffit
pas d’ entourer les enfants de soins et d’ amour. La relation éducatrice-enfant
sera surtout axée sur le bien-être de l' enfant et le processus de
développement global de sa personnalité, sans se nourrir des sentiments

maternels du type instinctif. Et cela parce que l'idée existe encore que
l'enseignant joue un rôle de remplaçant de la mère. Pour lancer ce modèle,
extrêmement lourd, les enseignants doivent repenser les travaux dans la
creche dans une perspective professionnelle à travers la mise en œuvre d'un
plan de développement et d'apprentissage. L'enseignant doit aussi, en
conformité avec le processus d'observation et d 'évaluation de l'ensemble du
contexte éducatif, adapter ses pratiques et le plan de développement élaboré
pour les changer s’ il le faut.
Cela dit, la promotion de la qualité de la crèche et de ses contextes
implique l'application régulière de la législation existante et la présence
constante d'un enseignant de maternelle qui, en tant que professionnel, aura
l'occasion d’accéder à cette législation, de parvenir aux besoins de chaque
enfant et d’ établir des liens positifs entre les enfants.
La pédagogie dans le cadre d'éducation de la crèche doit promouvoir
l'instauration de relations individuallisées, mais, surtout, personnalisées, le
développement sur mesure de la découverte spontanée et tenue d'élections
libres et la flexibilité autour de certaines routines (créant des attentes), des
espaces et des groupes d'enfants.
Pour l'enquête de terrain, menée avec les enseignants de la
maternelle à exercer des fonctions dans le contexte des soins de jour, il est
possible de réaliser l'importance qu'ils attachent à leur présence dans ce
contexte éducatif. Ainsi, la qualité du processus éducatif est assurée par la
mise en œuvre d'un plan de développement et d'apprentissage souple et
adapté aux besoins et aux intérêts des enfants.
Referências bibliográficas:
Brazelton, T. B. O grande livro da criança: o desenvolvimento

emocional e do comportamento durante os primeiros anos. Lisboa:
Editorial Presença, 2004.
Cró, M. L. Innovation as a form of Intervention in Education
ICERI2008 International Conference of Education, Research and
Innovation. Madrid: Ed.IATED, 2008.
Cró, M. L. Actividades na educação pré-escolar e activação do
desenvolvimento psicológico. 2ª Edição. Lisboa: ESEJD-Artes gráficas,
Lda, 2006.
Delors, J. et al. Educação: um tesouro a descobrir: relatório para a

UNESCO da comissão internacional sobre educação para o século XXI.
Rio Tinto: ASA, 1996. ISBN 972-41-1775-8.
Portugal, G. Desenvolvimento e aprendizagem na infância. A educação
das crianças dos 0 aos 12 anos. Lisboa: CNE, 2009.
Portugal, G. Ecologia de desenvolvimento humano em Bronfenbrenner.
Aveiro: CIDINE, 1992.
Post, J. e Hohmann, M. Educação de bebés em infantários: cuidados e
primeiras aprendizagens. Lisboa: Fundação Calouste Gulbenkian, 2003.
Zabalza, M. Didáctica da educação Infantil. Rio Tinto: Edições ASA,
1992.
Vol VI (2010), No. 2, pp. 65-72
Peer mediation: conflict as an opportunity of change

C. Morgado, I. Oliveira
Catarina Morgado
Escola Superior de Educação (College of Education – Coimbra)
Isabel Oliveira
Escola Superior de Educação (College of Education – Coimbra)
To have conflicts is human

To resolve them, divine
Abstract: Conflict is a normal, natural part of everyday

life, the legitimate outcome of interactions between even
the most well meaning individuals. From our first moments
of life to our last, humans beings are continually involved
in conflicts. We conflict over mundane inanities as well
as the most pressing issues of the times. No aspect of life
is resistant to becoming the focus of human conflict.
Conflict is not only a normal part of living, it is also a
necessary part. It is through the friction of forces in
opposition that things change. Fields as diverse as political
science, biology, physics, and religion all view conflict as
a source of potentially positive change and growth. It also
plays an especially significant role in human
psychological development. The conflicts that we face in
our lives shape our characters, our cultures, and our
world. But conflicts are not always positive. Most of the
ideas free-associated with the word “conflict” are
decidedly negative (fighting, pain, violence) and, on an
emotional level, people can feel unloved, angry and
depressed as a result of conflicts. Certainly, then, conflict
can have destructive as well as constructive
consequences.
Keywords: conflict, opportunity, mediation, school,
education, behaviour
66 C. Morgado, I. Oliveira
Students have always become involved in conflicts. But today,

young people disagree with each other more often and over issues of
less real consequence than in the past. The media shows us a vision of
aggression arousal in schools; teachers complain about lost of
authority; and families expect schools to be the place where the
youngest are educated in a safety environment.
In this context we should ask an important question: are schools
prepared to deal with interpersonal conflicts? Everyone brings up the
issue of aggression and bullying, however, interpersonal conflicts
assume a wide range of behaviors: verbal threats, cursing, name
calling, insults, racial slurs, pushing, grabbing, shoving, punching,
kicking and fighting. These are commonplaces in many schools,
interfering with schools climate and ultimately with learning
environments, causing fear and absenteeism, not only among students
but also among teachers as a response to stress.
Schools have attempted to manage interpersonal conflicts
among students, teachers and administrators by various models of
discipline, such as referrals, suspension or expulsion. However, the
traditional punitive response has already shown its incapacity to
produce real behavior changes or even to reduce interpersonal
conflicts in school context (Smith, Daunic, Miller & Robinson, 2002).
Dissatisfaction with traditional processes established to settle disputes
has led educators and others to try new ways of conflict resolution
such as mediation. Peer mediation represents a move away from
programs that depend on punitive and exclusion methods of behavior
control. These methods cause stigma and discrimination and don’t
give a systemic response to the problem.
The rush towards conflict resolution in the schools is mirrored
in society at large by a move away from the traditional litigation
model of problem solving in the courts. Alternative Dispute
Resolution (ADR) efforts, including court-based mediation programs,
are expanding throughout the justice system all over the world; in the
USA, mediation as an alternative mean of dispute resolution has
been around in various forms since the 1960s. School mediation
received particular national attention in 1984 when the National
Association for Mediation in Education (NAME) was formed. NAME
brought together educators and mediators working in neighborhood
justice centers to consider how best to teach about mediation and
conflict resolution. The mediation effort in schools was also spurred
Peer mediation: conflict as an opportunity of change 67
by the development of local programs that have grown to American

national stature. Globally, Conflict Resolution Education
(CRE) and peer mediation in particular, spread all over the
world including mature projects in Argentina, New Zealand,
Australia or Canada; in Europe, mediation school programs have
been implemented in countries such as France, Great-Britain,
Switzerland, Belgium, Poland, German, Spain, among others.
PEER MEDIATION GOALS

Johnson & Johnson (1995) present peer mediation basically
as a structured process in which a neutral and impartial student
assists two or more students to negotiate an integrative resolution to
their conflict. The mediation is described as a process in which
disputants are actively involved in the resolution of their own
conflicts, assisted by trained peers.
Conflict resolution and peer mediation programs emphasize
students learning how to manage their own conflicts, by training
both mediators and disputants to listen effectively, think critically
and engage in problem solving. Mediation seeks to solve a dispute and
prevent its recurrence and students mediators learn to plan for the
future; they learn about responsibilities as well rights, about
consequences as well choices, internalizing key social and affective
skills (Cremin, 2007).
According to research mediators may, in fact, beneficiate of a
large increase in social skills, comparing to disputants or control
students (Epstein, 1996); increased self-esteem and empathy as
byproducts of conflict resolution and peer mediation training has also
been documented (Maresca, 1996; Türnüklü et al., 2009). Haft and
Weiss (1998) even suggested that positive effects of peer mediation
might go beyond the school and enhance positive community
relations. Some initial evidence shows that mediators may transfer
their constructive conflict skills to sibling conflicts at home (Gentry
and Benenson, 1993), using the skills similarly in family and school
settings (Johnson and Johnson, 2001).
Most importantly, studies of mediation practices in schools
reveal positive impact on school climate, contributing to safer learning
environment. Haft and Weiss (1998) suggested that bringing a peer
mediation process to schools can reduce violence, free up teachers to
teach more and discipline less and increase student morale.
In 2003 Burrell, Zirbel and Allen lead a meta-analysis of

forty-three studies published since 1985 and the results
overwhelmingly support peer mediation effectiveness in terms of
increasing students’ conflict knowledge and skills, improving school
climate and reducing negative behavior. Other inspiring meta-analysis
conducted by Garrard and Lipsey (2007) report that participation in
school- based conflict resolution education methods in general,
including peer mediation, contributes to reduce anti-social behaviors
(disruptive, aggressive and problem behaviors) among youth in
kindergarten through twelfth grade in USA schools.
Recent studies also highlight a marked reduction in anti-social
incidents leading to improvement in social school climate following
the implementation of these approaches (Noaks and Noaks, 2009).
Concluding, these programs have the potential to induce
school climates that foster pro-social behavior. Pupils become
empowered to solve their own problems, they develop conflict
resolution strategies and a safe learning environment is created for
both pupils and staff.
A PEER MEDIATION PROGRAM IMPLEMENTATION
ON PORTUGUESE SCHOOLS
A Conflict Resolution and Peer Mediation program is being
developed by CONSENSUS Association in two different schools (EB
2/3 Guilherme Stephens – Middle School - and Escola Secundária
com 3º Ciclo de Pinhal do Rei – Middle and High School), placed at
Marinha Grande, Portugal. This project is included in a social
program to prevent addictions and create social responses to the
youngest in risk, named WINGS, coordinated by Associação para o
Desenvolvimento Económico e Social da Região da Marinha Grande
(ADESER IPSS – Society for the Economical and Social
Development of Marinha Grande Region) and financed by Instituto
das Drogas e Toxicodependências (IDT - State Institute to the
Prevention of Drugs and Addictions).
The program implementation includes a Consensus
experienced mediation team, specifically trained in conflict resolution
skills and school mediation.
The program has four implementation stages.
1. Assessment stage: the Consensus mediators team held
private meetings with the school direction and the school counselor,
followed by a facilitating meeting with some teachers to acknowledge
their needs and identify the major problems that arise in school
context. Using this information the team can promote a first draft of
the intervention design.
2. Second stage: this team promotes informative and
explanatory school meetings with teachers, students, parents, and
other educators, open to the surrounding community. The program
intends to involve all school community, bringing out the peer
mediation as a conflict resolution alternative to solve interpersonal
conflicts among students, inviting all to understand and participate in
the achievement of the program goals.
During this stage, a training course in mediation skills for
teachers is provided. It includes classes about (a) conflict theory; (b)
communication skills, including active listening, empathy, self-
expression, assertiveness, accepting criticism and giving feedback, and
respecting differences; (c) interpersonal conflicts skills, which include
negotiation and problem solving skills; (c) emotions management
such as recognizing and expressing one’s emotions, empathizing with
others feelings, understanding the nature and reactions to anger,
developing self-control and anger management, and signalizing
behavior that triggers interpersonal conflicts; (d) the mediation
process; (e) peer mediation program design.
A team of mediators is selected from this initial group of
teachers and prepared to support and supervise the future peer
mediators, guaranteeing the program continuity.
3. At this stage, Consensus mediators start the selection of
peer mediators among students and their training in conflict
resolution, using the teacher team support. The model of peer
selection aims to involve all students but only a few will be selected
for the specific training. How does it work? Consensus mediator team
defines a mediator profile, based upon leadership and communication
personal skills, sense of responsibility and ability to develop empathy.
This profile is provided to all class directors because they are the
teachers that best know their students. In each classroom students
are asked to name two classmates they would trust and seek help in
resolving their interpersonal conflicts, also intending to promote
diversity of genre and ethnic differences. The selection program
intends to achieve the mediator respect and recognition among their
peers.
Finally the student training begins, promoting the same skills

that were already developed during the teachers training. The 20 class-
hour training is applied following Cohen model and its suggestions
(Cohen, 1995).
Currently, the Peer mediation program in the schools of
Marinha Grande are at the third stage – Peer Mediators Training -
involving 42 kids between 10 and 15 years old at Guilherme
Stephens School and 36 kids at Pinhal do Rei High School, aged
from 13 to 17 years old.
Following the Peer Mediators training stage, the school will
implement the peer mediation program, supported by the help and
supervision of teachers mediators. The Consensus mediation team is
trying to adapt the peer mediation program to school regulations and
procedures, in straight cooperation with teachers and the school
direction.
How does mediation process take place? The teacher or the
counselor gets together with kids in conflict and explain them the
process and mediation goals. If they are prepared to mediation, the
teacher chooses a mediator from a list of trained peer mediators,
according to age and genre and, when possible, to ethnic differences.
The Consensus team have already prepared forms to manage the
process: the “consent” form must be signed by the kids involved in
conflict and it includes parties and mediator identification and a list
of mediation rules and principles; a form to write the “final
compromise” if they succeed in solving the conflict; a parties enquiry
about the mediation process and the mediators performance; and an
enquiry to be filled by the mediators as a self-reflection about their
work.
The teacher mediator has a supervising role, however he or
she must respect the confidentiality of the process. Teacher’s
mediators and peer mediators will gather together to talk about what
happened during the performed mediation sessions; the positive
outcomes; their difficulties during the sessions and how to improve
their skills.
4. The final part reports to an evaluation stage. After 6 months
to one year of peer mediation program implementation, the Consensus
team will organize meetings with the teacher team to analyze forms,
mediation sessions and discuss inquiries and talk about what can be
improved or need to be changed.
A more refined research project will take place during this

period, promoting an evaluation enquiry to all school community
about conflict and their resolution by peer mediation. The following
questions will be addressed:
1. Number of mediation sessions that took place and
percentage of reached agreements.
2. How peers mediation has impact on teachers’ and students’
perceptions of school climate.
3. How peer mediation has impact on students’ conflict
attitudes and behaviors in terms of how frequently they are involved
in conflict, how frequently they help others who are in conflict,
their conflict styles, their tendency toward aggressive behavior (verbal,
physic or psychological aggression) and their ability to demonstrate or
enact the skills taught in training.
3.1 Number and type of discipline referrals drop out and
suspension rate will be measured.
Bibliography:
Burrell, N. A., Zirbel, C. S., & Allen, M. (2003). Evaluating peer mediation
outcomes in educational settings: A meta- analytic review. Conflict
Resolution Quarterly, 21 (1), 7–26.
Cohen, R. (1995). Students resolving conflicts. Tucson: Good Year Books
Cremin, H. (2007). Peer mediation. Maidenhead: Open University Press.
Dauber, S., & Epstein, J. (1993). Parent’s attitudes and practices of
involvement in inner-city elementary and middle schools. In N. Chavkin
(Ed.), Families and schools in a pluralistic society. Albany, NY: State
University of New York Press.
Epstein, E. (1996). Evaluation of an elementary school conflict resolution-
peer mediation program. Dissertation Abstracts International Section A:
Humanities and Social Sciences, 57 (6-A), 2370.
Garrard, W. M., & Lipsey, M. W. (2007). Conflict Resolution Education and
antisocial behavior in US schools: A meta-analysis. Conflict Resolution
Quarterly, 25 (1), 9-38.
Gentry, D. B., & Benenson, W. A. (1993). School-age peer mediators transfer
knowledge and skills to home setting. Mediation Quarterly, 10, 101-109.
Haft, W. S., & Weiss, E. R. (1998). Peer mediation in schools: Expectations
and evaluations. Harvard Negotiation Law Review, (Spring), 213-270.
Johnson, D. W., & Johnson, R. T. (1995). Teaching students to be

peacemakers. Edina, MN: Interaction Book Co.
Johnson, D. W., & Johnson, R. (2001). Peer mediation in an inner city
school. Urban Education, 36 (2), 165–179.
Maresca, J. (1996). Peer mediation as an alternative to the criminal justice
system. Child and family Canada, (Fall).Retrieved 20 September 2010 from
http://www.cfc-efc.ca/docs /cwlc /00000827.htm.
Noaks, J. & Noaks, L. (2009). School-based peer mediation as a strategy for
social inclusion. Pastoral Care in Education, 27(1), pp.53–61.
Smith, S., W., Daunic, A. P., Miller, M. D., & Robinson, T. R. (2002).
Conflict resolution and peer mediation in middle schools: Extending the
process and outcome knowledge base. Journal of Social Psychology, 142
(5), 567-586.
Türnüklü, A., Kaçmaz, T., Gürler, S., Kalender, A., Zengin, F. & Şevkin, B.
(2009). The effects of conflict resolution and peer mediation education on
students empathy skills. Education and Science, 34 (153), 15-24.
Vol VI (2010), No. 2, pp. 73-80
Methodology and Method in Scientific Research

M. Şimandan
Matei Şimandan
“Aurel Vlaicu” University of Arad
Abstract: The aim of this article is to operate the

conceptual distinctions between the methodology of
research and the methods, techniques, procedures and
instruments of research. In the first part of the article, we
make an analysis of the interpretations given to
methodology, insisting upon the distinctions between
general methodology and the specialized methodologies of
the different fields of research. The second part of the
article tries to highlight the principles that stand at the
basis of the functioning of research methodology (the unity
between theory and practice, between theory and practice
and between the deductive and evaluative judgments), as
well as the distinctions between qualitative and
quantitative methodologies. In the last part of the article
we systematize the characteristics of the research method
and the different criteria according to which they can be
used in the practice of scientific research.
Keywords: methodology, method, scientific practice,
methodological principles, methodological control.
The content of methodology

Methodology can be defined as the systematic study of the
principles, methods, rules and procedures which govern a scientific
intercession. Having a normative characteristic, methodology
formulates strategies of investigation, it indicates the possible
difficulties of past research experiences and suggests ways of obtaining
valid results from the scientific point of view (cf. Vlasceanu, 1998;
King, 2005; Moscovici si Buschini, 2007; Chelcea, 2010). It is
74 M. Şimandan
important to highlight the fact that research methodology defines the

scientific theory of the research methods, namely the principles on
which the means and types of action in a certain field of reality are
conceived.
The interpretations given to research methodology regard a number of
analysis plans. Sometimes, it is considered a branch of science philosophy,
developed next to epistemology and the logic of research. This situation
admits the existence of a general methodology, whose aims would be the
problems of all the scientific research. Although we can’t speak about a
general methodology of scientific research, the communication between
particular methodologies ground themselves as factors of convergence of the
research strategies and a means of highlighting the unitary feature of
scientific knowledge.
On other times, there is talk about methodologies specialized on
disciplines, whose functions refer to defining the studied object, identifying
the principles and rules of investigations, to the instruments of collecting and
analysing data or the processes of validating the results of research. From
this perspective, methodology includes: the assertions admitted as references
for that particular science and converted into methodological norms; the
methods and techniques of collecting empirical data (observation,
experiment, modelling, simulation etc); the techniques and procedures
operating the empirical information and data, as well as collecting them to
ground decisions; procedures of analysis, interpretation and theoretical
construction based on the empirical data in order to elaborate descriptions,
explanations and predictions (cf. Chelcea 2004; Popescu si colab, 2006;
McQuin si Knussen, 2007; King, Keohane si Verba, 2000).
Last but not least, research methodology is regarded as “a system of
methods, procedures, techniques, postulates, principles and instruments, as
well as the afferent know-how engaged in the process of scientific
knowledge (…). It confers to research the characteristic of efficient action
because it involves a way of use, a know-how fit to the methods, techniques
and instruments which can be used, the latter being most known. Understood
as something that teaches us how to use research methods and instruments
and, most of all, how to apply what we know, methodology provides us with
the rules, norms, methods and practices through which we can get to know
“how to do” and “how to apply” something we know we had learnt, how to
walk the way from a vague idea, a hypothesis to a solution, a generalization
or a scientific theory” (Zait si Spalanzani, 2009, p.127).
Methodology and Method in Scientific Research 75
Starting from these assertions, we can state that research

methodology involves a wide variety of realising the scientific process,
grounded on a number of criteria:
• The theoretical concept according to which we elaborate the
definitions of the object being studied;
• The orientation of research towards formulating conclusions or
grounding decisions;
• The predominantly theoretical form of research or grounded on
observation or experiment;
• The set of objectives associated to research – description,
understanding, explanation, prediction and control;
• The accent on quantitative methods or qualitative ones;
• The diversity of hypothetical methods of formulating a research
strategy;
• The difference between the methods of investigation;
• The possibilities to operate with the concepts used in the research
of a certain field of the socio-economical reality;
• The theoretical and valuable foundations of the researcher’s
report on the reality he is studying;
• The quantitative and qualitative meanings of the data used to
formulate explanations.
The main conclusion drawn from this presentation refers to the
main themes used by the methodology of scientific research. Thus, we can
make the following distinctions:
• Delimitating the object of study in empirical research, since not
all socio-economical facts, phenomena and processes have the same
importance in determining explanations, just as not all aspects of reality can
be investigated at the same time.
• Understanding the meaning given to the concepts used in
research and in the analysis of the means of fitting the methods, techniques,
procedures and instruments of investigation to the object of study.
• Choosing the methods of research, an activity which depends on
the nature of the phenomena being studied and the accessibility of the
methods, the period of time given to the study, the financial resources and
the conclusions.
• Convergent application of more means of investigation and
optimum articulation of the methods, techniques and instruments of research
in a strategy which can surpass the limits of each method and technique.
76 M. Şimandan
• Checking the means of systematizing and using data in field

research (constituting series of data, organizing the information in statistic
classes, establishing the application limits of statistical numbers according to
the level of measuring used etc.), as well as the attempt to formalize
statements.
The principles of methodology and methodological control

From the debate of the aspects connected to methodology and the
methods of research, authors such as King, Keohane, and Verba (2000),
Chelcea (2004), McQueen and Knussen (2007), suggest a double perspective
of approaching methodological principles. On the one hand, this involves a
strcutural model which makes distinctions between:
• The principle of unity between theory and practice, a principle
which includes, at the same time, field theory and observation, induction and
deduction, estimating indicators and interpreting them, formulating
hypotheses and empirical generalizations, elements of theoretical
construction and their application in scientific practice.
• The principle of unity between explanation and understanding,
according to which the explanation of socio-economical phenomena and
processes involves the understanding of the functioning mechanisms of
different structures of organizing social life and individual and group
behaviour.
• The principle of unity between concluding and evaluating
judgements, which says that the researcher can’t be free of values, interests,
ideologies or certain cultural influences, having to act according to certain
moral commitments which he must share.
On the other hand, we can make a distinction between the
methodology of quantitative research (associated to the process of collecting
and analyzing numeric data) and qualitative methodology (especially
connected to collecting and analyzing information based on interpretation).
Summed up to the essentials, qualtitative methodology means collecting
standardized data from previous research carried out with the help of
questionnaires or measuring scales or through the statistical analysis of
information obtained during the process of observation and experimenting.
As opposed to quantitative methodology, the objectives of
qualitative methodology involve the study of the meaning of social facts and
understanding the reasons why social actors act in a certain way. The
techniques employed – observation, interview or behaviour analysis –
involve not only the researcher, but also the analysed subjects in a
relationship of continuous definition of research. Obviously, the two means
of operating are more flexible than they seem in theoretical development,

and the different research methods and techniques are in a continuous
process of interaction and reciprocal support.
Willing to go beyond certain unilateral approaches of the principles
of methodology, Septimiu Chelcea (2004) adopts the analytical model of
Walter Wallace (1971) for the specific of social research. Following the
direction of methodological control, the chart below tries to present the way
in which theory serves to formulate deductions and hypotheses which, in
their turn, help to build measuring instruments and scales for the phenomena
observed; hence, the emergence of a process of evaluation of the parameters
and the creation of an empirical generalization, which lead to new theoretical
concepts and statements. The model also suggests the elements of theory
application and the construction of methods and techniques of research with
the help of deductive and inductive procedures, as well as the way in which
the mechanism of accepting or dismissing the hypotheses formulated works
in different moments of the explanation stage.
78 M. Şimandan
The method – methodology relationship

As seen in the presentation above, research methodology is
generally normative, being built from theoretical principles, methods
and techniques of collecting data and processing information, as well as
from logical procedures of analysis, organization and generalization of
the new knowledge and theoretical constructions.
The method, on the other hand, is a system of research rules and
principles, which are used to underlie knowledge and the action of
transforming reality. It can be defined as a rational way which permits
the ascertainment of the distinctions between true and false, real and
unreal, objective and subjective etc, as well as the limits between
acceptable and non-acceptable in scientific practice.
Other characteristics of the method of research refer to the fact
that it is the most active theoretical background of science and it leads
to acquiring new knowledge. As the same time, method draws its
sources from objective reality and comes to life through the conversion
of the theoretical field of science into normative elements and is tightly
connected to the theory and practice of knowledge.
Referring to the field of social sciences, Septimiu Chelcea
(2004, p.31-33) points out that the term method is used with different
meanings, which gives it a certain ambiguity. To get over it, the author
suggests a classification of the methods of scientific research according
to the following criteria:
• According to the time criterion, there is a difference
between transversal methods (which concern the social phenomena and
processes at a given time) and the longitudinal methods (which study
the social phenomena and processes in their temporal evolution).
• According to the degree of intervention of the researcher
in producing the phenomenon, there are experimental methods (the
experiment, the simulation, modeling), near-experimental methods (the
inquiry and the Gallup poll) and observation methods (observation,
documentary study etc.).
• According to the number of social units being studied,
there is a difference between statistical methods (which involve the
investigation of a large number of social units) and casuistic methods
(which thoroughly study a few socio-human units or phenomena).
• According to the place occupied in different moments of
the scientific intercession, the methods can be: methods of correlating
information (statistical recording, field study, inquiry etc.), methods of
processing information (quantitative and qualitative methods) and

methods of interpreting research data (comparative, interpretative
methods etc.).
The same author tries to operate a few useful distinctions
between method, technique, procedure and research instrument. While
the technique designates the complex of rules and procedures for an
efficient action regarding the operational level of the approach of the
studied phenomena, the procedure represents the means of action and
use of research instruments (interview guide, registration paper,
observation paper etc.). The background idea is that the same method
consists in more techniques, just as each technique can be applied in
different procedures.
By stating the meaning of the terms method, technique,
procedure and research instrument, we can say that methodology is the
science of methods or that methodology is the interface between theory
and method. These relationships between method and methodology
meet in all the stages of scientific research, whether they start from a
theory which is to be verified (like in the positivist tradition of
quantitative research), or they start from the qualitative observation and
interpretation of the phenomena (which give the researcher the
opportunity to develop a systematic research and to elaborate new
explanative theories).
Conclusions
From the presentation above, one can conclude that
methodology is concerned with the general approach of the hypotheses
of social sciences and with the study of the way in which researchers
operate when selecting and using certain methods of investigation.
While methodology analyzes the principles of research, the possibility
to explain the social processes and phenomena or whether one can
establish causal or functional relationships, the methods are concerned
with the practical and explanatory aspects of research. Whether we talk
about content analysis, comparative analysis, case or observation
analysis, interview, or sociological investigation, the method still relates
with research methodology and its principles of operation. In other
words, method and methodology determine and support each other, thus
accomplishing the actual communion between theory and practice,
between explanation and understanding, between quantity and quality,
as well as between the different stages of the scientific process.
80 M. Şimandan
Bibliography:
Chelcea, S., 2004, Iniţiere în cercetarea sociologică, Bucureşti, Editura

Comunicare Ro
Chelcea, S., 2010, Metodologia cercetării sociologice. Metode
cantitative şi calitative (ed. a III-a), Bucureşti, Editura Economică
King, G.; Keohane, R., S. Verba, 200, Fundamentele cercetării sociale,
Iaşi, Editura Polirom
King, R.F., 2005, Strategia cercetării. Treisprezece cursuri despre
elementele ştiinţelor sociale, Iaşi, Editura Polirom
McQueen, R.; Knusses, Ch., 2007, Metode de cercetare în ştiinţele
sociale, Iaşi, Editura Polirom
Moscovici, S.; Buschini, F.; 2007, Metodologia ştiinţelor socioumane,
Iaşi, Editura Polirom
Popescu, C-tin; Ciucur, D.; Răboacă, Gh.; Iovan, D.; 2006, Metodologia
cercetării ştiinţifice economice, Bucureşti, Editura Academiei de Studii
Economice
Şimandan, M., 2002, Teoria cunoaşterii sociale, Bucureşti, Editura
Academiei Române
Vlăsceanu, L., 1998, Metodologia cercetării sociologice, în C.Zamfir şi
L.Vlăsceanu (coord.), Dicţionar de sociologie, Bucureşti, Editura Babel,
p.349-351
Zait, D; Spalanzani, A., 2009, La recherche en economie et
management. Reperes epistemologiques et methodologiques, Paris,
L’Harmattan
Vol VI (2010), No. 2, pp. 81-87
The formation of habits – the formation of reflexes

G. Schwartz
Gheorghe Schwartz
University "Aurel Vlaicu" Arad
Abstract: Man lives in a present time of action, and in an

“affective present”. In the case of the affective present,
the current emotional state–i.e. mood–cannot be detached
from the legacy of the past and from the future expectancy.
The degree to which the two projective times influence the
pragmatics of the present will be pointed out when
analyzing (Inconsistency of time).
Keywords: reflex, habits, behaviour, life, mood
The situation reflex

Concerning one’s heritage: the reactions of one’s mood represent
one's responses to a known (heritage) situation. The situation reflex
comes in response to a labyrinthine echo, to an entire chain of
successive emotional experiences, known as the long catenary reflex .
Based on Behterev's and Secenov's observations, Pavlov's
conditioned reflex seems to be the first systematic survey of the
situation reflex. Man’s entire life experience–from the most elementary
form of learning–is based on this parameter. Conditioned reflexes are
born to almost every concrete situation in our daily lives, provided it
has an impact on us.
The impact condition is compulsory: if we know that, in the street,
all young persons who wear a violet leather jacket represent a danger, a
state of alert sets in each time we encounter such a person, while other
youngsters wearing a leather jacket of any other color trigger no
reaction. Back home, at dinner, we will be able to relate, in a voice
betraying our fright, that that day we had had the tough luck to bump
into three young persons wearing violet leather jackets. But we won’t be
able to recall how many youngsters wearing leather jackets of other
colors we had met only a few hours before. The situation reflex
82 G. Schwartz
represents a response to a recollection: the remembrance of an

emotional experience or of a piece of information (conscious or not;
how conscious the information or the emotional experience can be will
be discussed later on.)
Since recollections that trigger reflexes (on both the level of
consciousness and that of unconsciousness) are numerous, permanent
selector systems have been built up against the huge amount of
bombarding stimuli. The filtering intensity of the two selectors also
depends on the results provided by the other parameters: we do not
always react with the same intensity to the same stimulus; or, various
persons react differently to the same danger; or, one person may be
delighted by, while another remains totally indifferent to, a sign of good
omen.
How extremely complex mood–as it results from the interaction of
an enormous number of factors–is, is also highlighted by the fact that
every single second, situation reflex alone (a mere parameter), is
subjected to the influence of a considerable number of stimuli.
Everything that surrounds us and is received (perceived or not) by our
senses (no matter by which), can induce a response from our selector
system. The table I'm writing on, the light that comes through the
curtain, the lamp on my table, the telephone, the street's noises, my
tobacco's smell (itself not constantly the same), the hardness of the pen
my fingers are holding tight–they are all alive in my mind, and they
come in touch with an incident that I have experienced myself or
learned from others. (It is, in fact, a sum of the sums; establishing each
“plus” and each “minus” is no easy job, though.)
The sum total that results–in the form of a tendency towards a
state of alert or of comfort, towards euphoria or apathy, etc.–represents
the contribution of the situation reflex to mood.
When a stimulus awakens an exceptionally strong response (either
conscious or unconscious, but not terrorizing), it generates an attitude
which, even if not necessarily explicit in manifestation, can turn into a
fetish or, respectively, a taboo. In that case, even without becoming
aware of the reflex, we will react, incidentally, in a totally negative or a
totally positive way to one of the numerous stimuli, bestowing upon it a
larger ratio of the resulted sum. A particular ballpoint pen, a specific
music, a certain sip of coffee. If there is no direct threat, certain stimuli will
be automatically discarded in an act of defense against them, certain
gestures will be spared.
The formation of habits – the formation of reflexes 83
How far investigations can go is a technical issue. It is obvious that,

to make an objective appreciation (of all the stimuli that have reached the
moment's consciousness and subconsciousness), we need landmarks. But
landmarks are visible only when the respective stimuli have a terrorizing
manifestation, eliminating–for the duration of the analysis–all the other
stimuli. This does not happen during the long "ordinary times" and, by
bulldozing the isolation of the constitutive elements, we disrupt the existing
harmony. (Again, having reached a point of disharmonic state, we move
away from the goal of our investigation). Hence results the quasi-
impossibility–for the present time, at least–of experimental investigations.
But in an already predictable future–and having the necessary technical
equipment–it is imaginable that such calculations will be possible to make.
Our present inability to analyze the set of terms in their relations with
these landmarks confers a speculative character to this chapter, too.
However, possible applications are easy to discern. For example,
education: factors, such as experience, discipline, the hardships of life,
frequently oblige the individual to embrace a selective conduct with respect
to the instant's stimuli. Education itself imposes a certain mood and,
respectively, a certain kind of behavior. In this case, again–as always–our
response follows the pattern imposed by our relationship with eternity, by
our need for safety, and by sex. Education and self-imposed constraints
may influence the filters, on condition these constraints follow a code
accepted by the convictions that are thus born and activated. Volition,
attention, memory, etc., play their own part. At the same time, countless
stimuli keep bombarding us non-stop. Only, they are “translated” into a
“language that we have learned” and that we are trying hard to “speak”.
The long catenary reflex
The situation reflex is just a partial result, because situation itself
represents a consequence of something.
With the exception of the terrorizing elements, which can eclipse
the entire background, no concrete situation can disregard the “roots”. In
the long stretches of “ordinary” time, the patch of ground under our feet
stands on numerous layers of successive civilizations, to which we have
reacted till we have classified them.
The act of classifying–or “getting used to”–something translates as a
passive or stereotype attitude towards a certain stimulus. Unlike the
immediate consequences resulting from the occurrence of a terrorizing
moment, classification is achieved smoothly. And yet, there are also layers
which are harder to tamp, and which are therefore likely to trigger a
response every time they are touched. To simplify things, here is an
84 G. Schwartz
example: getting into a train compartment, I remember–consciously or

unconsciously–a specific smell, as well as a situation that reminds me of
that smell; I remember the kid who, on my last journey, was raising such
hell with its cries; I remember a funny reply the kid gave; and so on, until I
get to a recollection that gives me pleasure (or causes me obvious
displeasure). Why does this happen? We are now getting to one of the
fundamental questions raised in the introductory part: why, all considered,
today I am preparing myself emotionally for a pleasant journey, and
tomorrow, apparently under the same circumstances, the same perspective
gives me such obvious state of discomfort. My recollection does not
necessarily become conscious; but it may be so very strong as to become a
significant term in the sum total of my mood's moment. In a train carriage
that has lots of empty seats, I’ll choose, "at random", a seat according to
criteria that depend on these factors.
If the great majority of these successive layers of memories are taken
over without any present contribution and with no perceivable reaction,
building up a background for what we generally call "habit", it is still
possible that these reminiscences should follow one another in such a way
that the reflex to the long catena becomes obvious only for a past moment.
But just as in a kaleidoscope, the layers may settle in various positions.
Here interferes, and hence results, the so-called "originality" of the
individual, capable–through the connections he makes–to react to the
stimuli in his personal way.
Connections are countless in number, and every stimulus can
reactivate other and other emotional states. Sometimes, the correlations
seem random, but a strong response to a past situation may gain
predominance. This long (sometimes very long) catenary reaction can
explain our “unpredictable”, “out of the ordinary”, reactions; so long
sometimes that they manage to reactivate (and revive) some forgotten
terrorizing moment. (Psychoanalysts focus precisely on such moments in
the subject's past, with the help of which they try to explain and alleviate a
present emotional state. At first a mood, later on an entire behavior).
We must not forget that a stimulus that exerts its action upon an
organ of sensory perception reconnects entire long-forgotten situations,
and other non-excited sensors may also re-enter the circuit. Responses are
never merely to the present stimulus–except when that stimulus is a
terrorizing element.
Afferent impulses become “terrorizing” when they come in touch
with one of the primordial terms–attitude towards God, sex, and survival
(i.e. divinity, sex, and sense of safety). Fear, one's tendency for self-
assertion, the desire to complete one's “collection”, libido, gregariousness,

a ludic sense, etc., reduce the instant to a primordial element. Abyssal
psychology, usually (depending on author) reduces the instant’s mobile to
predominance of a single factor of this kind. This way, it ignores the
apparently random way by which the connections are made, as well as the
fact that the reflex has such long catenae that no one can predict where its
explorations will end.
Today, the computer–in its competition with the human brain–still
makes many "useless", even illogical, connections for a given task. But we
must not forget that the time factor plays an important part in mans' act of
selection. As the time fraction is limited, in-depth explorations for long
catenary reflexes also stop–inevitably–at a certain level. If they do not
encounter a relevant layer during this "respite allowed", a new stimulus,
subsequent to the previous one, will make it necessary to recommence the
act of rummaging in memory's storerooms. Practically, the long catenary
reflex does not have the physical ability to get "to the end"; under the
pressure of new stimuli that require new explorations, it will stop at
encountering either a terrorizing layer, or an intermediate one.
Nor should we discard, with the usual haughtiness, the theories of
return to a state of intrauterine comfort (?), or to the safety of the maternal
womb (even though they have given rise to countless intentional or non-
intentional caricatures). Because that is where the long catenae of the
situation reflex would eventually take us if they had the time required, and
if they did not have to cross through so many terrorizing layers. Which
would eliminate the individual's evolution, in the sense of accumulating
new sensations and, through them, new experiences, each of them a
preserver of traces.
The main problem explorations have to face is the time factor. By
continuously bringing in new and new hordes of stimuli, it prevents any
continued analysis of a certain moment’s emotional state. Psychoanalysts
are trying to solve the problem by creating the longest possible instant–an
instant unspoiled by succession–by the general procedures and rules of
psychoanalytic practice, i.e. by inducing a partial or full hypnotic state, thus
temporarily sparing the subject of other stimuli.
Apart from all this, the affective deployment of the moment also
involves a variety of interferences, which the individual perceives
consciously or unconsciously. To illustrate the multitude of unpredictable
86 G. Schwartz
influences that are continuously hovering about the subject, “ditention” [1]
is perhaps the best example [2].
The repeatability–indeed, never perfectly identical–of various
emotional experiences leads to reactions that are similar, to adjustment, to
"habit" formation, to the normality of the path. It leads to learning a code of
exploration. On condition no “terrorizing” recollection for an otherwise
“similar” situation is touched. As a result, those "habits" can lead to more
superficial explorations, except the state of “alert”. Repeatability also leads
to automatizing explorations, which become stereotypes. An accident, or
some deviation in the introspection angle, may trigger "unpredictable
reactions".
Hopefully, my presentation so far has rendered the reasons for
certain random conducts a little less “enigmatic”.
Bibliography:
Abric, Jean-Claude, Psihologia comunicării, Teorii şi metode, Polirom,

2002 / Jean-Claude Abric, Psychologie de la communication, Théories
et méthodes , deuxième édition, © Armand Colin, Paris, 1999
Adler, Alfred, Cunoaşterea omului, Editura Ştiinţifică, Bucureşti, 1991
/ Alfred Adler, Menschenkenntnis, Verlag von S. Hirzel, Leipzig, 1927
Atkinson, Rita, L.; Atkinson, Richaard, C.; Smith, Edward, E.; Bem,
Daryl, Introducere în psihologie, Editura Tehnică, Bucureşti, 2002
/Introduction to PSYCHOLOGY, Eleventh Edition, Harcourt Brace
College Publishers
King, Gary; Keohane, Robert; Verba, Sidney, Fundamentele cercetării
sociale, Collegium, Polirom, 2000 / Gary King, Robert Keohane,
Sidney Verba, Designing Social Inquiry. Scientific Inference in
Qualitative Research © 1994 by Princeton University Press
Mucchielli, Roger, Faţa omului şi caracterul, Iniţiere în
morfopsihologie, IRI, Bucureşti, 2000 / Caractères et visages, Presses
Universitaires de France, Paris, 1963.
Smith, Edward, E.; Nolen-Hoeksema, Susan; Fredrickson, Barbara, L;
Loftus, Geoffrey, R, Introducere în psihologie, ediţia XIV-a, Editura
Tehnică, Bucureşti, 2005 / Atkinson & Hilgard´s Introduction to
Psychology, Fourteenth Edition
Schwartz, Gheorghe, Psihologia transversală (Partea generală) –

Aspectele filosofiei comportamentului, Editura Universităţii Aurel
Vlaicu din Arad, 2008
Wundt, Wilhelm, Vorlesungen über die Menschen- und Tierseele,
Siebente und Achte mit der Sechsten Übereinstimmende Auflage,
Leipzig, Verlag von Leopold Voss, 1922
[1] ditention = a state of attention modified by the intrusion of secondary affective

elements, a state characteristic for certain human relations (after Henri Piéron; my
translation)
[2] with the elementary specification that, the stronger the feeling, the less intense the
interference
Vol VI (2010), No. 2, pp. 88-96
Developing intra and interpersonal competences

in learning situations
A. Roman
Alina Roman
Department of Teacher Education
”Aurel Vlaicu” University, Arad
Abstract: The article discusses the possibilities to increase

the role of co-operative learning in educational contexts.
The theoretical model introduced in the first section is
reflecting the social interdependences perspective, and
proposes an integration of humanistic and constructivist
models. The new reference framework developed is
considered a useful starting point for the by introducing
some explanatory models regarding knowledge
development through interactions within the learning group,
through cooperation. Moreover their effects on learning
motivation are underlined in the context of specific
educational activities.
Keywords: learning, competence, school, culture, education
1. Education and postmodernism

Present-day school is mainly the product of industrial, modern,
impersonal society. When relating education to postmodern society
several questions arise: Should education reproduce and preserve
culture or enrich it, develop the human being’s diversity and potential?
The answers to these questions can be identified in the analysis of
postmodernism` characteristics as found in education:
Revaluing the subjective dimension of the educational process as a
relation where teachers and students are “ constructors of meanings and
significances”,
Complexity and ambivalence by turning from a “paradigm of
certitude” to a “paradigm of incertitude”, to a subjectivation of learning,
Openness, diversity and transdisciplinarity,
Developing intra and interpersonal competences in learning situations 89
Hermeneutic approach as means and reflexive and self-reflexive

capacity of the human being, as possibility of constructing one’s own
vision of the world and decision taking in accordance with
phenomenological perspectives,
Intra and interpersonal communication as means of global
intercultural development,
Facilitating creativity by understanding latent socio-cognitive
mechanisms and manifests of developing personalities as axiologization
of critical cultural elements,
Continuous development and lifelong learning,
Forming competences on the four dimensions of learning: learning
to know, learning to do, learning to live among the others and learning
to be.
Education can be analysed in a broad manner in an evolutive and
comparative way, from the perspective of learning: traditional, modern,
postmodern.
Figure1. Evolutive characteristics of education
Traditional Modern Postmodern
Significant learning,
Thorough learning,
Efficient learning,
Thorough learning Transformational
Active learning.
learning,
Interactive learning
Action and Cooperation and
Passivity
competiveness subjective engagement
Acquisitions Abilities, capacities Competences
2. Humanistic paradigm
Some characteristic aspects of postmodern education originate in
psychological humanistic theories of learning. These theories have
important contributions for the development of intrapersonal
competences. In the middle of the 20th century, C. Rogers promotes a
new goal of education, which is still up-to-date: learning how to learn,
to involve ourselves in the process of change, our society is
90 A. Roman
undergoing. Learning is considered significant if it involves all five

elements:
- It has the quality of personal involvement (rationally-
cognitively, motivationally, emotionally, attitude-based),
- It is self – initiated (involves the sense of discovery,
intention, expansion and understanding),
- It has resistance power (significant for behaviour, attitudes,
learner’s personality),
- It is assessed by the learner,
- The core of learning is understanding, spread over the
experience as a whole.
„Humanistic paradigm is in favour of an open educational system and
for a school that favourizes active participation of the educator in
creating the message, meaning, value.” (Emil Păun, Dan Potolea, 2002,
p.32). This is a non-directive type pedagogy oriented toward facilitating
mediated learning based on the following principles:
Human beings have the capacity to learn, having within
themselves the curiosity and wish o understand the world, being
capable of overcoming the problems arisen by adaptation and
especially by learning.
Institutionalized learning is coherent and consistent only when
perceived in relating to personal projects. The educator has to help the
pupil, to identify and solve problems that arise as significant to him.
Learning perceived as a major need for change in the
organization of the self, is seen by pupils as threatening and therefore
they tend to fight against it. This perception is the result of the need to
change his/her own values.
Knowledge with a threatening character for the pupil is better
acquired when threats are reduced to the minimum. Therefore the
educational environment has to be comprehensive, familiar and
encouraging.
A valid learning is carried out through action, confrontation with
problem solving process, through confrontation with social,
psychological and philosophical problems as well as personal
difficulties.
Learning is facilitated only if the subject is involved and shares
responsibility in the learning method, in choosing orientation, self-
discovery, decision in how to carry out learning and if s/he is
responsible for his/her decisions.
Learning that fully engages the subject has the strongest effects
upon his/her personality and it leads to learning by and about
him/herself.
Independence, creativity, trust are efficient and act only when
self-criticism and self-assessment function as elementary psychical
processes involved in learning. Assessment carried out by someone
else, even teacher, can have a secondary position because someone
who depends only on external evaluation becomes reluctant,
unconfident, or remains naïve and immature.
We consider that humanistic education is one of the main ways
to cultivate the subject’s capacities of communication, of relating to
reality in a subjective manner by understanding of the self, of the
world and their judgement.
3. Cooperative learning – dimensions and exigency

Social Interdependence paradigm has as representatives K.
Kofka, K. Lewin, M. Deutsch, Jhonson&Jhonson, Cohen Sh. Sharan, E,
Aronson and others and develops the idea that the type of structural
interdependence from a situation determines the way individuals
interact among themselves. Social interdependence exists when
individuals share mutual goals and the results of each individual are
dependent on the others` actions. M. Deutsch identifies three types of
interdependence and the ways of interaction that generate them:
- Positive interdependence reflects cooperation actions when
individual actions promote the success of the others,
- Negative interdependence which indicates the reverse
situation when one’s actions block the success of the others,
- No made interdependence by whose means one’s activity
does not produce effects on the others neither regarding
stress nor regarding failure.
The theory of social interdependence generated methodological
experiences that tried to promote positive interdependence within the
learning group
All these theories generated in the educational practice of the 20th
century a ample research and scientific development of cooperative
learning. These led to its application is an important way of structuring
the formal and nonformal learning situations on different age levels.
92 A. Roman
Cooperative learning takes place when pupils work together,

either in pairs or in small groups to solve one and the same task, to
explore a new subject or to create new ideas, new combinations and
even authentic innovations.
„Cooperative learning means using as training method of small
groups of pupils/students, so as they will be able to work together and
eventually each member of the group improves his own performance
and contributes to increasing the performances of the other group
members.” (Jhonson, R., Jhonson D., Holubec E., 1994, p. 3)
Several steps have been made from learning in groups to
cooperative learning and organising the learning experience other than
individually.
There are some differences between learning through
collaboration and cooperative learning, the most important being that in
learning through collaboration the stress is laid on the learning process
and in cooperative learning the process and the result are equally
important. The orientation towards the product as result of the learning
process brings about the development of goal oriented thinking and of
the feeling of individual and collective responsibility. „Cooperative
learning refers to a set of training strategies that involve cooperative
pupil - pupil interaction towards the subject, as integrated part of
learning process.”(Kagan, Spencer, 1994, p. 41)
Cooperative learning develops the respect for diversity, the
capacity of empathy, social abilities. The social – cognitive conflict
arises given the fact that among the group members there are also
cognitive differences. This conflict generates the acceleration of
learning.
Numerous studies prove the superiority of cooperative didactic
strategies in the prejudice of competitive and individual learning.
Cooperative didactic strategies develop superior cognitive processes,
communication abilities, improve motivation, self esteem, develop the
personality.
In the field related literature, cooperative learning is
characterised by the following elements: positive interdependence,
direct interaction, individual responsibility, interpersonal and small
group abilities, group processing, pupils` roles and abilities necessary
for group work
Positive interdependence
We may say that positive interdependence is done when the

members of a team aspire to a certain mutual acknowledgement, being
positively dependent on each other. Everything that is a gain for one
member of the team is a gain for the whole team. Pupils realise that they
need each other to fulfil the group task. The teachers can structure the
positive interdependence establishing aims, mutual objectives (“learn
and see that all members of the group learn”), mutual rewards (team
acknowledgement on the basis of members` contribution), mutual
resources, cooperative tasks (identifying those tasks that would
motivate and direct the group), distributed roles (the one that resumes,
the one that encourages the others, the one that formulates the answer).
Learning tasks
În the field related literature we can read about learning tasks
that focus on the learning activity determining different types of group
interaction:
• Task of disjunctive type The group has to make a selection of
each member’s answers and contributions. The best solution is
identified.
• Task of conjunctive type. Implies that the productivity of the
group is linked to each member’s efficiency, even to the weakest
one.
• Task of additional type. The result of group’s activity is the sum
of each member’s contribution.
• Tasks of discretional type. The members of the group can mix
individual options in any way they want. The final solution is the
result of all participants` contribution.
Direct Interaction
Pupils help each other in the learning process, encouraging
themselves and sharing their ideas.
They explain the others what they know, discuss, teach one another.
The teacher arranges the groups so as the pupils to sit one next to the
other and discuss each aspect of the task they have to solve.
Individual responsibility
Each student’s performance is frequently assessed and the result
is presented to him and the group. The teacher can highlight individual
responsibility choosing pupils at random for a test, or choosing one
member of the group the give the answer.
Interpersonal and small group skills
94 A. Roman
Groups can not exist or function efficiently if students don’t

enhance certain absolutely necessary social skills. Students must
develop these skills the way they are taught different things. They
include conducting, decision making, confidence building,
communication, conflict management. Pupils are taught, helped,
monitored in using collaborative social capacities that increase the
efficiency of group work.
Group processing
Groups need certain moments to discuss how well they have
achieved their goals and to maintain efficient work relations among
group members. Teachers provide necessary conditions for processing
through tasks like: (a) enumerate at least 3 actions of group members
that led to group success or (b) enumerate at least one action that could
increase the group’s success the next day. The teacher permanently
monitors the learning and gives feedback them and the whole class
about the way they work
Students` role
Within each group the roles pupils play can be oriented towards
the task, the group maintenance or both. Because students have to get
accustomed to both categories, the teacher sometimes distributes
specific roles like the ones below. Pupils` attention is drawn on isolated
roles to make them aware of each role’s necessity. They have to change
roles for each activity because the purpose of the activity is to make
them able to perform them all simultaneously. At group’s level the
following roles can be assigned: the Assessor: verifies whether everyone
understands what is being worked at, the Spy searches for necessary
information at other groups or, occasionally, at the teacher, the Time
keeper pays attention that the group focuses on the task and respect the
given amount of time, the Active listener repeats and reformulates what
other have said, the Interrogator extracts information from group
members and the Résumé draws the conclusions so that they make
sense, the Encourager congratulates, helps, encourages each member of
the group; the Responsible for Materials distributes and collects the
necessary material, the Reader reads the written materials, the Speaker
presents the group’s conclusions in from of the class
4. Conclusions
Creating a learning situation involves a value orientation and the
option for the ways of structuring pupils` interdependence. The chosen
type of structure determines the way pupils will interact with the others
and the results they will obtain.
The application of these models implies accepting the change of
the actors` role, generating positive effects on cognitive, affective-
motivational, metacognitive and social level. This contributes
significantly to one’s full development and to the development of intra
and interpersonal competences. (acc to. M. Roco, 2004, p. 141):
• The conscience of self and own emotions (self-conscience as
introspection, recognition of feelings according to the way and
moment they appear).
• Emotion control (self-control as possibility of realizing what
determines the feelings according to the moment and cause of
their occurrence and as possibility to diminish negative feelings:
anger, fear, anxiety, etc),
• Interior motivation (motivation as exercise of emotion and
feeling guidance towards reaching certain goals when there is no
reward at stake),
• Empathy (the capacity o understand the others from a affective
and sentimental point of view),
• Establishing and guiding interhuman relations (social abilities
that occur as manipulative competences that can control other
people’s emotions).
• Development of metacognitive feelings (through feelings of
familiarization, of task difficulty, of trust and satisfaction)
Bibliography:
Bocoş, M., (2007), Didactica disciplinelor pedagogice. Un cadru

constructiv, Editura Presa Universitară Clujeană, Cluj- Napoca.
Crahay, M., (2009) Psihologia educaţiei, Editura Trei, Bucureşti.
Deutsch, M., Horstein, A.H., (1978), Sociopsihologia educaţiei, E.D.P.,
Bucureşti
Hertz-Layarowitz, R., & Norman Miller, (1992) Interaction in
cooperative groups, Cambridge University Press, New York
Ionescu M., (2005), Preocupări actuale în ştiinţele educaţiei, vol I,
Editura Eikon, Cluj-Napoca
Mead, G. H. (1934) Mind, Self and Society. From the standpoint of a
social behaviorist, The University of Chicago Press, Chicago.
96 A. Roman
Negreţ-Dobridor, I., Pânişoară, I.O., (2005) Ştiinţa învăţării. De la

teorie la practică, Editura Polirom, Iaşi.
Păun, E., Potolea, D., (2002) Pedagogie. Fundamente teoretice şi
demersuri aplicative, Editura Polirom, Iaşi.
Roco, M., (2004), Creativitate şi inteligenţă emoţională, Editura Polirom,
Iaşi.
Rogers, C., R., (2008) A deveni o persoană. Perspectiva unui
psihoterapeut, Editura Trei, Bucureşti.
Salvin, R.E., (1995), Cooperative learning: Theory, Research and
Practice, Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall
Vol VI (2010), No. 2, pp. 97-106
Personality profiles and risk behaviours in students

from universities in Timis county, Romania
C. Petrescu, B. Vlaicu, O. Suciu, S. Ursoniu,
A. Bucur, I. Radu, P. Petrescu
Cristina Petrescu1, Brigitha Vlaicu1, Oana Suciu1, Sorin Ursoniu1,

Adina Bucur1, Ionuţ Radu1, Poesis Petrescu2
1
„Victor Babes” University of Medicine and Pharmacy Timisoara
2
West University Timisoara
Abstract: In the performed study we investigated the

personality profiles in students from universities in Timis
County, and students with risk behaviours (tobacco smoke,
alcohol and drug consumption, suicidal and aggressive
behaviours and risk sexual behaviour). The method
consisted on two epidemiological enquiries, a cross-
sectional survey (Freiburg Personality Inventory – FPI 212
– for personality profile establishing) and another
retrospective (CORT – 2004 – for risk behaviours
investigation), applied together, individual and anonymous
on a sample of 2124 students from universities in Timis
County. Obtained result indicated a profile with high ranks
(rank 7) of the scales FP1 Nervousness and FP9 Sincerity
for entire sample, the same profile for smokers, low ranks
(rank 3 and 2) of the scale FP8 Inhibition for alcohol and
drugs consumers respectively, average ranks (4-6) of all the
scales for students with suicidal behaviour, low rank (rank
3) of the scale FPE Extroversion for students physical
aggressive, high ranks (rank 7) of the scale FP5 Sociability
for students verbal aggressive and with risk sexual
behaviours. The students with risk behaviours excepting
suicidal have high ranks (7) of the scales FP1 Nervousness
and FP9 Sincerity. In conclusion, Freiburg Personality
Inventory can be used successfully to assess personality

98 C. Petrescu, B. Vlaicu, O. Suciu, S. Ursoniu, A. Bucur, I. Radu, P. Petrescu
profile for a group of people at a specific period of life

(developmental stage).
Keywords: personality profile, developmental stage, risk
behaviours, late school period
Introduction
Theories of personality have different angles of approach [1].
Each approach (main trends are: psycho-dynamic, cognitive-
behavioural and humanistic) has made important contributions [1, 2]. In
present, there is the tendency to have an integrative view of personality,
using appropriate methods of diagnosis and therapy of the client [3].
Each person is unique in terms of how he/she perceives itself and relate
to others [2]. As a result, personality profiles are done individually.
Investigating a big group of people (students) and highlighting features
that appear most frequently offer us the opportunity to see which
personality traits predominate at this stage of development. It is a profile
of the developmental stage of the investigated subjects, which related to
risk factors at this age’s group, allows us to determine which personality
traits increase the risk exposure and which are not.
Material and methods

The study was conducted on a sample of 2124 students (1074
girls, 638 boys, aged 19-25 years) of all the faculties from Timis
County, statistical representative, to whom were investigated the
following risk behaviours: cigarette smoking, alcohol and drug
consumption, suicidal and hetero-aggressive behaviour and risk sexual
behaviour. The methods consisted of the application of two
epidemiological surveys: cross epidemiological enquiry with Freiburg
Personality Inventory application for personality profile and
retrospective epidemiological enquiry with CORT Questionnaire
application to investigate risk behaviours in students. Both
questionnaires were applied together, being administered individually
and respecting anonymity. Duration of two questionnaires applying was
60 minutes. Freiburg Personality Inventory is a questionnaire that
allows the investigation of the personality traits evolution between two
opposite poles, more in terms of behaviour. The four areas of the
personality (cognitive, affective, behavioural and physiological) are
included in these scales, although not in explicitly. FPI contains 212
items grouped into 9 scales at which in order to obtain a more complete
Personality profiles and risk behaviours in students … 99
personality of the person under investigation were added 3 more stairs.

The 12 scales of the FPI-G (212 items) are: FPI 1 (nervousness) - 34
items, 1 item is Polar-; FPI 2 (aggression) - 26 items, 2 items Polar -;
FPI 3 (depression) - 8 items, 1 Polar-; FPI 4 (excitability) - 20 items, 1
Polar-; FPI 5 (sociability) - 28 items, of which 16 Polar -; FPI 6 (calm)
- 20 items, 1 Polar -; FPI 7 (domination) contains 20 items, 1 Polar -;
FPI 8 (inhibition) - 20 items, 5 Polar -; FPI 9 (sincerity) contains 14
items, all positive; FPI E (extroversion) contains 24 items, 5 Polar -; FPI
N (emotional lability) contains 24 items, 3 Polar -; FPI M (masculinity)
contains 26 items, of which 14 are Polar-. Polar "-" represents 1 point of
listing the answer "No" response and 0 points "Yes". Polar "+" is 1
point of listing the answer "Yes" and 0 points to the answer "No" [4, 5].
CORT 2004 questionnaire included 127 items in order to
investigate risk behaviours (cigarette smoking, alcohol and drug
consumption, suicidal and aggressive behaviour, risk sexual behaviour)
and family environment. Processing and interpretation of FPI - G was
performed using SPSS 13.0 and Excel 2003. Due to the risk of errors of
interpretation by processing FPI - G in Excel 2003, masculinity scale
was not processed in our study using interpretation to 11 stairs (FP1 -
FPN).
Results and discussions
3.1 Distribution of students (%) from Timis County ordered by rank
Table 1. Distribution (%) by ordering students according to rank
(quantitative hierarchy) along the dimension of the personality traits
Scale Rank
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
FP1. Nervousness 6,5 3,5 14,8 10,4 15 18,4 21,4 7,9 2,1
FP2. Aggression 5,3 3,6 8,9 20,6 19,8 16,9 11,2 7,8 5,9
FP3. Depression 4,2 10,8 14,3 15,3 18,1 17,4 9,1 7,7 3,2
FP4. Excitability 7,4 5,2 12,7 14,7 23 13,3 15,3 4,3 4,2
FP5. Sociability 2,6 4,6 7 14,6 18,2 17,6 17,2 13,2 5,2
FP6. Calm 7,4 5,2 7,6 16,3 22,5 19,2 9,8 8,1 3,8
FP7. Domination 5,7 8,7 6,8 20,7 19,7 17,9 11,5 6,1 2,9
FP8. Inhibition 13,6 11,5 14,5 15,5 16,3 14,7 9,6 2,6 1,8
FP9. Sincerity 4,3 5,9 16,8 10,8 17,6 18 19 5,6 2
FPE. Extraversion 5,4 3,9 27 36,3 9,2 12,8 2,5 1,4 1,4
FPN. Emotional lability 10,9 8,8 10,5 19,9 16,2 16,9 11,2 4,1 1,5
The 9 + 2 steps of the Freiburg Personality Inventory are the result of

structuring derived by factorial analysis. Name of scale is simply a
label.
A percentage of 21.4% (377) of students were fit in the 7th rank of the
FP1 Nervousness scale, with the presence of vegetative symptoms,
motor and general psychosomatic disorders, and increased somatic-
emotional resonance. 20.6% (362) of students are in the 4th rank of the
FP2 Aggression scale that indicates the framing in the average
limitations of this scale. A percentage of 18.1% (318) of the
investigated students are located in 5th rank of the FP3 Depression
scale. There are significant percents of the low ranks recorded for
depression, 2nd rank (10.8% - 190 students) and 3rd rank (14.3% - 251
students). This result suggests the balanced, predominant positive and
relaxed, optimistic disposition, few worries, good emotional
relationships with others, good ability of concentration, confidence,
complacency, lack of doubts and worries; students feel able to handle
life and are happy with their fate. 23% (404) students of the investigated
sample have included at the 5th rank (area of balance) of the scale FP4
Excitability. This scale correlates usually with scale FP1 Nervousness
and FP2 Aggression. In our study, correlation excitability-nervousness
is medium/low (rho - Spearman = 0.458, P = 0.01) and excitability-
depression is average (rho - Spearman = 0.602, P = 0.01). 18.2% (320)
of the investigated students had the rank 5 in the FP5 Sociability scale,
a result that suggests the average regarding the rates. A percentage of 22.5%
(396) of the investigated students were situated at the 5th rank of the scale
FP6 Calm. A percentage of 20.7% (364) of students were situated at the 4th
rank of the FP7 Domination scale, suggesting the lowest rank of the average
area of the scale, the balance area. High rates of the FP7 Domination scale
are usually associated with high rates of the FP4 Excitability scale. This
statement is not confirmed in our study, lower rates are recorded and
Spearman correlation FP7 - FP4 is average (rho = 0.563, p = 0.01). 16.3%
(287) of the investigated students are situated at the 5th rank of the scale FP8
Inhibitions. It is considered a good association of this scale with FP3
Depression scale. This is confirmed in our study by the existence of an
average Spearman correlation (rho = 0.625, p = 0.01) between FP8
Inhibition Scale and FP3 Depression Scale. 19% (334) of students are
situated at 7th rank of the FP9 Sincerity scale. This classification highlights
the predominance of the ability to recognise small weaknesses and defects
that probably everyone has, self-criticism, eventually indifferent attitude. It is
noted, the presence of a high percentage of students at 3rd rank of the FP9
scale, respectively 16.8% (296) youth, which indicates frequently lack of

sincerity, concealment of weakness or defects and closed character. A
percentage of 36.3% (639) of the investigated students are situated at 4th
rank of the FPE Extroversion scale, at the lower limit of the balance area. A
large proportion of students (27% - 75) were registered at 3rd rank of the
FPE. This result indicates lack of sociability, isolation, restraint,
perseverance, mastery, passivity, lack of communication, avoiding
entertainment, and desire to be left alone. 19.9% (350) of the investigated
students are situated at 4th rank of the FPN Emotional lability scale, at the
lower limit of the balance area. A large proportion of students (10.9% - 192)
were situated at 1st rank, with very low emotional lability, with balanced,
stable disposition, positive feelings, good humour, self confidence, ability to
concentrate, undisturbed emotional relationships with others (Table 1).
3.2 Personality profile of the investigated students in Timis County

Personality traits recorded in our study to the investigated students can be
presented in a personality profile, built for the entire study sample and
highlighting the ranks that have the highest frequency in each scale. Highest
percentage values to a specific rank presented compliance trends with the
Gauss distribution, with few exceptions (FP2 Aggressiveness and FP7
Domination scales). This profile shows predominance of the features specific
to the stage of development. For a comparison of our study results on the
personality profile of students in Timis County with standard values, we will
indicate the significant levels (more than 6 or less than 4) of these bipolar
personality dimensions in each scale of the profile (Figure 1A).
Graficul rezultatelor
10
0
Nrv Agr D Exc Soc Clm Do Ihb Snc Exv Lbl M
Subiect 7 4 5 5 5 5 4 5 7 4 4 1
Etalon 5 6 5 5 4 4 5 5 5 6 5 4
A
10
0
Subiect 7 4 6 5 6 5 5 5 7 4 4 1
Etalon 5 6 5 5 4 4 5 5 5 6 5 4
B
Figure 1. Personality profile of the investigated students in Timis
County (A) and of the students which smoke (B), compared with
standard
Personality profile of the students in Timis County was characterised by

representative percents of the high ranks of bipolar personality
dimensions for the following scales: FP1 Nervousness (rank 7) and FP9
Sincerity (rank 7) with body’s vegetative symptoms, general
psychosomatic disorders and an increased somatic-affective resonance
(FP1), ability to recognise small weaknesses and failures, self-criticism
and indifference (FP9).
3.3 Personality profiles of the students with risk behaviours

The personality profile of the students which smoke has been
characterised by high values for FP1 Nervousness and FP9 Sincerity
scales with the highest percentages to 7th rank (Figure 1B).
In students which consume alcohol we observed a profile with
high rank (7) for FP1 Nervousness and FP9 Sincerity scales and low
(rank 3) for FP8 Inhibition scale (Figure 2A). Added features revealed
by this profile through FP8 Inhibition scale are: spontaneity, confidence,
independence, persistence in decision and action, ability to establish
contact, reduced somatic tension in expecting situations, reduced
somatic-affective symptoms, eager for action, ready every time to start
the action, to experiment, entrepreneur. The personality profile of the
students registered as drug users (Figure 2B) is similar to that of
alcohol consumers: high values for FP1 Nervousness scale and FP9
Sincerity (rank 7) and very low value for FP8 Inhibitions scale (rank 2).
The personality profile of the students with suicidal behaviour
(Figure 3A) does not have strong personality features, the values of the
scales being in the average (ranks 4-6), and this area being considered a
balanced one, due to features bipolarity. Students with physical
aggressive behaviour (Figure 3B) show low values for FP9 Sincerity
and FPE Extroversion (Rank 3). Obvious personality traits that emerge
from this profile and characterise students with physical aggression are:
subject inclined to conceal some weaknesses and defects, would make a
good impression, lack of sincerity, poor self-criticism, pride and
possibly dark character (FP9), lack of sociability, prefer to be single,
hard bound friends, isolated, reduced need for contacts, calm and
restraint, less enterprising, steadfast, steady, sober, passive, dry, do not
like entertainment, reticent, reluctant to stand out, prefer to be left alone
(FPE).
Graficul re zultate lor
A
10
6
4
0
Subiect 7 4 6 5 5 5 4 3 7 4 4 1
Etalon 5 6 5 5 4 4 5 5 5 6 5 4
Graficul re zultate lor
10
6
4
0
Subiect 7 4 6 5 6 5 6 2 7 4 4 1
Etalon 5 6 5 5 4 4 5 5 5 6 5 4
B
Figure 2. The personality profile of the students which consume alcohol
(A) and drugs (B), compared with standard
. Graficul re zultate lor
10
0
Subiect 6 4 6 5 4 4 6 4 6 4 5 1
Etalon 5 6 5 5 4 4 5 5 5 6 5 4
A
10
0
Subiect 6 5 4 5 4 5 6 5 3 3 4 1
Etalon 5 6 5 5 4 4 5 5 5 6 5 4
B
Figure 3. The personality profile of the students which have had suicidal
behaviours (3A) and physical aggressive behaviours (3B), compared
with standard
A
10
6
4
0
Subiect 7 4 6 5 7 5 5 5 7 4 4 1
Etalon 5 6 5 5 4 4 5 5 5 6 5 4
Graficul rezultate lor
10
6
4
0
Subiect 7 5 6 5 7 5 4 5 7 4 4 1
Etalon 5 6 5 5 4 4 5 5 5 6 5 4
B
Figure 4. The personality profile of the students which have had verbal
aggressive behaviours (A) and risk sexual behaviour (B), compared with
standard
To students with verbal aggressive behaviour (Figure 4A)

recorded elevated rank (7) for scales FP1, FP5 and FP9. Results
obtained in this profile add to the features of the entire sample of
students the following traits: need and tendency of contacts establishing,
seeking contact, be friendly, fast link to friends and to more known
persons, alertness, entrepreneurial, active, talkative, communicative,
presence of mind (FP5). The personality profile of the students which
started their sexual life and have risk sexual behaviours (Figure 4B) is
similar with the profile of the students which are verbal aggressive, in
terms of high ranks (7) for scales FP1, FP5 and FP9. Results show a
balanced personality profile to investigated students with the
nervousness poignancy and self-critical spirit. Gaussian curves of the
investigated sample confirms profile with very few exceptions,
aggression and domination, which are still in the balance. Risk
behaviours seen in investigated students are relevant to students with
low inhibition (alcohol and drugs), increased sociability (verbal
aggression, risk sexual behaviour), and introversion (physical
aggression). Self aggression (suicidal behaviour) is present in students
with a profile similar to standard, and smoking is present in students
with the profile of the entire sample. These results are significant for a
great group of young people, offer information regarding personality
features in students with affirmed risk behaviours and characterise a
specific age group 19-25 years and a developmental stage - late school
period. In literature, investigations of personality features, general or

specific to developmental stages of human life, were frequently
conducted, using different approaches [6, 7].
Conclusions
Investigated students have similar personality profiles as the

standard, with poignancy of the nervousness, self-criticism.
The profiles of the students with risk behaviours are similar
with the sample (smokers), with low inhibition (alcohol and drug
consumers), similar with standard (suicides), introverted and with low
sincerity (physical aggressors) and high sociability (verbal aggressors
and with risk sexual behaviour).
Freiburg Personality Inventory can be used successfully to
assess personality profile for a group of people at a specific period of
life (developmental stage).
Bibliography:
Boeree, C. G., 1997, 2006, Personality Theories, Psychology

Department, Shippensburg University, http://webspace.ship.edu /cgboer
/perscontents.html.
Clarkson P., 2004, Gestalt counselling in action. Third Edition. SAGE
Publications.
Erskine GR., Morsund PJ., 1998, Integrative Psychotherapy in Action,
The Gestalt Journal Press, p. 7-311.
Fahrenberg, J., Hampel, R., Selg, H., 1985, Die revidierte Form den
Freiburger Persönlichkeitsinventar FPI – R. Diagnostica, 31, 1, 1-21.
Pitariu, H., Iernuţan, L., 1984, Freiburg Personality Inventory (FPI)
utilisation for the investigation of the adaptation capacity to the military
life. Military Journal 1, 47-55.
Hjelle, L. A., Ziegler, D. J. (1992) Personality theories. Basic
assumptions, research, and applications. New York.
Levin, P., 1982, The cycle of development. Transactional Analysis
Journal, 12, 2, 136-137.
Vol VI (2010), No. 2, pp. 107-114
Implement the transformative learning theory through

Dolceta Project
D. Herlo
Dorin Herlo
Abstracts
Transformative Learning Theory, known as Mezirow’s
Theory, is one of nowadays learning theory which
underlines the rational and analytical part of the process as
well as spiritual or emotional part of the learning process.
Mezirow posits that all learning is change but not all change
is transformation - that is a very critical point in building of
a positive attitude of the individuals which are under the
education umbrella. Transformative Learning having three
phases: critical reflection, reflective discourse and action,
could be found into Dolceta – on-line consumer education –
site, as possible example of people in action for ”win-win”.
Win-win what? Dignity of individuals for knowing their
rights by applying in their everyday life of the critical
reflection and reflective discourse after an intellectual effort
for learning (e-learning).
Keywords: transformative learning, critical reflection,
reflective discourse, action, on-line consumer education
The study of transformative learning emerged with the work of

Jack Mezirow (1981, 1994, and 1997). Mezirow (1981) developed the
concepts of “meaning perspectives”, one's overall world-view, and
“meaning schemes”, smaller components which contain specific
knowledge, values, and beliefs about one's experiences. A number of
meaning schemes work together to generate one's meaning perspective.
Meaning perspectives are acquired passively during childhood and
youth, and are the target of the transformation that occurs through
108 D. Herlo
experience during adulthood. They operate as perceptual filters that

determine how an individual will organize and interpret the meaning of
his/her life's experiences.
Transformative learning is defined as learning that induces
more far-reaching change in the learner than other kinds of
learning, especially learning experiences which shape the learner
and produce a significant impact, or paradigm shift, which affects
the learner's subsequent experiences (Clark, 1993).
Transformative Learning Theory (Mezirow, 1990, 1991, 2000),
describe a learning process of "becoming critically aware of one's
own tacit assumptions and expectations and those of others and
assessing their relevance for making an interpretation" (Mezirow,
2000, p. 4).
Mezirow posits that all learning is change but not all change is
transformation. There is a difference between transmissional,
transactional and transformational education (Miller & Seller,
1990). In the first, knowledge is transmitted from teacher to student.
In transactional education, it is recognized that the student has
valuable experiences, and learns best through experience, inquiry,
critical thinking and interaction with other learners. It could be
argued that some of the research regarding transformative learning has
been in the realm of transactional education, and that what is seen as
transformative by some authors (e.g. Cragg et al., 2001) is in fact still
within the realm of transactional learning.
An important part of transformative learning is for
individuals to change their frames of reference by critically
reflecting on their assumptions and beliefs and consciously making
and implementing plans that bring about new ways of defining their
worlds. This process is fundamentally rational and analytical.
Therefore a number of scholars argued that while this learning
process is certainly rational on some levels, it is also a profound
experience that can be described as a spiritual or emotional
transformation as well.
Mezirow emphasizes that transformative learning is rooted in
the way human beings communicate, and does not link it exclusively
with significant life events of the learner. Through this combination
of reflection and discourse, the learner was able to make shifts in his/her
world view which produced a more inclusive world-view. For Mezirow,
one of the benefits of transformative learning was the development
Implement the transformative learning theory through Dolceta Project 109
of greater autonomy as a person, a defining condition of adulthood

(Mezirow, 1997).
From other point of view, Mezirow describes a transformative
learning environment as one in which those participating have full
information, are free from coercion, have equal opportunity to
assume various roles, can become critically reflective of
assumptions, are empathetic and good listeners, and are willing to
search for common ground or a synthesis of different points of view.
Daloz (1986) recognized that transformative learning can be a
risky and frightening journey into the unknown, as learners are
challenged to let go of old conceptualizations of self and the world. He
challenged educators to structure their teaching for fostering personal
development of the learners rather than developing specific
competencies. He frequently used the metaphor of transformation as a
journey in which the mentor or educator served as a gatekeeper as
well as a guide for learners on the journey (Daloz, 1999).
Boyd and Myers (as cited in Imel, 1998) encouraged educators
to develop and practice two characteristics. First was seasoned
guidance, the ability to serve as an experienced mentor reflecting on
his/her own journey, with the intent to assist others with their
transformational process. Second, they valued compassionate
criticism, assisting learners to question their own reality in ways
that would promote transformation of their world view.
We can tie all these aspects of transformative learning with the
development of Dolceta project and the concepts it contains. From our
point of view all the modules on Dolceta site have a lot of elements
that lead to transformative learning, developing from users: critical
reflection, reflective discourse and action (Merriam and Caffarella
1999), that the three phases of Transformative Learning Theory of
Mezirow.
In nowadays, people wants to learn quickly for applying in the
real life. That’s the way promoted by “Dolceta” Project, an “Online
Consumer Education”, implementing Mezirow Theory into the e-
learning process, in synchronous way.
The project, devised for the 2006-2011 period of time, is lead at
European level by EUCEN in cooperation with EAEA and includes all
27 EU Members States, involving representatives from universities,
consumers’ associations and adult education organisations.
110 D. Herlo
The target groups of Dolceta project are primarily:

schoolteachers, professors, trainers and adult educators in educational
institutions, government bodies with consumer responsibilities,
consumer associations etc. and secondly, individual consumers, directly.
The project supposed to produce and disseminate on-line
learning material, to provide useful information, to develop various
skills, and especially to make people aware of their rights and
responsibilities as citizens, in terms of consumers. They can access the
materials produced and further info on the site www.dolceta.eu:
Fig. 1. Homepage of Dolceta

On Dolceta website for the moment there are seven modules:
o Teacher’s Corner, containing::
- Consumer education,
- Sustainable consumption,
- Financial education,
o Consumer rights,
o Financial services,
o Product Safety,
o Services (energy, transport, communication…).
All those modules are for all the EU Members States in their National
language and for Romanian consumers, in Romanian, under the noble
slogan of informing and training the users.
As we observing from figure bellow, in the National homepage there
are: Info button, Icons for each of those seven modules and a Slogan
Fig. 2. Homepage of Romanian modules from Dolceta site
The project offer (as shows above) attractive, accessible and

interactive on-line learning material to teachers in the primary,
secondary, and high school, as well to trainers in adult education in
“Teacher’s corner”.
All the modules was developed by all the partners of Dolceta
project, in their own manner, but taking in consideration a common
framework, delivered by an international / European team, which
designed the template of each module.
The texts that are presented in the articles of the modules have
different length and developments. In each section there is a space, with
text of presentation of the theme. The majority of the texts, in the
articles, were based in our own legislation overlap with European
legislation in the subject and written in a clear and synthetic way. If we
didn’t found in national legislation some of the articles, we have
112 D. Herlo
followed the European legislation. Those texts are thought to not very
much literate people in the field and, we hope, are clear and divided into
small pieces with an appealing title, and didn’t be boring for the
“consumer”. The texts are followed examples to help users’
understanding and by quizzes, a very interactive way of self-evaluation.
By the other hand, being pictures insert into the most of the pages of the
modules they are very aesthetic and attractive. Links to websites and
further reading are included also in all the modules.
In the bottom of each module we can see some buttons which
link the page with: Online survey, Top of page, Change country,
Romanian Homepage, Development team, Disclaimer, all actives and
useful for the visitors of the site. In front page of each module there are
buttons for: National homepage, Select your country, Search, Icon plan
site and Icon for printing. In the mean time, as it observed on the figure
bellow, there is Dolceta logo!
Fig. 3. Homepage of “Consumer education” module
Because the variety of topics are so large in the entire project,

we involved members of various specializations such as: consumer
rights, consumption, food and product safety, sustainability, finance,
management, law, science of education, English and IT. All the
members of curriculum development of the modules are experts in their

domains and have a national and international recognition.
We have tried to use all our thoughts for implement the
transformative learning theory into Dolceta project for growing up the
users’ knowledge, skills and attitudes, in consumer education!
Transformative learning may not always be a goal of consumer
education, but its importance should not be overlooked and all educators
should strive to understand it, even if they do not choose to foster it.
Bibliography:
Boyd, R. D., and Myers, J. G., (1988) Transformative Education.

International Journal of Lifelong Education 7, no. 4 (October–December
1988): 261–284.
Clark, M. C., (1993) Transformational learning, New Directions for
Adult and Continuing Education, (57), 47-56.
Cragg, C.E., Plotnikoff, R.C., Hugo, K. & Casey, A., (2001)
Perspective transformation in RN-to-BSN distance education. Journal of
nursing education, 40(7)
Cranton, P., (1994) Understanding and Promoting Transformative
Learning: A Guide for Educators of Adults. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-
Bass, 1994.
Cranton, P., (1997) Transformative Learning in Action: Insights from
Practice. New Directions for Adult and Continuing Education. no. 74.
San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass, Summer 1997.
Daloz, L., (1986) Effective teaching and mentoring: Realizing the
transformational Power of adult learning experiences. San Francisco:
Jossey-Bass.
Daloz, L.A., (1999) Mentor: Guiding the journey of adult learners. San
Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
Merriam, S.B. and Caffarella, R. S. (1991). Learning in Adulthood: A
Comprehensive Guide. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass Publishers.
Mezirow, J., (1975) Education for Perspective Transformation:
Women's Reentry Programs in Community Colleges. New York: Center
for Adult Education Teachers College, Columbia University.
Mezirow, J., (1978) Perspective Transformation. Adult Education, 100–
110.
Mezirow, J., (1981) A Critical Theory of Adult Learning and Education.
Adult Education 32 (1981): 3–23.
114 D. Herlo
Mezirow, J., (1991) Transformative Dimensions of Adult Learning. San

Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.
Mezirow, J., (1995) Transformation Theory of Adult Learning. In: In
Defense of the Lifeworld, edited by M.R. Welton, pp. 39–70. New
York: SUNY Press.
Mezirow, J., (1997) Transformative Learning: Theory to Practice." In:
Transformative Learning in Action: Insights from Practice. New
Directions for Adult and Continuing Education. no. 74, edited by P.
Cranton, pp. 5–12. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.
Mezirow, J., (2000) Learning as Transformation: Critical Perspectives
on a Theory in Progress. San Francisco: Jossey Bass.
Miller, J.P. & Seller, W. (1990) Curriculum: perspectives and practice.
Toronto: Copp Clark Pitman
O'Sullivan, E., (2003) Bringing a perspective of transformative learning
to globalized consumption. International Journal of Consumer Studies,
27 (4), 326–330
Scott, Sue M., (1997) The Grieving Soul in the Transformation Process.
In: Transformative Learning in Action: Insights from Practice. New
Directions for Adult and Continuing Education. no. 74, edited by P.
Cranton, pp. 41–50. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass, Summer 1997.
Taylor, Edward W. (1998) The Theory and Practice of Transformative
Learning: A Critical Review. Information Series no. 374. Columbus:
ERIC Clearinghouse on Adult, Career, and Vocational Education,
Center on Education and Training for Employment, College of
Education, the Ohio State University, 1998.
Torosyan, R., (2007). Teaching for Transformation: Integrative
Learning, Consciousness Development and Critical Reflection.
Unpublished manuscript. http://www.faculty.fairfield.edu/rtorosyan/ .
Vol VI (2010), No. 2, pp. 115-123
Methodological controversies and

teaching process
A. Stojanovic
Aleksandar Stojanovic
Teacher Training Faculty – Belgrade
Preschool Teacher Training College – Vrsac
Abstract: Contemporary pedagogy and didactics has still

been marked by numerous controversies. The article considers
the controversies essentially influencing the grounds of
teaching process and its effects within pedagogic
methodology. Before all it points out the differences between
“conflicting” paradigms – qualitative and quantitative, as well
as their reaches in didactical research. The paper considers the
extent to which the applied methodological approaches
managed to grasp complexity of teaching, to contribute to
more grounded teaching process and more efficient didactic
guidance.
The importance of coherent approach when studying
teaching process is emphasized, as well as the need to apply as
diverse research strategies and procedures as possible in the
scope of both paradigms, in order to gain new insights
offering teaching process which would be better grounded.
Keywords: quantitative paradigm, qualitative paradigm,
methodological controversies, teaching process.
Various methodological approaches in pedagogic research tradition

have had their influence in the field of didactics. Namely, the variety of
didactic theories and styles of didactic guidance is a result of different
methodological approaches and orientations – positivistic and neo-
positivistic paradigm, i.e. empirical and experimental methods have
affirmed didactics as a theory of teaching and learning, didactic as learning
theory, informational-cybernetic didactics, etc; preference for historic-
hermeneutic approach, humanistic paradigm and spiritual-scientific
116 A. Stojanovic
orientation has influenced the development of didactic as educational

theory; under the influence of critical orientation, critical-constructive
didactic and critical-communicative didactics have recently been affirmed.
Differences, and we could even say controversies, in
methodological approaches have influenced contemporary didactic
thought, as well as school teaching process. The movements of the 1960ies
(education theory didactics, learning theory didactics, informational theory
didactics, communicative didactics, curricular movement) have constantly
been supplemented and changed. As a consequence, the movements arising
out from them created in 1980ies have the following characteristics: in
critical – constructive didactic the main teaching aim is emancipation
implying ability for self-determination and solidarity, while learning is seen
as a process of interaction, rather than the encounter with educational
contents; in Habsburg didactic model based on learning theory, learners are
subjects and the purpose of teaching lies in their emancipation; teaching is
considered to be interaction in which students are subjects as well, not only
teachers; critical-communicative didactic also puts emphasis on the
categories of emancipation and interaction and focuses on the connection
between education and social-political contexts. It is noticeable that
contemporary didactic theories have focused on the learner. Such a focus
has been manifested in setting the basic humanistic aim and purpose of
school as social institution – personal development of a student.
Consequently, the main aim of school is to educate individuals who
will be useful to society through their personal self-realization. Such
tendencies and pluralism in contemporary didactic theories are the result of
different methodological approaches, i.e. differences between the so called
“great paradigmatic epistemological-methodological orientations”:
empirical-analytical (positivistic), historical-hermeneutic (interpretative)
and critical research orientation.
Epistemological-methodological orientations as grounds

of didactic theories
Empirical-analytical (positivistic) research orientation starts from

the viewpoint that objective reality can be observed, learned and measured
and researchers should gather facts and explain reality according to them.
Pedagogic research grounded on this epistemological orientation was
striving for discovery of various laws relevant for various pedagogic
situations. The criterion of truthfulness of scientific insight is empirical
Methodological controversies and teaching process 117
record, implying independence of observation from theory. Having in mind

that the intention was to confirm real facts according to empirical-analytic
procedures, with an emphasis on quantificational aspect in data analysis the
paradigm was also called quantitative or explication paradigm. The
purpose of the paradigm is nomothetic – establishment of scientific
assumptions on constant relation between two or more phenomena,
reached according to larger number of scientific observation units, i.e.
representative sample.
Historical-hermeneutic (interpretative) research orientation does
not see reality as an object that can be revealed and measured, but as a
construct of human thought; there is not one, sole reality, but there are
multiple realities; the world is highly subjective phenomenon which should
be interpreted, rather than measured. What has recently influenced
hermeneutic tradition is existentialism, phenomenology, symbolic
interactionism, as well as analytic philosophy representing “learning paths”
which are more interpretative, intuitive, subjective and qualitative. The
purpose of hermeneutics in didactic research is to establish the meaning of
various experiences in teaching practice. Hermeneutic procedures offer
answers to the questions how certain teaching practice is understood, if
such a practice has a hidden meaning, how to interpret it in a broader social
and cultural context. The most comprehensive answers to such questions
are gained according to interpretation, offering more complete
understanding of educational process at school. A researcher is involved in
what is being researched – he/she is not at distance as it is the case in
positivistic approach. The following research procedures are most
commonly used: interview, study of document contents, process
observation etc. What is the subject of research is the meaning of certain
problems, how processes develop, what is going on in the course of
development.
Critical research orientation is based on different philosophical,
epistemological and axiological grounds in comparison to positivistic and
interpretative orientation. The central role in critical approach belongs to
actor’s interpretation, with an emphasis that practical judgement is not
sufficient. What is necessary is systematic understanding of the conditions
shaping, limiting and determining actions. J. Habermas has emphasized
that cognition is a result of human activity motivated by natural needs and
interests. His conception of interests is critical response to positivistic
conception and its research orientation. The second central point of critical
theory is communicative competence. What is important is democratic
118 A. Stojanovic
discussion among subjects, i.e. “symmetric communication” without

domination (discourse). Critical reflection is to be developed in such a
discussion (discourse). The function of science and scientific research is
not the discovery of universal laws of social life, or mere interpretative
understanding of subjective meanings of social situation actors and their
enlightenment, but emancipation and change of practice. Having in mind
that learning is understood as active construction and reconstruction of
theory and practice, critical epistemology can be described as
constructivistic. Critical research orientation demands full cooperation
between the researcher and the actors of the studied practice. Social actors
are not the subjects of the research for an objective and neutral researcher
(like in positivistic paradigm). At the same time, interpretative paradigm
has its limitations as well, having in mind that the interpretative researcher,
although close to the observed subjects, still remains value neutral and
action disengaged.
The influence of contemporary methodological tendencies

on didactic thought
“The shift” form unrefined empiricism and positivistic orientation

towards contemporary scientific thought and alternative orientations has
influenced different methodological approaches. Thus, the need for holistic
approach has been emphasized within new research paradigm when
studying a person as a whole in a context with which it also makes another
whole; a demand has been imposed for persons to be treated as human
beings rather than subjects during research; one-sided objectivity, typical
for traditional paradigm is to be overcome by strict synthesis of objectivity
and subjectivity; idiographic approach has been adopted, not completely
excluding nomothetic approach; research should lead to active learning to
increase abilities for autonomous, self-aware and self-guided behaviour;
value of salient understanding has been emphasized, as well as the
acceptance of ambiguity, imprecision, digression, or, even, contradiction;
instead of the research based on the relation I – Him (characteristic for
traditional paradigm, resulting in observational knowledge), the relations I
–You have been included (resulting in experiential knowledge).
New qualitatively oriented research methodology involves various
theoretical paradigms – hermeneutics, symbolic interactionism, philosophy
of postmodernism and deterministic chaos, social constructivism, critical
theory. It has been framed by specific research strategies: action research,
case studies, ethnographic research, grounded theory methodology, ethno-

methodology. Having in mind that the differences from quantitative and
qualitative research tradition come from the differences in reality
understanding, views on the nature of knowledge, research aim, research
techniques, methods and procedures, it seems that methodology is facing a
great challenge. Can it overcome the existing dualism?
The influence of constructivistic meta-theory – Constructivistic
views represent methodological alternative to positivism; it has been
pointed out that persons need an approach different from the one to
subjects and phenomena. It has been taken into consideration that different
persons experience “the same” event in different ways. Constructivistic
standpoints are featured by relativism – according to constructivism
advocates, there is not one “truth”, but versatile versions of an event and
status and value should be attributed to all of them. The application of
constructivistc viewpoints in pedagogy implies emphasis on the need for
understanding of those who we educate. The difference in relation to
traditional methodology lies in the fact that the focus is on the interest in
persons and individuals, rather than variables and statistics.
Chaos theory as research paradigm – the issue of linearity and
predictability, as significant features of modern studies has been brought
under dispute, since it is considered that the connection between
phenomena is not linear, but there is so called chaotic order. The study of
phenomenology of deterministic chaos provides new conceptual and
methodological framework enabling understanding and taxonomization of
complex forms of behaviour. Sekulic-Majurec has emphasized that it will
never be possible to completely quantify and anticipate with mathematical
accuracy fine fluid events in pedagogic processes; order cannot be noticed
due to the numerous elements creating it and the latency of their
interactions. Another statement should also be brought in mind: the
smallest change of independent variable can have influence not only on
dependent variables, but on numerous independent ones, which is
characteristic for pedagogy, as well. Phenomena related to subjects have
been studied, and they do not commonly behave according to the rules of
linear causality and determinism. All this poses controversial issues.
Causality laws have been under dispute while their application in scientific
research has not been completely explicated by the theory of chaos; on the
contrary, it has only been deepened, increasing the number of problems to
be studied and understand according to chaos theory. Anyway, researchers
in humanistic sciences are nowadays more careful when making
120 A. Stojanovic
conclusions according to linear causality. The time will, of course, show

the reaches of chaos theory as a new research paradigm.
Consequently, qualitative research methodology implies multi-
paradigmatically and multi-methodologically guided research including
both naturalistic and interpretative approach to the subject of research. It is
beyond dispute that the new paradigm has brought about new incitements
and challenges in pedagogical methodology. As different from positivistic
paradigm of explanation, the so called new research paradigm strives for
discovery of the source of human activity and understanding of motives of
behaviours and reactions. The need for holistic research has been
underlined, based on empathy, in order to understand a man as an
individual phenomenon in the given, specific context. The new research
paradigm prefers the application of such pedagogical procedures and
instruments which do not exert pressures on the subjects.
Reflections on teaching practice
Apart from the so called “closed type didactics” which is

analytically-empirically grounded, the stated tendencies in methodology
have influenced the establishment of “open didactics”, whose standpoints
are completely contrary to the previous one. “The open didactics” arisen
out of contemporary methodological tendencies is grounded on
phenomenology, Habermas’ model of interests, holistic approach, etc. It is
open to instable forms of practice, ideas and cases acknowledging greater
freedom and competence to a teacher. A student is, on the one hand,
considered in his/her individuality; on the other hand, his/her social
competency for action is taken into consideration. The discussions on the
measure of individual action on the expense of sociability are still going
on. Other controversies have been noticed, like, for example those
arising out of extreme tendencies of relativisation of contents and types
of learning as “open didactic” features.
Emancipatory didactics directed to a student go so far to contradict
one another, having in mind that phenomenological approaches in
contemporary didactics make it difficult to formulate general structures and
elements; within these views, it is not possible to deduce guidelines for
teaching practice according to these elements, since “didactics oriented
towards a student” have various views on a single student. Thus these
didactics have gained a personal note, practical-interactive, socially-
emancipatory etc (Gojkov 2007: 9). According to our opinion, it would be

fruitful to deeper explicate ontologically opposed positions in didactics.
Phenomenologically oriented teaching process implies a path from
pre-experience of students towards understanding and generalization, so
that the basic task of teaching is thematization of scientifically proven
standpoints according to experiential aspects. Learning is taking place in
the encounter of an individual (student) with the contents and him/herself,
gaining experience and knowledge how to formulate them. Subject
contents are mostly unfixed, while didactic problem is to create places of
connection which will encourage a student towards “co-determined”
learning.
New research paradigm in didactics pays more attention to
interpretative frame of didactic issues. Nevertheless, according to many
authors, the ongoing discussions are on the meta-level of theories and
models, rather than checking and fitting them into teaching practice. In
other words, descriptions and explications are not followed by empirical
documentation, which is called by some authors as “half-way
hermeneutics”. More detailed considerations are necessary in order to
overcome the gat between didactic theories and empirical teaching
research.
Qualitative strategies, techniques and procedures (phenomenology,
case studies, action research, grounded theory, participatory observation,
in-depth interview, etc) provide better insight into concrete educational
reality in schools, having in mind that a researcher can get immediate
knowledge on the studied processes and phenomena. In such a way not
only a better insight into existing regularities, but also on peculiarities is
gained. Accordingly, generality enables perception of trends and
characteristic features. However, immediate didactic activities ask for more
than that – i.e. deeper understanding of situations and elements, for didactic
guidance to be more efficient.
It is necessary to properly estimate when it is suitable to apply
certain strategies, techniques and procedures, or their combination,
regardless to the paradigm they belong to. At the same time, conditions
should be created for methodological flexibility, since different ways of
research open up a choice between nomothetic and idiographic approach,
as well as for their complementariness. New research paradigm has offered
a different approach and alternative procedures significantly contributing to
a more comprehensive and in-depth study of didactic issues. Nevertheless,
the disputes in both didactic theories and methodology itself cannot be
122 A. Stojanovic
ignored, as well as the fact that, in spite of the fact that they are numerous,
new methodological techniques (e.g. constructivistic) have not touched the
myth on essentialism and positivism in didactic research (Gojkov 2007:
13).
Complexity, instability and dynamics of didactic situations have
imposed a demand for complex approaches in interventions. Having in
mind that the used methodological approaches and procedures have not
succeeded in considering all the complexity, what could be regarded an
assumption of getting to as complete data in the field as possible is the
application of versatile research procedures and strategies within both
paradigms – quantitative and qualitative, having in mind that both have
numerous limitations. Nevertheless there is still a controversy open
referring to the possibility of triangulation. Some of the issues demanding
further discussion are: is it possible to make a connection between
quantitative and qualitative research methods; what would be a common
setting principle encompassing both numerical and non-numerical data; is a
compromise possible: validating of quantitative data according to
qualitative studies, and vice versa, objectivizing interpretative results
according to quantification of what has been interpreted, etc.
Bibliography:
Banđur, V. (2007), Pravci razvoja savremene didaktike. U:

Metapedagoške rasprave (metodološki momenti). Novi Sad: Savez
pedagoških društava Vojvodine.
Flick, Kardorff und Steinke (Hrsg.) (2004): Qualitative Forschung?
Reinbek bei Hamburg: Rowohlt Tashenbuch Verlag.
Friebertshäuser, B., Prengel, A. (Hrsg.) (2003): Handbuch Qualitative
Forschungsmethoden in der Erziehungswissenschaft. Weinheim und
München: Juventa Verlag.
Gojkov, G. (2003), Prilozi postmodernoj didaktici. Vršac: Viša škola za
obrazovanje vaspitača.
Gojkov, G., Grandić, R., Božin, A., Uzelac, M., Banđur, V,. Kundačina,
M., Negru, A., (2006): Metateorijski akcenti pedagoške metodologije
(kontekst i njegovo razumevanje), Novi Sad: Savez pedagoških društava
Vojvodine.
Gojkov, G. (2007), Uticaj naučnih koncepata na didaktičke koncepcije.
Inovacije u nastavi, Beograd, XIX (3), 7-20.
Grandić, R. i saradnici (2008), Prilozi teoriji škole. Novi Sad: Savez

pedagoških društava Vojvodine.
Halmi, A. (2005), Strategije kvalitativnih istraživanja u primenjenim
društvenim znanostima. Zagreb: Naklada Slap.
Palekčić, M. (2001), Teorijsko-metodološka (ne)utemeljenost didaktičkih
istraživanja. U: Teorijsko-metodološka utemeljenost pedagoških
istraživanja, Opatija.
Sekulić-Majurec, A. (2007), Kraj rata paradigmi pedagoških istraživanja.
Pedagogijska istraživanja, Zagreb, 4 (2), 203-215.
Stojanović, A. (2004), Neke pretpostavke uspešnije nastave. U: Škola bez
slabih učenika. Pula: Filozofski fakultet, str. 452-456.
Stojanović, A. (2008), Metodološki pristupi moralnom vaspitanju. Vršac:
Visoka škola strukovnih studija za obrazovanje vaspitača.
Švec, Š. (2005), Learning to be and to succed, Pedagogicka revue,
Bratislava
Vol VI (2010), No. 2, pp. 124-131
A new adaptive teaching method for engineering school

D. Isoc; T. Isoc
Dorin Isoc
Universitatea Tehnică, Cluj-Napoca, Romania
Teodora Isoc
Universitatea “Babeş-Bolyai”, Cluj-Napoca, Romania
Abstract: There are no teaching methods that are inherently

adaptive, i.e. able to amend the systematic relationship
between student and teacher during the training. To follow
the principles of adaptation it would be necessary that the
relationship would be controlled by certain criteria of
performance. The suggested method chooses as a criterion of
performance of student-teacher relationship the student's
knowledge level. Measuring the level of knowledge is
achieved in relation to an engineering application, a patent,
and the teacher comes over using his deliveries in order to
correct the ignorance proved. Effects of the method relate to
reduce the unnecessary effort of the teacher and to orient his
work towards effective teaching required in relation to the
given knowledge of each student.
Keywords: Adaptive teaching, engineering school,
knowledge level, patents, performance indicator.
1. Introduction
Engineering School of the last century has had an explosive
development by the number of schools but also had the surprise of some
big drawbacks often claimed by the beneficiaries.
In all contexts of reported research, engineering thinking is not
ready by specific means but by other techniques such as critical thinking
[1] and it is treated in a not applied manner. Special attention seems to
be given to learning from specific examples of the field ([2], [3]). New
studies seek to provide the cybernetic image on the training ([4])
without human intervention for that purpose.

A model of autonomous learning 125
When it comes to engineering education, research remains in the

traditional: there is a course with a support, there are homework and
projects, and there are practical works.
The paper approaches and solves these issues in an applied
manner. The first chapter is a review of issues pertaining to the
engineering profession and studies vital aspect of the levels of
knowledge used conventionally by the school. The second chapter
presents the interventions on conventional system in order to work
adaptively with students during the course activity. The conclusions
identify the contribution of the new research.
2. Engineering – an informational framework

2.1. Requirements of engineer profession
A correct view of a school of engineering can be achieved only
if one knows how a graduate works, how he behaves when he comes to
practice.
With this perspective, in his work, an engineer, regardless of
specialty, should:
- know the world by existing technical solutions;
- ensure proper operation of existing technical solutions;
- intervene in the existing technical solutions for repairs and
optimizations;
- ensure design of new technical solutions;
- ensure implementation of new technical solutions;
- ensure achievement of new technical solutions.
Despite the knowledge is common to all professions, the
engineering knowledge is so oriented that it implies:
- identifying the functional parts and assemblies of the technical
entities;
- retrieving the parts that can and should be designed
algorithmically;
- retrieving the parts that can and should be designed heuristically.
Engineering is not an extension of mathematics or physics or
chemistry, but is something else. Engineer's work involves a complex
built in a speculative way of fundamental knowledge, algorithmic, and
heuristic. This feature is not systematically approached and developed
to any pedagogical techniques of the schools teaching engineers.
126 A. Stojanovic
Table 1. Engineer’s knowledge builds a specialized base.

Knowledge nature Available knowledge sets
Theories The1 The2 The3 The4 …
Technical principles Princ1 Princ2 Princ3 Princ4 …
Standards Sta1 Sta2 Sta3 Sta4 Sta5
Materials Mat1 Mat2 Mat3 Mat4 …
Components Com1 Com2 Com3 Com4 Com5
Technologies Tech1 Tech2 Tech3 Tech4 …
Measuring techniques Mea1 Mea2 Mea3 Mea4 …
Design techniques Pro1 Pro2 Pro3 Pro4 Pro5
Heuristics Eur1 Eur2 Eur3 Eur4 Eur5
Table 1 a set of theoretical knowledge about standards,

materials, components, technologies, and other various heuristic
techniques acquired in school or later, after graduating, then his work to
solve current problems leads to technical solutions
2.2. School of Engineering and impact of media development
The active element in any school is the teacher. He has the
necessary qualification and vocation to provide training and skills to
each student in part for a desired standard of his qualification.
The twentieth century brought new information technologies
that have come to sit with the teacher and without his consent, it created
for the student an initial level of actual knowledge as in Fig. 2. The real
level is profoundly heterogeneous, messy and very difficult to assess.
3. Principle of adaptive teaching method

3.1 Teaching – cybernetic system and necessity of adaptive control
Customizing adaptive control structure for teaching is im-
mediate. In the new system, the controller role is taken by the teacher
and the desired performance consists of a requirements set such as
professional nature and social utility.
It appears that the main weakness of the school of engineers is
how the transmission of theoretical knowledge is done compared with
the initial knowledge of the students and the needs of integrated training
of the profession.
In this place, and having in mind these goals the research
required a cybernetic vision of the teaching process and an adaptive
control structure.
In such a context as summarized in Fig. 1 one recognizes two

levels of information corresponding to the tactical level, with short-term
and dedicated to operational actions and strategic level, for long term
and guidance actions.
At the tactical level is found the controlled process that is
included informational in the negative feedback loop with a controller
and control loop as follows. Using this fundamental cyber connection,
one can achieve the desired performance as obtained performance. It is
the role of controller to run commands that lead controller process to
achieve the goal.
Fundamental control loop behavior is completely described if
during its running, the controller "has" enough information on how to
conduct the controlled process.
Fig. 1. Cybernetic structure of adaptive control system.
A special situation is found when the behavior of controlled

process changes in that from one moment to another the controller
works as it should be another technical process. In these situations, to
preserve the established goal, the controller must also change its
behavior, as would change the controller.
This situation, where the nature of behaviors changes in the idea
of keeping the same global behavior of the control loop requires the
adaptation action. In the sequence shown to retain the behavior of
128 A. Stojanovic
control loop determined when the controlled process changes its

behavior, the controller is to be adapted.
Adaptation can be done only on a higher level, where an
identification mechanism which receives information from the
controlled process “realizes” the change of its behavior and asks to
adapting mechanism to establish new appropriate control behavior.
All the adapting actions develop without interrupting the main
control loop. The work of adapting process is possible because the two
levels act on different time horizons.
Controlled part is a set of students as in Fig. 3, which by means
of teacher’s actions accumulates knowledge and skills and changes their
behavior in relation to knowledge in a particular field.
3.2. Developing of adaptive control system
The presented method has as a center of attention the course
activity, the university lecture. The reason for this attention is the need
and opportunity of this activity.
Fig. 2.Initial expected and actual level of knowledge.
Fig. 4 depicts the conventional relationship of the course. The

relationship between teacher and students is within the direct or virtual
meeting, with the assumption that there is a written support and that
among teacher and students establishes a dialogue. The teacher may ask
students achieve homework.
Any communication between teacher and students develops on
the ground of course support and possible experience of the teacher.
Fig. 3. Teaching process one modifies as behavior.
Fig. 4. Conventional structure of teacher-student relationship.
Fig. 5. Adaptive structure of teaching process.

130 A. Stojanovic
Relationship can be corrected by adjusting the information

content after by other activities, such as checks and examinations, the
teacher tries to get a feedback from students.
The solution proposed by this research is shown in the diagram
of Fig. 5. The two key players, teacher and students are this time
separated by a filter of knowledge that, although the image is visible, it
is actually virtual.
The novelty inserted here is the experience base. The experience
base consists of a collection of patent specifications that solve some
specific, real problems.
Students ask the teacher questions of the experience base. These
questions form the filter of knowledge. The subject of the course is
now a collection of knowledge of course support and students'
questions.
By closing these connections, the effect is the obtaining of an
adaptive control system where the teacher suffers the most important
action when he becomes “adaptive professor” i.e. it is adapted
continuously to the actual perception level of their students, compared
with a field of transmitted knowledge.
4. Concluding remarks
The teaching is dependent on how the teacher makes an accurate
assessment of the student's initial knowledge level and how he manages
to take it to a final anticipated knowledge level.
This paper suggests an adaptive system for teaching in
engineering school both in structure and detailed as methodology. The
new element is the experience base of patents and their exploitation in
which the teacher is obliged to adapt its lectures to the real level of
accumulated knowledge for students and their actual requirements for
specific education. Extending this new method of experience base using
can lead to fundamental change in the engineering school.
Bibliography:
1. E.J. Hyslop-Margison, J.L. Amstrong, “Critical Thinking in Career

Education: The Democratic Importance of Foundational Ra-
tionality”, Journal Of Career and Technical Education, vol.21, no.1,
Fall 2004, pp.39-49.
2. W. Cerbin and B. Kopp, “Lesson Study as a Model for Building

Pedagogical Knowledge and Improving Teaching”, International
Journal of Teaching and Learning in Higher Education, Vol. 18, no.
3, 2006, pp.250-257.
3. A.R. Artino Jr., “Cognitive load theory and the role of learner
experience: An abbreviated review for educational practitioners”,
AACE Journal, vol.16 No.4, 2008, pp.425-439.
4. J. Murray, “Cybernetic Circularity in Teaching and Learning”,
International Journal of Teaching and Learning in Higher
Education, Vol. 18, no 3, 2006, pp.215-221.
Vol VI (2010), No. 2, pp. 132-140
Types of values - theoretical and practical perspectives

T. Dughi
Tiberiu Dughi
“Aurel Vlaicu ” University of Arad
Abstract: In the first part of the article we present different

types of values used in psychological and sociological
research of value orientation at individual and group level.
Typologies are presented by Rokeach, Schwartz, Inglehart,
Rescher, Vianu, Dumitru Cucoş. In the second part of the
paper a typology of family values is presented. This is the
result of our researches conducted on a sample of 260
families in Arad County during 2007-2009. Statistical
processing of data led to the grouping of these values into
six categories: material, relational, emotional, reflective,
professional and psycho-moral.
Key words: family, values, types of values, classification
1. Theoretical approaches
Values, which form a complex axiological system, are
organized, as shown by Petre Iluţ (2004) on several levels: generally
human values, values specific for a social-political system, values
which characterize a certain culture or ethnicity, values of large and
medium sized social groups, values of micro-groups (family, for
instance) and individual values. It is without a doubt that, at a certain
moment a person does not belong exclusively to a certain group,
completely isolated from the others, which leads to a saturation of the
individual system with values, depending on the specific values of
groups superior to the individual or micro-group level.
Tudor Vianu (1982) establishes an organization of values
according to their characteristics – a value can be real or personal,
material or spiritual, middle or end, integrated, non-integrated or
integrative, free or adhering to its concrete support, or broadening
through the meaning and echoes in its subject's wishful consciousness.
Types of values - theoretical and practical perspectives 133
Depending on the number of features of each type of values -

economic, vital legal, political, theoretical, aesthetic, moral and
religious-these are placed at the base or top of the a hierarchy of values.
The identification of the different types of values was the subject
of several investigations. Due to the complexity and high degree of
subjectivity, this process of knowledge and classification of types of
values is more difficult. Being heavily involved in reporting to the
researcher's own culture, the results are different and with a certain
degree of relativity.
We present several types of values obtained by researchers from
the U.S.A. ( Ionescu, Gh, Thomas A., 2001).
A. One of the most used values classifications is made by
Rokeach. It states that there are two broad categories of values:
- Final or terminal values: - Instrumental values:
- A comfortable life; - Ambition;
- A challenging, interesting life; - Large horizon (open mind);
- A sense of achievement; - Capacity;
- A world of peace; - Cheerfulness;
- A world of beauty; - Purity;
- Equality; - Courage;
- Family security; - Forgiveness;
- Social recognition; - Relief;
- Wisdom - Honesty;
- Freedom; - Imagination;
- Happiness; - Logics, independence;
- Inner harmony; - Intellectualism;
- Maternal love; - Love;
- Pleasure; - Submission;
- Salvation (redemption); - Politeness;
- Self-respect; - Respectability;
- True friends; - Self-control.
- National security.
B. After Allport, Vernon and Lindzey there are six major value
orientations that people can adopt in a less or greater extent:
a. The theoretic man whose major orientation is the discovery of truth;
he is critical and rational, he orders and systematizes his knowledge;
b. the economic man evaluates what is useful, he is interested in
practical business, judging the things he can do or to have.
134 T. Dughi
c. the aesthetic man appreciates beauty and harmony, he is interested in

the level, degree of symmetry of things, he is concerned about the
achievement and fulfillment in artistic experience;
d. the social man values altruism and philanthropy, he is warm,
emotional, disinterested, assessing the people as goals by themselves;
e. the political man value power and influence , he seeks leadership
positions and at the same time, competitive experience, the competition;
f. the religious man cherishes spiritual unity, he seeks communion with
the cosmos, mystical relationship in connection with the unit.
Out of an attempt to capture the generally accepted values for
different cultures, Schwartz (1997) based his research efforts on three
questions:
1. What makes a man to remain independent or to join a group?
2. How to motivate people to cooperate with others to manage
interdependencies?
3. Is it more important to adhere, to accept or to exploit?
The three questions each related to the relations between the
individual and society, in ensuring a socially responsible behavior, that
is the human role in natural and social environment, have led to the
identification of three bipolar pairs of types of values: conservatism /
autonomy, hierarchy / egalitarianism, and mastery (Mastery) / harmony.
Specific to cultural conservatism is the focus on integrating the
person into the group, the community; man finds meaning in life
through social relationships, identifying with the group, participating in
group life. This type of value causes to maintain the status quo and
reducing actions and inclinations that can destroy traditional order and
group solidarity. Specific values are social order, respect for tradition,
security, self discipline.
In autonomy centered cultures, the person is seen as an
autonomous entity that finds meaning in his own uniqueness, seeking to
express his own attributes and who is encouraged to do so. Schwartz
highlights two types of autonomy:
- Intellectual autonomy - it emphasizes independent ideas and
the individual's right to follow his own intellectual direction; values -
curiosity, intelligence, creativity;
- Emotional independence - it emphasizes individual
independence of one's own emotions; values - fun, exciting and
interesting life.
In a culture focused on high-ranking, the hierarchical system of

roles ensures a socially responsible behavior. People are socialized and
sanctioned within the meaning of membership obligations and rules
attached to their social role. This value orientation emphasizes the
legitimacy of a hierarchy of unequal distribution of power, roles and
resources. The culture of egalitarianism, in contrast, describes the
individual as being morally equal to others, who share basic interests as
human beings. People are used to internalize adherence to cooperation
with others and concern for the common good. This value orientation
emphasizes overcoming selfish interests, promoting values such as:
equality, social justice, freedom, responsibility, honesty.
In cultures focused heavily on dominance (Mastery), people actively
seek to master and change the social and natural environment, to assume
control on the world and to exploit it in order to achieve personal goals.
This value orientation emphasizes success through active self-
affirmation having as core values ambition, success, courage,
competition. In contrast, the culture mainly focused on promoting
acceptance of world as it is, tries to preserve, conserve and exploit
rather than change. Harmony requires smooth integration into the
environment, according to values as: environmental protection,
communion with nature, a world of beauty.
In his theoretical model of values, Inglehart R. (apud Voicu
Voicu, 2007, p.249) proposes a distinction between two types of values:
materialistic and post-material ones and makes a prediction on their
dynamics within the meaning of the passage of the first category values
in the second. This theory is based on two other theories: Maslow's
necessity one that states needs are met in a clear order from the starting
material necessities, passing this stage to the psychological, intellectual,
spiritual necessities, and the second theory, that of secularization is
emphasized by Max Weber. Inglehart points out that a connection exists
between the interests of the individual to meet basic needs identified as
materialistic and poor economic development of a society and a concern
for satisfying higher intellectual and aesthetic needs, identified as
postmaterialist and a strong economic development.
N. Rescher (apud Sacară, 2006, pp.35-36) proposes three
categories of values classified according to different criteria. The first
category is that of personal and group values, the criterion ranked after
its holder and the second category, depending on the object of value,
composed of things-values, environmental values, individual values,
136 T. Dughi
group values and societal values, the third category is the criterion for
content and benefits, economic, moral, social, political, aesthetic,
religious, intellectual, professional, sentimental values falling in this
category; the fourth category, depending on the relationship between
owner and object of value is consisted of egocentric values, such those
which are focused on group membership and humanities, and the last
category includes instrumental and final values grouped according to
the relationship that is established between a value and other values.
Danney Ursery (Ursery, 2006) considers that some values refer
to how one should act (for example, to be honest, self-disciplined, kind).
Other values refer to what one wants to accomplish or obtain in life (for
example, to wants a lot of money, security, fame, health, salvation,
wisdom). The values exist as a complex set of interweaving personal
policies or priorities that serve as a guide for decision-making. “Values
may be based on knowledge, aesthetic considerations, practicality,
moral grounds, or on a combination of these. Much of what we value is
not concerned with our sense of morality or ethics, so not all values can
be called moral ones. Most of us value money, status, personal
fulfillment, and freedom, and while these are not immoral values, they
are not necessarily moral values. For the sake of our discussions, we
will call these nonmoral or instrumental values. There are several
general categories of values, but listed below are probably the major
four. Our discussions will be concerned directly with number four,
morals-based values, and indirectly with immoral and nonmoral
values.”For example: knowledge-based value, aesthetic-based value,
instrumental value, moral value.
From structural-systemic and dynamic-relational model
perspective of personality approach there are three values categories
(Dumitru, 2001):
- Professional values – concerning general principals about what is
important and useful in professional activities of persons;
- Psycho-social values – referring to evaluative standards concerning
the relations between the community members;
- Moral values – regarding the adjustment of human activities and
relations to social desirable, to what is considered and accepted to be
good for people’s existence.
Constantin Cucoş (Cucoş, C., 1995, p.74) realizes a values
classification according to age:
- Infantile period (0 -1 years): characterized by biological interests,

oriented to vital values (health values);
- The first childhood period (1-3 years): there are identified the kinetic-
perceptive interests, corresponding to sensitive values (pleasure
values);
- The second childhood period (3-7 years): has as specifics the practice
and play interests, corresponding to approaching values (achievement
values);
- The third childhood period (7-12 years): is centered on constructive
interests, oriented to technical values (production values);
- The preadolescent period (12-14 years): is dominated by the affective
values, the political values appear (organizing values);
- The adolescent period: is developing social-abstract and intellectual
values, is centered on the cultural values (understanding values);
- The mature phase: has as dominant interests the trans-social and
rational needs; the person is oriented to high spirituality values (true,
beauty, love, piety).
As one can see, most classifications values refer to specific
values of the wider communities or broader age groups (for young
people for example). Most studies conducted to capture the family as a
social entity were centered on the traditional-modern dichotomy, and
most recently the postmodern. However, given the complex role of the
family and its distinct characteristics we consider important to address
the issues of family values in a more customized, more explicit way.
2. A typology of family values - Exploratory Research
The typology of values shown below is the result of an
exploratory research approach conducted on a sample of 520 people -
260 families - in rural and urban areas in county of Arad, which had as
the overall objective the comparative emphasis in terms of area of
residence, of value types parents adhere and the peculiarities of cultural
consumption proposed by them to their children, one of the specific
objectives being to determine the set of values of parents with children
aged 6-11 years.
The instrument used was a list of 20 values built on the typology
proposed by Rokeach, values that each subject had to rank according to
importance given from 1 to 20. A series of hierarchies indicating the
importance attached to certain values were obtained. To establish a
factorial analyze we calculated an index of the parents values which
represents the arithmetical mean of the values of the mother and the
138 T. Dughi
father. To identify the number of factors and group factors values we

have made an exploratory factor analysis.
To determine the appropriate number of factors extracted, we
used several criteria: the criterion of percentages of explained dispersion
and Cattel's graphic criterion. We obtained six factors that explained
51.711% of variance results.
In the following figure (Figure 1) we can see, the graphical
representation of values "eigenvalue". Possible factors are on the
horizontal axis and, on the vertical axis we have "eigenvalue” values.
According to Cattel's criterion (Sava, 2004) we extract a number of
factors which significantly improve the solution. In other words, we
stop at a number of factors that significantly improve the solution. From
graphical point of view this is expressed through a watershed, a
"rupture" in representing "eigenvalue." In this case we find that after the
first six factors there is no significant turning. Of course, the obvious
break after the first three factors may suggest the existence of three
factors, but the variance explained by them, as we see from the above
table is only 33.591%. Since the solution with six factors explain a
larger proportion of the variance of the results we have chosen that
option.
Scree Plot
3,5
3,0
2,5
2,0
1,5
1,0
Eigenvalue
,5
0,0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
Component Number
Figure 1. Cattel's graphical criterion for determining the number

of factors extracted
The type of analysis performed was an exploratory factor

analysis, with the "principal component analysis’’. Because there are
items that are loaded on several factors (number of factors explain the
results obtained from these items), we performed a factorial design
rotation. Because it is assumed that there is a relationship between
values and that they are not totally independent on each other, an
oblique rotation was chosen: Direct Oblimin, which is a flexible rotation
and could allow a minimum correlation of factors (Sava, 2004 ).
Analyzing the items saturation in factors after rotation, we note
that each item is predominantly saturated in a given factor.
Communalities remain the same after rotation. Because in the factorial
structure matrix, the correlation of values and each factor is influenced
by the correlation between factors, a factorial matrix model was
performed, which shows only the correlations that represent the "pure"
influence of a factor on that value, eliminating the influence of the
other five factors (Sava , 2004).
Analyzing the items loading on factors we find that they are
grouped by six factors corresponding to categories of values according
to which we could establish a typology:
- Material values: material comfort and performance;
- Relational values: friends, social recognition, creativity,
pleasure, power, communication;
- Reflective values: independence, self-control, confidence,
responsibility, confidence;
- Emotional values: harmony, affection (love);
- Professional values: professional development, dignity;
- Psycho - morale values: courtesy, honesty, intelligence and
religious belief.
Instead of conclusions
The parents’ influences, their way of action generates the
premise for the future behavior of their children. We want to emphasize
the particularities of the value orientations of parents, values being
billed for the children and for the parents, as models through imitation (
Mureşan 1980). Recent studies support the idea that, in fact, the set of
values of parents is proposed and expected to be taken by children.
Highlighting and knowing these values can be the basis of educational
intervention approaches addressed not only to children but also to
parents.
140 T. Dughi
Bibliography
Cucoş, C (1995) Pedagogie şi axiologie, E.D.P., R.A., Bucureşti

Dumitru, I. Al. (2001) Personalitate. Atitudini şi valori, Editura de Vest,
Timişoara
Iluţ, P. (2004), Valori, atitudini şi comportamente. Teme actuale de
psihosociologie, Polirom, Iaşi;
Ionescu, Gh., Toma , A. (2001). Cultura organizaţională şi
managementul tranziţiei. Bucureşti, Editura Economică;
Mureşan, P., (1980), Învăţarea socială, Editura Albatros, Bucureşti
Sacară, L. (2006), Portrete axiologice individuale şi colective, Editura
EduSoft, Bacău
Sava, F. (2004). Analiza datelor in cercetarea psihologică, Editura
ASCR, Cluj-Napoca
Schwartz, Sh. (1997). Values and Culture in Munro, D., Schumaker, J.,
Carr, S., Motivation and Culture. New York, Routledge
Vianu, Tudor (1982), Studii de filozofia culturii, Editura Eminescu,
Bucuresti
Voicu, B., Voicu, M. (coord.) (2007) Valori ale românilor 1993 – 2006,
Institutul European, Iaşi
Ursery, D., (2006) Exploring values, rules and principles, sursa
www.aproad.org
Vol VI (2010), No. 2, pp. 141-151
From Teaching to Learning
G. Kelemen
Gabriela Kelemen
Abstract: This study examined the effectiveness of

educational methods - Learning by Using Active Methods
- on improving the student’s learning efficiency. We deal
with less homogeneous university classes since a part of
our students are teenagers coming from high schools and a
part are of different ages coming from the educational
system. Therefore to understand students as learners and to
improve their abilities as learner are required. Our study
tried to emphasize how students perform in each practice
of a knowledge component. We try to find optimal
learning methods by using different strategies, in order to
improve students’ learning efficiency. With a control
group design, we analyzed the learning performance of
Study programme Primary and Preschool Pedagogy
students participating in the Optimized Learning Teaching
study. Results were compared to students participating in
traditional learning without using modern methods.
Analyses indicated that students in the optimized condition
are more interested in study and their motivation grows.
There was significant difference in the learning
performance of the two groups in either an immediate post
test or a two-week-later retention test.
Keywords: active methods; learning efficiency; expectation
Introduction and Theoretical Framework

Nowadays we live in a postmodern society which values a person who
is willing and able to respond positively to permanent changes (Paun,
Potolea 2002). Researchers from educational fields widely recognize the
142 G. Kelemen
need for future teachers to be well prepared to meet the challenges,

working and living in a society of permanent changing and in diverse
communities (Ilica, 2009). To prepare competent teachers as agents of
education, for a postmodern society it is important to determine their
motivation and cognitive beliefs. Freshmen teachers must be equipped
with knowledge, skills, dispositions and competences that will enable
them to succeed with the changing needs of all students. Teachers need
innovative and alternative instructional strategies to actively engage
students in the learning process to raise academic standards (Ruhland &
Bremer, 2002). Students must have the ability to think critically and be
willing to challenge and ultimately adapt their “historical and cultural
condition” (Hill, 2000). Their beliefs about teaching and learning must
have a positive impact on the education of the youth during the 21st
century. To understand students as learners it is necessary to find out
more about students, greater students diversity makes it more imperative
to provide challenging and effective learning environment for students.
The methods in which students are taught to develop and implement
instructional lessons in primarily and preschool education settings and
the applications of these instructional methods during student teaching
needs to be studied in relation to personal style and motivation about
teaching and learning in the classroom (Dees, 2005). This study was
based on the idea that teachers, who are challenged with a modern
approach (learner-centred), would be better prepared to adapt and solve
problems and they would face a real world career as primary and
preschool education teachers. This study strives to better understand and
appreciate the diverse needs and motivation of all future teachers
thereby it enhances methods to better serve the need for professional
development of primarily and preschool teachers (Kelemen, 2010).
The latest Universities’ aim is to promote independence; effective
learner environment that prepare students to be independent learners.
• student centred approaches to learning and teaching;
• deep approach of learning by actively engaging the students;
• actively working with the subject;
• reflecting upon learning;
• using active teaching methods.
The constructivism is a pedagogical theory which describes the way
learners construct knowledge for themselves. From Piaget with his
cognitive constructivism and Vygotsky with his social constructivism to
nowadays scholars Jadallah, 2000; Maypole & Davies, 2001, they all
From Teaching to Learning 143
emphasize the importance of student learning through interaction with

the teacher and other students. Studies have been conducted concerning
the role of teacher experiences in course on student-centred teaching
methods, the student must be deeply engaged in his learning so that he
could learn more efficient than by listening to an expert talking about it.
Encouraging students to reflect upon their own knowledge conduct to a
more optimal learning. It is acknowledged that the use of modern
methods in education may provide the means to improve teaching
learning and assessment while focusing on the learning process. If
knowledge is seen as being individually constructed, this implies that
learning does not only involve students taking on board new ideas, but
may require them to modify, develop, expand and change their prior
conceptions. Under this perception, modern methods can influence the
learning-teaching process because of the potential it offers for
intervention by the learner or the teacher during the lesson. The
possibilities provided by new techniques can also favour versatile
immediate interaction among students. The guiding principle of
constructivist learning theories is the learner’s own active initiative and
control in learning, and personal knowledge construction, and the self
regulation of learning. The cultivation of self-determination as much as
self-control, viewed as autonomy should be emphasized so that students
come to experience themselves without the control of others. Modern
methodology based on engaging learners in knowledge construction
through collaborative activities determined learning in a meaningful
context and through reflection on what has been learned through
conversation with other learners.
The main perspectives and principles by which learning based on active
methods should focus on general systems attributes: context of study,
construction of units of learning, collaboration between the implied
factors and permanent conversation (two-way learning dialogue).
Therefore teacher must be transparent in his expectations and
assessment. It is important that the teacher explained his syllabus
thoroughly and mae sure his students are aware of their real possibilities
and what they can do to improve their learning efficiency (Bocos,
Ionescu, 2009). Teacher must be well prepared. Make sure that all
handouts are copied beforehand and reread resources on the subject of
each group's topic before lecturing. Have extra resources and references
always on hand and available. Also, if you tell students that you will
bring additional information to the following seminar, make sure you
144 G. Kelemen
follow through. There are some principles that teachers must have in his
mind when work with his students:
• Keep things interesting. Although it's natural that you have a lot
of material to cover in a short amount of time, keeping the class
interested will ensure that students actually pay attention and learn what
you are teaching. Interesting guest speakers, interactive activities or
thought-provoking movies on the subject you are teaching are just some
of the ways you can add a bit more interest to the class.
• Improve your classroom management techniques. Many
professors erroneously believe that all students will know how to
behave. The classroom management techniques are not only needed for
K-12 teachers, but for elderly students also. Therefore teachers should
always have complete control over the classroom at all times, and be
able to appropriately and effectively deal with behaviour issues as they
occur. It is necessary to pay attention to all students and don't let the
behaviour of one student ruin the learning experience for everyone.
• Teacher must always keep an open door and provide extra help
when necessary. Some students may have special needs or have a hard
time in a large group learning situation. Teacher must be accommodated
to those who have unique circumstances or have questions or concerns
that need to be addressed outside the classroom. It is important that
teachers are sensitive and considerate when dealing with these students,
and try to help them any way you can.
• Furthermore it is very important to ask for student feedback.
Any sort of direct feedback from students can be invaluable.
Anonymous surveys can be a great way of understanding what your
students really think of you and finding ways you can improve. Many
scholars believe that the most important goal of education is for students
to learn how to reflect on and diagnose their own performance.
To provide support and to achieve the predicted target in teaching
we need to know more information about our students. It is necessary to
know the level of students’ knowledge and their conception and
perception of teaching and learning. As we have stressed before the
component of our students from Pedagogy of Primarily and Preschool
Education is diverse. Some of them are young in the situation of initial
formation, but more of them are adults who work in the system as
teachers and want to achieve more competence so that they are likely to
see themselves as vocational learners. Andragogy, concept introduced
by Malcolm Knowles in 1975, stipulates that the professor should be
“partner with adult learners, building on students’ prior experience and

promoting student self-direction”. Also the teacher’s role for primarily
and preschool is changing. The teacher who teaches children from 3 to
6/7 years old and 6/7 to 11/12 years old should be able to support the
development of all potentialities of his/her students; he/she should
become a creator of an inspiring climate and a bearer of challenges for
students to discover new knowledge, to understand the importance,
meaning and sense of knowledge and to develop a positive attitude
towards learning. Therefore, the following research question emerged:
What teaching methods are used in adult teaching. It is known that
adults are more responsible for their own learning (Knowles, 1975):
• self-direction, how to choose what and how to learn;
• experience, use their own lives;
• motivation, toward personal and professional needs;
• readiness, oriented on just-in-time learning;
• need to know, identify the ration for the content to be
learned;
• timing, an adapted schedule;
• practicality, permanent transfer of learning.
The aim of the process of education in university is orientated toward
turning on new undergraduates into independent and autonomous
learners. They must become competent teachers. Competence for
teacher’ profession is seen as a complex qualification, skills and
dispositions for a successful performance in profession of teaching,
which includes knowledge, skills, attitudes, experience, values and
personal characteristics. University must create the premises for
student-centred learning communities that develop students’ higher-
order reasoning abilities, create communities of active, lifelong learners,
and become engaged with solving the well structured problems of a
complex society. It is known that how teachers teach is related to
student’s learning. University students possess different ways of
knowing which influences how they learn and acquire knowledge.
This study investigated and compared two teaching methods, a
traditional, teacher-centred, didactic method (the Traditional Approach)
and a social constructivist, inquiry-based method (the New Approach)
to determine which was more effective at improving students’
understanding and ability to think critically. The internal learner-centred
alternative transfers the responsibility of learning to the student, so that
146 G. Kelemen
the student becomes the centre of the educational process and becomes
an active decision-maker by making choices on how his or her learning
will take place within the constraints of what the professor has given.
This learner-centred education prepares students for lifelong learning.
Our purpose is to explore student outcomes of teacher-directed and
learner centred methods in university classrooms on methods of
teaching. In the table below we stress the skills which every teacher
must demonstrate in order to promote an efficient learning.
Figure nr.1. Summary of skills that teachers need to demonstrate

when using the learner-centred approach
Summary of skills that teachers need to demonstrate when

using the learner-centred approach
Encouragement Observant
Motivation Manage relations

Qualities to be
Cooperation displayed by Patient
teachers
Be exemplary Understanding
Manage behaviour Manage feelings
Research Design and Methodology

Our research`s purpose is to investigate the perception of student
regarding traditional and modern methods and their efficiency in
acquiring performance in learning. “Research indicates that students are
the most qualified sources to report on the extent to which the learning
experience was productive, informative, satisfying, or worthwhile.
While opinions on these matters are not direct measures of instruction
or course effectiveness, they are legitimate indicators of student

satisfaction, and there is substantial research linking student satisfaction
to effective teaching (Theall and Franklin, 2001).”To reach our purpose
we used 50 students from educational sciences (25 students in each
seminar class) which took part in this study. The students ranged in age
from nineteen to forty years, the younger came from high schools and
the elderly from the educational system (they are already teachers for
kindergarten and primarily schools). The component of the two groups
was almost identical (age, academic achievement and capabilities of the
students) there were no special characteristics of these students that
required extra measures. The research was place in the second semester
of the university year of 2009-2010. Part 1 of the semester was taught
using traditional teaching methods including lecture, assignments, and
discussion of questions at the end of the chapters. During Part 2, we
applied methodology that used modern teaching methods. Students’
perception and ratings about the interesting and effective teaching
methods is a way to suggest improvements in teaching/ learning
process.
Methods used by this study were quantitative and qualitative methods.
The qualitative methods included:
⇒ Lecture-based interactive course (Knowledge, Concepts).
⇒ Problem-based course (Application, Practice).
⇒ Semi-structured interviews (10 questions- Motivated Strategies
for Learning).
⇒ Student Performance.
The quantitative methods used in this research were statistic strategies.
Results
The results of this study indicate that the research hypotheses are
supported by real achievements. There was a significant improvement in
exam scores (sig < .05), measuring student understanding of quality
management and process improvement using active teaching methods
versus traditional teaching methods. There was a significant
improvement in process outcomes using active teaching methods to
teach application of process improvement techniques.
In table no1 can be seen the students’ expectation and preference for
different teaching methods. Rating was done on a scale of 1-5, 1 – being
the least interesting and 5 being the most interesting teaching method as
indicated in table 1.
148 G. Kelemen
Table no.1. Ranked students’ view about university teaching methods
1 2 3 4 5 Total
N N
N% N% N%
% %
Formal 20 % 22% 100
lecture 25% 35% 26%
Interactive 52% 55% 64 74 86 % 100
lecture % %
Role play 34 % 38 57 64 80 % 100
% % %
Tutorial 45 % 54 67 80 74 % 100
% % %
Presentation 64 76 53 100
53 % % % % 84 %
We saw that the preference of the students is oriented towards learner

centred methods: interactive lecture, role play, tutorial and presentation.
The main reasons for rating various teaching methods as interesting and
best teaching methods we saw in the predominant students’ answers to
the questions asked:
• More informative and interesting
• Learning is effective in gaining knowledge
• More participation of students, they have opportunities to give
their opinion
• Creative thinking is encouraged and active learning.
• Every one gets the chance to express their thoughts.
Simple topics can be learnt through different angles in a modern
background of education. Students must be the initiators and architects
of their own learning and knowledge-making, rather than passive
receiver who absolve the transmission of knowledge from ‘expert’
teachers.
Conclusions
The shift from traditional teaching methods toward student-centred
teaching methods by using active methods such as interactive small
group activities appears to have significantly enhanced students’
learning. The courses and seminars experience was characterized by a
high level of dialogue and interaction, the assessment results suggest
overall strong engagement with the subject matter, and student feedback
was very positive. It is increasingly important for students who want to
become teachers to familiarize with active methods that allow them to
build common experiential ground, which provided a shared base for
engaging with more technical aspects of the subject matter and
transferring this knowledge in their own classrooms. At the same time,
student has feedback on the more didactic features of the curriculum.
The common experiential ground and supportive social context were
developed first, in order to support students’ access to the delivered
material. This suggests that a holistic teaching approach at the
individual subject level is as important as particular teaching techniques
that emphasise student-centeredness. My own conclusions are that, in
the context of teaching at our Faculty of Educational Sciences,
Psychology and Social Work, specialization Pedagogy for primary and
preschool education with diverse cohorts of students, active methods
such as student-centred teaching are an optimal way to improve
students’ learning efficiency.
Bibliography
Ainley, J. & Luntley, M. (2005). What teachers know: the knowledge

bases of classroom practice. In Proceedings of CERME 4, Sant Feliu de
Guíxols, Spain. http://cerme4.crm.es/.
Benson, A. & Blackman, D. (2003) ‘Can research methods ever be
interesting?’, Active
Learning in Higher Education 4 (1): 39-55.
Brookfield, S. D. (2004). The power of critical theory: Liberating adult
learning and
teaching. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.
Bocos Musata, Ionescu Miron, (2009), Tratat de didactică modernă, Editura
Paralela 45, Pitesti.
Ilica Anton, (2010), Paradigme pedagogice, Editura Universitatii “Aurel
Vlaicu” Arad.
Jadallah, E. (2000) ‘Constructivist Learning Experiences for Social Studies
Education’, The Social Studies 91 (5): 221 – 225.
Kelemen Gabriela, (2010), Pedagogia învăţământului primar şi preşcolar,
Editura Universitatii “Aurel Vlaicu” Arad.
Nanney, B. (no date) ‘Student-Centred Learning’ www.gsu.edu/~mstswh/
courses/it7000/ papers/student-.htm [accessed 25 May 2004]
150 G. Kelemen
Pajares (2002). Self-efficacy beliefs in academic contexts: An outline.

Retreived 09.12.2010, from http://des.emory.edu/mfp/efftalk.html.
Păun Emil, Potolea Dan, (2002), Pedagogie. Fundamentări teoretice si
demersuri aplicative, Editura Polirom, Iasi.
Sander, P., (2002), Group work with students, LTSN Psychology teaching
tips, Accesses on the 09.12.2010 from
http://www.investigacion-sicopedagogica.org/ revista/articulos/ 1/english/
Art_1_1.pdf
Sparrow, L., Sparrow, H., & Swan, P. (2000) ‘Student-centred learning: Is it
possible?’ in A. Hermann and M. M. Kulski (Eds), Flexible Futures in
Tertiary Teaching Proceedings of the 9th Annual Teaching Learning Forum,
2-4 February 2000. Perth: Curtin University of Technology.
Theall, M. & Franklin, J. (2001) Looking for bias in all the wrong places: A
search for truth or a witch hunt in student ratings of instruction? In M.
Theall, P.C. Abrami, & L.A. Mets (Eds.), The student ratings debate: Are
they valid? How can we best use them? [Special issue]. New Directions
The Institute for Learning Centered Education. (2007). ILCE website.
Retrieved from the World Wide Web October 1, 2007:
http://www.learnercentereded.org/constr_what.html
http://www.learnercentereded.org/constr_theory.html
http://www.learnercentereded.org/const_misconcept.html
Weimer, M. (2002) Learner-Centred Teaching: Five Key Changes to
Practice, San
Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
APENDIX
Motivated Strategies for Learning
Please tick or write in full to answer the following questions.
1. Which teaching approaches do you consider more efficient?
A. group work
B. pair work
C. individual work
4. Mention other teaching methods you prefer that are not included in 1.
…………………………… ……………………………….
3. From the listed skills, which ones do you consider are appropriate to group
work?
A. Cooperation
B. Trust
C. Caring
D. Openness
E. Decision-making
F. All of the above
G. None
H. Others (specify them) ………………………, …………………….
4. What additional skills do you think learners get from working in groups?
……………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………
5. From the teaching methods used by professors, which do you consider as
the best approach?
A. Interactive lecture
B. Student centred teaching
C. Tutorial
D. Presentation
E. Role playing
6. How can you best define learner-centred teaching methods?
……………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………
7. Do learner-centred teaching methods help you to achieve syllabus
coverage?
YES
NO
8. If yes, can you give an example of how the strategy helps you to achieve
the syllabus coverage?
……………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………
9. From the listed skills which one do you get from role playing? Please tick.
A. Cooperation
B. Trust
C. Caring
D. Openness
E. Decision-making
F. All of the above
G. None
H. Others (specify them) ………………………,………………………
10. What additional skills do you think learners get from role playing?
……………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………
Vol VI (2010), No. 2, pp. 152-158
Development of General and Specific Skills

Required for Teaching Activity
E. Balaş
Evelina Balaş
Abstract: This paper presents from a theoretical

perspective the staff training and skills development issues.
Initial and continuing training must consider equipping the
teachers with the necessary skills so they feel comfortable
in front of the class, in all situations that may arise in the
course of their teaching activity. They must be experts in
one or more specialized disciplines, requiring a high level
of academic qualification. Teachers have an increasingly
complex mission, their responsibilities are growing, and
the environments in which they work are becoming more
difficult.
Keywords: teaching skills, academic qualification,
development
The current debates on teaching profession are focusing more
and more on the acknowledged reality that the profession is changing
due to developments in contemporary society, and due to increasingly
complex challenges faced by the education system. Accordingly, we
found it necessary to answer a few questions raised by the researchers in
this the field: What skills should teachers have in a constantly evolving
and changing society? What should teachers "know" and "know how to
do”? How should they be trained to practice this profession? What types
of theoretical, methodological, actional and vocational skills teachers
need to achieve? What are the most appropriate and effective initial
training programs for teaching staff? Etc.
The answer to those questions can only be "professionalizing
teaching career” and particularly developing the "professiograme" of
this profession, a rather difficult task if we consider the specifics of the
educational activity.
Development of General and Specific Skills … 153
In any field or profession there are talks about a general and

specific system of skills, acquiring and developing these skills being an
ongoing process, the knowledge and skills that an individual holds
strengthening and enriching, being reorganized all the time as the
experience grows. This is the acceptable standard of professional
competence for pursuing a particular profession. Thus, initial training
systems in all teacher training programs, are responsible for developing
this system of skills training (V. Chis, 2005).
When we talk about education, it is necessary to emphasize that
ensuring the quality and efficiency of the educational process is
undoubtedly related to human resources involved, to how they are
prepared and trained to achieve the educational goal. Contemporary
society, ever changing, prompted also a change of view on the teaching
profession, teaching roles changing and diversifying. Contemporary
society has high expectations from teachers, and especially because the
results of the work of teachers is the base of social and economic
progress. Thus, the initial and continuing training system must take into
account the "endowment" of the teacher with the skills necessary for the
development and provision of educational content appropriate "to the
present".
However, both initial training programs and continuing
educational programs has to make sure that "teachers should always
bring updated specialized and educational information and anticipate
possible and valid solutions to new situations that modern society is
developing and that will influence student and social actors behavior ”
(L. Gliga, 2002, p.11).
If in other professions we speak about good specialists, for the
teaching profession the efficiency can not be simply reduced to the
knowledge and mastery of specialized field, "preparing teachers to be
capable of assuming higher roles also meaning learning pedagogical
skills regarding the child and his education and practical skills required
by conducting educational action"(I. Albulescu, 1999, p. 13). Psycho-
pedagogical “culture” must therefore include knowledge of psychology
(in particular the psychology of age), pedagogy, specialty didactics /
methodology, supported by a set of skills and practical abilities leading
to effective conduct of the educational approach.
Teaching and pedagogical skill supports multiple definitions in
literature, as follows:
154 E. Balaş
• In a broad sense, it is an educator's ability to rule on an

pedagogical issue based on thorough knowledge of the laws
and determinations of the educational phenomena, and in the
narrow sense, it is a person's ability to perform at a certain
level of performance all typical work tasks specific to the
teaching profession (M. Diaconu, 2002, p. 27);
• It is the ability to be guided by the requirements of a given
role in order to achieve educational goals set by a determined
school system;
• Situated at the intersection of cultural and specialized
scientific training of teachers, teaching competence acts as
an instrument of unification, codification and expression in
the form of educational behaviors, of character of those
related to the status and role of teacher (Mitrofan, 1988);
• Up to a certain point the pedagogical skill is identified with
pedagogical aptitude, but unlike the aptitude, the skill has a
greater coverage, assuming also the results of the activity, in
addition to the knowledge and ability to properly carry out
what it proposes (E. Stanculescu, 2006, p. 397);
• Involves all the abilities that makes up the repertoire of
teaching skills and supports the adaptation of teaching
behavior to specific school situations (V. Chiş, 2005, p. 113).
Particularly in Romania, debates and studies on higher education
show that important current issues include the funding mechanisms, the
preparation of the graduates to join as teachers in higher education, the
ethics in higher education, the quality of education and the development
of private education. Romanian higher education reform focuses mainly
on the implementation of objectives set by the "Bologna Declaration, on
the European Higher Education Area", and the implementation of the
Lisbon Convention (proposed jointly by UNESCO and the European
Council in 2000), regarding the European recognition of qualifications.
Within the Bologna process, the Romanian higher education has been
going through a major transformation since the 2005-2006 academic
year.
So far, Romania has taken important steps towards the European
Higher Education Area by reorganizing the entire spectrum of
university programs. All academic programs have been restructured in
accordance with the Bologna process. The first cycle has beem currently
implemented in the 2005-2006 academic year, the previous programs of
the first cycle (long-term and short-term university studies) have been
replaced gradually by Bachelor programs, so that in 2008 all have been
Bachelor-type. The new structure of Romanian higher education
provides full access to students from first cycle (bachelor) in the second
(master) and from the second to the third.
At present, training teaching staff for a didactic career in
secondary education is provided by specialized structures within
universities, with specific responsibilities for initial and continuing
training of teachers (Training Departments for Teachers - DPPD).
Initial teachers training is a strict actual matter nowadays as we
are in the middle of reorganization process for universities in the
country for compatibility with systems of higher education in other EU
countries. This reorganization has an effective impact on the Training
Departments for Teachers, the institutions empowered to prepare
students for future teaching career. It is the time of initiating the
curriculum change for the psycho-pedagogical module and also for the
general programs curricula, credit system is introduced to classes within
this module and changes are made in the distribution of disciplines over
the years of study.
Initial training activities conducted by the Training Departments
for Teachers are based on the Minister of Education and Research Order
approving the program to obtain the certificate of graduation of the
Training Departments for Teachers, no. 4316 from 3 May 2008.
In 2001, the National Council for Teacher Training initiated an
approach to develop a system of standards for the teaching profession. It
started with the idea that education had been for too long dominated by
improvisation and empiricism, hoping that the development of these
standards would ensure the right of the future teachers to have access to
the best training in specialized institutions. So, standards for teaching
profession were developed, in response to the question "what should a
teacher know and know to do?” The teaching profession standards are
based on five core principles expressing the current view on the content
of the teaching profession qualities and on the qualities of a good
teacher. These core principles are:
1. The teachers have a good knowledge on the field and didactics
of the discipline they teach.
2. The teacher knows the student and assists him/her in their
development.
3. The teacher is an active member of the community.
156 E. Balaş
4. The teacher has a reflective attitude.

5. The teacher is a promoter of a value system consistent with the
educational ideal and is responsible for controlling and
monitoring student learning activities.
In this field of work, in many published studies frequent
questions arise such: What skills are needed in teaching, in order for
student activities to include an ever upward curve? We present
below (see Table. No. 1) a picture of general and specific skills
necessary to conduct educational activities developed by the Ministry of
Education, according to the standards for teaching staff:
Table No. 1. General and specific skills – teacher
GENERAL SKILLS SPECIFIC SKILLS

• Appropriate use of knowledge: the general
and the specialty didactics, psychology;
• Design and evaluation of the educational
content;
I. Applying optimal • Adequate organization of the educational
algorithms in the design, activities appropriate to the type of
organization and evaluation dominant lesson;
of educational activities • Optimal use of space-time factors, for
efficient training process
• Adopting teaching strategies that allow
efficient use of resources and teaching
aids in the educational process.
• Mastering the modern concepts and
theories of communication: horizontal /
vertical, complex, total (ectosemantic)
multiple, diverse and specific;
• Documentation and updated information
II. Implementation of from different classical and modern
teaching / pedagogical / sources;
educational communication • Design, management and implementation
strategy of training process, as an act of
communication;
• Ability to diagnose family’s expectations
and interests.
• Mastering the modern concepts and
theories on the formation of "schemes of
III. Development,
action” and knowledge capacity;
consolidation and
improvement of general,
thinking and motric skills • Selection of optimal methods for training

critical thinking and practical skills;
• Selection of optimal methods for training
technical thinking and developing the
IV. Stimulating creativity aesthetic sense;
and formative learning type • Manifestation of an innovative psycho-
pedagogical conduct on a professional /
social level.
V. Mastering the techniques • Understanding the formation mechanism
of skills transfer in of psycho-morale features and adoption of
extracurricular and school methods and techniques of knowledge and
activities pupils stir ups;
• Designing and organizing educational and
instructional activities in collaboration
VI. Applying the techniques with the community;
of knowledge of socio- • Answering for the assumed social role;
educational problems in • Developing effective strategies of school-
advising, orientation / socio- family partnership;
psycho-pedagogical • Formation of professional attitudes;
integration of students • Knowledge of the dynamics and trends in
the labor market.
• Using methods and techniques of psycho-
behavioral self-control;
• Adopting an effective behavior to
overcome ”the limit situations”;
• Manifesting a (self)reflective conduct;
VII. The acquisition of • Training students’ skills to allow them to
psychological mechanisms to devise an effective action plan in
achieve self-control and preparation of exams, competitions,
behavioral balance in all contests, etc.
educational situations • Opening to the changes taking place in
competition, examination, contest
situations;
• Making full committment in the different
docimological roles (examiner / examined
/ competitor / supervisor, etc.).
VIII. Harnessing the
• Manifestation of (self) reflection conduct
professional development
on own teaching/pedagogical activities ;
opportunities in a transitional
• Openness to innovative trends necessary
socio-professional
for professional development
environment
158 E. Balaş
The Ministry of Education and Research, in collaboration with

the Institute of Education Sciences and National Center for Teacher
Development and Training have developed an "inventory" of skills
necessary for the teaching profession, structured on several levels: a)
basic skills; b) specialist skills; c) psycho-pedagogical and
methodological skills; d) psycho-relational skills.
In conclusion, "a good knowledge of the discipline, or a good
knowledge of general pedagogy is not sufficient, an interrelationship
between the two groups it is also necessary to be able to develop the
knowledge of the pedagogical content as robust and systematic as it can
get" (M . Bocos, 2007, p. 197). Therefore, the training of teachers aims
at two complementary aspects: acquiring specialized skills (assimilation
of knowledge in a particular field, orientation in this particular field)
and psycho-pedagogical and methodological skills.
Bibliography:
Albulescu, I., Albulescu, M., (1999), Didactica disciplinelor socio-

umane, Ed. Napoca Star, Cluj-Napoca
Bocoş, M., (2007), Didactica disciplinelor pedagogice, Ed. Presa
Universitară Clujeană, Cluj- Napoca
Chiş, V., (2005), Pedagogia contemporană. Pedagogia pentru competenţe,
Ed. Casa Cărţii de Ştiinţă, Cluj-Napoca
Diaconu, M., (2002), Competenţele profesiei didactice, în Gliga, L., (coord.),
Standarde profesionale pentru profesia didactică, CNFP, Bucureşti
Gliga, L., (coord.), (2002), Standarde profesionale pentru profesia didactică,
Consiliul Naţional pentru Pregătirea Profesorilor, Bucureşti
Mitrofan, N., (1988), Aptitudinea pedagogică, Ed. Academiei, Bucureşti
Stănciulescu, E., (2006), Mecanisme integrative ale învăţării şcolare.
Personalitatea elevului şi a profesorului, în Cristea, S., (coord),
Curriculum pedagogic, EDP, Bucureşti
Vol VI (2010), No. 2, pp. 159-168
Modern Toys - Way to Neverland

M. V. Vuković
Miodrag V. Vuković
Teacher Training Faculty, Belgrade
Abstract: The role of toys has changed over past

milleniums even though play and toys represent the
phenomenon as old as entire civilization. Their meaning,
functions, symbolism and values have changed from
extremely positive to extremely negative conotations,
remembered in collective memory of mankind which
includes both idilyc and tragic periods. It seems that оur
time belongs to the second period. We are on the edge of
abyss. Toys which are offered to the youngest generations
mark one part of the road that leads us to the abyss. The
question is: Why?
Keywords: play, toys, civilization, children – our future,
salvation, consciousness manipulation.
Education has always represented important state strategy. Great

classical philosopher Plato tells us about it. In his utopia “Republic” (or
about righteousness) Plato set the basis of preschool pedagogy, but the
basis of pedagogy and educational system in general, as well.
Plato considers education to be so important that an individual or
ignorant people must not make decisions about it. In his opinion it
represents one of fields of special interest of any state and it has to be
organized thoroughly and in a detailed manner.
Educational system includes all activities which have influence
on development of individuals who will lead the country and its
institutions. Nevertheless, it cannot be achieved instantly. Education
represents lasting process. Results are becoming visible over the period
of time. Educated people, citizens, represent final products.
Speed has become paradigm of modern civilization. It is
considered to be necessary condition of survival, which is wrong. What
160 M. V. Vuković
is the purpose of a super modern car with speedometer which shows 200
miles per hour if that speed cannot be achieved under these conditions,
but only in laboratories or in strictly controlled environment?
There is a huge gap between modern technology and human
possibilities, so huge that we can be lost in it.
Play and toys have always belonged to educational systems, i.e.
to methodology of education of the young. Numerous books have been
written about it. The phenomenon of play has been analyzed form
different perspectives – magical and sacral structures of human
conscious, political starting points (control of people), inner needs
(psychological, physiological, anthropological etc.)
We will not discuss these phenomena. We will emphasize only
political dimensions of this phenomenon, actually its anthropological
dimensions which refer to the phenomenon of “control of people”. It has
always been achieved by “manipulation of consciousness”.
Consciousness represents complex philosophical and theological
phenomenon, which is so enigmatic that individuals and groups have
dealt and manipulated with it for hundreds of years.
Manipulation of consciousness can be done in all ages; it can
refer to both sexes, and all races, at different regions, under all types of
climatic conditions, during the day or night. There are no limitations.
One of its most horrible dimensions is abuse of young people,
especially abuse of children. We can say that play represents one of the
greatest needs of preschool children. There is no physical or mental
health without it.
Children can be easily manipulated because of the fact that their
consciousness is still developing at that age and it is very delicate and
sensitive.
Perverting and loss of values of all aspects of human living on
the Earth are typical for contemporary society. Everyday life with
highly developed technologies offers bunch of useless information
which are harmful to human health.
Television, computers, mobile phones and i-pods, exerted
enormous influence upon life of people, especially the young. Thus, we
can say that we live in the age of pandemic electronic addiction.
Real goal of these powerful toys is not their positive aspect
which is undoubtedly present. It is not the ideal which we strive to
achieve. On the contrary, its goal is to maintain control over people,
their behavior and everyday life. This state is not final. Some structures
Modern Toys - Way to Neverland 161
go even further to achieve their final goal, which represents complete

control over human brain, redirecting of people’s thoughts and their
abuse. It is attack upon human brain, or to be more precise, neocortical
war. (attack upon cortex). We are not interested in military implications
of the expression. We talk about attack upon two groups: children and
their parents.
All kinds of media (electronic, print etc.) try to gain your
attention so that you would not care about important things in your life.
They lead us to the garbage dump of human values.
If they managed to gain our attention and link us to their
“services”, they would maintain their goal.
Most people choose the lowest values which represent dregs of
civilization if they have to choose between “Big Brother”, “Farm”, “Big
Mama’s House”, “Crazy House”, “Scandalomania” different “shows”,
tabloids, concerts of groups and individuals, whose artistic expression
and way of life are disputable, and positive values which human race
have achieved during the period of its development (harmony, peace,
love, artistic and creative potentials, development of reception of
positive values, religious and ecological topics).
Both George Orwell and Aldouss Huxley (1984, Animal Farm,
Brave New World), as well as other propagandists of positive utopias
warned about horrible projects which came together with terrifying
future. If we are objective we will never find out if they really believed
it, or they were deeply initiated in occult and esoteric groups and only
tried to feel the pulse of the rest of humanity and analyze their reactions
and do necessary corrections.
Orwell depicts dark vision of humanity suppressed by vicious
oppressor, whereas Huxley goes to the opposite direction. In his opinion
people will yearn for torturing and oppression so much that they will
wish to make their own prison. It will become their favorite place where
they could admire technology which denies any thought about
individual freedom. My prison will become my paradise. It will be
chemical paradise, placed inside, in human brain, whereas
hallucinogenic will help them create its external image (agens). Orwell
depicts suffering caused by little information and the fact that books are
banned. Huxley depicts opposite picture – people do not need to read
books because they have television. Internet did not exist then. Orwell
feared that information would be hiddeen and banned, Huxley feared
that people would be burdened with insignificant trivial facts. In both
162 M. V. Vuković
cases people would miss the point. Orwell anticipated the culture of
prisoners whereas Huxley anticipated trivial and sick culture.
In their opinion this gloomy picture will happen half a century
from now. From our perspective of view it seems to be other side of the
same ideology which is taking firm hold over us now. Only some of
contemporary toys are harmless and do not contain aggressive message.
(regarding the structure, possible implications, contents, messages,
values etc.)
Most of contemporary toys support aggression, manipulation of
consciousness, including all above-mentioned forms.
Many of these toys have hidden sublime messages which have
different impacts, from immediate (temporary) to lasting ones. Since
1957. when James Vicary introduced this model in advertising, sublime
messages have had amazing presence which simply suffocates human
consciousness. Possibility to insert the message between 24 “images”
(frames), which brain needs to form the picture according to the
information it gets from the senses, is much improved today. But even
then police, army, political parties, sects, corporations, individuals and
groups exploited subconscious messages.
Vicary’s result was 57% in comparison to standard results.
During the sixties of the last century research done in developed
countries shows that 60% of all kinds of media use sublime messages.
Traditional toys are outdated today. Television and computer are
favorite and most dangerous toys, at the same time.
We could make following classification:
Electronic media (TV, computer). Both of them enable
installation of video games by special consoles, as well as possibility to
watch cartoons.
Printed media, “Gutenberg’s galaxy”, different texts, pictures,
cards, all kinds of designed symbols, sketches, signs and any type of
meaningful designation.
All tri-dimensional toys, which can artificially talk or express
some emotion, always hide some symbol or message under their visual
appearance.
These groups are not strictly defined and you can discover
characteristics of one group, among the representatives of another.
The aim of toys is to manipulate the youngest. The purpose of
this manipulation is “brain wash”, as well as installation of “programs”
(software), social engineering which serves the purpose of the

programmers (Big Brother, for example).
We will not discuss these groups in details.
“Children of television” (the expression was coined during the
last decades; today it could be replaced with the expression “children of
monitor or display”) have become means in the experiment of global
control of people.
Serbia has become garbage dump of harmful toys. Toys that
street sellers sell in improvised counters do not have certificate
(declaration) of quality issued by sanitary inspection (there are guns and
daggers in the doll box, for example). Law which was introdiced in
1991. does not allow inspection to check the content of toys. They often
contain substances which are banned in European countries and many
companies send their products at our market. Serbia has become
experimental playground, where in vivo experiments are conducted on
children. After that there are so called professional medical symposiums
where our pediatricians talk about diseases of our children. These
results are gathered in information basis of companies and different
services which are not well-intentioned towards Serbian children.
Serbia, as a state, is not able to stop this. Institutions which should deal
with prevention do not take any measures.
Information gathered by well-intentioned international
organizations tells us that export of 22 tons of toys is banned, because of
different defects (chemical characteristics, organoleptic, heavy metals,
instability of material, loss of hair and other parts of a toy, dangerous
poisons in the material etc.). The data refers to 2008. There is no
information about 2009. It is obvious that someone is making profit.
The rest of the state does not do anything. It seems to be in the state of
hibernation (which refers to whole year and not only to winter period).
99% of toys which are sold in our market are of low quality, even
though some of them are not harmful to children’s health (some toys are
dangerous because of incorrect parts, burns, suffocating, poisoning,
charging leftovers etc).
Unfortunately, no one cares about moral characteristics.
Immorality, amorality, relativity of morale has no importance any more.
There is no state organ that is in charge for it. It seems that our state
thinks children have no soul. If they do not have it, it cannot be
poisoned. Thus, our state is not capable to prevent poisoning of
children’s soul. It seems that someone deliberately wants to manipulate
164 M. V. Vuković
the consciousness of children and parents. It seems that someone wants

to create the impression that monstrous video games where the Serbs
are villains and bad guys, monstrous films, monstrous toys and books
about monsters (about dinosaurs and other monsters), as well as some
manifestations (walk with dinosaurs) are “gentle”, “soft”, “subtle”,
“harmonious”, and “beneficial”. All this reflects weakness of the state.
Bloodshed, violence, animal behaviour, weather they are virtual
or real, do not touch anyone any more. We got used to murders, death,
violence, aggressiveness, destruction. We cherish the culture of death.
We deal with anthropology of death all the time. And even more, we
present it to children, to our greatest treasure. We are surprised if a boy
hits his friend with an object and knocks him down. When preschool
teacher asked him why he did that, he answered calmly and self-
confidentially: “Tom hits Jerry and smashes him, and Jerry is quite OK
after that. He continues to run away from him.” This practice is
dangerous. We could also mention a case of few boys who hid in the
manhole when they wanted to imitate ninja turtles and scared their
preschool teachers.
The most dangerous things are “Ultra” channel and similar
channels which present violence, black magic, hell, demons, morbid
characters, bizarre situations, sex, prostitution, Satanism, reptiles,
dinosaurs etc. Due to liberal installation of web sites we also have
pedophilia, under-age prostitution, and sex-trafficking, black magic,
witchcraft, neopaganism, Vika-religion, video games with monstrous
murders, ritual and satanic murders etc. All these things are presented to
children aged from 4, 5 to 6 years old whose nervous system is not
formed yet.
All these manifestations are antichristian and antireligious. They
represent special form of attack at Serbian ethos, religion and language.
We get the impression that the ideas of “new age” and “new
world order” strive to destroy religious orientations so that they would
create conglomerate of all existing religions. What will happen later,
we’ll see.
Newspaper “Politika” recently (on February, 16th 2010, pg. 6)
published interview with Mr. Johan Galtung, founder of modern studies
of piece. He said that bombing in 1999. was an act of postponed cold
war in the Balkans. “Serbia was already determined victim
(highlightened by MVV), because from the Western point of view it has
wrong religion and wrong alphabet”. (...) When Serbia was bombed
the West followed the policy of Cold War. NATO bombing was not war
for Kosovo; it was war against Serbia and Belgrade.
A few days after this interview had been published UN
celebrated international day of languages in the Earth. There are about
6000 languages according to some data, but unfortunately “poor Serbs”
have “heavenly language” (maybe angels use it to communicate), so the
decision was made for “Merciful Angel” to come down and take them
their language away. Neighboring countries did it long time ago, so why
the Serbs would not be completely punished because of their language.
Another reason is “wrong faith”. Almighty God placed Serbs
among the orthodox. He also gave them the aureole of St. Sava. Saint
Simeon (Stefan Nemanja) and St. Sava (Rastko Nemanjić), as well as
other members of noble dynasty of Nemanjić knew that and strived to
create “Heavenly Serbia”.
Those who tried to destroy us knew that, too. “Poor Serbs” have
“wrong religion” (out of 12 existing and 350 nonexistent religious
systems). Thus, they should be offered the scenario of Cartagena. Each
Serbian leader should be treated as Hannibal.
Therefore, our youth is especially endangered. They are the
target. They should be poisoned. It will be easier later. The laws of
geopolitics teach us so.
It seems that everything is in the service of one goal: future
totalitarian society. This is only general rehearsal.
Evil, as ontological category, comes from the deepest darkness,
and takes over the lead over the Planet. Apocalypse riders are
approaching. Is there a hope for 21.century?
Take a look at the phenomenon of “culture jamming”. It
represents carefully planned deceit. “Spinning” represents the same
thing. “Subvertaising”, i. e. “advertising which undermines” represents
part of that strategy, too. Neuro linguistic programming and sublime
messages are part of it. Disney’s heroes offer negative values, from
drugs and pedophilia to sex. Poor children have to watch all these
things. Great French philosopher Jean Bodriar was right when he said
that the truth disappeared, that we live in the age of “simulation” and
“simulacrum”.
We could have written much more about this topic. But,
following elements which my associates would present to you will be
some kind of continuation of this way of thinking.
There are no innocent in this situation, as Dostoyevski sais, we
are all guilty ones. We can mention: globalization as civilization trend,
166 M. V. Vuković
secularism, commercial toy industry, all kinds of media, their personnel,

ministry of culture, ministry of education, schools, associates,
pedagogists, psychologists. We should also name the victims: children
and preschool teachers. This is our cry to change something. Otherwise
we will get to Neverland soon. We warn you that followong images are
very disturbing. If children were present here today, they should not be
warned. Our collective institutional weakness enabled them to watch
these things. I am afriad it is already late. Many children have already
been “coded“.
ONLY SOME OF MODERN TOYS FOR THE YOUNGEST
POPULATION ARE HARMLESS AND DO NOT CONVEY AGGRESSIVE AND
DESTRUCTIVE MESSAGE (IN ITS FORM, POSSIBLE IMPLICATIONS,
CONTENT, VALUES, ETC.)
MOST MODERN TOYS INITATE AGRRESSION, DESTRUCTION,
NEGATIVE VIBRATIONS AND MANIPULATE WITH THE CONSCIOUS IN ALL
SEGMENTS OF INTERACTIVE REALTIONSSHIP (SUBJECT-OBJECT)
MOST TOYS CONVEY HIDDEN SUBLIME MESSAGES WHICH HAVE
DIFFERENT IMPACTS, FROM DIRECT TO LONGLASTING
THE AIM OF THESE MANIPULATIOMNS WITH THE CONSCIOUS OF
THE YOUNG IS “BRAIN WASH” AND CONSEQUENTLY INSTALLATION OF
“PROGRAMS” (SOFTWARES) OF SOCIAL ENGINEERING WHICH FULLFILLS
THE PURPOSE OF A PROGRAMMER (e.g. “BIG BROTHER”)
THESE MANIFESTATIONS ARE ANTICHRISTIAN AND ANTIRELIGIOUS.
THEY REPRESENT ATTCK AT SERBIAN ETHNOS, RELIGION AND LANGUAGE.
IT SEEMS THAT EVERYTHING SERVES ONE PURPOSE: FORMATION OF
FUTURE TOTALITARIAN SOCIETY. THIS IS GENERAL REHEARSAL.
FROM THE DEEPEST DARKNESS THERE COMES THE EVIL, AS
ONTOLOGICAL CATHEGORY, PERMEATING THE GOOD AND TAKES OVER
THE CONTROL OVER THE PLANET.
APOCALYPSE HORSEMEN
IS THERE A HOPE FOR THE 21. CENTURY?
TOYS- IN THE PAST AND TODAY
Original (archeological) toys
(miniatures of everyday objects)
Folk (hand-made) toys,
In traditional, patriarchal environment
Toys for role-play
Toys used in sport, movement games
Building blocks or constructive materials
Didactic toys
Funny toys
Toys made by children
Formed toys
Unformed toys
Half-formed toys
Modern toys (mass and classical toys,
mechanical toys, remote controlled toys,
toys which use electricity etc., as well as the most popular
toy – computer)
Research
We have made the questionairre trying to investigate the
influence of play and toys on children development. We sent it preschool
teachers in different towns. We obtained following results.
• Preschool teachers in Smederevo did the same questionairre as
preschool teachers in Ub. The only difference is that preschool teachers in all
kindergartens in Smederevo fullfilled it.
• Another questionairre about cartoons referred to cartoons. It was
done in cooperation with parents.
• Preschool teachers in Subotica fulfilled the questionairre on
influence of toys on children. Paretnts took part in it too.
• Preschool teachers in Subotica helped children fulfill the
questionairre about cartoon characters.
• Preschool teachers in Svilajnac helped children and parents fulfill
the questionairre on antichristian toys.
• DO YOU PLAY VIDEO GAMES IN WHICH MONSTERS
APPEAR?
• Preschool teachers in Novi Beograd helped children fulfill the
questionairre on modern games and toys
• DO YOU WATCH CARTOONS IN WHICH MONSTERS APPEAR?
• CHILDREN ARE SUBJECTED TO MEIDA MANIPULATION IN THEIR
CHOICE
• OF TOY
• THERE ARE EVEN MORE ANTUICHRISTIAN TOYS OVER
• PERIOD OF TIME
• SOME TOYS CAUSE AGRESSIVENESS
• FAVOURITE TOY
• LIST OF TOYS
• THERE ARE GENERATION DIFFERENCES IN THE CHOICE OF TOYS.
• CHILD SHOULD BE ALLOWED TO FREELY CHOOSE HIS/HER TOYS
Conclusion
• The questionairre included 85 preschool teachers,362
parents and 437 children.
168 M. V. Vuković
• The criteria were heterogenous, and attitudes of

examinees were different, but general result is:
- there are very dangerous toys for children.
Most common questions in the questionairre answered by children,
parents and preschool teachers are:
• Do children play enough?
- Most examineesthinks they do
• How much time do children spend in front of TV?
- Most examinees think they spend from half anhour to two
hours daily.
• Do children watch cartoons too much?
- All examinees think they do.
• What are children’s favorite toys?
- Dolls, cars and building blocks are in the first place
- Aggressive toys (guns, shotguns, swords, cartoon
characters) are in the second place
We have reached the conclusion:
• Number of children who are NEGLECTED is becoming
greater
• Children have too much freedom in their choice of toys
and games.
• Parents are NOT FAMILIAR with all kinds of modern
toys available to children
WE CALL FOR:
• PARENTS
• EXPERTS (PEDAGOGISTS, PSYCHOLOGISTS, ...)
• MINISTRY OF EDUCATION
• MINISTRY OF CULTURE
• REPRESENTATIVES OF GOVERNMENT
• COMMERCIAL INDUSTRY REPRESENTATIVES
TO PAY MORE ATTENTION TO CHILDREN AND THINGS THAT
ARE AVAILABLE AND BEING OFFERED TO THEM, TO GIVE SUPPORT
TO PRESCHOOLTEACHERS AND HELP THEM EDUCATE FUTURE
GENERATIONS, BECAUSE THEY ARE OUR FUTURE
Vol VI (2010), No. 2, pp. 169-174
Modern strategies for teaching-learning

of intercultural education
C. V. Blândul
Cosmin Valentin Blândul

Universitatea din Oradea
e-mail bvali73@yahoo.com
Abstract:
The intercultural education represents one of the most
important educational dimensions available in a
contemporary society. Its main objectives are to prepare
people to become more tolerant with other values and, also,
to be ready for an effective solving of every kind of
conflicts between cultures or populations. In this sense,
school becomes the main institution able to form at their
pupils an intercultural attitude starting with earlier ages.
Therefore, in the following paper, we intend to describe
some interactive strategies which can be used by professors
to teach intercultural education, as a distinct scholar
discipline, or as a content of other ones.
Keywords: intercultural education, values, cultures,
interactive didactic strategies, teaching and learning.
By its structure, content and aims, education has mission to

answer at new challenges of contemporary world, which in the last few
years became more and more consistent. The increasing of
informational luggage, demographic explosion (which in a few
countries imposed some drastic acts to limit this phenomenon),
technical-scientific revolution, economical development, pollution or
increasing of free-time, oblige the society to redefine its own values
and, by consequence, the role of education for accomplishing them. In
this sense, some dimensions of educational phenomenon – which not so
long time ago were intangible – are now really insufficient in front of
new changes of society. It becomes necessarily to create a new
170 C. V. Blândul
educational design, which includes dimensions such as: education for

peace, education for respecting fundamental human rights, education for
environment, economical education, an education for health, education
for changes, demographic education, intercultural education, an
education for spending free-time, education for life quality and so on.
Of course, the whole society must accomplish these new dimensions of
educations, but school – by their mission – extra-more. It can achieve
these noble aims by introducing of new scholar disciplines in different
curricular areas, or simply, by “infusion” of some didactic messages
from new dimensions of educations into traditional curriculum
(Marinescu, 2009).
The major transformations which are characteristics for
contemporary society make daily life too dynamic, which means a very
quickly movements of peoples, ideas or values from a community to
other one, or, sometimes, into the same community. In this conditions,
the passing of human beings from a culture to other suppose the passing
from an “old” axiological system (promoted into “home” society) to a
“new” one (used in the community in which person is just coming).
This transition could be sometimes a very difficult process, if not exist
any common points between those different cultures and this
phenomenon will become stronger when the difference between them
are obviously. We intend to define the culture of one community as an
ensemble of values (moral, civic, spiritual, religious, professional ones
and so on) which are constituted by a historical background and lead a
society to a certain moment (Blândul, 2005).
In such conditions, by culture of one community we did not refer
at only that values which damage a population who lives on a more or
less well-determinate geographic area, but also at values of every
historical human group, who has common aims and activities and whose
life-together are regulate by precise norms. Therefore, we can talk about
culture of national, spiritual, ethnic or sexual community and also about
culture of every group in which their members have the same
characteristics (for instance, persons with disabilities, so on). Starting
with that huge diversity of human race, it becomes absolutely necessary
that every person to be multicultural trained such as to be ready to adapt
at every cultural values.
That are just a few reasons for which is compulsory that in
schools pupils to be trained in the following directions (Cucoş, 2006):
☺ communicative aptitude (listen and talk);
Modern strategies for teaching-learning of intercultural education 171
☺ group cooperation and trust;

☺ respect by own person and for the others;
☺ assumption of own responsibility and for the others;
☺ control of own feelings and effective management of
conflicts.
So, we can define intercultural education as a form of education
for all, in spirit of recognition of difference which appear into the same
community, but also of respect for the others and for him. A person who
is open by intercultural viewpoint will accept the diversity as how it is
and will accept that people can be (and it’s normal to be) different,
without to hostile one other from this reason. In this context, we can use
some associate concept, such as “tolerance” which means that people
can detach the problems of diversity, considering that every culture
could have a certain place. Recently, the concept was replaced into
“acceptance”, which insists by involvement which people must prove
and also, by their contribution regarding to interpenetration of different
culture and closing their common values (Cucoş, 2006).
During the history, the problem of interculturality had different
approaches, function of politic, historic, social or economic context.
There were some periods in which the intolerance, racial hate or
xenophobia led the society and, unfortunately, in some places from
world, this kind of attitude is still persisting. The main argument for
closing in mono-cultural system is “undermining” of group identity by
penetration on its culture of other foreign values with negative impact
for majority. The reasons which stay on the base of numerous doctrines
could be accepted only if we agree that values which belong to other
culture have an aggressive and negative impact for majority and that
fact is not always correct. By contrary, the intercultural education has
no undo the cultural identity of any community, but it has valuate that,
promoting those values which can bring together different culture and
make peoples to accept to one other.
So, it is very important that intercultural education (Blândul,
2005):
→ to effective solve different conflicts between peoples;
→ to encourage critical reflection and acceptance of different
opinions;
→ to develop moral, civic and cultural autonomy of every person.
The accelerate rhythm of daily life obliges people to a
permanent “movement”. The migration of population, economic and
172 C. V. Blândul
cultural relationships and exchanges, politic activity and so on,

determinate an intercultural adaptation continues a majority and
minority as well, no matter what it’s about them. Therefore, it is
absolutely need to be developed an intercultural spirit of pupils as soon
as possible. The intercultural system must promote some values like:
democracy, human rights defense, social justice, tolerance / acceptance,
equality between people, peace and good cooperation between
populations, cultural traditions, ecologic equilibrium and so on. The
modalities by which school can promote this kind of values are various
and can include, for examples, policy management of school, or didactic
strategies used in classes. From first category, we can mention the
introduction in scholar curriculum a different disciplines such as:
foreign languages, history of different countries and populations, civic
and cultural education and so on. From didactic strategies, professors
can use cooperative learning or methods for development of critical
thinking, to form for their pupils of team-spirit, the capacity to accept
diversity, to make judgments based on pertinent arguments, reciprocal
respect and so on. It’s still very important that pupils understand those
cultural and moral values are not binary, antithetic, but contrary, they
are complementary to each other. So, if some values which are
promoted by a culture are not find themselves in other one, no means
that they are superior or inferior. The most important is that every
person have access at them, to understand their really signification and
only after that to make judgments using rational reasons.
To accomplish that mentioned aims, C. Cucoş (2006)
recommends some suggestions very useful for Romanian learning
system:
● increasing of cultural and educational autonomy of schools;
● prevention of segregation in learning system taught in minority
languages;
● elaborating of some didactic objectives focused on self-
education and self-instruction;
● creating an intercultural trends for content of different scholar
disciplines;
● using some tiny and intercultural opened didactic strategies.
In the following paragraphs, we intend to describe a few didactic
strategies which can be used in teaching and learning of intercultural
education (Blândul, 2010):
Modern strategies for teaching-learning of intercultural education 173
Jigsaw Method
Objective: pupils will be able to learn into a small group a long and complex
content.
Method:
at the beginning, professor will form a few small “home-groups”, in
every one, all pupils will receive a number (1, 2, 3, 4 …);
professor will divide the text which have to be learned in how many
parts is need for every pupils from each “home-group”;
pupils will for another “expert-groups”; those with no.1 – one group,
no.2 – other group and so forth;
pupils from every “expert-groups” will learn the received part of
initial text, they will discuss it and at the end they will be able to
teach it to all their colleagues from “home-group”;
every pupils will come back in their “home-group” and will teach for
their colleagues the part of material in which they became “experts”;
at the end of activity, all pupils will be well-prepared in one part of
learned content and they will have some basic knowledge for the rest
of material.
This method can be successful used when professors intend to teach
much information about a culture, country or population.
The Cube
Objective: pupils will be able to analyze a subject from different point of
view.
Method:
pupils should read a text or solve a task;
working individual, in a peer or in a small groups, (not more than 4-5
persons) pupils have to make a CUBE according with following
instructions (see Table 1):
Table 1 Process and instructions used in CUNE method

No. Cognitive process Task
1 Describe How is it? What is happen?
2 Compare With how is look like? With how is
different?
3 Associate What do you think about it?
4 Analyze Which are its structure / constitutive
elements?
5 Apply How it can be used?
6 Evaluate Are you agree or not with it?
174 C. V. Blândul
This method can be used when professors intend to analyze and

compare a cultures from their strong /weakness elements.
Venn Diagrams
Objective: pupils will be able to identify the similitude or differences
between two or more elements.
Method:
every pupils will draw two circles which are intersect themselves;
professor will present those two elements which have to be compare
and then, working individual or in a small groups, pupils will mark
in intersection the common characteristics for those elements and in
the rest space of every circles, the specific characteristics for both
elements;
every group will have a rapporteur who will present the results of
work in front of entire class.
This method can be successful used when professors intend to
compare between them different cultures.
As a conclusion, the intercultural education represents one of the

most important educational dimensions in contemporary society. It could be
a possible solution for solving actual problems, which become more and
more complex. In this sense, the school represents the main factor which can
contribute to develop a multicultural attitude of their pupils and generally
speaking, of whole society. Starting of today, the school can prepare
tomorrow’s world, a society which must be more tolerant and opened for
every cultural problem.
Bibliography:
Blândul V. (2005) – Educational Issues in Contemporary Society, Oradea,

University Press;
Cucoş C. (2006) – Pedagogy, Iaşi, Polirom Publishing House;
Filimon, Letiţia (coord.) – “Psychopedagogy for Teachers Training”, Oradea
University Press;
Marinescu Mariana (2009) – New Trends in Contemporary Didactic,
Bucharest, Didactic and Pedagogic Publishing House.
Vol VI (2010), No. 2, pp. 175-188
European Education: perspectives on the assessment

I. Maciuc
Irina Maciuc
Reader
University of Craiova
Abstract: As a social practice, the assessment always

existed. In its educational version has known over the years
a more structured and specific development. Everywhere in
the world, school life is valued, the value judgments
requiring those who teach decisions and avenues for the
benefit of the learners. The teacher is naturally a stimulating
assessment factor, a critic and a judge of situations and
people, an assessment expert. The reporting is always made
at the values socially approved and the perennial values of
education. The axiological competence of the teacher is
important for the smooth running of the school activity.
Keywords: European Education, models of assessment,
representative texts, perspectives on evaluation
1. A synthesis and multiple perspectives on assessment

A history of ideas about assessment, how models are generated,
a current or new direction of research in this area is difficult to make. It
could highlight the presence of some values that bring sense to the
European education. These values are associated to the processes,
products and educational activities.
Facing the difficulties that stand in the way of any attempt to
sort a huge amount of information, in 1997, two authors, JJ Bonniol and
M. Vial published a paper that would soon become a reference work on
assessment.
Les modeles de l'evaluation. Textes fondateurs avec
commentaires (De Boeck & Larcer, SA, Paris, Bruxelles) is a
compilation / collection of texts on evaluation, very well and strictly
organized and presented. Somehow, the paper is yet another proof that
the pedagogical discourse, education theory and the configured models
for this transcend the immediate reality conditions and describe other,
176 I. Maciuc
“utopian”, “visionary”. Also, the paper shows that the education theory
can become a vector of development of educational practices, outlining
“fields” of possibilities and solutions.
The two authors acquaint us with competitive yet
complementary paradigms, in light of the complex evaluation of
educational practices, in a thinned “game” of involvement and
distancing. The key concepts seem to be the complexity and the project.
JJ Bonniol and his collaborator M. Vial prove the power of those able to
rank and classify the theoretical contributions that cover the time of a
quarter century of research, theory and action on assessment. The
message the papers bear is that the project of an education complex and
global designed accepts the oppositions and negotiation, articulates
contrasts, conceptualizes a combination of contradictory elements. In
essence, the work marks a genuine assumption of evaluation problems,
contradictions transformation in interrogative synthesis. The meaning
makes sense because you are searching for it, any meaning found is
exceeded, dead, gained and lost at the same time, says M. Vial in 1997.
The representative texts extracts focus, in work, on some
fundamental ideas with principle value: a) guidelines, trends,
educational systems are socially, culturally determined, b) can highlight
their organic growth, according to the requirements and national laws.
Also, the authors say implicitly: c) the contribution presentation of a
representative figure in the history of education is always the source of
ideas and solutions on the basis for the critical reflection.
In Europe, the assessment understood as measurement was that
option to those who, early in the last century, believed in the possibility
that the value judgments are based on psychometrics and edumetry, on a
thorough and scientific measuring of the school performances, as well
as the complete verification of the pupils procurements. Docimology,
prescriptive and experimental, started from the school psychology gains
and focused on the notions of school failure and successful schooling.
As a model of evaluation was concerned with examinations and defined
as systematic study of ways of scoring, the inter and intra-individual
variables of the examiners, of the subjective factors involved. The
docimology paradigm is thus constructed on a causal diagram (after
Berthelot, structural causality), i.e. “a system B is dependent on a
system A, previous to him, and most often more important than it,
which involves a determining relationship of vertical type).
The values in this case are those of the efficiency and
profitability, according to a utilitarian conception of education. The
European Education: perspectives on the assessment 177
European docimology model maintained thus the illusion of the mostly

external evaluator and the exams became a school obsession shared in a
quantifiable and therefore manageable universe. The control was
regulatory, logical, was based on hierarchy and sanctions. Therefore,
was criticized and the need to change was strongly imposed in the
middle of the last century. The interest of the society towards the
efficient education extends from evaluating school performance to
assessing the effects of education in economy, socio-cultural, quality of
life.
Gradually, the assessment work will expand on the activity,
conditions and processes which define the results at a given time.
More than a quarter century ago, in the 70s Europe of last
century, the evaluation model through objectives, a model imported
from overseas, meant the rigorous and precise formulation of objectives,
“targets” to achieve, followed by organizing the course road, the
anticipation of difficulties and defining of minor objectives. The aim
was the acquisition of the default behavior by those evaluated, based on
an algorithm that resembled an important philosophical orientation:
behaviorism (comportamentalism). Was a model based on control and
power, on management and remediation of situations, based on reverse
connection. The objectives were considered decisive in making
intermediate decisions of educational strategies improvement. To
evaluate means to rationalize, to optimize, to provide a functional
control, to eliminate losses from the system. The assessment implies a
contract, which was centered on the assumption that the student agrees
with the objectives imposed by the evaluator, to carry out the tasks
prescribed in a given time, but at his own pace, in a convenient and
consciously accepted order. The student was thus motivated to know the
goals to achieve and the transparency of the success criteria.
“The evaluation as management model” (Bonniol & Vial, 1997)
is defined as: a) evaluation by objectives, 2) cybernetic model of
evaluation, 3) structuralist model, 4) systemic model.
Among the models mentioned, the cybernetic model (Allal,
Berthelot, Vial) treats the system relationships with its environment
after the controller-controlled model, based on feedback. In the
cybernetic approach, the systematic retroactions, designed as a link
function, which must meet a goal defined before through a series of
transformations, created a new vision on the time and methods of
evaluation.
178 I. Maciuc
A possible definition sees in the evaluation a circular process,

active and dynamic of improvement of training and of the pedagogical
relationship (through the “back loop”), of mutual adjustment and
adequacy of resources / strategies on the training situation, to the
features of those evaluated, in context etc. (after JJ Bonniol, M. Vial,
1997).
The assessment for remedy highlights the transition from the
idea “correcting errors is a source of learning” to the idea “the error is a
sign of the necessity of learning”.
The systemic model (Bonniol, Chevaillard, Nunziante) promotes
in European plan, the understanding of assessment as a whole or the
evaluation of all components and relationships, said otherwise,
globality, holistic vision. Relationships between the actors of evaluation
are considered important, the functionality being treated as dependent
on the quality of these relationships. We pass to the organized
regulation in the system. The assessment of the tasks is focused on
assessing situations called “problem solving”. To assess, in this case, is
to verbalize the procedures necessary to accomplish the task.
We can affirm, in the context of the above, that at the end of the
eighth decade of the twentieth century, a model who came from Canada
uttered the concept of formative assessment, the idea of intermediary
control in the regulations order “on the run”, of the necessary
adjustments and the remedy of the situations less desirable. For this
purpose, were defined criteria for success of the action and the product,
remedial actions were organized by required returns on the material and
the operations to perform, were elaborated charts and work tasks.
A model is the '80s is the model developed (and adapted) at the
Academy of Aix-Marseille formative assessment. Such a model
emphasizes the verbalization, formalizing the criteria, experimenting
possible algorithms and adjusting the study program according to the
obtained results.
The self control is accompanied by the choice of remedies
found. Otherwise said, the learner gains the evaluation criteria. The
formative assessment helps the student to learn, asking him to
anticipate, to correctly represent his goals and to self manage his errors
(JJ Bonniol, G. Nunzianti).
In essence, the European model that followed the assessment
understanding as a measure - and we mean the understanding of the
assessment as management - promoting interiorization control values.
The evaluator himself must have formed (Vial, 20010, and the power is
divided between assessor and assessed. Self control also became a

shared value. The consultancy, audit, evaluation enrich the meanings of
school expertise, coming from the external environment of school or
university.
From the existing models at the European level, the most open to
the spirit of the twenty-first century is the constructivist model, a model
promoted by the postmodern pedagogy.
The cognitive constructivism has its roots in the psychogenesis of
intellectual development, of intelligence. Also, it finds its substantiation
in further research of the cognitive psychology. In essence, the model
starts from the thesis that the objective reality does not discover itself,
but only if the individual mind processes the information gathered,
through a mental construction of processing, by progressive assimilation
and accommodation. Learning is contextual and the construction of
knowledge is collaborative, but also motivational, metacognitive,
attitudinal.
The social cognitivism completes the cognitive cognitivism, by
emphasizing the social nature of knowledge.
In constructivism, the evaluation aims to the investigative
ability, conceptual ability, problem solving ability, critical thinking
ability, self evaluation ability etc. In Europe, postmodern teaching,
under the constructivism influence, requires a different paradigm on
teaching, learning and assessing. It's about the existential humanist
paradigm on education. Thus, the education relationship, assessed E.
Paun in 2002, is seen as an interaction with a symbolic size and
performing dominant, a relationship in which the teacher and the
student are “builders” of meanings and significances and which
generates and is based on a strong cognitive but also affective
investment. (..) The teacher is not working on the students, but with the
students and for them, seems to be the essential message of the
postmodern education guidelines. In line with the above, school must
meet the requirements of the individual and, to this end, E. Peacock
stresses: “We can speak of a return of the individual as an actor in the
social space and a resurrection of the student as a person with his
specific differential characteristics, to be maximum valued, is the
dominant dimension of postmodern pedagogy”. (Paun, 2002, p. 20).
The postmodern teaching sees in assessment an ongoing attendant of
teaching and learning processes.
180 I. Maciuc
The latest European assessment model focuses on competences

and has as a “symbolic tool” (M. Vial, 2009) the portfolio of skills. It
focuses on situations problematization and constantly renewed
discovery of meanings.
Moreover, the education portfolio was taken in the Romanian
education as complete and comprehensive assessment tool. The
education portfolio, which can be considered a kind of educational
identity card, allows to identify the student's strengths, difficulties and
drawbacks (Stoica, 2003, p.131), to determine the corrective measures
before it too late.
Overall, the evaluation supports a multireferential analysis of
educational processes, a synthesis of old and new approaches,
descriptive, prescriptive, flexible or not, that have sought appropriate
answers to social and personal development needs. The real imaginary,
symbolic challenges, of an undeniably complex area as assessment can
not be addressed only by a comprehensive effort of theorizing and
practice application.
A post-modern criticism, transdisciplinary, discovers today
situations that are found with seemingly divergent discourses about
evaluation, but which the authors consider additional, finding
surprising points of contact. Thus, it takes shape “a mythology”, are
identified ghosts, iconic images, shielded faces, hidden meanings in
the educational practices generated by each theoretical model. In the
broad field of theoretical contributions, often passing from a thesis to
an antithesis to avoid unconditional adherence to any of the models, to
enhance the freedom of choice. Overall, the philosophical conceptions
of evaluation in the past 30-40 years, JJ Bonniol and M. Vial refer to
the approaches:
• Causal explanation (J. Cardinet, L. Cronbach);
• Structuralist (JJ. Bonniol, P. Bourdieu, JM. De Ketele);
• Cybernetical (L. Allal, JM. Berthelot, M. Vial);
• Systemical (JJ. Bonniol, Y. Chevaillard, G. Nunziati etc.).
Enjoys a special attention on Europe, the contributions of
Linda Allai, of Ph. Perrenoud (Switzerland), JM De Kete (Belgium),
because of which the concept of formative assessment has expanded
the meanings and importance theoretically, and practically.
Linda Allai helped to highlight three forms of adjustment of the

teaching-learning process associated with the formative assessment:
1) Punctual formative assessment, proactive adjustment (applies to
some data subsequent to the action);
2) Punctual formative assessment, retroactive adjustment (remedial), a
closer evaluation from the summative assessment and applies to some
data from the past;
3) continuing formative assessment, interactive adjustment (individual
adaptation: based on observation of student-professor interactions,
student-student, student-task of training, the assessment thus
integrating into instruction).
The theories of complex systems (systems), and of organized
forms of auto organization / emergence and complex thinking
underlying the attempts to promote the pedagogy hermeneutics, which
includes orientation to explain, interpretation and understanding of all
education, critical and creative reflection. The evaluation as a
pedagogical reality and field of study and theory outlines a
comprehensive hermeneutical field, where it plays and finds new
meanings.
We mention that by the end of the last century is considered
that the Western education is characterized by two main ways to
address the educational reality, by two “Teachings”: of essence and
existence (see B. Suchodolski). Bonniol and Vial also refer to two
simultaneous types of records, to the following “paradigmatic lines”:
a) For the followers of a mechanistic view, everything is
defined by permanence, there are everywhere norms, principles, laws
and rules which we must relate to. The elements of a situation may be
analytically isolated and can be defined in the frameworks of a formal
logic, a rational thinking, in light of cold reason, analytical and
systematical;
b) For the followers of a holistic vision, overall, constant it
doesn’t exist. There are only “passages”, constantly changing,
evolving. Everything becomes, anything is defined by unstable,
correspondent, syncretism borders. The analogical reasoning, “magic”
thinking is required. (See J. Ardoino & G. Berger, L'evaluation comme
interpretation, Pour nr.107, 1986, p.120-127, apud J. Bonniol, 1997).
182 I. Maciuc
If for the first, the generic symbol is the clock (or crystal,
engine, ordinator), for the others, the generic symbol is the cloud (or
vortex, smoke, faith, place, movement, text as a semnificative reality,
interpreted in value, the fabric of knowledge and discourse about the
object).
The status of the discourse in the first case is rational, based on
argumenting, persuasion, relationship of strengths, and in the second
case, on pathos, suggestion, emotion, network of meanings,
intertextuality, construction of “meaning”.
For the education, the first “paradigmatic line”, “mechanistic”
will mean:
- Share of the information rigidly structured, mandatory
contents, obsession of unique manual, unique programa etc.;
- Prescribed information, analytically approached by all at the
same pace, in a strictly determined order, fixed number of hours, the
same for everyone;
- Authoritarian learning context, hierarchy prevails;
- Encouraging analytical, algorithmic thinking;
- Early labeling of the student;
- Focus on what is seen, on the observable behaviors;
- Emphasis on rules, on normative;
- Abstract knowledge, books, academic;
- Assessment of information, expertise.
The second “paradigm line”, “holistic”:
- Information is just a momentary crystallization of a stage in
the infinite knowledge;
- Important become the skills: doing, knowing, being:
assessment of competence is therefore essential;
- Information evolves, it trains the student in a perpetual
learning process, causes changes in thinking skills: critical thinking
will be so encouraged in assessment processes;
- School journeys are flexible, encourage alternatives, the
multiplicity of approaches;
- The teacher and student evaluate each other as people,
identity, not roles;
- Gains weight in knowing organized school holistic strategies,
linear and intuitive;
- Always avoid stigma of the student, stimulate the self-esteem

and the need for self achievement;
- Performance relate to their own capabilities, are identified the
individual limits in order to overcome them, not to be punished;
- Education is always related to practice, to apprenticeship, in
an environment as close to real life;
- The skills and attitudes are assessed (apud I. Maciuc, 2006)
Also at the end of the twentieth century, said JJ Bonniol and M.
Vial, there was a net shift toward addressing evaluation as issue of
meaning / significance centered on process. At the ninth decade level,
moving to another episteme was still not produced, as ought the
system’s framework evaluation (“complex” systems study) to give
way to the complex evaluation, assessment - interpretation.
Otherwise said, the science is obliged to reintroduce the subjectivity,
the interpretation becomes the object of knowledge required to
understand the reality of the evaluation. With their exciting
performances and openings made in terms of complexity theory, JJ
Bonniol and M. Vial enjoyed a good reception among the specialists.
A remarkable author as J. Cardinet or G. Figari, from the Pierre
Mendes University in Grenoble (see Revue Francaise of Education,
1999, p.180) and F. Lerbet Sereni appreciate the intellectual challenge,
the consistent and exciting comments, leading the way, <<the explicit
choices>> of the authors. Summarizing:
The three chapters of the paper:
Evaluation as the nature;
Evaluation as the management and
Evaluation understood as issue of meaning
open perspectives on a try to develop a paper which will have in the
center the complex assessment. Within each chapter of the paper is
first made an overview of the field of study, following the collection
of representative texts proposed, then brief comments, very relevant.
Identifying “the emblematic figure” of the evaluator, emerged from
the supported ideas and suggestions of complementary reading
finishes each of the three parts of the paper.
The evaluation, writes JJ Bonniol in “Postscript”, transforms
the contradictions in questioning synthesis. The distinction between
monitoring and evaluation, between balance logic and logic of
184 I. Maciuc
possible promotion, distinction operated clearly by the two authors, is

associated with the existence of a competitive and yet complementary
paradigm. It outlined the plan for a complex evaluation, which aims to
support and control the evolutions and sharing of meanings in relation
assessor-assessed.
Regarding the theoretical plan, changing from pedagogy of success,
based on the concepts of school failure and successful schooling, to
the teaching of educational situations.
Overall, the principle of globality (the components of the
system are reported in whole and in each of the other components of
the assessment system) and the principle of contextuality (situational-
specific context in which the evaluation is undergoing) is a particular
interest to the authors of Aix. The most important idea upheld and
applied at the University of Aix-en Provence remains the idea of
formative assessment (see also Georgette Nunziante and the
coordinated experiment by JJ Bonniol in high schools in Marsill).
The critical and reflective ego is formed through formative
assessment and metacognitive strategies, able to regulate their own
activity of evaluation. Through the formative assessment the one who
teaches endorses his assessment criteria and appreciates his own
production. (A. De Peretti).
Over the years, namely in 2009, M. Vial, in many papers and
position papers, in the conferences which he attended, proved the
consistence of the synthesis contribution, which the University of
Southern France brought to understanding the evaluation problems.
The contribution of recent years proves the existence of this authentic
school of thinking, shaped in the '80s in Aix-en Provence.
2. Other recent developments in the evaluation theory

If in the <<behavior era>> of assessment, the formation subject
is the acquisition of an observable behavior, the assessment can be
thought of as mere verification of such behaviors. Taking into
consideration of some indicators or some measurable criteria meant
the step to cognitive psychology, which was a “black box” theory
overcome, which ignores the assessed subject interiority.
Recent evaluation model has as defining landmarks the following
elements:
PURPOSE;
TOOLS (DESIGN);
MEASUREMENT;
INFORMATION (collection, organization, interpretation);
RATING (reference to criteria);
DECISION (flexible, reliable, improving) (after
George Bethell, educational consultant, expert in evaluation
problems, specialist who worked effectively with authors and
Romanian decision makers in reforming the Romanian system of
assessment after 1990).
It considers that the assessment takes into spiral effect the following
processes:
• TRIAL OF VALUE;
• CRITICAL ANALYSIS;
• ROUTINE RETROACTIONS;
• DECISION
We assign meaning to some information collected by reference
to criteria and comparations and we make a decision, making
maximum resources employed (effective). G. Stohard and C. Gipps
distinguish between the assessment of learning (summative
assessment) and assessment for learning (evaluation of progress) (apud
Stoica, 2003).
There is: a) self - evaluation (metacognitiva reflection,
autonomous approach, self dialogue), b) hetero-evaluation and c) co-
evaluation (between students or groups of students, joint reviews and
reflections). In this case, the criterion is the position of the assessor.
Qualitative assessment, on which we put high price today in the
European Space:
- It involves observation, description, interpretation;
- Means the award of meanings, reporting to values, to descriptors;
- Quality is appreciated as a construct;
- The also the art, requires time, intellectual and emotional
commitment, of the emotional intelligence. To evaluate the behavior
and know better the personality of the students is recommended using
a combination of methods and techniques: observation, questionnaire,
case history, case study, method of objective assessing of personality,
teaching sheet.
186 I. Maciuc
Their use, along with other tools such as tables of analysis of the
behavior is made in the system, for the separation of an overall picture.
In the above context it becomes clear that not what has been
acquired already counts, but the training and auto formative processes
quality that are activated by the assessor.
In a Romanian adaptation, the complex assessment is not and
can not be considered merely an operation or a technique, because it
involves a series of operations “mental and active, intellectual,
attitudinal, affective which are supposed to state:
• Contents and objectives to be evaluated;
• For what purpose and how to evaluate (perspective of the
decision to assess);
• When to evaluate (early learning, during, at the end, on
balance);
• How to evaluate;
• In what way the data is processed and how the information is
valued;
• based on which criteria is assessed” (IT Radu, 2000, p. 13).
Defining in curriculum meaning of the concept of evaluation
involves reporting to the aim of macro and micro structural, with self
adjustment effects in the content and methodology and definition of
some evaluation standards into three levels: minimum, average,
maximum.
An adapted curriculum to meet students' different needs
correspond an individual assessment - evaluation that defines the
criteria from the initial “state” of the student, an assessment where the
student is not related to a specific rule but to his own possibilities and
knowledge.
As adapted models in Romanian education are known the full
and complete assessment model, the developed and presented model
by IT Radu, who supports the full involvement of all the sequences in
the evaluation process of education, application resulting naturally
from the design-operation-evaluation unit. (IT Radu, 1981).
In that light “the assessment should be understood as
successive cycles of complex actions of finding and assessing the
results, of diagnostic or analysis and screening of causes that led to
these results, as well as forecasting - providing further exhibition of
the process.” (N. Oprescu, 1996, p.305). Both the continuous

assessment strategy and the formative assessment present, however,
advantages and disadvantages.
“That, stresses C. Cucos, the two modes should not be used in
autarchic, exhaustive mode, but through joining and complementing.
What is lost, possibly, through a strategy, is gain through the other”.
(C. Cucos, 1996, p. 108).
To achieve under optimal conditions an assessment, objective,
continual, formative, could be used an individual assessment chart for
each student, or by tracking some skills-synthesis. The curve of
children evolution can serve both to the current educators and the
subsequent ones (Maciuc, 2006).
We think the time given for the formative assessment should be
as large as possible. The remedial sequences should be strictly and
rhythmically organized, depending on the results of regular tests.
The curriculum theory puts into circulation the period of
development assessment, evaluation that aims primarily to improve
individual, group or organization performance.
3. Current openings in the field

In Europe, the portfolio of continuing education is a tool that
facilitates the identification and formulation of skills and personal
competences. Meanwhile, a portfolio like that includes the mode to
capitalize the skills and personal abilities both during school and in the
labor market insertion. It contains evidence of learning outcomes
achieved in formal, non-formal and informal education.
The portfolio integrates also the European instruments that
emphasize the learning outcomes of an individual, such as: Euro pass,
Language Passport, Diploma Supplement, Certificate Supplement,
Continuous education portfolio in electronic format (electronic book)
will be accessible to individuals, training institutions, centers of
assessment competences gained in non-formal and informal
contexts, guidance and counseling services and employers. In the
future is expected to be evaluated more base competent, including the
analyzing and solving of problems, communicating, obtaining results,
learning and development, prioritization and organization,
perseverance and working with others.
188 I. Maciuc
In conclusion, in the field of selection, training and integration in

activity of teachers, necessary measures are imposed to establish a real
professional environment, a change of mentality in the pragmatic
direction (Maciuc, 1998, P.204). Competences – Focused –
Assessment is an important direction for future study.
Bibliography:
All Al, L., Cardinet, J., Perrenoud, P. (1979). L’évaluation formative

dans un enseignement différencié. Bern : P. Lang.
All Al, L., Bain, D., Perrenoud, P. (éd) (1993). Evaluation formative et
didactique du français. Neuchâtel : Delachaux-Niestlé.
Bonniol, J.J, Vial, M.(1997), Les modeles de l'évaluation. Textes fon-
dateurs avec commentaires, De Boeck & Larcier, S.A., Paris,
Bruxelles.
Cardinet, J. (1986). Pour apprécier le travail des élèves. Bruxelles :
De Boeck.
Cardinet, J. (1989). Evaluer sans juger. Revue française de pédagogie,
n° 88, 41-52.
Cucoş, C., (1996). Pedagogie. Iaşi: Polirom.
Figari, G. & Achouche, M. (2001). L’activité évaluative réinterrogée :
regards scolaires etformation, 87-99.
Maciuc, I. (1998). Formarea formatorilor. Modele alternative si
programe modulare, Colectia « Idei Pedagogice
Contemporane »Bucureşti: Editura Didactică şi Pedagogică.
Maciuc, I. (2006). Pedagogie.Repere introductive. Craiova : Sitech
Maciuc, I. (2006).Repere ale instruirii, Craiova : Sitech
Oprescu, N. (1996).Pedagogie, Bucureşti, Universitatea Spiru Haret
Păun, E., Potolea, D. (coord.),( 2002). Pedagogie. Fundamentări
teoretice şi demersuri aplicative, Iaşi: Editura Polirom.
Peretti, A DE, Boniface, J. & Legrand, J.A (2000). Encyclopédie de
l’évaluation en formation et en éducation. Paris : ESF.
Radu, I.T., Evaluarea în procesul didactic, Bucureşti, E.D.P., 2000.
Stoica, A.(2003). Evaluarea progresului şcolar. De la teorie la
practică, Bucureşti: Editura Humanitas Educaţional.
Vial, M. (2001). Se former pour évaluer. Bruxelles : Ed. De Boeck
Université.
Vol VI (2010), No. 2, pp. 189-201
Conceptual delimitations regarding pedagogical

competenc(i)e(s)
A. I. Suciu, L. Mâţă
Andreia Irina Suciu, Liliana Mâţă

“Vasile Alecsandri” University of Bacău
Abstract: When studying pedagogical competence(s) certain

delimitations are necessary between the general concept of
competence, the differentiation between “competence” and
“competency” and the categorization of pedagogical
competence among the richly identified gamut of competences
in various fields. Other authors make a clear cut distinction
between the terms “competence”, “skills” and “vocational
qualification” making subtle differences between the “required
skills, knowledge and responsibility in accordance with a
specific work situation”, “the ability of a person to complete
work tasks, including the ability to acquire, develop and extend
knowledge and know-how to complete tasks and solve
problems” and respectively “the evaluation of educational and
professional skills with respect to a particular profession
confirmed by documentary evidence” [1].
Keywords: concept, vocation, education
The term “competence” dates, according to Webster Dictionary as far

back as 1596, but it is only recently that it acquired a greater and greater
importance particularly in business and later in education. Especially
“business organizations and educational institutes are eager to use the term
competence to refer to instruments for human resource development (HRD)
or to new educational methods” [2].
General definitions of competence place the term in the sphere of a
compound of individual behavioural characteristics whose nature and level
of manifestation depend on the knowledge, skills and abilities or attitudes,
but also beliefs or values manifested in a job or situation. Many authors link
the term with various levels of efficiency (from proficiency up to excellence)
190 A. I. Suciu, L. Mâţă
in performance but also with beliefs and values. The diachronic analysis of
the definitions of the terms, offered in figure 1, reveals a migration of the
term from a general presentation drawing rather on the field of psychology to
a regarding of term in the more practical field of labour and human resource
development. The common denominators that we tried to identify helped us
in offering our own definition presented in the lines above.
Table 1. A diachronic approach to defining competence

Author Definition Common
denominators
Sampson, competence can be defined as a set of • compound
Demetrios personal characteristics (e.g. skills,
G., 2009 knowledge, attitudes) that an individual • set
possesses or needs to acquire, in order to
perform an activity within a specific • individual
context, whereas performance may behavioural
range from the basic level of proficiency characteristic
to the highest levels of excellence.
Herling, human competence … is displayed • knowledge
Richard behavior within a specialized domain in
W., 2000 the form of consistently demonstrated • skills
actions of an individual that are both
minimally efficient in their execution • ability
and effective in their results (p. 20)
Mirabile, competency is a knowledge, skill, • attitudes
Richard J., ability, or characteristic associated with
• beliefs
1997 high performance on a job, such as
• values
problem solving, analytical thinking, or
leadership. (p. 75) • manifested
Parry, a competency is: a cluster of related in a job or
Scott B., knowledge, skills and attitudes that situation
1996 affects a major part of one’s job (a role • with
or responsibility), that correlates with efficiency
performance on the job, that can be • proficiency
measured against well-accepted • excellence
standards, and that can be improved via • performance
training and development. (p. 50)
Conceptual delimitations regarding pedagogical competenc(i)e(s) 191
Spencer Lyle a competency is an underlying

M.; Spencer characteristic of an individual that is
Signe M., causally related to criterion-referenced
1993 effective and/ or superior performance in a
job or situation. Underlying characteristic
means the competency is a fairly deep and
enduring part of a person’s personality and
can predict behavior in a wide variety of
situations and job tasks. Causally related
means that a competency actually causes
or predicts behavior and performance.
Criterion-referenced means that the
competency actually predicts who does
something well or poorly, as measured on
a specific criterion or standard. (p. 9)
Keen, K., - competence is the ability to handle a
1992 situation (even foreseen).” (p. 115);
- competence is a compound, made up of
different parts, just like the fingers of a
hand [i.e. skills, knowledge, experience,
contacts, values, and additionally,
coordination which is located in the palm,
and supervision, symbolized by the
nervous system]. (p. 112)
I. “Competence” and “competency”

When trying to differentiate between “competence” and “competency”
we observe a general tendency of giving competence a generic or holistic
meaning as it refers to a person’s overall capacity whereas competency is
considered to refer to specific capabilities (knowledge, skills, attitude,
ability). Thus, we choose to refer to the generic capacities demonstrated in a
given situation using the term “competence”, while if we are referring to a
particular capacity or ability we consider that it is best to use the term
“competency” (with the plural “competencies” when necessary).
Table 2. A comparative presentation of “competence” and

“competency”
Author Definition Common
competence Competency denominator
Cheetham, effective overall an acquired • competence:
Graham; performance proficiency - comprehensive
Chivers, within an within a performance/
Geoff, 2005 occupation, which discrete but notion;
may range from relatively broad - demonstration of
the basic level of area of effective and
proficiency psychomotor or qualitative work
through the highest mental activity
level of excellence which may
(p. XI) require mastery • competency:
of a set of skills - acquired
(p. XI) proficiency;
Rodzevičiūtė, a person’s effective and - qualified work;
Emilija, 2006 readiness to do a qualified work - set of skills;
particular job; the or the ability to - subset of
ability to do a use skills and competences
particular job competencies in
applying practice;
knowledge, competency is
proficiency, skills, said to manifest
views, experience, in practice,
attitude, personal which means
features and values the ability to
(p. 10) apply certain
competencies
(p. 10)
Pukelis, the demonstration an ability of a
Kęstutis; of an effective and person to
Savikienė, qualitative activity, perform a
Izabela; which meets the certain task of
Fokienė, requirements of an activity on
Aušra the world of work. the grounds of
Competence is the acquired
determined by the knowledge,
level of skills, values
qualification and and attitudes.

professional The
experience the combination of
person possesses certain
as well as competencies
competencies composes
acquired via qualification.
formal, non-formal Competency is
and informal demonstrated in
learning. unpredictable
Competence is situations. (p.
demonstrated in 28)
unpredictable
situations. (p. 28)
Sampson, competence is a competencies
Demetrios; more are only a
Fytros, comprehensive subset of the
Demetrios, notion and required
2008 competency, as a competences
synonym with for a given
“skills”, is only a professional
part of it. (p. 6) and/ or
academic field.
(p. 6)
II. Pedagogical competence(s)

The beginnings of defining pedagogical competence place the syntagm
“pedagogical competence” in parallel with the definitions of the general term
“competence” used in programmes of human resource development. Thus
Barnett R. observes that in education, competence is “built around the sense of
a student’s mastery within a discipline” while in vocational settings there is
“an operational conception of competence… essentially reproducing wider
societal interests in performance” [3]. The same parallel is drawn by Prins F. J.
et al: “The concept is strongly associated with post-secondary education as
well professional development. Many work organization and educational
institutes use the concept of ‘competence’ for describing performance ability
for particular occupations or jobs or for describing educational objectives.” [4]
Thus, it needs to be discerned that pedagogical competence is strongly
connected with a study of students’ performance in accordance with a series of
criteria of performance and with their evaluation according to these criteria,

but also with an attempt to organize education in such a way so as to lead to
the development of these competencies, and general competence so that
learning could be more easily achieved and so that students might be prepared
for their future professions. In other words “competences can be used as the
drivers for (1) the design of appropriate learning resources and activities; (2)
the selection of appropriate learning material, processes and eventual curricula
that bare the potential to eliminate the gap between competences needed and
those available. This is important for the adoption for on-demand training.” [5]
For the accomplishment of these purposes some authors [6] try to answer
arising questions on the matter such as: is competence something that can only
be acquired in a working environment?; is there a difference between
competence of a fresh graduate and an experienced professional?; can
competence be taught?
In order to answer these questions the authors introduce the concept of
viability discussing the notion depending on three variables: people, goal and
context (pp. 351–352) and the boundary approach to competence viewing
competence as being influenced both by outside and by inside forces and
concepts such as performance, cluster of knowledge skills and attitudes as
being related but not equal to competence. (p. 353)
In order to reach closer to a definition the authors discuss the oppositions
between: personal vs. task characteristics/ “the US vs. the UK approach to
competence”/ competency vs. competence/ competences vs. competences/
input vs. output/ behavioural vs. vocational competence; individual vs.
distributed competence; specific vs. general competence; levels of competence
vs. competence as a level; teachable vs. non-teachable competence; (pp. 354–
357).
In order to reach an even better understanding the authors also oppose
competence to concepts such as: performance, qualification, capability and
ability, knowledge, skills and attitudes, expertise. (pp. 358–360)
From a more simplistic definition that view pedagogical competence as
minimal professional standard, often specified by law, which a person has to
reach in fulfilling a certain role of the didactic profession so that they might
serve the society in an efficient manner definitions of pedagogical
competences moved to a more complex level in which features have also to be
taken into consideration. Thus, Bianka Jäenecke [7] introduces as important
variables in defining pedagogical competences three features:
(a) competences are dependent on the context (individual and institutional
needs have to be considered as well as the context in which the school and its
personnel function);
(b) competences are indivisible (in planning the curriculum one needs to
take holistically into consideration knowledge, abilities, attitudes, values,
employing a varied gamut of methods of teaching-learning);
(c) competences are exposed to change (competences must be evaluated
and according to these the syllabi must be renewed and adapted to the needs of
the school and the teaching stuff);
(d) competences are linked to objectives, activities and tasks;
(e) competences require well-developed processes of teaching and
development;
(g) competences are interdependent.
It is at this point that the definition offered by Madhavaram, Sreedhar;
Laverie, Debra A. seems more than appropriate. Pedagogical competence is
defined by the authors as “the ability of an individual to use a coordinated,
synergistic combination of tangible resources (e.g. instruction materials such
as books, articles and cases and technology such as software and hardware)
and intangible resources (e.g. knowledge, skills, experience) to achieve
efficiency and/ or effectiveness in pedagogy.” [8]
For the proper understanding of pedagogical competences and for the
initiation of any programme meant to lead to the development of these
pedagogical competences, it is essential that one should identify possible
components. The following chart comprises our findings in connection with
the taxonomies theorized upon or discovered in the practice of teaching.
Table 3. A synthetic presentation of taxonomies of pedagogical
competences
Author Types of pedagogical competences Common denominator
Madhavaram, - content knowledge (or knowledge A general analysis of the
Sreedhar; of subject matter); taxonomies studied
Laverie, Debra - knowledge of pedagogical reveals a concentration
A., 2010 approaches; on the general fields of:
- course management capability;
- classroom management capability; • knowledge
- student management capability.
(pp. 5–6) • management
Prins, F. J. et - interpersonal competence;
al., 2008 - pedagogical competence; • relationships
- subject knowledge &
methodological competence; • pedagogy
- organizational competence;
- competence for collaboration with • psychology
colleagues;
- competence for collaboration with
the working environment; • communication

- competence for reflection and
development. • culture
Rodzevičiūtė, - management competency –
Emilija, 2006 includes planning organization, • art
managing, evaluation, additional
education organization, and • ethics
managing competences;
- pedagogical-psychological • technology
competency – includes gnostic,
motivation, methodical and lifelong • practice
improvement competences;
- methodical-didactic competency – • curriculum
includes methodical-didactic,
didactic-managing, didactic-social
• innovation
and methodical lifelong learning
competence;
• affectivity
- expression competency – includes
expression and communicative
competences;
- communicative competence –
includes communicative-cognitive,
communicative-methodical-didactic
and communicative cognitive
competencies;
- modern social competency –
includes modern social competence;
- informational technology
implementation competency –
includes informational technology
implementation competence. (p. 16)
Petrovici, - specialty competence;
Constantin, - scientific competence;
2006 - the competence of establishing
connections between theory and
practice;
- the competence of renewing
contents in agreement with new
scientific acquisitions;
- psycho-pedagogical competence;
- the competence of knowing
students and of treating them in
agreement with individual

particularities;
- the competence of communicating
with students, of influencing and
motivating the activity of learning;
- the competence of planning and

performing educational activities;
- the competence of evaluating
objectively educational programmes
and activities;
- the psycho-social and managerial
competence;
- the competence of organizing
students in agreement with the
educational objectives;
- the competence of establishing
relations of cooperation and of
solving conflicts;
- the competence of taking
responsibility;
- the competence of orienting,
organizing and coordinating and
making decisions according to the
situation;
- innovational competence;
- cultural competences;
- socio-moral competence. (pp. 22–
23)
Jäenecke, - developing and maintaining the
Bianka relationship with students;
- putting into practice an innovative
process of education, focused on the
student;
- creating and maintaining a safe
learning environment and efficient
skills for classroom management;
- planning and applying the
curriculum, the syllabi and the
didactic methods of
Bankauskienė, Pedagogical-professional
Nijolė; competence is subdivided into:
Augustinienė, a) Transferable competencies
Aldona; - social competence;
Čiučiulkienė, - learning to learn competence;
Nijolė, 2005 - competence of the effective action;
- communicative competence;
- competence of the information
management;
- project management competence;
- action research competence;
b) General pedagogic competence -

- the competence to implement
educational ideas and IT;
- the competence to promote active
and innovative learning
environments and programmes;
- the competence to motivate and
support the pupils;
- socio-cultural competence;
c) Special pedagogic competence:

- pre-elementary educational
competence;
- elementary educational competence
- general and secondary educational

competence;
- competence of special education;
- competence of career education;
- competence of informal training.
III. Conclusions
The taxonomies presented, the effort to identify so many groups of
pedagogical competences is relevant for the complexity of the syntagm. As
we conclude in the third column of figure 3 it is also relevant for the multiple
fields from which they arise in almost all teaching activities proving a wide
gamut of domains that a teacher must master in his profession: knowledge,
management, relationships, pedagogy, psychology, communication, culture,
art, ethics, technology, practice, curriculum, innovation, affectivity. All these
prove once again the importance of developing a curriculum and a
pedagogical act based on pedagogical competence and the need to train

teachers in such a way as to achieve as complex and varied pedagogical
competences as possible.
Bibliography:
Bankauskienė, Nijolė; Augustinienė, Aldona; Čiučiulkienė, Nijolė: The

expression of teacher competencies in action research field: the case-based
study of KTU teacher education program "Pedagogy", Paper presented at the
European Conference on Educational Research, University College Dublin, 7-
10 September 2005, available at http://www.leeds.ac.uk/educol/documents
/151392.htm Site visited on October 2nd 2010
Barnett, Ronald: The Limits of Competence: knowledge, higher education and
society, Society for Research into Higher Education & Open University Press,
1994
Cheetham, Graham; Chivers, Geoff: Professions, Competence, and Informal
Learning, Cheltenham, UK, Edward Edgar Publishing, 2005
Coi, Juri L. de; Herder,Eelco; Koesling, Arne; Lofi, Cristoph; Olmedilla,
Daniel; Papapetrou, Odysseas; Siberski, Wolf – A Model for Competence Gap
Analysis
Gliga, Lucia (coord.), Diaconu, Mihai; Ţarălungă, Oana; Bizo, Bianca:
Standarde profesionale pentru profesia didactică, Ministerul Educaţiei şi
Cercetării, Consiliul Naţional pentru pregătirea profesorilor, Bucureşti, 2002.
Jäenecke, Bianka: Competenţele profesorilor şi ale directorilor de licee din
mediul rural din România şi din alte state din Uniunea Europeană – analiză
comparativă, Ministerul Educaţiei şi Cercetării, Centrul Naţional de Formare a
Personalului din Învăţământul Preuniversitar
Madhavaram, Sreedhar; Laverie, Debra A.: Developing Pedagogical
Competence: Issues and Implications for Marketing Education, in Journal of
Marketing Education, vol. XX, no X, 2010
Prins, F. J.; Nadolski, R. J.; Berlanga, A. J.; Drachsler, H.; Hummel, H. G. K.;
Pukelis, Kęstutis; Savikienė, Izabela; Fokienė, Aušra: Methodology for the
Curriculum of Vocational Teacher Qualification Improvement. Available at
http://www.unistuttgart.de/bwt/dateien/forschung/projekte/lehrerbildung/prope
to/8_Methodology_english.pdf Site visited on September 30th, 2010
Sampson, Demetrios G.: Competence-Related Metadata for Educational
Resources that Support Lifelong Competence Development Programmes, in
Educational Technology and Society, vol. 12, no 4, 2009
Sampson, Demetrios; Fytros, Demetrios: Competence Models in Technology-
enhanced Competence-based Learning, 2008, available athttp://dspace.learning
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Learning.pdf
Schneckenberg, Dirk; Wildt, Johannes: Understanding the Concept of
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Spencer Lyle M.; Spencer Signe M.: Competence at Work: Models for
Superior Performance, New York: John Wiley, 1993
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[1] CEDEFOP – European Centre for the Development of vocational training – Skills
and Competences Development and innovative pedagogy. Detailed thematic overview,
theme 07, Riga 2007, p. 1
[2] Stoof, Angela; Martens, Rob; Van Merrienboër, Jerown J. G.; Bastiaens, Theo J. –
The Boundary Approach to Competence: A Constructivist Aid for Understanding and
Using The Concept of Competence, in Human Resource Development Review, Sage
Publications, vol. 1, no 3, 2002, p. 346
[3] Barnett, Ronald – The Limits of Competence: knowledge, higher education and society,
Society for Research into Higher Education & Open University Press, 1994, p. 159
[4] Prins, F. J.; Nadolski, R. J.; Berlanga, A. J.; Drachsler, H.; Hummel, H. G. K.; Koper, R. –
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enhanced Competence-based Learning, 2008, p. 5
[6] Stoof, Angela et al., op. cit., p. 348
[7] Jäenecke, Bianka: Competenţele profesorilor şi ale directorilor de licee din mediul
rural din România şi din alte state din Uniunea Europeană – analiză comparativă,
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Vol VI (2010), No. 2, pp. 201-206
Role of rhetoric in the development of speech skills

R. Petrović
Ružica Petrović [1]

Preschool Teacher Training College, Vrsac
Abstract: The paper discusses the importance of rhetorical

skills and their role in training students for successful verbal
communication. Introduction to the theory of rhetoric, the
analysis of selected texts speaking examples, recognition of
rhetorical elements of speech and their use, are placed in the
function of developing speaking skills of students and improve
their oral expression. The methodology of teaching rhetoric
includes practical exercises public appearances based on the
application of techniques and principles of oration in order to
enable the development of eloquence students.
Keywords: rhetoric, methodology, public speaking, speaking
skills, oratory
Introduction
The rhetoric teaching and development can be followed through the
Geek and Latin terminology and epistemology development. The
expressions rhetoric (gr.ρητορική, lat. rhetoric), eloquence, (gr. ευγλωττια,
lat. eloquentia) came to use very early. [2] However Aristotle is due for its
establishing as a theoretical discipline which systemizes knowledges and
principles of a good speech.
The theoretical frame establishment of the problems involves
inevitably the notion determination and expression differentiation, speaking
gift, rhetoric, speaking skill, and appearance in public. Very early it was
noticed that the word, as the means of establishing a speaking relation among
people, besides its understanding, thought expressing and feeling expressing
role, can (while acting) possess such a positive or negative power which
borders a healing or destroying effect. Cicero says on the power and grace of
a good speech: Who can stimulate virtue more eloquently than the orator,
who can divert from sin more sharply, who can scold a criminal more
severely, who can praise the good ones more beautifully? Whose attack can
202 R. Petrović
break greed more strongly, whose comfort can soften pain more
gently.(Ciceron, M. T., 2002).
Eloquence, as a speech gift, is a base of every good speech. However
the original oratory to be raised in quality, it is necessary to be educated and
cultivated. The writers of the first oratory skill textbooks knew very well that
a successful speaking appearance depended a lot on rhetorical knowledges
and their practical use. Though the learned rhetorical rules are not the ones
making some body a good speaker by themselves if hi is eloquence (as an
extraordinary gift) short. There fore there are rhetoric authorities whom the
knowledge does not replace the lack of talent. Thus they are good
theoreticians, though but not good orators. How great the practice influence
on the speech skill formation is (even when the speech potential is not
inherited), is best seen in famous orators Demosthenes [3] and Ciceros [4]
experiences. They managed to become exemplary orators by knowledge
practice and persistence and also to overcome their personal limits.
The knowledge that the speech should be supported by certain
principles (which can be learned and used in a speaking practice) initiated
the oratory authorities textbooks containing the speech skill development
directives- Rhetirike thehne 5 . Out of them Rhetoric as a theoretical
philosophical discipline was developed later involving the rule system which
help the development of discovery, the way of a correct and clear thought
expressed according to the aim.
At the beginning of the twentieth century we have the emergence of
discipline under the name of public speaking,6 which was a response to the
crisis in which the rhetoric began to the west of the Middle Ages, when more
and more lost connection with reality, speech practice and the real needs and
is increasingly turned into sterile theoretical discipline with the character of
stylistics and grammar. This space is filled public speaking as a form of
simplified rhetoric that has turned away from theoretical issues and debates
to practical advice. Keeping ahead of the average citizen who is verbally
addressed in different situations, the media, in appropriate circumstances and
the modern audience that is willing to listen to long speeches and theorizing,
writers such manuals tend to be choose to provide guidance on the successful
performance of speech for a short time can give good results. Therefore of
this public appearance did not give a complete system of education speaker
because of the rhetorical skills did not take eloquency, general culture,
intellectual experience, logic and rhetorical skills.
Role of rhetoric in the development of speech skills 203
Rhetoric Programme Basic Structure
How much our educational system values a correct and fine speech
is shown by a very small presence of rhetoric as a teaching subject. This
lack is felt both in the teaching process quality and the lack of speaking
culture, as well as the word misuse in all the social political life spheres. The
colloquial language of young people specially is full of vulgarities, which
unfortunately, are not free of even those expected to cultivate a good
language and a fine word. Thought rhetoric is involved as a facultative
subject at the Teachers Training Faculties, its introduce meant the renewal
of interests in a correct and persuasive language. It also means reaching the
consciousness that every educated man, the one preparing himself for a
teaching vocation specially, the reach of rhetorical knowledges and the
speech skill development is of a great use.
A good teaching rhetoric programme with performance
methodology has the task to connect theoretical knowledges and practical
exercise. The language rule and principle acceptance can contribute greatly
to the verbal communicating culture. So three components contained in a
good speech (logics, ethics, and esthetics ( λογός, ήθος, πάθος) should be
cared of. Speaking persuasion is realized by threefold means: Addressing
intellect, character and feeling.7 (The speech skill formation will students
should involve, the speaking subject consciousness importance (what is
being told about), then the orator‘s personal characteristics (who is talking),
and the way of exposing (how something is being told). The knowledges
focused on the audiences character ( whom something is being told) should
be also considered.
The logical dimension of speech does not refer only to the correct
logical rule use but also to the argumenting skill, the use inductive and
deductive concluding methods, entimenis (shorten syllogism), and other
logical instruments. A necessary condition for what should be told fine and
right is that the soul of the one speaking understands the truth of what it is
being spoken about. (Platon, 1979).The good speech skill is not based on
eloquence onli but on the correct and reasonable word use, for which the
rational thinking power memory, full attention, knowledge and imagination
are necessary.
We cannot take those facts talk for themselves as granted because
truth is not obvious in itself. Therefore truth should be known and told, for
the truth if not defended, gets suppressed. ( Veritas quae non defensatur,
opprimitur). Truth gets lost even in too mach discussing because a wide
exposing unsharps the truth blade. A speaker cannot let himself
204 R. Petrović
overspeaking. That quality shows most that overmeasuring is a sign of the

real knowledge lack. The speaking uncontrol is mostly the consequence of
multi- knowledges, namely superficial understanding of many things but not
a reasonable reach of the essence. While having a speech, one should be
oware of simplified and banalized expressing as well as of too much
decorating and flattering. Stereotyped, modeled, ready- made phrases highly
terms which give the impression of an affect, the use of clear and simple
thinking speaking and style forms instead which give the effect of the effect
of natural and sincere.
Differently from the science dealing with the essential truth
knowledge, Rhetoric is inclined to a relative thinking. Being such it deals
with what a hypothetical character carries in. If in communicating with some
people we possessed even the most exact knowledge, we could not persuade
them easily until we have based our speech on that knowledge. For a
scientific speech belongs to teaching (διδαςκαλια, the logical method of
proving, persuading) and that is impracticable in front of people… The
rhetoric task is not persuading but the discovery of that persuadable in every
exposed case. (Aristotel, 2002) It means that an orator in his exposing
should activate both logical and psychological elements. If possessing the
idea and dialectical reasoning power as well as the abstract notion revival
energy, he can contribute his speech to realize its logical sense including
challenges, specially the state of mind necessary for reaching the persuasion.
Will the orator open the audience for truth by his speech, will he
reach the exposing persuasion? It all depends on his approach of what he is
speaking about and who he is addressing? Is he doing it which a real interest
or just mechanically, does he address with a deep belief in what he is
speaking about or with an uncertainty, does his speech includes the thought
experience or a cold and indifferent relation? An inner persuasion imbued
with true feelings and gives a special strength to the spoken words making
them beneficial. When a man wants to express his thoughts and charm his
listeners with them, first of all he should enrich his exposing with his belief
which shows that the thought is justified, and with it his feelings which show
that he is excited with that thought. (Miloš Đ., 1986)
A good speech should express a justified thought, divine sensitiviti,
and noble character.It means it should include thinking and feeling, and an
ethical aspect. Quintillian says about the orator′s moral quality importance: I
do not firm that somebody acting as orator must be correct and honest but
that only a correct and honest man can be an orator’(Kvintilijan, M. F.,
1985) The important role in the persuasion reach is possessed by the orator′s
strong character which makes him thrust worthy, specially when regarding
Role of rhetoric in the development of speech skills 205
the things which can be doubted. The ethos preserve, also includes the
discovery of real way to all aspects of truth and its adequate presentation.
Conclusion
Rhetoric as a teaching subject is a system whose structure is made of
three elements: theoretical teaching, practical exercizes and other people′s
speech studies. The sophistic rule that ’what resemles truth is presented as
truth inself’ is strange to it. Its task is not to persuade the audience that
something is true and justified but to lead them to the true knowledge about
it. Therefore its role is not teaching the persuading skill as any price but to
discover the best ways of persuading in the logical and ethical based
attitudes.
One of the correct speech rule is: declamation avoid. Once it
involved a precise and strikt selection of words and figures, so making it
formalized and artificial. Today it appears in some other form carrying the
some signs. So instead of reciting and slavery to a written text, which always
leaves the impression of unsincerity and stiffness, it is necessary to let
oneself a spontanious talking. Though certain logical and rhetorical rules are
important every speech and speaking situation are so unique that the rule
could be rather a landmark in every concrete situation than as immutable and
generally valid. What rhetoric methodology teaches is a clear and distinct
language and it is reached by using of those words which leave the
impression of directness and sincereness, contra to highly terms, which seem
artificial. Of course a good speech could be marked by seriousness,
fullness, strength, limitation. It could also be that kind of speech enriched by
decorations, with jokes, irony, illustrations, wise sayings, attraction. Anyway
expression styles can be different but put into right measure limits. Rhetoric
compensate the lack students′ public appearances and are the best exercise in
introducing them to the verbal communicating area, and develop skills of
speech presentation. Unfortunately the way of work with students has not
reach the necessary level of a direct speaking relation, which would enable
the liberating from all those weaknesses and disadvantages that accompany
that kind of communication.
Bibliography:
Aristotel,( 2002), Retorika, Beograd

Avramović,S., ( 2008), Rhetorike techne, Beograd
Ciceron, M. T., (2002), O govorniku, Zagreb
Đurić, M., (1986), Istorija helenske književnosti, Beograd
206 R. Petrović
Kvintilijan, M. F., (1985), Obrazovanje govornika, Sarajevo

John S. Nelson, Allan Megill, Donald N. McCloskey, (1990),The Rhetoric of
the Human Sciences: Language and Argument in Scholarship and Public
Affairs, Univ. of Wisconsin
Kennedy, George A.,( 1994), A New History of Classical Rhetoric, p. 23,
Princeton University
Nušić, B., (1989), Retorika- nauka o besedništvu, Beograd.
Platon, (1968), Protagora, Gorgija, Beograd
Platon,1979: Ijon, Gozba, Fedar, Beograd
Plutarh,1990: Likovi antike, Matica srpska, Novi Sad
[1] prof.ruzica@gmail.com
[2] The expression orator (ρήτορας) is mentioned with Homer, eloquence (ευγλωττια )
is mentioned with Isocrates and the notion rhetoric (ρητορική) was started in use by
Plato in the dialogue of Georgie.
[3] Demosthenes is the example of a man who could be said to become an orator
rather by coincidence than owing to his natural predisposition. As a child he lost his
father. Owing to his tutor#s greedy, he was left only the benth of his interited wealth.
As an adult he chose issai, the must eminent Athenian logograph, for his teacher. Issai
became famous by writing oratories for inheritance disputes. So both his inheritance
struggle and orator#s carrier began. He was sick, with a weak voice, with the ‘r’
pronouncing defect as a child. Years long exercises and an unseen persistence won a
defect after a defect. He strengthened his weak voice with a loud verse reciting at the
sea coast by intending to overpower the roaring of wares like the Parliament noise: hi
was reciting while running up the hill, trying to utter the almost number of verses at
one breath, in order to streanghen his lungs for long sayings. Gravels under his tongue
he repeated many a time Odysseys#s verses with ‘r’ in order to correct his natural
defect. Under a shiny metal plate like a mirror he tried out his movements and
gesticulation, and in order to turn away the unconscious raise of one of his shoulders
he trained under a sword which would cut his shoulder when repeating that movement.
Thanks to the will strength and persistant exercises. Followed by his teacher#s foll
help, he became the most eminent orator of all times. (S. Avramović, Rhetorike
techne)
[4] Plutarch quoted that Cicero showed his oratory talent even when starting his schooling but
he had a voice problem-strong but unformed voice. He practiced the Geek and Latin verse
reciting to improve it. He also suffered from a serious appearance fright, and that not only at the
beginning of his carrier. He started his oratories in fear but his paleness and tremble would stop
when falling into e passionate oratory, so reaching his inner peace.(Plutarh, Likovi antike II,
Matica Srpska, Novi Sad.
[5] Kennedy, George A.,. A New History of Classical Rhetoric, p. 23, Princeton
University Press
[6] John S. Nelson, Allan Megill, Donald N. McCloskey, The Rhetoric of the
Human Sciences: Language and Argument in Scholarship and Public Affairs,
Univ. of Wisconsin Press
[7] Aristotel, Retorika, p. 53.
Vol VI (2010), No. 2, pp. 207-210
Education and teaching

L. Leucea
Laurenţiu Leucea
Abstract: Teachers are accountable to society for the quality of

a given professional year of education policy. Educational
institutions have the task of organizing learning the various
components of knowledge, translated into disciplines. Teachers
have acquired skills in a scientific faculties and their functions
that fits the explicit requirements of the normative documents.
The educational institutions also required training and
education, but effective assessment is purchased solely to
teaching students, there was no monitoring of the effects of
education teacher.
Keywords: education, behaviour, society, opinion, traning
Behaviors, observable events and behaviors that incurred and beliefs are
components of students' personality, which only tangentially teacher they
target a particular specialty. Every teacher pursues its task fulfillment of its
scientific and teacher tutor trying to be a kind of "specialized in education for
its class. Moreover, "education", new or old, are random reflections of a
hidden curriculum. Programs, known as canon, "alternative education"
priority aspects of education aimed at promoting a subtile relationship
between teaching procedures and real social life. For what are called
"alternative" educational terminology is still a formula cloudy secundariat
inducing an idea and another way educational services. Some even linked the
"alternatives" offers special pedagogical, promoting retention and even look
under the glasses, with a slight grimace professional. "Step by step" site, I
know, is a strong challenge for a guy comeinian pedagogical education,
remained the same principles for over three hundred years. A conservative
perpetuated with so much candor in the European Education Area, based on
the teacher centered learning, teaching procedures preclude the assertion at
large.
208 L. Leucea
Education and learning the system "step by step", here, remains an

experiment at school and primary school level, although the effects are
obvious teaching, education, the transverse behavior of complex and
integrated children's personality.
Even more complex as their capabilities and skills, teaching content
should become education, and they were sketching in behavior, ethical,
aesthetic and scientific, the values of conduct and conscience. But teachers
do not have an original band systematic and coherent enough to carry
mission of the "educator", ie a person trained to perform not only training but
also education, or first, desirable behaviors and social adaptation.
The main deviations of the students and youth from the rules of
social life is decent and tolerant, are charged to the school. Education
institutions become responsible for educational failure, for "educating"
children and adolescents is conducted here and is believed by experts.
Unfortunately, the educational aspects are pushed to the edge by teaching
elements of educational interest. A good teacher is one who fills the minds of
students as well and a good student is one who is able to request as much.
There is even the justification that education is a natural consequence
of learning. "A student who learns better it will be better educated" seems
unable to disclose a statement semantics textualization. For example, recent
press mention the behavior of a college student from Arad, who went to
church and came home to a disco: "fun-and more important than the church.
There I am bored "student justifies his choice. Two problems arising from
young opinion: (1) What is the value of the young? and (2) How dangerous
is fun? In the absence of a satisfactory response, a key question arises: What
is an educated young man? If one would know the value of education which
outlines details of a personality profile, then you would find comparative
benchmarks!
Adults (including teachers, parents and the public) displays a certain
pattern, predominantly moral of statutory relations with young people.
Young adult wants to be "as our time" when he had models "historical"
(persuasive) ("be me"), while another program ethical students (are like), and
educational degree of independence has amplitude damage up to the
independence of others. The current generation has outlined a system for
ethical values, typically postmodern, the hedonism, the natural expression of
pleasure (dynamic, color changing show, virtuality, naturally), replaced
shyness, dissatisfaction with the appearance rebelismului, and the prefix " to
"have the force to fit in front of any noun classicized: de-construction, de-
canonization, de-stabilization, de-valuation, de-duplication, etc. de-
moralization.
Education and teaching 209
Young people looking for their identity, the will "not be as ...". They
are postmodern (agitated, energetic, dynamic, dissatisfied), and teachers are
modern (rigorous, classical, rock). We are not professional educators, but
teachers give young people the knowledge experience. We have schools of
education, but schools of education. We have shown educational programs
derived from the propensity of young people, but learning programs. We
discreetly but conflict between generations, maintained parallel educational
curricula with expectations, socio-economic and educational organizations,
educational too much and too little education. The hypothesis of this view is
a challenge: If we need an educated generation, it is necessary to ensure a
consistent program this (trainers, institutional activities, forms of assessment,
monitoring), managed by university-type organization. However, it must
assume an educational program consistent with national society to empower
the achievements and failures in education. Company stock is too low a
fingerprint desirable and relevant education.
A new mentality of teenagers scramble among ancient relics. Young
low cut that swearing can bravely say without embarrassment: "let me do
what I want with me."
Together with the others tasted the fullness of pleasure, lust of vice
and has deemed it worth, he looks half arches her breasts and tanned skin
around the navel, guffaw in public, finding pleasure usefulness useless. New
World does not have any cult of Shakespeare, and a set of shows zapping's
changed is worth more than a moment of hamletic reflection ("To be or not).
Nobody is responsible for anything, even as intellectuals are not responsible
for the survival of culture. Teens build their culture on the fly, desacralizând
values by "melt" taste of their everyday life. Rules are options, values,
sometimes intangible, are feeling's. There is no truth, but truth, no lie,
therefore, no beauty, but no ugliness, no stereotypes, but no creativity.
Construct a variegated world, the question "Who is Enescu?" No longer
arouses surprise. The man without qualities feels good under the umbrella of
this general crossbreeding. Tradition is consumed, not preserved, history
dilute the feelings going through 'desire to delight. "All agreed to deconstruct
modernity through ignorance. Epidermis, movement, excitement, loud
music, colors, etc. spotted. unite in a natural inspiration.
Teenagers do not accept the school (now secured militarily, by the
rules of prisons) with its constraint-dominated authority, broke the reality of
life. Here youth is lost, the pervert minds, changing music tastes.
Adolescence like bodily warmth - no conversation, like sound and light - not
thinking, like excitement, adrenaline, the daily show. To live as an exciting
narrative story in which the actor is very adolescent.
210 L. Leucea
A new world and its place we can not draw the curtain so as not to
observe. Finally the company became a teenager. It's a sign of purifying and
man's new location. Students will be personality, as I feel that it is not how
one would "babacii" and know that only represents a world of adolescence.
Modern life (classical, rigorous) disclaims postmodern authority
before adolescence. Finally, the company rejuvenated. I needed a nine
spring, the mischief and adolescence, the youth and optimism. We need a
society of barefaced. We need a new school, where values are not imposed
by adults, in which "school life" is more close to "real life".
We need other kinds of devices and procedures of school
organization. How? By a change of mentality comeinian type by giving up
the pestalozzian principles, adopting a new comprehensive vision of
education. People can use to display their capabilities enciclopedismul, but to
build a temper in congruence with nature, to find a satisfactory self-image
and a balanced personality, social and psychological.
Bibliography:
Albulescu, Ion, Teaching paradigm. Teacher activity between routine and

creativity, Cluj University Press, Cluj-Napoca, 2004
Bocos, Musata, Interactive Learning. Highlights for reflection and action,
Cluj University Press Publishing House, Cluj-Napoca, 2002
Cerghit, Ioan, Alternative and complementary training systems, Aramis
Publishing House, Bucharest, 2002
Cristea Sorin, Pedagogical foundations of education reform, Didactic and
Pedagogic Publishing House, Bucharest, 1994
Herlo Dorin, On the educational curriculum, University "Aurel Vlaicu",
Arad, 2004
Ilica, Anton, A Pedagogy, University "Aurel Vlaicu", Arad, 2010
Ionescu, Miron, Training and Education. Paradigms, strategies, guidelines,
models, Cluj-Napoca, 2003
Niculescu, Rodica Mariana, Training Pedagogical, All Publishing,
Bucharest, 2000
Peretti, André, Education Trade changing (the selection of texts by Adrian
Nicolau), Spiru Haret Publishing House, Iaşi, 1996
Roman, Alina, Petroi, Anca, Labyrinth teaching evaluation, University
"Aurel Vlaicu", Arad, 2005
Stanciu, Mihai, Postmodern Teaching, University of Suceava, 2004
Vol VI (2010), No. 2, pp. 211-218
Style of managing teaching process as classroom

management determinator
A. Kolak
Ante Kolak, Ph.D.

Faculty of Philosophy, Zagreb University
Abstract: Didactics often stresses how the quality of teaching

depends, among other things, on classroom manaegment.
Classroom manaegment is here approached as organizational,
educational and didactic competence that expresses itself in
teaching organization, definition of educational goals and aims
of the teaching process and in the clever choice of teaching
methods and forms of activities. Whereas teaching methods are
often in the focus of didactic studies,styles of teaching and
classroom management are seldomly addressed.Teaching
process is guided through application of a particular style of
management. Leadership style of one particular teacher
considerably influences numerous determinators of the teaching
process- classroom climate, discipline, parents cooperation...
The empirical part of this paper will look at teachers' attitudes
towards an important determinator of classroom manaegment-
the style of management applied in teaching practise.
Keywords: classroom management, style of management in
the teaching process, teaching process.
1. Introduction
Even with doors closed it is possible to tell the classrooms full of

excitement and enthusiasm from those filled with tension and fear or those
with complete anarchy. All these various characteristics of classroom
atmosphere are determined by style of governing the teaching process and
classroom management.The phenomenon of government or management, in
theory as well as in practise, has been in the focus of many scholars' and
experts' attention. This is understandable taking into consideration the fact
212 A. Kolak
that the success of any organization greatly depends on the quality of its
management. Managment as a term embodies various activities and is made
complete by four different elements (government, examination, supervision,
leadership). (Jurić, 2004.) Management is considered one of the most
important human activities so in analogy we can say that classroom
management is one of the most important school activities. Its main goal and
function is to lead a particular organization, in our case students or a class,
towards fulfillment of set educational goals. For the purpose of this paper,
taking into consideration studies and experiences of notable scholars of this
and related subjects (Sanford, Emmer, 1986; Marušić, 1993; Staničić, 1999;
Rijavec, 2001; Jurić, 2004; Everston, Emmer, 2006.) we shall define
classroom management as teacher's activity that leads to realisation of
previously set educational goals, is concentreted onto a heterogenous group
of students of a certain class (or their combination) and their activity and
involves: planning of teaching activities, organisation and preparation with
the use of most appropriate methods and forms of teaching, leading the
teaching process with the use of didactic principles as well as evaluation of
the teaching process.
2. Styles of managing the teaching process - a theoretical

consideration
One of the most important functions of management is leadership.

Although, theoretically speaking, all manager's functions are equally
important, it is possible to conclude from the work of some scholars that
leadership is nevertheless the most important function of management
(Staničić, 1993; Srića, 1994; Sikavica, Bahtijević-Šiber, Gaiger, 2004.;
Emmer, Gerwels, 2005.; Salender, 2008.) While management as a governing
activity is defined as the process of directing others towards the fulfillment of
a certain task,when it comes to leadership importance is especially given to
the capability of influencing those who are fulfilling a certain task. From the
educational point of view we can define leadership as an art of influencing
the students to work in their set tasks readily and willingly (adopted
according to Sikavica, Bahtijević-Šiber, Gaiger, 2004.) Hence the
understanding that the main point of leadership is in the readiness and the
willingness of students to follow the teacher. The complexity of managing
the teaching process keeps on astonishing all those who try to study it and
find out more about the possibilities of rational management. Teaching
process is associated to many characteristics such as efficiency in teaching,
Style of managing teaching process as classroom management determinator 213
fluency among subjects in the teaching process, appliance of teaching media,

styles of teaching, didactic principles, consideration for didactic systems,
classroom atmosphere and many other characteristics of the teaching process
itself. The Muenich study Scholastik singles out the following charasteristics
of teaching: government of the class (efficiency in organisation,classroom
management), structure (structuring the subject through instructions which
regulate students' attention), support ( individual counselling, evaluation of
student's situation), concentration towards motivation (advantage of
encouraging weaker students), social environment (social and emotional
climate), variety or diversity (dynamics of teaching activities, changing of
chosen forms of teaching) (according to Palekčić, 2007.:93). Teacher as a
classroom manager should answer the following three questions while
managing the teaching process : 1.what kind of students is he or she
managing, 2.which styles of management in the teaching process are
available for him or her, and 3.which style of management is most
appropriate (adapted according to Rijavec, 1995.)
Leadership style in teaching can be defined as characteristic
individual teaching methods, actions and techniques typical for one leader-
teacher in relationship towards students and tasks realized in the educational
process (adapted according to Stančić, 2006). Shaping of theories which deal
with the phenomenon of leadership styles started at the beginning of the 20.
century and concentrated on the experiences of managers in profit
organisations. Later on interest for leadership shifted towards non-profit
fields of work including education. There are theories of leadership styles
that are based on personality traits of those in leadership positions.
Representatives of this theory tried to show that all successful leaders share
the same unique traits. " Validity of this theory has many times been tested
and among many characteristics a few have been singled out for which it can
certainly be claimed that they have enormous influence upon the success of
leadership. These are: energetic, dominant, self-confident, knowledgeable
about the set task." (Staničić, S; 2006:244) Although these characteristics
proved to be important they are not the crucial factor in selecting candidates
for leader's position. Unlike the theories of personality traits, behaviourist
theories say that it is the behaviour of an individual and not his traits which
are of crucial importance when it comes to successful leadership. Styles of
leadership in the teaching process within the frame of this theory can be
observed according to the focus upon the task or upon students.(Rijavec,
1995). Leadership focused on the task includes setting of tasks, organisation,
setting time frames, supervision and guidance as well as control, whereas
214 A. Kolak
leadership focused on relationship with people (students) includes support,

communication, improving relationships among members of the class, active
listening, feedback. Leadership in the teaching process which is focused on
the students will certainly make student feel more satisfied and create a more
positive emotional and social climate in the classroom, but we can not be
certain if this satisfaction will produce better efficiency and better results in
students work.
Likert's model of leadership style singles out seven key dimensions
based on which leadership style can be determined: motivatin,
communication, interaction and influence, decision making, goals, control
and effects.Empirical analysis of these dimensions in a large number of
leaders led to establishing four characteristic styles of leadership: extremely
autoritative style (autocratic), wellmeaning autoritative style (fatherly),
advisory style (consultative) and participative style (democratic) (Stančić,
2006.) One of the most important results of Likert's research that "leadership
style is the cause of efficiency of an organisation" (Mušanović, Lavrnja;
1993:117) can be applied to classroom seeing one class of students as an
organisation and assuming that the leadership style of one teacher is the
cause of the efficiency of the educational process. One typical classification
of leadership styles is based on the criteria of using authority in educational
process. It provides us with three different styles: autocratic, democratic and
laissez faire style. The teacher with autoritarian or autocratic style of
leadership sets firm rules and standards,does not want to discuss or negotiate
with students, teaching is clear and well structured, leadership in the class is
effective and strict, movement within classroom is restricted, studying goes
on in silence, teaching is focused on goals,aims and material, and then on
students and individual approach, teacher applies punishment, all situations
and relationships are focused on the teacher, he or she makes most of the
decisions, classroom is filled with tension and fear, students although
successful are often not satisfied. The teacher with democratic style of
leadership helps to set the rules in the classroom by including students in
creating those rules, he or she is ready to discuss and negotiate the reasons
for students' choices, often encourages students' task related activities, uses
various teaching forms and methods, offers individual support if needed,
movement inside the classroom is not restricted, tolerates different ways of
learning and quiet murmor that doesn't disturb others is allowed, he or she is
focused primarily on students and then on tasks and goals and finds time for
individual approach, is motherly or fatherly, encourages the class to be a
team, respects the class president and the class is filled with enthusiasm and
excitement. In this leadership style students are extremely pleased and they
are independent, selfconfident, willing to take risks, have a positive
selfimage and are socially responsible. Laissez faire style teacher does not
introduce or follow rules, students' initiative is on a high level, his
interference with the flow of the teaching process is minimal, does not
intervene unless exteremely necessary, does not follow closely every
classroom situation, leaves decision making largely to the students, there is
no clearly structured code of behaviour, system of award and punishment is
not clear and consistent, students set the level of noise in the classroom as
well as move freely around and the teacher intervenes only in extreme
situations, does not stick to set discipline norms, does not follow up
deadlines, classroom is a picture of anarchy filled with student conflicts and
dissatisfaction. (Baumrind, 1973, 1987, prema Vizek-Vidović, Vlahović-
Štetić, Rijavec, Miljković, 2003; Kiper, Mischke, 2006.)
3. Methodology of the empirical part of the research
3.1. Problem and goal of the research
Theories of leadership styles testify the fact that leadership is a very

complex process. Although they leave the impression of mutual exclusivness
they actually are complementary in their different approaches towards
leadership in teaching process. Based on these theories we can assume that
successful leadership in the teaching process depends on the teacher as
classroom manager and his traits, leadership style he or she applies,as well as
on the students' traits and many other specific situational factors. Therefore,
we have directed the empirical part of this study towards researching
teachers' attitudes towards style of leadership in teaching process regarding
teacher's authority.
3.2. Research sample,measure instrument and methods of data

processing
Research sample contains 256 teachers from four different regions in

Croatia: Slavonija, Podravina, Gorski kotar and Zagreb with surroundings.
This research uses method of assessment and the instrument is a scale of
assessment (Lickert type). Teachers' attitudes towards leadership styles in
teaching process were researched. The instrument contains 21 statement
answered by the participants using Lickert five-degree- scale: don't agree at
216 A. Kolak
all or never, mostly don't agree or very rarely, neither agree nor disagree or
neither rarely nor often, mostly agree or often, completely agree or always.
Data processing was done with Statistical Package for the Social Sciences
SPSS 13.0. In order to determine the descriptive indicators of specific
particles and scales we used descriptive parameters (arithmetic middle,
standard deviation, minimum and maximum value).
3.3. Received results and conclusive reflections
Table 1: Descriptive parameters of particles used to measure styles of

teaching process management
N M SD
1. I find time to listen to all the students from the 265 4,26 0,751
class.
2. I critisize bad work and at times punish it. 265 2,81 1,223
3. My students set classroom rules on their own 265 2,75 1,043
and I have no need to implement them.
4. My students have a great sense of freedom in 265 3,83 0,833
the classroom.
5. I take into consideration students' suggestions 265 4,12 0,814
when creating the teaching process.
6. I take care that the capabilities of all students 265 4,24 0,714
are put to use
7. I take care that my students cooperate as a 265 4,40 0,696
team.
8. I bear in mind students' basic social needs. 265 4,54 0,570
9. I maintain classroom discipline 265 4,42 0,586
10. I let students decide upon some issues in my 265 2,34 1,120
authority.
11. I decide what is to be done and how to do it in 265 3,40 0,900
the classroom.
12. I give students complete freedom in 265 3,85 0,910
approaching tasks their own way.
13. I allow students to submit homework even 265 2,88 1,172
past the due date.
14. If the student misbehaves I use discipline 265 3,32 1,052
measures during lesson.
15. There has to be complete silance in my 265 3,00 1,094
classroom for the students to be able to study.
16. I don't consider it my problem if the students 265 2,89 1,121

don't finish their task on time.
17. I always try to axplain the reasons behind my 265 4,51 0,646
rules and decisions.
18. I consider it right not to accept appologies 265 3,15 1,149
when a student is late for class more than
twice.
19. More important than the control for me is that 265 4,00 0,923
students feel good in my classroom
20. My students know they can always interfere 265 3,88 1,089
while I speak without having to fear me.
21. I often have no need of implementing 265 3,84 0,830
discipline measures during lesson.
Table 1 clearly shows that the participants demonstrated high level of

agreement with those particles describing teacher as a leader of the teaching
process who needs to take care of needs and capabilities of every student and
dedicate a certain amount of time to every student.
Agreement was high also among those who consider work to be closely
linked to discipline and that teaching should support team spirit. Participants
mostly agree upon statements related to maintaining discipline and
respecting basic social needs of students. Their attitudes mostly differed
when it came to criticizing student's work, strict respect for deadlines, issues
of teacher's authority and postponement of tasks' fulfillment...These attitudes
point to the behaviour of teachers in the teaching process and defines their
management style. Lowest degree of agreement on the five degree scale
points towards statements related to introduction of students into the
management of the teaching process, independent setting of rules by
students, criticizing and punishing students as well as issues of time frames.
Analysis of the descriptive parameters of particles allows us to conclude that
the participants showed high degree of agreement with statements
compatible with the democratic style of leadership, while significantly lower
middle values appear in those statements related to the autocratic style.
Similarly, standard deviations point to high degree of agreement in
statements inherenty characteristic of democratic style of leadership in the
teaching process. The presented research allows us to conclude that the
development of democratic relations within the Croatian society has
obviously influenced the styles.The research points to a high level of
democracy in the classroom management of participants. Even though a
218 A. Kolak
more detailed analysis of leadership styles surpasses the frame and goals of
this study it appears to be useful to define possible latent dimensions found at
the sublevel of intercorelation of particles and in that way define the structure
of factors in styles of leadership of the teaching process. It is also useful to
define variables that can influence the style of leadership in teaching. These
mentioned intentions will surely be the next step towards a deeper study of
teaching process management by the author of this paper.
Bibliography:
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for Cooperative Learning; Three Cases. Montreal: AERA.
Everston, C. M; Neal, K. W. (2006), Looking into Learning-Centered
Classrooms Implications for Classroom Managment. NEA.
Evertson, C. M., Emmer, E. T. & Worsham, M. E. (2006), Classroom
Management for Elementary Teachers. Boston, MA: Pearson Education.
Jurić, V. (2004), Pedagoški menadžment – refleksija opće ideje o
upravljanju. Pedagogijska istraživanja, Zagreb:1,137-148.
Kiper, H; Mischke, W. (2008), Uvod u opću didaktiku. Zagreb: Educa.
Marušić, S. (1993), Metode i stilovi rukovođenja U: Drandić, B. (gl. ur.)
Priručnik za ravnatelje. Zagreb: Znamen, 99-110.
Mušanović, M; Lavrnja, I. (2003.) Uspješno rukovođenje. U: Drandić, B.
(gl. ur.) Priručnik za ravnatelje. Zagreb: Znamen, 111-125.
Palekčić, M. (2007), Od kurikuluma do obrazovnih standarda. U: Previšić,
V. (ur.) Kurikulum – teorije, metodologija, sadržaj, struktura. Zagreb:
Školska knjiga, 39-116.
Rijavec, M. (2001), Teorije rukovođenja. U: Silov, M. (ur.) Zbornik radova.
Velika Gorica: Persona, 31-50.
Sanford, J. P; Emmer, E. T. (1986), Learning about Classroom Managment
throught Guided Observation and Analysis. San Francisco: AERS.
Sikavica,P: Bahtijević-Šiber,Š; Geiger, M. (2004.) Menadžment: teorija
menadžmenta i veliko empirijsko istraživanje u Hrvatskoj.
Zagreb:Masmedia.
Srića, V.(1994), Upravljanje kreativnošću. Zagreb: Školska knjiga.
Staničić, S. (2006), Menadžment u obrazovanju. Rijeka: vlastita naklada.
Vizek-Vidović, V. Vlahović-Štetić, V; Rijavec, M; Miljković, D. (2003),
Psihologija obrazovanja. Ekološki glasnik: Donja Lomnica
Vol VI (2010), No. 2, pp. 219-229
Cultural diversity and minorities’s dynamics in the local

and central press
A. Seceleanu, C. Gelan, E. Predescu
Andra Seceleanu, Cristina Gelan, Elena Predescu

Universitatea ”Andrei Şaguna” Constanţa
Abstract:
Our contemporary world has a major feature: Globalization,
but in spite of disappearance of the estate borders, there is
still a virtual one most of the times impossible to trespass:
culture diversity. Political and social representatives are
conscious that a good cultural unity, tolerance and harmony
between different cultures. Organisms and international
institutions analyze interethnic conflict situations and
establish reglementations to eliminate them. Governments
must do their best to fully understand the ethnical group
condition in their own country and in order to apply norms
and tolerance principles, dialogue and diversity rights
protection.
Starting from this configuration of the contemporary world,
we initiated a study in order to find out how the minorities
condition in Romania reflects in press. As a research
material we selected a group from the central and local
written press. By studying the chosen material, we
identified the ways how these problems are reflected in
Romanian and we revealed the topics associated with these
communities in press articles. Vast information, from a
previous research, we took the liberty to understand the
particularities of the journalists’ discourse but also of
communities’ and outline a true image of the studied issue.
Keywords:
Cultural diversity, community minorities, minority
conformist discourse, claiming minority discourse

220 A. Seceleanu, C. Gelan, E. Predescu
Introduction
The world of the future will be one of diversity, and diversity
will be the engine of the evaluations at the global level. Diversity
however involves tolerance and dialogue. As UNESCO stated in its
Declaration of Principles on Tolerance (1995), tolerance is respect,
acceptance and appreciation of the rich diversity of our world's cultures,
our forms of expression and ways of being human. So, tolerance is
harmony in difference. In the attempt to accomplish this tolerance and
protection climate, in our contemporary world, the role of the
governments, as well as those of the state institutions is extremely
important.
The declaration made by G. Ruffolo in 2001, questions the unity
in diversity but also cultural cooperation in EU outlining that the
European states „must consider culture as an essential element of the
European integration especially within the context of EU expansion”.
Under the influence of this declaration, there comes the necessity to
unveil the minority community condition, of their rights to diversity.
The stated principles meant to insure the minority community
protection, their integration in contemporary and future life.
Minority community protection is realized relying upon the
following principles (Bădescu, I.; Severin, A., 2002; Ichim, O., 2006):
1) The principle of diversity respect: differs from the principle of
tolerance, which supposes the arrogance of the hierarchic relation
between the tolerated and the tolerant (the minorities are not tolerated,
because they have a generated right equal as value with that of the
majority);
2) The principle of partnership living: the supposed general
minorities’ associate to the act of leading, and especially, to the act of
governing, without being aware of their number related to the whole
population;
3) The principle of positive discrimination supposes the
accordance of favors to the minorities, when that is necessary to
compensate the numeric inequality between the minority and the
majority (such favors take into consideration the right to have initiatives
for various domains, or the special rights to control the functioning of
the state’s institutions, or the non-citizens’ rights to vote for the local
region etc.);
Cultural diversity and minorities’s dynamics … 221
4) The principle of preserving the cultural identity takes into

account the creation of conditions to maintain the identification
elements of a specific community (language, religion, traditions, etc.):
- the danger of cultural homogenization, appearance and recognition of
a single cultural form;
- the appearance of the cultural and psychological disintegration
phenomenon for individuals as well as for societies;
5) The principle of multilateral integration (multiculturalism)
goes beyond the simple co-existence, it has to do with each member of
every entity, both majority and minority, to learn about, to understand,
to respect, and to express himself according to the specific culture
values of the other co-living cultural community.
These principles must be understood beyond the asserted theory,
because they do not determine just a political or economical vision, but
bring in a new paradigm in thinking and intercultural perception
(Affaya, M. N. E., 2000).
E. Vaddell (1999) underlined that in spite of the fact that the
geographical borders turn almost only virtual, there is a border not to
neglect, that of cultural diversity and when we do not take into account
the cultural diversity, there appear frustrations leading to intolerance, to
community conflict, racism and ethnocentrism. Thus, according to J.
Demorgon (2000), we must take into account that the notion of
interculturality is related to socializing process and includes borrowing
phenomena, exchange, interdependence, adapting to other cultures and
to history.
V. Ripoll (1999) in his study Les minorités dans le monde
outlined the fact that in all 185 members of UN, there are 7500 minority
ethnical groups and minority communities, talking in 6700 languages
and dialects and practice a broad variety of religions. In addition, in the
study Minority Languages in Europe, published in 2003, it was
emphasized the need of a realistic and pluridisciplinary articles of the
minority language protection issue.(Hogan-Brun, G & Wolff, S., 2003).
Analyzing the historical stages in forming modern national states
in Balkan peninsula, we can see the crucial role of linguistic, cultural
homogeneity idea but also religious in shaping a solid national
consciousness (Vavaris, A, 2007).
Types of Discourse Concerning the Minority Dynamics

In an elaborate study from 2002, Calen Rus identified three
types of discourse, concerning cultural diversity issue (Rus, C., 2002):
1) Majority discourse – it dominates the necessity of
communication, relationship and opening towards different cultures.
2) Minority conformist discourse - it emphasizes the fact they
are loyal citizens, that they feel like at home in Romania, they have a
good relationship with the others.
3) Claiming minority discourse - we are different and we want to
stay like that and be accepted like that.
Recently analyzed studies, concerning the minorities dynamics
we can identify aspects like: persecutions against religious minorities,
economical marginalization of the minorities, discriminations relying in
the ethnical origin and even antiterrorist legislation abuse.
In the report realized by Minority Rights Group International,
from July 1st, 2010, from Great Britain, the conclusions are concerned
with the persecutions against religious minorities are increasing and
they become manifest by an increase of religious nationalism,
economical marginalization of religious minority group and antiterrorist
legislation abuse. (La Croix, 2010).
The Eurobarometer from 2009 concerning the discrimination
issue due to ethnical origin identify the fact that the inhabitants of
Northern and Central European countries face discrimination forms met
in their country are widely spread. Such problems appear in
Netherlands, then France and Hungary, Sweden, Denmark and Malta. A
high level of discrimination is in Finland, Belgium, Greece and Italy but
also the Cyprus.
The countries facing the least discrimination events are those
from Lithuania, Poland, Latvia and Bulgaria. As far as the situation of
Romanian is concerned, according to the same barometer, only 46%
consider they face discrimination of ethnical origin. This study tries to
find some answers concerning the way in which they reflect, in written
press, the problems faced by minorities from Romania as well to
subjects associated to minorities in press articles.
Following the population structure in Romania, we can see that
the biggest ethnical group is represented by the Hungarians (6,6%), the
gypsies (2,5%). As a matter of fact, the gipsy dynamics is carefully
monitored by EU, which admits the existence of 10 million gypsies.
38%of these are stateless and 80% of adults do not have a job. Le
Figaro ( August 26th 2010), commenting upon the UNICEF report

concerning the gipsy citizens, consider that most come from Romania
and have some integration problems. Nevertheless, we can see that EU
does not have an unitary politics (for all members) concerning the
gypsies problems, but every state has its own policy concerning this
issue.
Starting with these considerations, we have undertaken a study
where we want to find out, with our own resources, the matching of the
information from European press with that from Romanian press.
Research Methodology
Study Objective
O: Determining the way cultural diversity and minorities’s dynamics are
reflected in the local and central press.
Working Hypothesis
H1. There are significant differences between central and local press
approach
H2. The press uses the stereotypes when reflecting minority issues
Used Tools
- the editions of 2 national publications and 2 local publications
Working procedure
There have been monitored the editions of 2 national publications and 2
local ones.
Local publicasions was chosen from Constanta region (south-est
Romanian) because it is considered a intercultural model area. The
monitored period was between March 1st 2009-September 31st 2009.
There have been centralized all the articles involving topics on the
minority groups from Romania.
Results
There have been analyzed 655 articles-510 appeared in central
written press and 145 appeared in local written press-referring to the
minorities problems, to the journalists’ attitudes towards the minorities
they referred to as well as the topics associated to them in press articles.
Following the population structure in Romania, we can see that
this involves 89,5% Romanians, the ret of it 10,5% representing ethnical
minorities like: 6,6% are Hungarians, 2,5% are gypsies, 0,2% are Tatars
and Turkish, and 1,2 % represents other ethnical groups.
As far as the Constantza population is concerned, we can see
that this includes: 95,2% Romanians, 1,8% Turksih and Tatars, 1,7%
Gypsies and 1,3% other ethnical groups. We can see that as far as the
Hungarian ethnical groups is concerned, there is no member of it, in
Constantza.
Constantza is considered an ethnical mosaique and a model of
intercultural cohabitation although research concerning population
structure emphasize the fact there is a lower ethnical percentage than the
national average. This percentage can prove, on the one hand the
ethnical groups perfect integration so that its members started to
consider themselves Romanian as times goes by( this supposition
appears in accordance with the official discourse which is promoted in
the Romanian cultural space) and on the other hand, the fact that this
assessment, appearing within the official discourse in Romania, can be a
stereotype, originating within a historical truth that cannot be sustained
anymore.
The topics proposed to be analyzed, as far as the central and
local press are concerned have been the following: accessibility in
institutions, accessibility to education, health care, NGA care, charity,
casuistry, combating discrimination, interethnic conflict, discrimination,
minorities’ rights, cultural identity, social inclusion, criminal acts, work
integration, protection, successful stories, ethnical communication, lives
in the community, abuse victims.
As far as the topic Accessibility in institutions, in the local press
there appear only topics concerning topics concerning Hungarian
ethnical group 7, and as far as other ethnical groups like (gypsies,
Turkish-tartars or others) there is no articles on the topic. The same
topic, in the local press, does not refer to ethnical minorities.
The topic Accessibility to education appear in central press
referring to gipsy ethnical groups (27 articles), Hungarian (2 articles),
but there is no reference concerning Turkish-tartar ethnical group. In
local press, this topic appears only referring to gipsy ethnical group (12
articleses) and to the other ethnical groups representatives (2 articles).
Health care, NGA care, Charity, Casuistry, Discrimination and
Abuse victims are topics appearing in central and local press, referring
only to gipsy ethnical group, the greatest number of topics concerning
mainly NGA care (14 articles in the central press, 5 in local press),
followed by Casuistry (10 articles in central press and one in local

press) and by Charity (3 articles in central press and 1 articles in local
press). The topics Health care, Discrimination and Abuse victims
benefit of the same number of articles in central press (2 articles), as
well as in the local one (1 articles).
As far as the topic Combating discrimination, in the central
press this appears referring to gipsy ethnical group (2 articles),
Hungarian ethnical group (3 articles) and other minority ethnical groups
(1 articles). In local press, the topic refers only to gipsy ethnical group
(2 articles) and other minority ethnical groups (1 article).
The topic Minorities’ rights appears in central press referring
only to Hungarian ethnical group (5 articles) and to other minority
groups (6 articles), and in local press there is only reference about
minority groups (6 articles).
In central press there are topics referring to all ethnical groups
related to the topics Cultural identity (meaning: 31 articles concerning
the gipsy minority group, 15 topics concerning the Turkish-Tatar
ethnical group, 20 topics concerning the Hungarian ethnical group and
24 topics concerning other ethnical minorities and Lives in the
community (99 articles concerning the gipsy ethnical group, 9 topics
concerning the Turkish-Tatar ethnical group and 3 topics concerning the
other ethnical groups. Nevertheless, in local press, these topics refer
only to gipsy ethnical group (3 articles, respectively 12 articles),
Turkish-tatars (12 articles, respectively 9 articles) and other existent
minorities (8articleses, respectively 3 articles). The fact that there is no
reference to Hungarian ethnical group in local press it is justified as this
group cannot be found within ethnical groups in Constantza.
The topic Social inclusion appears in referring to gipsy ethnical
group (11 articles), Hungarian (3 articles) and to other ethnical groups
(4 articles) in central press, and in local press this refers only to gipsy
ethnical group (2 articles).
Most of the articles appearing in the central press are concerned
with the topic Work integration which is one of the topics approached in
the central press particularly concerning the gipsy ethnical group (64
articles) while in the local press besides the 11 articles concerning gipsy
ethnical group, we also encounter reference to Turkish-Tatar ethnical
group.
Successful stories is a topic appearing within the central press
referring exclusively to gipsy ethnical group (5 articles). In local press, the
topic comes up as far as the gipsy ethnical group is concerned but also five
times concerning the Turkish-Tatar ethnical group.
There is no reference to gipsy and Turkish-Tatar ethnical groups in
local press concerning Ethnical communication, this appearing only for the
Hungarian ethnical group (5 articles) but also for other ethnical groups (10
articles). The same topic, in the local press, concerns the Turkish-Tatar
ethnical group (6 articles) but also other ethnical groups (3 articles).
A difference is represented by the topic called Protection because
this one does not appear in the central press or in the local one.
Unjustified mentioning of the ethnical groups in criminal deeds re
presents another aspect analyzed in this study, with a major importance
concerning the confirmation or the infirmation of the second proposed
hypothesis. (The press used the stereotypes when reflects minority issues).
In this respect, according to the analyzed data, we can see that in the
local press, such mentioning mainly concern the gipsy ethnical group (69
articles), and such references are made for the Hungarian ethnical group or
other ethnical groups but to a less extent, 5 articles, 2 articles. The same
problem, in the local press, makes reference only to gypsies and Hungarians,
the articles being less: 5 articles concerning gypsies and 2 articles concerning
the Hungarians.
As far as the way to articles the subjects debated in articles are
concerned, most of the negative articles we encounter in central press, 211
articles referring to gipsy ethnical group. Negative articles, in central press
also appear at the Hungarian ethnical group, 12 articles. As far as the
Turkish-Tatar ethnical group is concerned, in central press, there are no
negative articles.
As far as the positive articles of the debated topics is concerned, we
can see that most of the topics refer to gypsies, with 79 articles. In the central
press, we encounter some positive articles concerning the Turkish-Tatar
ethnical group (19 such articles), the Hungarian ethnical group (10 such
articles) and as far as other ethnical groups are concerned (8 articles).
Some of the debated topics in the articles from central press have a
neutral articles, and the ethnical gipsy minority is situated in the first place
(86 articles). This is followed by some articleses concerning other ethnical
minority groups in the country (30 articles), then references to Turkish-Tatar
ethnical group (20 such articles), in the last place being on the last place
concerning Hungarian ethnical group (16 articles).
As far as the positive, negative and neutral aspects reflected within
the written articles from local press we can say that: positive articles are
realized mostly for the Turkish-tatar ethnical group (12 articles), the neutral
one is realized for gypsies (60 such articles) and the negative one concerns
only the gypsies (17 such articles). In the local press positive and neutral
references are mostly for Turkish-Tatar ethnical group (12 articles,
respectively 23 neutral) and for other ethnical groups (5 positive articles,
respectively 18 neutral articles).
The initiative of writing articles is another important dimension for
the research proposed in this study. As far as this dimension is concerned, we
have two potential variables like: journalist’s initiative and the community’s
one. Thus, out of the 510 articles, appearing in central press, 353 are at the
journalist’s initiative and only 157 are at community’s initiative. As far as the
local press is concerned, things are completely reversed: out of the 145
articles, 98 are at the community’s initiative and only 47 at the journalist’s.
This shows that locally journalists interact to a greater extent with the
community’s members and with its representatives.
The results of the analysis referring to the four ethnical groups
brought in discussion (which actually, next to the Romanian citizens are part
of Romania population structure), shows that most of the articles written at
the journalists’ initiative, in central and local press, concern gypsies (296
articles in central press, 52 articles in the local one) . The same thing happens
for the articles written at the community’s initiative: the gypsies have the
most articles written at the community’s initiative in central press (80
articles) but also in the local one (52 articles).
Articles concerning the Hungarian ethnical group appear only in the
central press, the number of articles at journalists’ initiative being almost
equal with that of articles at community’s initiative: 23 articles at the
journalists’ initiative, 22 articles at community’s initiative.
Although, in central press, articles written at the journalist’s initiative
are primary to those written at the community’s initiative, concerning other
ethnical groups, as well as the Turkish-Tatar ethnical group are a little
different. We can notice that in central press, concerning other ethnical
groups there are the most articles written at the community’s initiative (35
articleses), the number of articles written at the journalist’s initiative being
less than a half in comparison to those written at the community’s initiative
(15 such articles). Regarding the written articles on the Turkish-Tatar group,
we can say that the number of articles made at community’s initiative is
almost equal with that of articles made at the journalists’ initiative: 20
articles made at community’s initiative and 19 articles made at journalists’
initiative.
In local press, the initiative of articles topics concerning the Turkish-
Tatar ethnical group belongs mostly to community (25 articles), the number
of articles belonging to the journalist being reduced proportionally to less

than the number of articles made at the community’ initiative (10 such
articles). The situation is the same for the writing articles initiative
concerning other ethnical groups: at community’s initiative we can
encounter 21 such articles and at the journalist’s initiative the proportion is
about 10% (2 articles at the journalist’s initiative).
Conclusion
The ethnical group mostly approached by the central press as well as
by the local press is that of the gypsies. When retelling about the gipsy
community and its members there have been identified stereotypes and
dominantly critical and negative attitudes. An aspect to be outlined is that
concerning the unjustified mentioning about the criminal deeds of the
members of this group.
Another very important aspect concerning this study is represented by
the results referring to cultural identity issue, reflected within the articles
from the central and local press in a percentage of 17% in comparison to
other issues approached in this study.
The comparative analysis of the results reveal the fact that the local
press in comparison to the national one widely has a neutral position when
approaching aspects concerning the ethnical groups, part of the population
structure. In addition, minority communities face difficulties when it comes
about accessing central written press, this being proven by the small number
of articles written at the community’s incentive. In comparison to the central
press, accessing local press by the minority communities is done to a larger
extent, being proven by the results showing that the number of the articles
written at the community’s incentive is twice larger than the number of
articles written at a journalist’s incentive.
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Vol VI (2010), No. 2, pp. 230-240
Learning Approaches in Higher Education

C. N. Bran
Camelia-Nadia Bran
University “Aurel Vlaicu” of Arad
Abstract: The analysis of some of the learning approaches

in higher education started from N. Entwistle' conception
(1988) which says the development of the conception
regarding students' learning (from memorising to
transforming) and intellectual development (from dualism
to relativism) are factors that influence the option for a
certain approach to learning and they are based on the
argument that a learner doesn't approach leaning in just
one way. Other research emphasise the role of the
educational environment as the third factor of influence
regarding the approaches to learning. This involves the
nature of the working task, the circumstances in which
performance will take place, providing the data concerning
the task etc. (Bigss, J., 1987).
Keywords: higher education, learning approaches,
metacognitiv regulation, diagnose research
1. Factors influencing learning approach in higher education
Learning approach by students is reflected in their effort and

involvement in the learning process in their desire and complete
understanding of the contents of the task achievement manner.
Referring to the factors that determine the learning approaches by the
students, Entwistle, N. (1988) shown that, at the university level, there
is a development in the nature of students’ thinking, they gradually
moving from, the belief in dualism to the recognition of relativism.
Thus, the belief that the answers submitted by teachers are the only
source of knowledge and must be reproduced in exam preparation the
Learning Approaches in Higher Education 231
students reach personal conclusions based on evidence and personal

interpretations.
The second influential factor was identified by Saljo (1979 quoted
by Entwistle, N. (1988), he describes a similar development of the
concept of learning approach. It was noted that there is a contrast
between students who perceive learning as involving information
storage and reproduction, and those who try to draw its own meaning in
order to transform the material provided There are three stages of this
development. In the first stage, the student becomes aware of the
influence of the learning context, what to learn, and how it should
proceed (Gibbs, G., 1981 apud Saljo 1979), but this awareness does not
apply necessarily their own learning. The second stage is related to the
distinction between “learning for life”; versus “learning for school”. In
this case they recognize that the environment in which learning takes
place is sometimes artificial and unrelated to the external environment
The third stage of development is to make the distinction between
“learning” and ”a real learning”; or between learning and understanding.
The existence of these stages in the conceptualisation of learning
suggests that this process is not static or constant over time. (Bradford,
K., 2004). According to Entwistle, N. (1988), the development of the
conception of learning (from reproduction to transformation) and
intellectual development (from dualism to relativism) are factors that
influence the choice of a particular approach to learning and support the
argument that a student does not address learning in one way only.
The authors distinguish between the five conceptions of learning:

1. Learning as accumulation of knowledge. Learning means to
enhance your knowledge. “Start with a small bag in which there
aren’t too many things, and gradually fill it with more and more
things.
2. Learning as memorizing information. To learn means to
transfer information from various sources in the memory of student
3. Learning as the acquisition of useful knowledge and skills.
To learn means to assimilate information and to form skills, abilities,
and competencies useful in everyday life.
4. Learning as understanding of the content. To learn means to
establish connections between ideas and information to discover the
meaning of content and appreciate their value.
232 C. N. Bran
5. Learning as personal interpretation of knowledge. To teach

is to give a personal significance for knowledge, to analyse them
critically and constructively, and reconfigure them, and reconfigure
your own way of thinking in the same time.
These concepts can be subsumed under two broad categories of
vision on learning:
Learning conceived as memorization and
reproduction, including the first three categories of
conceptions
Learning conceived as understanding and
personal interpretation of knowledge. In this category
would include the last two conceptions of student
learning
Other research emphasizes the role of the educational environment
as a third factor of influence in the approach to learning. It concerns the
nature of the task, the conditions under which performance will occur,
providing data on the tasks. (Bigss, J., 1987) etc. Saljo (1979) (cited by
Gibbs, G., 1981) asked a number of 72 subjects to read a paper on the
surface and deep approach of the learning. He concluded that the vast
majority of subjects recognized the dichotomy between deep approach
and surface approach and argued that in the future they will devise
methods and procedures for learning from this perspective. A surprising
result was that very few were identified as belonging exclusively to one
of these categories. The general attitude of 61 of 72 subjects is that they
use both ways depending on the context of the learning. This research
suggests that the manner of learning approach can be changed by the
vision of the course and teaching methods.
Biggs (Biggs, J., 1987) summarizes the factors that influence the
way learning is approached as follows:
1. Factors relating to student: patterns of
information processing skills and locus of control, the
previous general knowledge and the experience level
2. Situational factors related to the nature of the
task, expected performance, the manner of assessment,
course structure etc.
This breakdown highlights the role of personality factors in the
learning approach. In addition to the thinking characteristics of students
and their conception about learning, learning approach is influenced by
students’ belief that good academic results are due to their self or to
external factors, to personal experience and prior knowledge.
2. Ways of approaching learning.
Earlier research (Marton, F., Saljo, R., 1976) identified two main
approaches to learning by students: the surface approach and in-depth
approach.
In-depth approach of the learning involves establishing
connections between new information and content and the old ones,
organization and structuring of content ideas, cognitive restructuring
schemes, focus on evidence and arguments, establishing personal
connections with real world experience. Students who adopt a deep
approach are intrinsically motivated in learning, seeking to extract
meanings from what they learn. (Entwistle, N., 2000) and use their
metacognitive skills to monitor and regulate learning. (Blumberg, P.,
2000).
In-depth approach is correlated with the existence of intent to
understand. Within the research, students were asked to read a text and
then were asked questions aimed at understanding. Responses were
placed on a scale of 1-4, where 1 meant a very low level of
understanding and 4 a high level of understanding. Among students
identified as performing surface learning five gave responses that
revealed their placement on the last position in terms of understanding,
8 had provided adequate answers for next level of understanding, a
student assigned to level three of understanding, but none could not be
categorized in the maximum (4) understanding. Among those
performing in-depth learning, five responses were classified as
reflecting the best understanding, 4 were enrolled in the level
immediately inferior and none in the lower levels of understanding. This
research demonstrates that the understanding involved in learning
achievement is directly proportional to the in-depth, thorough learning.
Learning is an intrinsic value for the student.
Surface approach to learning involves memorizing information,
withholding information literally without students‘ personal reflection
and interpretation, the difficulty of differentiating the general concepts,
principles from the laws of evidence and arguments on which they are
based. (Dumitru, I.Al., 2001). Students who develop a surface approach
of the learning are extrinsically motivated, especially by the fear of
failure (Biggs, J., Moore, P., 1993). Surface approach to learning
requires the student’s intention to accomplish the task or learning
requirements. The emphasis is on some „signs” such as the text itself
234 C. N. Bran
and on the secondary elements, such the memorization for the

evaluation. The combination of concepts and facts are not made after a
thorough reflection. There is a failure to distinguish between the
principles and the evidence that led to their establishment, between the
old and the new. The tasks are seen as external constraints, knowledge
is something different from everyday reality. (Ramsden, P., 1998 as
cited in Morgan 1993).
Saljo, R. &; Wyndhamn (1993) together with other researchers
(Entwistle, N., Ramsden, P., 1983) have stated the need for a third
conceptualisation on learning approach. They have named it “the
strategic approach”. It refers to students who are learning to get the
highest grade possible through effective time management and
organized study methods and by focusing on the evaluation process.
According to Entwistle, N. (2000 pag.3), “interviews suggest that
strategic students have two areas of interest - academic content and
requirements of the evaluation”. If identification of “in depth-
approaches” and “surface approaches”; has its origins in research that
examines the significance obtained from reading a text, dealing with
“strategic approach; is clear from research that relate to everyday
situations (Morgan, A., 1993).
Bowden J and Marton, F. (1998) says that changing the learning
environment for students, most desirable approach would be adopted.
Bowden identified some common features of higher education that
encourages the surface approach of the learning. For example, dividing
the course into several short units, the immediate assessment, evaluation
requiring reproduction, providing feedback through the grades only, un-
return to the evaluated contents and establish a low number of intra-and
interdisciplinary links represent some of the factors that favour the
surface approach. It follows that it is very important to design courses
so as to produce understanding.
To summarize, in-depth learning involves critical analysis of new
ideas, linking them with the concepts and principles already known, and
results in achieving understanding and long-term retention of
information so that it can be used in solving problems within new
contexts. It can therefore be transferred. By contrast, surface learning
refers to the tacit acceptance of information and memorization of
isolated and unrelated facts. Has the effect of retaining surface material
prepared for evaluation and not conducive to understanding and
transfer.
The table below summarizes the major characteristics of the three

approaches to learning (deep, surface and strategic), and illustrates the
importance of how curriculum management in higher education. Setting
clear goals, creating a flexible environment for learning and use
appropriate learning strategies that stimulate students’ self confidence
are some of the factors identified as encouraging in-depth learning.
Table.1 Ways of approaching learning

Surface
Deep learning Strategic learning
Learning
Accepting
new facts and
Examining new facts Targeting the students'
ideas
and ideas critically, learning process
uncritically
and tying them into towards achieving
and
Definition existing cognitive maximum academic
attempting to
structures and making performance, by the
store them as
numerous links objective means of
isolated,
between ideas. grading.
unconnected,
items.
Looking for meaning. Relying on
rote learning.
Focussing on the
Relying on both rote
central argument or Focussing on
leaning and
concepts needed to outwards
meaningful learning,
solve a problem. signs and the
depending on the
formulae
assessment task.
needed to
Interacting actively. solve a
Distinguishing problem.
between argument and
Characteristics
evidence. Receiving
Using systematic
information
learning methods to
Making connections passively.
receive the highest
between different Failing to
mark possible.
module/chapters/units. distinguish
Two focus points: the
principles
academic material and
from
the requirements of the
Relating new and examples.
assessment.
previous knowledge.
236 C. N. Bran
Linking course Treating parts

content to real life. of modules
and
programmes
as separate.
Not
recognising
new material
as building on
previous
work.
Seeing course
content
simply as
material to be
learnt for the
exam.
Having an intrinsic Studying a Choosing the
curiosity in the degree for the subjects/specialisati
subject. qualification ons where they get
and not being high marks easily.
Being determined to interested in Extrinsic
do well and mentally the subject. motivation.
engaging when doing
academic work. Not focussing Wanting to receive
on academic high marks and
Having the areas, but other external
Encouraged appropriate emphasising rewards
by Students' background others (e.g. (scholarships etc.)
knowledge for a social, sport). Driving to succeed.
sound foundation.
Lacking
Having time to pursue background
interests, through knowledge
good time and Paying attention to
management. understanding the teachers’s
necessary to requirement and to
understand their own
material. assessment.
Positive experience of
education leading to
confidence in ability Not enough Good time
to understand and time / too management.
succeed. high a Using efficient
workload. learning techniques.
Cynical view
of education, Pragmatic view of
believing that education and learning
factual recall Results oriented.
is what is
required.
High anxiety.
Showing personal Conveying Providing feedback
interest in the subject. disinterest or only by means of
even a marks.
Bringing out the negative
structure of the attitude to the
subject. material. Not being aware that
the educational
Concentrating on and Presenting environment that they
ensuring plenty of material so created and coordinate
time for key concepts. that it can be leads to a certain
perceived as a students' approach to
Confronting students' series of learning.
misconceptions. unrelated
Encouraged
Engaging students in facts and
by Teachers'
active learning. ideas.
Using assessments Allowing

that require thought, students to be
and requires ideas to passive.
be used together. Creating a
Assessing for competitive
Relating new material independent educational
to what students facts (short environment.
already know and answer
understand. questions).
238 C. N. Bran
Allowing students to Rushing to

make mistakes cover too
without penalty and much
rewarding effort. material.
Being consistent and Emphasizing

fair in assessing coverage at Appreciating the
declared intended the expense students who receive
learning outcomes, of depth. the highest grades.
and hence establishing
trust Creating
undue anxiety
or low
expectations
of success by
discouraging
statements or
excessive
workload.
Having a
short
assessment
cycle.
We believe that the first two dimensions (deep approach and surface
learning) find their foundation in the psychology of learning and
development. The strategic approach is legitimate, as a category, by the
learning management principles, referring to planning, organizing,
monitoring, performance evaluation. We believe that the juxtaposition
of the latter one, has been made somewhat artificial, because the
„strategic learners” can meet the characteristics of learning in both
depth and surface manner, depending on the educational environment
created by the teacher. Deep approach to learning and especially
strategic approach to learning involve students' good knowledge of the
task, and of the ways of solving them efficiently. They also mean good
planning skills, the monitoring and assessment of the resources and
processes involved in learning. The premises for metacognision are thus
created.
Bibliography
Biggs, J., (1987), Student approaches to learning and studying, research

monograph, Australian Council for Educational Research, Radford
House
Biggs, J., Moore, P, (1993). The process of learning. Sydney: Prentice
Hall
Blumberg, P., (2000). Evaluating the evidence that problem-based
learners are self-directed learners: a review of the literature. In: D.H.
Evenson & C.E. Hmelo (eds.), „Problem-Based Learning: a Research
Perspective on Learning Interactions”, Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum
Associates
Bradford, K., (2004), Deep and Surface Approaches to Learning and
the Strategic Approach to Study in Higher Education; Based on
Phenomenographic Research, www.arasite.org/guestkb.htm,
Bowden, J., Marton, F., (1998) The University of Learning, London:
Kogan Page
Case, J, Gunstone, R., (2006), Metacognition development: a view
beyond cognition, în „Research in Science Education”, nr.36/ 2006,
pag.51-67, Springer Link
Dumitru, I.Al., (2001), Dezvoltarea gândirii critice şi învăţarea
eficientă, Editura de Vest, Timişoara
Entwistle, N., Ramsden, P.R., (1983), Understanding Student Learning,
Croom Helm, London.
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Assessment: Conceptual Frameworks and Educational Contexts. Paper
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for Students. Centre for Research on Learning and Instruction.
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Vol VI (2010), No. 2, pp. 241-245
Research concerning psychological abilities of the

successful school manager
C. Novac
Corneliu Novac
Reader
TSTD - University of Craiova
Abstract:
The current research tackles a particular aspect of psychosocial
problem of successful school management: the extent to which
psychological variables related to the personality of the leader
may condition the efficiency and implicitly the success of his
managerial actions. By applying the NEO PI-R questionnaire to
50 teachers and school managers in the district of Dolj, we have
come to the conclusion that the most important psychological
variables that influence the success in management are:
sociability, agreeability openness to new teaching experiences,
analytical and emotional intelligence.
We have also tried emphasize the skills needed for a school
manager in his attempt to fulfill the requirements resulting from
his status and to motivate his subordinates in achieving the goals
of the organization, be it a class of pupils, a school, a school
inspectorate or a ministry.
Key concepts: managerial success, adaptive conduct,
characteristic adaptations, personality traits, the BIG FIVE
model, sociability, openness to creative ideas, agreeability,
reliability, analytical intelligence, emotional intelligence.
1. Managerial success – a multi-determined psychosocial variable

The term ‘management’ found its way into the field of education due to
the school personnel’s preoccupation to, on the one hand, bring to light all the
educational resources available and to increase the efficiency of the educational
act, on the other hand. In this regard, the actions undertaken by school
management are to increase the performances of the learning institution. All the
psycho-pedagogical research agrees on the complex multi-factorial features of

242 C. Novac
success achievement in “the science and art of leadership in socio –human

organizations”, as the field of management is synthetically defined (Moraru,
1995; Cosmovici, Iacob, 1998; Prodan, 1999; Joiţa, 2004).
Management is a science because its is based on synthesizing and
generalizing the practical experience of leadership, on the formulation and
application of principles and laws of leadership, on the implementation of the
most efficient solutions to the problems of a socio –human organization.
Management is at the same time ‘the art’ of the leader in achieving
objectives through the mobilization of efforts on the part of all the members in
that particular organization. In other words, management is the art of working
with 4 elements: ideas (the prospect, the objectives, syllabi, strategies);
relations (organizational structures, relations between elements, actions, tasks,
the authority/freedom balance, centralization/de-centralization); people
(training, motivation, release from authority, stimulation, evaluation); resources
(specification, diversity, preoccupation, adaptation, functionality, integration,
further training)-E. Joiţa, 2004, p.17.
In this respect, the success of any management activity in the field of
education presupposes taking into consideration in equal measure all the
possible psycho-social implications which may determine the efficiency of the
leader’s behavior, as well as those which make up the respective school
institution. In other words, the psychological dimension of the personalities of
those involved in the educational relationship (teachers, school inspectors,
pupils etc) should provide the starting point and the finishing line in achieving
the success of leadership in the educational activity.
Psychology research indicates that success, especially in the
educational field, is conditioned by psychological components such as: general
aptitudes and special psycho-pedagogical ones, the capacity of self-perception,
the motivation for self-achievement, of social appreciation, psycho-social
competence etc. (Mitrofan, 1998; Cosmovici, Iacob, 1998; Joiţa, 2004).
2. Modern research on evaluating the structure and dynamics of
personality within the framework of managerial requirements
The uniqueness of one’s personality and behavior represents a priority
in the explanatory preoccupations of psychology. Recent psychological
research in this direction indicates that the infinite variability defining the
psychological specificity of the human way of being is determined by the
simultaneous differentiation of the traits of personality, on several levels.
These psychological structures result from the impact of basic
psychological and motivational tendencies, on the one hand, and from the
psycho-social variables (parental or educators’ requirements, influences from
the social cultural norms, from the entourage etc.) on the other. The structures
Research Concerning Psychological Abilities … 243
in question account for the multitude of adaptive conducts of the subject or for
the characteristic adaptations, as specialized terminology names them. These
conducts are nothing but the feno-typical expression of basic psychological
tendencies of an individual’s and of his/her personality features. As a
subdivision of these specific adaptations there arises a person’s self image and
simultaneously we witness the emergence of the cognitive, affective and
behavioral infrastructure of the character structure of that person.
As shown by psycho-genetic research, the character is interiorized with
respect to all the values transmitted by the socio-educational environment to the
child as requirements to abide by. Once internalized, these values will influence
the child’s behavior, the character being the highest ranking structure of
relations and self-regulatory for personality. Concluding, character traits in
leaders or subordinates may affect the organizational activity in a positive or in
a negative way.
3. The methodology of research, concepts, objective, investigation
approaches
On the basis of recent research in the field of personality psychology,
the present research has sought the accomplishment of the following
objectives:
− establishing a set of features relevant for the successful behavior of a school
manager;
− setting into practice a valid model of evaluation for the respective features;
− establishing a profile for the successful manager in the educational field
based on the relation between the personality traits and the specific behavior
generated by them.
Our investigative attempt has relied for theoretical support on the latest
and most notorious personality explanatory theoretical concept i.e. the five
dimension factorial model conceived by P.T. Costa and R.R. McCrae (see
Minulescu, 1996).
From a methodological point of view, we have used the NEO-
Personality Inventory-Revised Questionnaire (idem) in order to identify the
dominant personality traits, as they are configured in the structure of the
personality of the successful manager. The subjects tested included 50 teachers,
school managers with acknowledged experience in the field of school
management, participating in a post-university training course.
4. Presentation and interpretation of research data
The data obtained as a result of using the NEO PI-R questionnaire have
revealed the fact that following competences are of the utmost importance in
244 C. Novac
leadership efficiency. They are tightly related to personality traits. The most
important ones are listed below:
− Sociability: the most successful leaders display considerable social skills,
which is understandable since they spend most of their time in relationship
with their subordinates;
− Openness to creative ideas- successful leaders are usually open to new
teaching experiences;
− Agreeability contributes to managerial success; good leaders are generally
cooperative and flexible, knowing how to rephrase a difficult situation in
positive terms.
− Reliability is characteristic of a good leader in the sense that when asked to
perform certain actions, the others need to know they can rely on him/her;
− Analytical intelligence is found in successful leaders, helping them think
strategically.
− Emotional intelligence makes successful leaders be aware of their own
qualities and defects, thus helping them create and maintain social relations.
The way in which these personality features are manifested in action
proves very useful to leaders in the educational field.
5. Conclusions
An efficient leadership operates under the conditions of psycho-social
relations within an organization, setting into value the psychological resources
of the members in that organization, which is also valid in the educational field.
From here derives the idea that the manager of an educational organization (be
it a class of pupils, school, a school inspectorate or ministry) should take into
consideration all the psychological and social implications of the leadership
dynamics. In this regard, the school manager should take into account all the
invisible psycho-dynamic processes that influence the behavior of the members
in that organization, the one-on-one relations that exist in the sub-groups and in
the entire organization.
Also, the manager must identify the potential personality disorders of
the subordinates and forward measures to counteract them. This type of
measures refers to the acknowledgement of dysfunctional behavior.
By knowing these personality structures the manager will be able to
identify to a greater extent the sense and significance of various behavioral
motivations of subordinates in the organization. Thus the manager will have
at his disposal a variety of measures for effective intervention in solving
interpersonal conflicts as well as for better understanding his/her own
decisions thus ensuring the success of the organization under his leadership.
Research Concerning Psychological Abilities … 245
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Iucu, R.B., 2000, Managementul şi gestiunea dusei de elevi. Fundamente
teoretice şi metodologice, Editura Polirom, Iaşi.
Joiţa, E., 2004, Managementul educaţional. Profesorul-manager, Editura
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psihologică, Garell Publishing House, Bucureşti.
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Vol VI (2010), No. 2, pp. 246-252
About school network decentralization

in Gorj county
V. L. Andrei
Vasile Liviu Andrei

Faculty of Physical Education and Sports
Abstract: This paper presents practical aspects of

decentralization school network encountered last year in Pre
School in Gorj. This took into account the reorganization of
school network according to school population dynamics,
especially in rural areas of labor mobility in both urban and
rural areas, at the request of local communities in order to
ensure equal opportunities to education for all children,
increasing quality of education, upgrading school facilities
and cost effectiveness of educational administration
In this highly complex process are covered actions and
different areas of the local and school curricula, pupils’
choices and their correlation with local needs of the present
and future labor market. It stresses the complementary
activities of this phenomenon, those related to school
management, counseling and guidance, training, financial
management, academic and extracurricular programs and
projects, EU projects, partnerships and examples of good
practice, inclusion and social cohesion at EU level.
Keywords: education, decentralization, quality, upgrading,
efficiency.
Globalization of economy and markets, including labor market

is a challenge to the social reality, a new reality with dynamic and
structure changes that school must take into account increasingly for
future projects and programs in education and training. All these aspects
are added to the education globalization and lifelong learning without

About school network decentralization in Gorj county 247
which obtaining and maintaining a place in the labor market becomes

problematic.
Our current school „equips’ young people with information,
knowledge and those rather theoretical, abstract, speculative, rather than
enriching them with skills, which means much more. This essential
requirement comes from a new type of society and economy,
knowledge and technological development, the explosion of information
and therefore the mechanisms for selecting and processing them.
Decentralization, process already initiated in Gorj county
concerns four major areas: school network, human resources, education
management and financing. The next steps in implementing this project
is expected schools to be run by a manager appointed by the mayor to
the local council proposal, which is not required to be a teacher.
Management Board will no longer deal with teaching. Staff Committee
will be responsible for this. The County Board of Education will deal
strictly with school curriculum, standards of quality for the education
process, control and monitoring. Since 2010, financing per student has
passed, which resulted in restructuring and resizing of the county school
system.
That is why decentralization is perhaps the last chance to restore
performance in education, not only in terms of spending, but also its
orientation to the real needs of market and society. With one condition:
students, parents, teachers and mayor sincerely wish to make both
teaching and education and not just be a personal affair of each.
Facing the reality, PhD. Nicolae Robu’s words, Chancellor at
University Politehnica in Timisoara, express a hard fact to be changed
as soon as possible. Otherwise, performance, progress and civilization
remain far from us, "Romanian education system tries to develop
mathematicians, literary critics, biologists and other scientists from
people who are not born for it, ignoring what could grow to bear fruit,
but not cultivated, there is no hard market: honor, honesty, fairness,
justice, truth, tolerance, solidarity, respect for nature, respect for
property, creativity, initiative, knowledge useful in the everyday life.
Education must be redefined as that one oriented to values, skills and
interest in and to society”. In order not to get loss of moral, aesthetic
and social values presented above by Professor Robu, we present below
the strategic objectives of school education development in Gorj with
parallel concerns of the management team of the County Board of
248 V. L. Andrei
Education to achieve decentralization:

a) adapting the curriculum requirements of a company
changing by:
implementation of the new regulatory and curriculum in
schools;
linking curriculum with local needs, with regional
development areas in the county, with the Regional Action Plan For
Education ( PRAISE), with the Local Action Plan For Education
(LEAP), with the county development strategy;
achieving admission to high school based on students
potential;
profiles adapt to local needs of development;
approaching the school curriculum in terms of student and
community, encouraging the individual learning and training skills.
b) human, material and financial resources management by:
training and developing managers, staff and auxiliary
teaching;
management through methodological advice, local and
regional area seminars;
the appointment of good practice through scientific sessions
in managerial;
promoting participatory management;
the existence of a working group to monitorize managerial
control system;
implementation of risk management system;
developing psycho-pedagogical skills and expertise of staff
and managers;
organizing training courses at university level;
providing financial and material resources;
providing resources for compulsory education;
developing school and virtual libraries;
developing virtual laboratories.
c) a more intensive development of school - community
relation by:
maintaining and enhancing appropriate institutional
relationships between educational institutions and local government,
districts and regions;
strengthening relations with their social and economic
medium;
promoting and developing the projects initiated by the

European Commission (Comenius, Arion, Leonardo Grundtving);
promoting intercultural, multicultural and equal
opportunities;
the development of school educational programs and projects;
Integrated school campuses for basic, complementary and
continuous education;
d) training by:
offer training plan based on forecasts of development;
provision of training based on training standards and
professional skills;
advice and career guidance;
training program linking local and regional development;
organizing learning in real working conditions through practical
training internships in businesses;
monitoring and analysis of the relevance of graduate
employment for professional analysis and integration of socio-professional
insertion.
Regarding the performing teaching staff, schools have not got yet the
necessary autonomy in Gorj, the main obstacle being the absence of
legislative regulations. The current legislation partially supports this staff
acquisition only for the children clubs and vocational schools.
Educational management is currently perhaps the wider framework
of autonomy, supporting the field of school education and extra-curricular
activities, projects and extra-curricular programs, non-formal educational
activities of the children clubs, teacher/pupil consultancy organized by
teachers. Most of Gorj county schools, whether they are primary, secondary
or high school, have included in their management programs and educational
activities, in their extra-curricular activity calendar, topics, action programs
and educational needs arising from the analysis carried out with educational
partners: Student Councils, Representative Council Of Parents, community
and civil society. We all were pleasantly surprised to find that at the School
of Pestisani town, regarding the curricular area of “Counseling and
Guidance”, the secondary level students study topics of optional courses
such as “Education for a healthy lifestyle”, topic which seeks to be
implemented through the National Counseling Program called “Education
for our Health In Romanian School”. Innovations and enterprising are much
more open and flexible in extra-curricular activities from the kindergarten,
where the pre-scholars and their parents fully benefit from educational
250 V. L. Andrei
projects implemented teachers by attracting partners, foundations,

associations, NGOs or civil society representatives.
Fragile elements of decentralization can be observed in the offer of
optional subjects in the school curriculum at primary and secondary
education, and also in the curriculum development and local technology in
secondary schools, schools of arts and crafts. For example, I once came
across a more than commendable situation at School “Ion Lotreanu”-
Alimpesti Village. Here, students at the primary school, level 4th, have
chosen as an optional course the “Nature-my friend”, where they learnt to
raise fruit trees and vegetables proper to the native climate and soil of the
village. Here they have also used the greenhouse adapted in the school yard
by a European program of rural development and learnt interesting things
about ecological education and healthy food. The follow-up of teaching
these topics to the small children is that, after a year, in many households of
Alimpesti, solar crops emerged, although the settlement is located in a pre-
mountainous area, the Oltet Valley.
A very decided step towards decentralization was made in Gorj by
restructuring the school network. A total of 41 schools and kindergartens will
cease operation from the school year 2010/2011. The main cause that led to
the absorption of small institutions by more central ones was the decreasing
number of students. Here are some examples: nursery with less than 10
children were merged with those where the number is higher; primary
schools with less than 10 pupils were merged with the general schools;
Secondary School Ciocadia was taken over by Secondary School Balcesti,
because in Ciocadia, the number of pupils from the secondary level reached
only 23, which contradicts the principle of funding ”per capita” applicable
from January 1, 2010; Secondary School No.7 from Targu-Jiu was taken
over by Secondary School “Ecaterina Teodoroiu” Targu-Jiu because the
number of students here is less than that provided by law; the Forestry
College from Targu-Jiu ceased to exist and students were taken over by
Motor Transport School “Traian Vuia” Targu-Jiu due to a decreasing
number of students on the ground of an unattractive educational offer at this
college.
This image emerges as a part of a new vision for Gorj schools, from
the perspective of sustainable development and globalization of education, to
create preconditions in order to ensure quality in education and efficient use
of resources creating the premises carrying out the decentralization process,
which requires involvement and accountability on the one hand, and
strategic thinking and control, on the other hand. With passage of this year’s
school funding per student, actions enterprised by CBE Gorj regarding this
purpose are more than appropriate.
Impact aspects of restructuring the school network in Gorj:
CBE Gorj action is part of a national strategy for restructuring and
decentralization of education in schools and it is designed to create a
geographical area of an organized school network, managed and financed
under the rigors of European quality assurance of the educational process,
free and full access for children and youth to education, the adequacy of
educational documents of offer to the interests and needs of direct and
indirect beneficiaries.
Gorj school network restructuring must not cause imbalances and
distortions in organization, management and support from national
educational system; this process will ensure a well-balanced and clear
division between agencies and representative institutions of local
communities and county on the one hand, and the national –MEdCTS, MIA
and PFM on the other hand.
Resistance to change on the part of teachers, school communities,
local communities, government.
To perpetuate a conservative and harmful spirit to major changes
in the field of social reality and the mentality that comes from past and
traditions, factors that hamper development of the county education on the
ground of a new reality in terms of social and economic size;
Creating conditions for equal access to education and equality of
opportunity for all preschool and school children;
Ensure the school environment conducive to the assertion of
competition in education;
Changing attitude towards school and ourselves for much of the
teaching staff, redefining their necessary space and chances for professional,
cultural and social worth;
School opening to a new quality in education, increased
competitive spirit among students and groups, between educational
organizations, strengthening the motivation for learning and improving
school performance;
Cost –effective maintenance and upgrading of educational
facilities, providing the necessary educational environment in order to
achieve an rarefied and credible educational act;
Creating conditions for attracting new partners to support the
learning process, community and family empowerment to the importance of
life education and social progress, increased confidence and involvement of
social partners in the mission of school;
252 V. L. Andrei
Increasing collaboration and communication of schools staff with

the students and the entire community, creating harmony between school
objectives and students’ needs, broadening the horizon of expectations and
aims and enhancing autonomy on self-education market;
The need for a number of minibuses to transport pupils from home
to school and vice-versa;
Increase local accountability to the management of material bases
of school, their responsible and thoughtful administration, elimination of all
sorts of waste and abuse in the cars used exclusively for transporting
school children (e.g.: at Slivilesti, improperly used fuel to supply
minibuses caused damage to their engines, and thus students were left
without means of transport);
From September 1, 2010, students enrolling in schools that
ceased to exist will be transferred to schools that have taken over their
old schools and full teachers hold transfer by restricting activity to the
school that has legal personality.
These were a few issues from the perspective of
decentralization, achieved in Gorj on a strategy adapted to the realities
of place, so as schools will continue to operate in European settings! In
addition, if we do not have an efficient school in every community,
children will leave to the city. Here, in our county Gorj, we bowed with
great patience to the implementation of decentralization.
Bibliography:
Elena, Ion. (October 1, 2009). Raport privind activitatea educativă

formală şi nonformală în învăţământul preuniversitar din Judeţul Gorj
în anul şcolar 2008-2009. Tg.-Jiu
Mitescu, Gheorghe. (September 12, 2009). Programul managerial pe
domeniul management şi dezvoltare instituţională al Inspectoratului
Şcolar Judeţean Gorj pentru anul şcolar 2009-2010. Tg.-Jiu
Paralescu, Sebastian Justin. (September 10, 2009). Programul
managerial al Inspectoratului Şcolar Judeţean Gorj pentru anul şcolar
2009-2010. Tg.-Jiu
Paralescu, Sebastian Justin. (March 22, 2010). Raport al IŞJ Gorj
privind restructurarea şi eficientizarea reţelei şcolare a învăţământului
preuniversitar din Gorj
Strategia descentralizării învăţământului preuniversitar.(2005). Proiect,
MEdC.Bucureşti,7 – 15.
Vol VI (2010), No. 2, pp. 253-261
Creativity Enhancement for Preschoolers

through Mathematical Games
G. Cheta, V. Niculescu
Gheorghe Cheta
Vasilica Niculescu
Grădiniţa P.P. 10 Arad
Abstract: Not only does creativity manifest in the great

mathematicians who create fundamental works, but also in
countless little mathematicians who by solving basic
problems, live the act of creation. Mathematics is the most
suitable setting where the mind is stimulated towards
flexibility, creativity and inventiveness.
Keywords: creativity, mathematician, elementary problem,
stimulation.
Preschool is considered to be most important educational

experience. It is the time in one’s development with significant
learnings which not only contribute to the development of one’s
individuality, but also lay the foundation of creativity.
More or less numerous and relevant prior to preschool, creative
expressions are generally encouraged and developed by family and
daycare to later be enhanced by the formal training of creative aptitudes
in school. It is important that we, educators let learning take a
constructive role to that purpose: we should foster and develop
creativity, ensure a pleasant and conducive environment for its
activities, and offer the appropriate content and methodology to
diversify activities in relation to children's optimal responsiveness. The
child alone will not be able to understand spatial relationships,
geometric figures, nor to use numbers and digits. What children need is
guidance- to gain independent thinking, group cohesion, tolerance and

254 G. Cheta, V. Niculescu
openness to new ideas, ability to discover problems together with their

solutions.
The preschool age is very sensitive to cultivating creative
potential. Preschoolers are being trained gradually, systematically to
solve simple problems and do exercises via entertaining mathematical
activities, preferably games. Thus, it is imperative to exercise their
intellectual, to boost their intelligence, sense of observation, creativity in
finding new solutions to problems.
During preschool age, the first mathematical concepts are formed.
This represents the solid foundation which will allow continued operation
and build of mathematical knowledge throughout their lives. Thus, after
internalizing counting from 1 to 10 together with simple mathematical
operations with 1-2 units, the first computing skills and drills to solve
problems are shaped. The contents of mathematical activities should be
planned according to the age characteristics and previously acquired
knowledge.
In this respect, we consider that the mathematical game to be the
main method of teaching creativity in preschool. Through their variety,
mathematical games exercise a great influence on the intellectual
development of children, combining the game rules with didactic objectives.
Once children enter school, they leave activities predominated by games and
switch to those ruled by learning and school work. The new preschooler can
only cope with the information overload by combining learning with the
game.
In kindergarten- an environment governed by simple rules and
pleasant atmosphere, the mathematical game empowers children to focus
easier and faster on the tasks at hand. The game itself gives rise to positive
emotions, stimulating interest and the desire to achieve a concrete purpose.
Based on a set of rules, the game contributes to the seamingless
integration of the child in the community. It functions as an exercise of
willingness and character, leads to collaboration and self-sufficiency,
develops entrepreneurship and curiosity, and advances the application of
knowledge spontaneously. Introvert children gain confidence in their
capabilities. Encouraged and advised whenever necessary, they will gain
more trust in their actions.
One paramount principle in designing and holding teaching-learning
sessions is the alternation of various activity types, together with the
customization of the teaching methodology and cooperation. We must
ensure a balance between activities focused on educational tasks and the
relaxation and movement which result from the game. The game has an
Creativity Enhancement for Preschoolers through Mathematical Games 255
important role in the lives of children of six or seven, as they learn by

playing. They learn to interact with their game partners, to communicate
with them, to follow rules, to play a specific role, and to deal with
problematic situations or even conflicts. The game provides many efficient
learning settings for the child’s development.
Through the game, instructor teaches children to gradually develop
and leverage their induction, analysis and synthesis abilities, to hypothesize,
to check, to generalize and to strive for certainty.
Per Jean Chateau, “game is both effort and freedom, so an education
through game must be a source of both physical effort and moral joy. To this
end, we must offer the child the obstacles to overcome.”
To internalize knowledge easier and to include fun activities,
instructors could hold mathematical games such as:
Who knows to count further? is a learning game that aims to teach
counting and involves the whole class.
What numbers were hidden? - using chips with numbers and
tables of numbers, children will determine the missing numbers in a given
range, forming and learning to count in an ascending and descending order.
Gradually, children will be involved in games which aim to order the
natural numbers in a logical series, previously discovering the rule string. A
few popular games are as follow:
The playful bee - which gathers pollen from Grandma’s 10 flowers,
skipping every two flowers. On its way back, it collects pollen from flowers
left. Children will determine the two routes of the bee.
Let us count the vegetables, fruits, and flowers. These are games to
learn the numbers from 0-10 and the correct use of their names. The teacher
must vocalize all numbers through 10, while the children would repeat and
use thieir names correctly.
Place of a number in the string of natural numbers. To correctly state
the place of a certain number, the children will have to specify the number
before the one in question (the predecessor), and the number that follows it
(the successor).
Game such as the following are conducive to learning this:
Find your neighbors! teaches the order identification of natural
numbers and strengthens the understanding of the relationship between the
numbers. The game may be conducted using some teacher-made visual
material or cards from the „Numbers Game".
Place me in my box! seeks to teach the build of a string of numbers
and consolidate counting skills. Observing tables with numbers and a few
empty spaces, children will have to use separate cards and fill in the gaps on
the grid with the corresponding number.
While developing the concept of a number, to make children familiar
and understand numbers in print (block lettering), teachers may choose
visual aids such as boards. The items on each board represent the matching
numeral, written in print on the same board.
To capture children's interest for the knowledge of the natural
numbers from 0 to 10, we have always sought to propose new games with
new situations to solve intriguing problems. Combining the game with the
learning experience, we guided the 'discovery' of natural numbers 0-10 and
their basic operations. Then, we pursued a deeper understanding of the
concept, its graphical representation (the numeral) and the development of a
visual and auditory memory, attention, the spirit of observation, analysis and
comparison as a thinking process; finally, but not least, the development of
the language skills through the fluent and accurate expression of the
activities throughout the game.
Next, we will present some educational games, which have
contributed to achieving the following learning objectives:
- Learn the natural numbers from 1-10;
- Perform addition and subtraction with one and two units;
- Explore ways of breakdown the numbers to 10;
- Write and solve problems involving one operation;
- Orally compose exercises and problems after pictures;
- Constantly verbalize the detailed calculations used in solving problems and
exercises;
- Demonstrate willingness and enjoyment in using numbers.
When incorporated in the learning experience, the game renders a
more vivid and attractive character, brings variety, fun and relaxation, and
prevents monotony, boredom, and fatigue.
Riddles and verses are more pleasant and they make problem-
solving activities more fun.
Lica has 7 apples
And he eats 3 of them, Figure 1
No maple!
His little sister thinks
To give him Snapple
Yet, she gives him
One more apple.
Say quick and firm, don’t babble
Lica now has.... how many apples?
Figure 2
Four geese on a trail are having fun.
How many wings are in the sun?
How about feet?
In the meadow, Figure 3

There’s a flower
Red is actually its color
But other six are yellow.
Think again,
What’s in the meadow?
How many flowers of any color,
Can you count at this hour?
A dog and a kitten,

They play happily Figure 4
In the kitchen
Go ahead, count
How many tails and paws
The two friends count
Now, say it loud!
Mathematical games combined with activities related to art not

only ensure versatility, but also the internalization of these concepts, in
a fun and joyful manner.
The game “Who makes the most beautiful drawing of a child?”
has the following learning objective: complete a given image with
missing pair elements. For instance, for number 2, focus on the dual
parts of the human body.
The knowledge we used individual recording sheets, such as:
Draw as many items as the numeral in the each box shows;
Figure 5
Color the fruit on the branch of two only!

Figure 6
Color 8 grapes!
Figure 7
Place one fruit on each plate!

Figure 8
Teaching the concept of a number can be achieved through worksheets

such as:
Match the number of items in each box with the corresponding

number.
Figure 9
By playing games and exercises, composing or decomposing

numbers, children become familiar with simple operations- addition and
subtraction. These should be planned and organized gradually from

simple to complex, from concrete to abstract.
Use different worksheets, such as:
Figure 10
Games aimed at decomposing a given number and finding as

many solutions as possible have a competitive nature, stimulating
students' logical thinking and creativity.
To learn the sequence of numbers from 0 to 10, we carried out with
the kids games such as:
Figura 11
Let’s count train cars!
With the knowledge of counting, children become familiar and

learn the numbers in print. Thus, the concept of that number will be
inextricably linked to it graphical representation.
Count and circle the number that shows how many objects are:
Figure 12
Take out or add to ensure you have as many squares in a row

as the corresponding number indicates.
Figure 13
7
8
Collecting data in a grid is a useful and practical activity and

can take place as an assessment activity. Each child "reads" the table,
finds the assigned tasks by herself, counts the items inside the table,
sorts them, collects the data in the table, and then matches each number
with the items.
Figure 14
For placing a number has in a string, several games can be used:

Color with red- the third and eight flower, in yellow- the first flower,
and in blue- the flower that follows the fourth flower.
Figure 15
Draw:
- More dots than the mushrooms;
- Fewer dots than mushrooms;
- As many dots as mushrooms.
Order, the following numbers in a increasing, then decreasing order: 3,

5, 1, 8, 2, 7, 6.
Songs and poems that can be used to support exercises with

natural numbers from 0 to 10 and their order: "Count", "Elephant", etc.
Bibliography:
Aurelia, Ana; Cioflica, Maria, Smaranda, Jocuri didactice matematice

(Îndrumător matematic), Editura Emia, Deva, 2000;
Antonovici, Ştefania; Jalbă, Cornelia; Vasiliu, Măriuţa, (2000), Activităţi
matematice – caiet pentru grupa pregătitoare, Editura Aramis;
Bulboacă, Madlena, Perţa, Diana-Ligia, Chiţu, Larisa, Eugenia; Gabor,
Luminiţa, Diana, Stârciogeanu, Doina, Florica, Metodica predării
matematicii/activităţilor matematice, Manual cls. XII, profil pedagogic,
Editura Nedion, Bucureşti, 2007;
Roco, Mihaela, Creativitate şi inteligenţă emoţională, Editura Polirom,
Iaşi, 2004;
Sima Ioan, Creativitatea la vârsta prşcolară şi şcolară mică, Editura
Didactică şi Pedagogică R.A., Bucureşti, 1997.
Vol VI (2010), No. 2, pp. 262-272
Entrepreneurial competences from syntegrative

perspective
A. Gîmbuţă
Alina Gîmbuţă
Psychology and Educational Sciences Faculty
“ Al. I. Cuza” University
cgimbuta@yahoo.com
Abstract: This article nuances a distinct approach for

entrepreneurial competences, key category in contemporary
education, which is addressed to an individual who can choose
himself and give meaning to his becoming by exploitation of
learning opportunities in different moments of the life. The
starting point is the holistic approach, as reflected by their
definition in “ Key Competences for Lifelong Learning – An
European Framework” from 2006, narrow in this case because it
does not sufficiently capture the perspective of becoming.
Personal meditations of professor Florin Felecanu who signals
that XXI century predicts a new holism,as syntegrative type,
have conducted the literature review to professor Stafford Beer
achievements from Manchester Business School, U.K. Amazing
discovery of syntegrative principles, basis of Syntegration®
method that prof. Beer has proposed to solve complex problems,
it caused transposition and connecting them to an educational
context that has becoming the main reference. The paper
presents a syntegrative model of entrepreneurial competences,
illustrated by a cube, perfect figure, specifically chosen to
involve components (knowledge, skills and attitudes) in a
syntegrative functionality, three by three. It aims to show that in
entrepreneurial competences training, three procurement
categories work simultaneously in several basic steps of
entrepreneurial process and can be common landmarks for
different types of education. Because this last consideration
were selected eight major stages of the entrepreneurial process
Entrepreneurial competences from syntegrative perspective 263
and 12 types of acquisitions (four types of knowledge, four

types of skills and four type of attitudes) after recomandations of
2004 national curriculum for Entrepreneurial Education in
Romania high school, but also after 2006 “ Key Competences
for Lifelong Learning – An European Framework”. Those
correspond to the cube with 8 tops and 12 sides and all
participate equally and simultaneously to the formation of
entrepreneurial competences, necessary to start a business at any
opportune moment of life. The model can be adapted to other
types of competences, being a matrix of individual success,
possible today or tomorrow.
Keywords: entrepreneurial competences, holistic approach,
knowledge, skills and attitudes, syntegrative model, start a
business.
1. Introduction
The New Millennium shows the contemporary individual the
importance that it has in shaping the best the knowledge of society and
challenges it to anticipate the sense of human destiny and the domination of
possible existing realities through innovative strategies and approaches.
Burdened with demiurgic responsibilities, as world creator, today’s human
through its enthusiasm and the bold modeling capacity, has responsibility for
the success and perfection within a complex existence context whose
challenges can confirm in the same measure success and failure. The current
state of the world reflects the effects of global changes which are rapid and
profound in different areas of the social, showing accelerated development
on the horizontality of human species and infiltration of artificial intelligence
in the most intimate areas of human life, individual and collective.
Globalization and the expansion of the Internet on all continents generated
new forms of dependency justified by exaggerated holism, which “tied” to
the Whole any infinitesimal flounder of the parts. Undoubtedly, the 20th
Century has designed and built existential models on the basis of holistic
approaches whose roots are found in the ancient philosophical thought of
Parmenides and Aristotle. Holistic theory supported the idea that the whole is
more than a simple sum of parts; it is a whole that determines essentially
singular and it precedes; Aristotle himself described his own conception of
the state by analyzing the working of the human body, seen as a system
involving its structural components, the vital organs (Andrei C.,2007). In
addition he pointed the problem of the precedence of whole from part, very
264 A. Gîmbuţă
important clue in understanding contemporary holistic approach. Prospective

changes have glimpsed in education field too, but the final results were not in
line with economic, social and the political realities due to its continue
change in the Twentieth Century. Connected to tachycardia pulse of society
that thinks itself as a transforming power and the result of it, education has
reformulated paradigms, deeply rooted in a world affected by globalization,
inclusion and integration. Acceptance and promotion of educational
alternatives, the school opening to the world, focusing on educated, lifelong
learning, access to learning opportunities for all and key competences
training- that have become landmarks of the contemporary educational
system which in turn fall back as holistic principles. Such recovery and
inclusion of all forms of education as a valid part of human education effort
required the focus of what distinguishes them by a focal point to tend and to
link them. Introducing competences as a common result of current education
set up an favorable context for the rehabilitation of non formal and informal
education, opened alternative learning and opportunities for diversity during
lifelong period. However, orientation of educational process towards
competences has generated controversy and confusion related to the
definition and their translations in National Curriculum contexts. Although
there are several points of view on what represents the distinctive notes
belonging to the term competence, although subtle nuances of different
languages have emphasized some existing ambiguities, all national education
policies of the EU common space have validated the holistic approach to its
(European Commission, 2006) by initiating educational reforms in this
regard. In the following lines I shall attempt a conceptual clarification for
educational competences after holistic perspective, starting from the
definition proposed in the “Key Competences for Lifelong Learning - A
European Framework”, by the European Parliament in 2006, as necessary
moment for identifying the added knowledge that syntegratory perspective
will bring it for this issue.
2. Holistic dimension-specific difference in understanding

competences
In 2006 the European Commission Working Group has published in
Official Journal of the European Union the “Key Competences for Lifelong
Learning - A European Framework”, as an annex to the European
Parliament and Council Recommendation. In this document has been
defined competences as “combination of knowledge, skills and attitudes
appropriate to a context” (European Commission, 2006, pg.5) and
highlighted their importance in contemporary individual road to success. I

will start from this definition because it reflects the changes in the formal
curriculum in Romania and its at the base of it. Therefore, according to this
understanding, competence in education can be considered a complex
outcome, as unitary type, involving operation of a structural triads within a
given context. Knowledge, skills and attitudes bear n combination
depending on the particular context, the success is directly conditioned by
choosing the best form. Competence is more than the sum of these parts
because the structural functionality is not randomized; it is directed toward
a final manifest noticeable, in terms of performance, the quality and success
(European Commission, 2006, pg.5). In fact this aspect of opening to
the outside has created confusion between the terms competence and
capacity subtly reinforced in some languages from apparent synonymy
between them. Indeed human individual has a set of capabilities (such as
analysis, synthesis, argumentation, teamwork, capacity etc.) reflected by the
possibility of doing things, a manifest outcome as an indicator of
development level and a degree of exercices within a period of time.
(Gerard, F.M. Rogiers, X., 2002). In other words the capacity develops
gradually, with practice, being an inner growth influenced by the time and
expressed outwards just as a fruit tree grows over time and becomes able to
produce fruits, if external factors are favorable for this to happen. Instead
competence is a whole which is formed, which includes some essential
elements:
*A challenging context that raises questions, being likened to a
network that can navigate from one point to another (Gerard, F.M. Rogiers,
X., 2002).
*Attitudinal power to purchases as strategic combinations, best
among the parties and to start a structural functionality.
Forming is a complex process that starts from a first project, from a
summary that guides the parties functionality and blends it so perfectly into
their original purpose that their own analysis of it becomes an appropriate
time, just like a puzzle. Under these conditions the human capacity for
fragmentation and analysis of all parties is actually a reference to the
original global shape that defines itself and take part. Such competencies
reflect the mastery to put in the right form existing acquisitions at a
particular time by mobilizing impulse of a specific and provocative context.
Holistic education competences perspective draws attention for the actors
involved to the fact that within current life context, to focus only on one
particular type of procurement is not sufficient (as required to connect) to
266 A. Gîmbuţă
reach success. The contemporary reality is itself a network connection that

works on behalf of existence, its performance being translated in terms of
survival. However the current holistic approach is narrow and urges to
dominate a stable reality, although all human projections are thought in terms
of becoming. In the New Millennium will not be enough to focus on a
present time thought that separate from future moment and previous to it, but
will devote their simultaneity and interconnection, every second of life itself
comprising the beginning and end. Education as human development project
will reconfigure itself as system and process consistent and in interaction
with the other areas of human knowledge, it will reshape from new
existential trends as complex answers from Questioning Being.
3. Educational competences freom syntegrative perspective

Competences in education reflect a complex jump from project to
act, from possible to real, each step being a summary of simultaneity that the
human mind is used to separate them and to think of it in terms of temporal
and spatial sequence. Those are more than simple aggregates of human
knowledge subtle or tumultuous involving all components, are implementing
form, also becoming exercises, simulations, and variants of human creation,
fusion. In this way any individual can exercise demiurgic skills and activate
transformer power, if this tends towards performance. The ability to connect
the possible with the real from the perspective of becoming, to close the
curve and linear thinking in the single point of overlapping time dimensions,
that prefiguring another type of holism in 21st Century (Felecanu, 2009)
reflected by infiltrating in the scientific vocabulary of a particular term that
was born on the realm of cybernetics: Syntegration®. Since 1991 Professor
Stafford Beer of Manchester Business School –UK worked in a very
efficient method for solving complex problems, starting from the
cybernetics. He tried to develop a model that integrates perfectly with as
many different views and to gather as much information about an issue
proposed, inspired by sacred geometry of perfect geometric shapes whose
description can be found in the book „Timaeus” of Plato (which is spoken by
five regular solid forms and the underlying material to which correspond the
five elements of nature). Prof. Beer was inspired by icosaedru whose form
suggests movement and flowing and was associated to water. It has 12
points, 30 edges and 20 sides, all equilateral triangles congruent. So he
designed a three-dimensional structure of communication after icosahedron
model which allows the interconnection of human brains as a whole and
function together as one (Diringer, Fr. J. 2010). The method makes it
possible to address 12 different topics related to the 12 points of the
icosahedron, dynamic integration and interconnection of 30 participants

which may have two meetings simultaneously on two different topics
without promoting any form of organisational hierarchy and functional. It
was appointed Syntegration, the term reflects a combination of Synergy and
Integration (S. Beer, 1994). It is now a registered trademark and belongs to
Team Syntegrity International Company, which can find details at
www.syntegrity.com. As defined in the romanian dictionary (Dicţionarul
Explicativ al Limbii Române, 1975) synergy is seen as combination of
several parts to perform the same function. In 1971 german physicist
Hermann Haken has put the basis of the science called synergy, starting
from the analysis of how the dynamic systems self-organise through
synchronous cooperation of the internal components-as interaction towards
a target( Mânzat, 1999). Instead the integration can be considered a process
prior of synergy moment because first supposes the inclusion of parties
towards harmonizing them into a whole. Therefore syntegration term effect
can be thought of as manifestations of the term integration and their
functional connections towards perfection. Under this principle which
formed the basis of its genesis, its meaning can be considered one that is
more than would appear out of the simple combination of
parts(Felecanu,2009). It not only shows the inclusion and harmonization
with other elements involved through other elements towards an immediate
end, but towards the end beyond the immediate, in other words reality is
connected to the furthest possible by immediately possible, its anticipation
giving this relationship bilateralism. This explanation is the best reflected in
the empirical plan, in case of karate man performance who can break a stone
with his bare hand; his secret is that mobilizes its force at a point which is
beyond the target itself. Projection of a possible distant links the future to a
real environment and optimizes the way in which the parts combine and
work together. In education the problem is similar, meaning that individual
training is becoming a process linked to the society they live in. The
mobilization and combination of acquisitions in terms of competences
should be aimed not only at practical problems of immediate reality but
especially to anticipate the future, since they themselves are the goals
towards which the whole aggregate of contemporary education works in
some syntegrative way to avert the failure of human race. But we must not
forget that education manages realities thought in terms of probability
(Mânzat, 1999) which means that the change of perspective is just a
progressive transition through the points of perspective of human
development project..
268 A. Gîmbuţă
4. Syntegrativ model of entrepreneurial competences

J.A. Timmons reported since 1999 in paper “New Venture Creation:
Entrepreneurial for 21st Century” that between Europe and the U.S. is an
economic gap caused by the education and american culture which focused
on entrepreneurship has created premises of infrastructures to successful
companies and has stimulated innovative process (Timmons, 1999). But in
recent years most european documents validate the importance of
entrepreneurship in shaping a competitive knowledge-based society and
encourage entrepreneurship as a pillar of socio-economic development. In
this sense, „European reference framework on key competences for lifelong
learning”, Annex to Parliament and the Council of Europe Recommendation
from 2006 includes entrepreneurial competences among the eight categories
of key competencies which determine the success of the European citizen in
the New Millennium. But entrepreneurship issue is not so simple.
Brinckmann in “ Competence of top management teams and the success of
new technology based firms: a theoretical and empirical analysis concerning
competencies of entrepreneurial teams and the development of their nebtures
” draws attention to that, although entrepreneurial competences are
important, the discussion about it on scientifique literature are still in early
stage (Brinkmann,2007). Siwan Mitchelmore şi Jennifer Rowley in work
"Entrepreneurial competencies: a literature review and development agenda"
from 2010, identify differences in the way in which those terms are
undersood in U.S. and European space. The authors clarified that U.S. school
uses the term competency to describe the skills necessary to initiate and
manage a business with success while the British school uses the term of
competence to specify minimum standards of performance in the aditional
field, as distinctive competences from managerial competences. This article
is based on the european understanding and tried to propose a model of
syntegrative competences necessary to initiate a business, in order to be a
landmark accessible for all type of education, not only for the formal
education (Mitchelmore and Rowley, 2010). As I mentioned before
syntegrative approach shows that future, content now as latency and foreseen
as potency and is depending on the force which reactivates and merges
human acquisitions; because that entrepreneurial competences are very
important but not necessarily for an immediate reality but for a removed
potentiality. Challenging context and opportunity may activate and/or
accelerate fundamental acquisitions to starting a business whenever an
individual s lifetime, provided that creative tension is greater than the force
which could oppose. The process of forming of entrepreneurial competences
as syntegration involves a fusion rather than a sum, because rearranging the
components into a whole which can bring elements of originality, depends

on the force for integrative and synergetic work, more power like any tipe of
internal or external, restrictive or destructive influences or tendences. The
proposed model is a transposition in the educational plan of the operating
principles of Professor Beer method, but with neccesity to adapt at another
perfect figure that supports three combinations, three being the number of
components proposed by „European reference framework of key
competences”, guide document for education reform in most European
countries at this time. Figure was chosen as hexahedron( transl.Platon,1998),
which is why I have identified eight fundamental steps of entrepreneurial
process corresponding to the eight corners and 12 key acquisitions for the 12
sides. They can participate simultaneously in two stages and can be
combined with other four types of acquisitions, two by two. The
identification of these elements was made following the recommendations
made by European Reference Framework of key competences from 2006
and the national curriculum for entrepreneurship education at junior
highschool level, from 2004.
Figure 1 - The syntegrative model of entrepreneurial competences

Symbols explanation:
* The key moments of entrepreneurial process:
1- Identification and orientation toward the value-creating
opportunities.
2- Selection of product or service to create a niche market.
3- Making a business plan.
270 A. Gîmbuţă
4- Identifying and defining the resources needed for the business.

5- Diagnostic analysis.
6- Taking prudent risks.
7- Framing and adoption of ethical principles.
8- Team building and coordination.
* Key Components:
Attitudes:
A1- Proactive attitude
A2- Critical and reflexive attitude
A3- Responsibility and determination
A4- Prodemocratic attitude
Capacities:
C1- Capacity to identify and evaluate opportunities
C2-Capacity to assemble information in a context
C3-Capacity to anticipate and respond to threats
C4-Capacity to build and work in a team
Knowledge:
K1-Knowledge about human-environment: the natural, social and
economic
K2- Knowledge about the legitimacy of the market economy
K3- Knowledge of risk and ethical rules
K4- Knowledge about human needs and expectations
To achieve each key moment the three categories of procurement are
simultaneously involved according with syntegrative function. For example
capacity to identify and evaluate opportunities is simultaneously involved in
moment 1(for Identification and orientation toward the value-creating
opportunities) and also in moment 2 (for selection of product or service to
create a niche market) while proactive attitude is simultaneously involved at
moment 1 and 8 (team building and coordination). So entrepreneurial
competences are a whole where the componentes working syntegrative
towards a final harmony which can occur immediately or at any future of the
individual existence when this matrix can be activated by a tense context.
The model was developed following analysis of documentary considered as
the first stage of the thesis „Contribution of non formal education at
development of entrepreneurial competences among young people with
visual disabilities ” in order to be a common benchmark to measure results
that young people with visual impairment can performe following formal
and non formal educational activities. Being a proposal, it may be
supplemented or amended after other indicators involved with the condition
of not cancelling the operating principles.
Conclusions
This theoretical analysis aims to highlight the fact that definition of

competence from which I started can be improved. The accent on the
combination of components impoverishes the term of key particularities that
would not cause more confusion among educators. Syntegratoare approach,
starting from prof. Beer and inspired from personal thoughts by some
Romanian teachers such as prof. Florin Felecanu (about philosophical
perspective on becoming) and prof. Ion Mânzat (about synergistic
psychology) is an transposition in educational plan of understanding
becoming as progressive advance, by synthesis of subsistence and existence,
between the real and possible. To omit important notes out of the term
sphere of competence would mean to limit the horizon of knowledge and
action on the border of that immediate possible whose nearby fascination
could create the illusion of success. Such a restriction is not allowed in a
Millennium that glorifies reason and which thinks itself in terms of
performance. The mobilizing force, the leap from idea to action, anticipation
and exploration of the Possible remain intrinsic and existential constants
without it our projections, in the most beautiful and useful words, lose their
value. Therefore syntegration in education is an invitation for “questioning
human being” to rediscover their own ontological dimensions, an invitation
to authenticity as a seal on the transiency.
Aknowlegement:
Thanks to “Al.I.Cuza” University team for support in my work by PhD
scholarship by POSDRU/88/1. 5/S/47646 project and to prof. Alan Rogers
from University of East Anglia for communication refinement.
Bibliography:
1. Aguerrondo I. (2009), “ Complex knowledge and education competences”,

Geneva, UNESCO International Bureau of Education, from
http://www.ibe.unesco.org/fileadmin/user_upload/Publications/Working_Pa
pers/knowledge_compet_ibewpci_8_en.pdf
2. Ananiadou K., Claro M. (2009), “ 21 st century skills and competences for
new millennium learners in OECD countries” EDU Working paper no.41–
from http://www.oecd.org/officialdocuments/displaydocumentpdf/?
cote=edu/wkp%282009%2920&doclanguage=en
3. Andrei, C. (2007), “ Aristotel: Metafizica ” (translation), Editura
Humanitas, Bucureşti
272 A. Gîmbuţă
4. Beer, S.(1994), “ Beyond Dispute: The Invention of Team Syntegrity”,

Wiley, Chichester
5. Brinkmann J. (2007) ” Competence of Top Management Teams and
Success of New Technology- Based Firms”,Gabler Edition Wissenschaft
6. *** Dicţionarul Explicativ al Limbii Române (1975), Bucureşti,Editura
Academiei.
7. Diringer, Fr. J. ( 2010), “ Syntegration as a highly efficient method of
knowledge-sharing, opinion-forming and decision-making ”, in Land Forces
Academy Review, from http://www.faqs.org/periodicals/ 201001
/2002253401.html
8. ***European Commission, (2006) “Key Competences for Lifelong
Learning – A European Framework” annex of a Recommendation of the
European Parliament from
http://eurlex.europa.eu/LexUriServ/site/en/oj/2006/l_394/l_39420061230en0
0100018.pdf
9. Felecan F. (1989), “ Dialectica naturii din perspectiva contemporană”,
Revista Forum, nr.1 (2009), „Holism in Broad Sense. About the
Conventional Holism Failure” from http://new-holism.com/2010/01/holism-
in-broad-sense-syntegration/
10. Gerard, F.M. Rogiers, X., (2002), “Des manuels scolaires pour
apprendre - Concevoir, évaluer, utiliser”, Bruxelles, De Boeck Université.
11. Mânzat I., (1999), “ Psihologia sinergetica (În căutarea umanului
pierdut)”, Bucuresti, Editura ProHumanitate, from
http://www.scribd.com/doc/33473557/Ion-Manzat-Psihologia-
sinergetic%C4%83
12. Pickering A. (2004) "The science of the unknowable: Stafford Beer's
cybernetic informatics", Kybernetes, Vol. 33 Iss: 3/4, pp.499 – 521
13.***(1998), ”Platon-Dialoguri” (translation in Romanian language),
Bucureşti, Editura IRI
14. ***Programa şcolară de “Educaţie antreprenorială ”(2004), pentru ciclul
inferior al liceului, aprobată prin O.M. nr.4598/31.08.2004,Bucureşti,
România
15. Russell-Bowie, D. (2009), “ Syntegration or disintegration? Models of
integrating the arts across the primary curriculum”, International Journal of
Education & the Arts, 10(28), from http://www.ijea.org/v10n28/
16. Mitchelmore S., Rowley J., (2010) "Entrepreneurial competencies: a
literature review and development agenda", International Journal of
Entrepreneurial Behaviour & Research, Vol. 16 Iss: 2, pp.92 – 111.
17. Timmons, J. A. (1999). New venture creation: Entrepreneurship for
the 21st century (5th ed.). New York: Irwin-McGraw Hill
Vol VI (2010), No. 2, pp. 273-280
European and national educational policies between

reality and expectations at the level of adulthood
L.Trif
Letitia Trif
„1 Decembrie 1918” University, Alba-Iulia
Abstract
Cognitive societies, the challenge brought about by change,
as an argument for the preoccupation with lifelong learning,
where lifelong education and training are the most adequate
way for anyone to answer the challenges of change; digital
technology transforms every aspect of the citizens’ life into
modern life, offers opportunities and multiple options, but
also risks and increased uncertainties. The citizens have the
freedom to adopt various lifestyles but also the responsibility
to organise their own lives. We emphasise the importance of
national educational programmes regarding the facilitation
and opening towards the European space of adults, in order
to demonstrate respect for the citizens of every European
community, respect for a system of values necessary
regardless of the economic or political level of each country.
Keywords: educational policies; educational paradigms;
education for adults; cognitive societies; lifelong education.
Contemporary society signals a series of aspects which impose

the elaboration of the directions of educational policies and
reconfiguration of educational paradigms, at macro as well as micro
level, by considering certain aspects, like (Ionescu, M., 2005:352): the
exponential growth of the volume of information; the increase in the
degree of knowledge wear; the high degree of abstracting of certain
knowledge products; the restructuring of the system of values promoted
by society; the acceleration of dynamics, of the change production rate;
the general scientific, technical, cultural, etc. progress; the mobility of

274 L. Trif
social life, the need to shift tasks, roles, status and professions; the
evolution of the labour market.
Therefore, lifelong education starts from the objective need to
keep up with the rhythm of changes which appear in society, as well as
with the needs of each individual – the self-improvement and
continuous perfecting of every person. Lifelong learning no longer
represents just an aspect of education and training – it must become the
guiding principle of education and participation in the continuous
learning process. (Hanches, L., 2007:16-19).
From these perspectives, we will enumerate the major themes
recommended as coherent and comprehensive strategy for lifelong
education in Europe, described in the Memorandum regarding lifelong
learning, 2001:
Visible growth in the level of investment in
human resources in order to grant priority to the
most important chapter of Europe – its citizens;
The elaboration of efficient teaching and learning
methodologies and the cultivation of a favourable
educational climate for learning during the entire
life;
The significant improvement of the way to
participate in learning, especially non-formal and
informal, and of the understanding and
appreciation of the results;
The guarantee that every person can have easy
access to information and competent advice
regarding educational offers existent throughout
Europe and during his/her entire life;
Bringing the educational offer closer to the
beneficiaries, in their own communities and
wherever possible, through information and
communication technology;
Guaranteeing the general and permanent access
to education for the purpose of forming and
perfecting the required skills for a sustained
activity in the cognitive society.
Cognitive societies, the challenge brought about by change, as
an argument for the preoccupation with lifelong learning, where
lifelong education and training are the most adequate way for anyone to
European and national educational policies … 275
answer the challenges of change; digital technology transforms every

aspect of the citizens’ life into modern life, offers opportunities and
multiple options, but also risks and increased uncertainties. The citizens
have the freedom to adopt various lifestyles but also the responsibility
to organise their own lives. We observe that more and more citizens
prolong their education and instruction period, but the distance between
those who possess sufficient qualifications to maintain themselves afloat
on the labour market and those who become marginalised is increasing
considerably. In this type of social world, up-to-date information,
knowledge and skills are highly valued.
Therefore, cognitive societies promote active citizens, human
abilities capable of creating and using efficiently and intelligently the
knowledge, on a continually changing background.
We must emphasise Marijke Dashorst’s and Helen Keogh’s
(2009) preoccupation with keeping adult learning in the European
agenda also in the period after 2010.
The 2009 Communication “The strategic framework for
European co-operation in education and training” identifies four
strategic challenges for 2020 and mid-term priorities for the period
2009-2011. Four strategic challenges are identified:
1. Making lifelong learning and cross-border mobility a reality.
2. Improving the quality and efficiency of education and
training.
3. Promoting equity, social cohesion and citizenship in order to
contribute to a sustainable society.
4. Enhancing innovation and creativity through developing
transversal key competences as entrepreneurship, communication etc.
(Dashorst, M. and Keogh, H., 2009,pag.22)
Following these goals we propose targets, at the level of
Hunedoara County, the identification of the needs of elderly people
from the perspective of national and European policies regarding: social
security, improvement of the health system, aspects related to the
lifestyle, performing an activity which should provide extra income,
participation in courses for qualifying in certain professions/activities,
participation in courses training for learning foreign languages and
using the computer, organized by foundations, non-governmental
organizations (with financial support for the costs). The research
instrument we have used is a structured questionnaire which includes
information domains regarding the needs of elderly people.
276 L. Trif
The research sample comprises 102 subjects: 62% from the

urban area and 38% from the rural area; the age category 50-70
represents 43.4%, and the age category over 70 years represents 16.6%.
Information about occupation is relevant: 60% of the subjects are
retired, and the level of education is mostly high school (52%). The
demographic data of the research sample are presented in the table
below (table I.)
Table I. Demographic Data

Percentage
1. Age category
50-60 years 54%
60-70 years 29,4%
over 70 years 16,6%
2. Place of residence
urban 62%
rural 38%
3. Gender
male 51%
female 49%
4. Nationality
Romanian 97%
Hungarian 3%
The second dimension regarding EU and national policy

between reality and expectations at the level of late adulthood
emphasises the need to improve the current national policy regarding
elderly people, which 98% of the subjects consider inadequate
Out of the national and European policies, the following areas
are considered a priority: the improvement of social protection (increase
in pensions, subventions for food, heating and transportation). This
component is represented by an overwhelming percentage of over 80%,
which shows a high economic deficit; we could even call it an alarming
poverty threshold for this part of the population, who cannot satisfy
their primary needs concerning food and heating.
We have also identified acute needs in connection with the
health care system from the perspective of the purchase power of
medicine; 83% from the subjects consider it necessary either to reduce
the price of medicine or to compensate for a part of the price. There

have been dramatic situations exemplified, where people have been
unable to buy their medicine on which they depend, suffering from
chronic diseases. The table below shows obvious percentage on this
situation and the need to formulate national laws which should meet the
social needs of the elderly population.
Table II. EU and national policy between reality and expectations

Percentage
1.Consider the current national policy
regarding elderly people good:
yes 2%
no 98%
2. Consider as priority national and
European policies in the areas:
a) improvement of social protection
- increase in pensions
yes 84%
no 16%
- subventions for food
yes 85%
no 15%
- subventions for heating
yes 85%
no 15%
- subventions for transportation
yes 78%
no 22%
b) improvement of the health care system
- reduction of medicine price
yes 83%
no 17%
- subventions for balneary treatment in the
off-peak season
yes 67%
no 33%
278 L. Trif
3. Are you satisfied with your social

status?
yes 8%
partially 34%
no 58%
4. Do you want to improve your living
conditions?
yes 52%
partially 41%
no 7%
5. If your answer is ‘yes’, are you willing
to perform an activity for extra income?
yes 54%
partially 28%
no 18%
6. Are you willing to participate in courses
to qualify for one of the above-mentioned
activities?
yes 50%
partially 29%
no 21%
7. In the context of current European
requirements, do you consider necessary
to participate in courses for learning
foreign languages and using the computer,
organized by foundations, non-
governmental organizations (with
financial support for the costs)?
yes 60%
partially 22%
no 18%
The final conclusions of this micro-investigation reflect the

correlation of the economical/social/political/educational factors in our
country, Romania, in the present: the national policy concerning the
elderly is inadequate; there are attempts to relate to European policies,
there are attempts to access external funds. However, these initiatives
are granted mostly to the people who have reached extreme living
situations; the role of preventing or, more accurately, the role of

improving the quality of life in late adulthood, are not put into practice
through common actions, implemented in every community or
geographical area. As we have previously shown, we consider policies
in the areas of social protection and health system to be a priority.
In order to improve living conditions, we note an important
willingness to participate in training courses in order to perform
additional activities, on the one hand for supplementing their income, on
the other hand to help their fellow citizens. For this, we point out the
need for organizations which should carry on activities and at the same
time have professional services by hiring qualified staff.
According to D. Billington (1990), efficient educational
programmes for adults have the following characteristics:
A learning environment where the participants feel safe and
supported, where their individuality, life experience, abilities and
competences are appreciated;
A learning environment which promotes and encourages
critical thinking, exploring and creativity;
Learning is mostly self-controlled, the students or trainees
assuming responsibility for their own learning;
Learning is individualised, centred on the concrete interests
and needs of the students, who collaborate with teachers in their
step towards the individualisation and adaptation of curricula;
The learning environment is stimulating, the situations-
problems constituting real intellectual challenges for the students;
A strong involvement in learning; the students are not
passive listeners, they get involved in the dialogue, they interact
with each other and with the teacher, they formulate problems,
express opinions and exchange ideas, practise, cooperate, use their
personal experience to concretise the theoretical aspects, etc;
Efficient feed-back mechanisms, through which the teacher
collects information almost permanently, adapting his/her teaching
activity and guiding learning according to results.
We emphasise the importance of national educational
programmes regarding the facilitation and opening towards the
European space of adults, in order to demonstrate respect for the
citizens of every European community, respect for a system of values
necessary regardless of the economic or political level of each country.
280 L. Trif
Bibliography:
Billington, D. (1990) Developmental aspects of adult education A

comparison of traditional and nontraditional self- directed learning
programs. Journal of Continuing Higher Education, 38(1), 31-38
Boateng, S. K. (2009) Significant country differences in adult learning.
Eurostat Statistics in Focus. 44/ 2009
Cedefop (2009) European guidelines for validating non – formal and
informal learning, Internet:
http://www.cedefop.europa.eu/etv/Upload/Information_ resources
/Bookshop/553/4054_en.pdf
European Commission (2001) Communication from the Commission.
Making a European area of lifelong learning a reality [ COM ( 2001 )
678 final ]: http://ec.europa.eu/education/policies /III/life/
communication/ com_en.pdf
European Commission (2002) Education and training in Europe:
diverse systems, shared goals for 2010, Luxemburg: Office for Official
Publications of the European Communities.
European Commission, DG Education and Culture (2008) The
European Qualification Framework for Lifelong Learning. Internet:
http://ec.europa.eu/dgs/education_culture/publ/pdf/egf/broch_en.pdf
Hanches, L. (2007) De la politici educaţionale la adaptare socio-
educaţională. Politici şi practici educaţionale contemporane, Ed.
Eurostampa, Timişoara;
Ionescu, M., (2005) Instrucţie şi educaţie, ,, Vasile Goldiş ” University,
Arad;
Journal of Educational Sciences, (2009), nr. 2 (20), West University of
Timisoara.
Keogh, H. (2009) The State and Development of Adult Learning and
Education in Europe, North America and Israel, Regional Synthesis
Report. Hamburg: UNESCO Institute for Lifelong Learning,
http://www.unesco.org/fileadmin/MULTIMEDIA/INSTITUTES/UIL/c
onfintea/pdf/GRALE/confinteavi_grale_paneurope_synthesis_en.pdf
Vol VI (2010), No. 2, pp. 281-288
Educators training tools annalysis and processing

in elaboration and implementing
of some efficient managerial approach alternatives
A. Petroi
Anca Petroi
Abstract: Consequently, educators and learners active and

creative involvement in the interaction processes, especially their
training, within the meaning of adaptation and change, become
necessary conditions and prior educational aspirations
achievement. The students group who’re developing an effective
social organization, characterized by transactional and
transformational managerial styles, a division of tasks and
responsibilities delegation, information systems and optimal
communication, there is an adaptive advantage in organizational
and social environment.
Keywords: school organization, educational environment,
management strategies and styles, transformational and
transactional management approach, organizational development
project, operational leadership, monitoring and evaluation, feed-
back and self-regulation managerial practices.
In formative experiment – Developmental strategies in tranzactional

and transformational managerial style approach - we started from some
assumptions, outlined in educational practice:
school organizations current processes of change do not develop by
itself, requiring an active orchestration, voluntary intervention of
educational stakeholders, which direct the educational process in a
given direction exercised by management styles.
ensure the quality of school organization and management at the
default group of students, cover the whole range of skills and
managerial styles, and how teachers promote good educational value
282 A. Petroi
on the level of field management practices.

the complexity of the managerial styles process development among
teachers is that they act in differentiated learning environments, but
can be identified elements which intertwine and influence themself,
generated by simultaneous roles adopted by the educational subjects.
the assumption of managerial styles in complex situations, is
witnessing an increase in the role of educator in management,
coupled with planned and flexible change, professional skills and
information and communication technologies.
management styles in the educational process will bear the mark of
creativity in overcoming reflection stereotypes, by their release from
the captivity of mental patterns and pitfalls of routine.
In this approach we overcame a number of scientific prejudices and
barriers manifested in the collective mentality that are reflected at the
institutional level:
conservatism and resistance to change of some teachers;
indifference and disinterest of teachers for managerial
formation;
low interest for moments of reflection and insight into the
impact of managerial styles and strategies on educational climate;
teacher turnover in management;
reduced involvement of the school members in the
management process.
Formative process aim addressing a flexible and interactive
approach of the educators training process in rural schools, in Arad county,
through the implementation of specific developmental methodologies,
transversal management approach and transformational styles, so
capitalizing the complex interactions at school organization-level.
The priority direction is to improve and optimize the schools
management practices, thus exceeding the explanation, observant,
appreciative or critical level which are prevailing in such actions.
The objectives which are guiding the experimental approach, to

improve the quality of management, were correlated with possible action,
achievable and tailored to the needs of the target group. In this way it follows:
• Connection to professional development dynamics by
identifying conditions that are able to optimize the educators
continuous formation process and facilitate a
transformational management approach, adapted to new
learning contexts.
Educators training tools annalysis and processing 283
• The active involvement of educators in their own training

process, developing transversal skills and implicitly of
managerial transformative approach styles, in conjunction
with the school organization climate.
• Developing evaluation and self-evaluation strategies of the
managerial styles effectiveness, both at individual and
organizational levels.
• Sensitizing educators-managers to the role and importance of
organizational and individual development, through the
implementation of monitoring strategies and performance
evaluation.
• Metaevaluation stimulation, as a method of constant
reflection on management style influences in the development
of educational climate
Formative intervention was built around the general hypothesis:
Implementing in the continuous training programs addressed for teaching
staff, specific strategies for educators training in the processes of design,
operational management, evaluation and self-management practices, using
modeling, role and design play, facilitates the adoption of transformational
management styles and increasing managerial performance.
Throughout the formative experiment, they applied various methods and
instruments to stimulate the use of strategies and transactional and
transformational managerial styles, tackled by educators in the experimental
group. These methods and tools have been optimally incorporated in
formative activities with interactive characteristics (future’s creative
workshop, situational modeling, role and project play). Below are some
methods and tools, considering that their effective implementation, require
creativity and flexibility, manifested by the trainer, as well by the educators,
transactional approach represents an intrinsic quality of any management
approach:
educational needs quantitative and qualitative analysis data sheets;
checklists on situational modeling;
observational protocols of management approach;
strategies and management styles efficiency self-assessment
worksheet;
project to improve and optimize the educational relations;
organizational and individual projects development inter-evaluation
sheet;
training diary;
284 A. Petroi
other products and tools used during the formative experiment.

Educators from the experimental group were involved throughout the
formative experiment, in realizing of an interactive observation process,
analysis, reasoning, self and inter-evaluation of designed strategies and
management styles and implemented in the frames of the creative workshop
and managerial interventions simulation, in case of problem-situations. It was
assumed that the use of interactive methods (panel discussion / Balint group /
Toledo role playing / world-cafe / creative workshop) and some specific
tools, allows educators involvement in developing and implementing
effective management alternatives, to develop transversal competences
(intercom, networking, problem solving, group decision-making). In chapter
are presented a series of descriptive and inferential results.
In the spirit of formative and training assessment, we used - Formative
instruments assessment grid - so that items of this grid will be the variables
whose evolution we will review below. As regards design variable, it has
scores which is added together the results obtained for the following sub-
variable (table 1):
educational actors involvement;
linking strategy and management approach style to the identified
priorities;
establish performance indicators, deadlines and responsibilities;
assessment of appropriate character, feasible and acceptable design;
awareness of strategic goals and addressability.
Table 1. Descriptive statistics for the design sub-variables
Strategic Performance Necessary

Strategies-
goals and Level of indicators- character,
management
target involvement Timelines- feasible,
styles - priorities
audience responsibilities acceptable
Average 2.7857 2.8971 2.8800 2.6144 2.6057
Median 2.0000 3.0000 3.0000 2.0000 3.0000
Module 3.00 3.00 2.00 2.00 3.00
Standard
.93834 .79898 .96998 1.08925 1.05109
deviation
Minimum 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00
Maximum 5.00 5.00 5.00 5.00 5.00
For operational management, we summed scores of the following variables:

educational stakeholders involvement and participation mechanisms
awareness;
creating the facilitator context for conscious participation;
determining actionable alternatives;
adapting leadership styles to the situational specific;
identifying difficulties in the management process.
For variable components, operational leadership - have received above
theoretical average marks, which shows that educators in the experimental
sample, have a medium to high level of development of leadership styles
(table 2).
Table 2. Descriptive statistics for operational management sub-variables
Involvement and
Facilitator Alternative Situational Management
participation
background actions Adaptation difficulties
mechanisms
Average 2.3229 3.3600 2.6487 2.5200 3.5229
Median 2.0000 4.0000 3.0000 3.0000 4.0000
Module 2.00 4.00 3.00 2.00 4.00
Standard
1.01226 .60869 .76989 .88434 .55662
deviation
Minimum 1 1 1 1 1
Maximum 5 5 5 5 5
Managerial performance evaluation variable scores are summing the

following sub-variable scores:
effectiveness assessment - the suitability of managerial styles to
specific educational situation;
individual efforts focus to achieve organizational goals;
assessing the effectiveness of management style approach – fulfilled
objectives and resources used;
error awareness in situational managerial approach.
For variable components - evaluation of management performance – it
shows recorded low scores, for the adequacy of management styles to the
specific educational situation: individual efforts focus to achieve
organizational objectives, but significant scores above the average theoretical,
for efficiency of managerial styles and errors awareness degree of the
situational management approach (table 3).
286 A. Petroi
Table 3. Descriptive statistics for managerial performance sub-variable

evaluation
Concentration of Management styles Errors
Effectiveness
individual efforts efficiency awareness
Average 1.9715 2.2029 2.9401 2.9915
Median 2.0000 2.0000 2.0000 2.0000
Module 2.00 2.00 2.00 2.00
Standard
.67230 .79650 .82116 .71456
deviation
Minimum 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00
Maximum 5.00 5.00 5.00 5.00
During the formative experiment, subjects in the experimental group

were use a specific tool - training log, designed to stimulate meta-evaluation,
as a means of constant reflection on the process of developing managerial
skills and styles, but their personal and organizational impact. Respecting
experimental design, we conducted 12 semistructured interviews (3 in each
school included in each experimental cohort), to find and highlight changes
in terms of management approach style, by subjects participating in the
formative experiment, but also for project implementation, improvement and
optimization of educational interrelation. In terms of obtained averages, a
comparative analysis was done, by reporting to the following independent
variables: gender of investigated subjects (table 4), the category of teaching
staff (table 5) and the professional development (table 6). In relation with
these criteria, we find that there are significant differences between averages
obtained, this being shown by additional calculations performed by SPSS
(variance calculation with ANOVA method and calculation of the partial
regression coefficient). Educator- manager portfolio variable evolution is
there fore in a very small extent predicted by variables: gender of subjects,
teaching staff category and level of professional development.
Table 4. Differences between the averages obtained from the variable -
gender
Gender Total
Male Female
N 80 80 110 190
Average 30.91 31.99 31.54
Standard deviation 7.250 9.036 8.314
Table 5. Differences between the averages obtained from the variable -

personal category
STAFF Total
Teachers with Teaching non-
leadership positions management staff
N 46 144 190
Average 30.00 31.96 31.54
Standard 9.073 7.972 8.314
deviation
Table 6. Differences between the averages obtained from the variable - the
professional development
Professional development level

Permanent Academic 1st
Beginner Second degree Total
degree degree
N 32 58 76 24 190
Average 30.24 33.78 30.04 32.65 31.54
Standard
5.531 8.235 9.530 10.048 8.314
deviation
Quantitative and qualitative analysis of the products that make the educator-
manager’s portfolio, and the instruments used during the formative
intervention emphasized among educators of the experimental group, the
restructuring trend in management style approach, in the sense of assuming
own responsibility, action and a personal efforts to enhance implementation
of transactional and transformational managerial styles.
Regarding the effects induces by managerial styles optimization on
educational intra-and inter-relation we considered as relevant and useful
monitoring and assessing the following aspects:
Personal management skills includes:
consciousness of our own affects, reactions and resources:
knowledge of own strengths and weaknesses, confidence in our
capabilities, intuitive recognition of our own actions which are
affecting others.
self-control: mastering our emotions and a way to act honestly and
with integrity, channeling our feelings to achieve positive goals.
motivation: emotional tendencies that lead us towards personal
achivement.
288 A. Petroi
Development of interpersonal skills that include:

empathy: perception and awareness on others feelings;
sociability: forging links with others, conflict resolution,
communication in a clear and convincing / eloquent manner,
stimulating others to work in cooperation.
The developmental process of management skills must be addressed
in a dynamic perspective, focusing on complex and practical analysis.
Responsibility for professional development is educator-manager of career
development path is determined in relation to personal aspirations, with its
vision of what will be done in future.
Bibliography:
Bocoş, M., (2003), Cercetarea pedagogiocă, Casa Cărţii de Ştiinţă, Cluj-

Napoca
Ionescu, M., Bocoş, M.(coord.), (2009), Tratat de didactică modernă, Ed.
Paralela 45, Piteşti
Pell, A.,R., (2007), Managementul resurselor umane, Ed. Curtea Veche,
Bucureşti
Porter, L.W., Lawler,E.E., (2001), Managerial Attitudes and Performance,
Homewood, Dorsey Press, New York
Rateau,P.,(2004), Metodele şi statisticile experimentale în ştiinţele umane,
Ed. Polirom, Iaşi
Rees, W. D., (1991), The Skills of Management, Routledge, Londra
Rotariu, T.,(coord.), (2006), Metode statistice aplicate în ştiinţele sociale, Ed.
Polirom, Iaşi
Schein, E.H., (2004), Organizational Culture and Leadership, 3rd
edition,Jossey-Bass, San Francisco
Stan, E.,(2003), Managementul clasei, Ed. Aramis, Bucureşti
Yukl ,G., (2002), Leadership in Organisations, 5m, Prentice Hall
International Inc, New York
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Vol VI (2010), No. 2, pp. 289-300
Bloom’s taxonomy – valences and utility

in pedagogical practice
M. M. Popescu-Mitroi
Maria-Monica Popescu-Mitroi
,,Politehnica” University of Timişoara,
Department for Teaching Training
monicamitroi@yahoo.com
Abstract
In this paper I have made a parallel between the taxonomic
levels of Bloom (1) – Socratic questions taxonomy (2) –
Wilson’s types of questions (3) – applications of Bloom’s
taxonomy in evaluation items construction (4), taking as an
example content the didactic transposition of Bloom’s
taxonomy. Therefore, we exemplified how we can correlate an
objective formulated at a certain taxonomic level with the rest of
teaching process –learning– evaluation, so that students to
benefit of a cognitive progress. Finally, I could detach some
practical recommendations on two dimensions: teachers can
create a monitoring system of correspondence between
objectives – teaching process – study and what they measure by
evaluation probes. Teachers can involve students/pupils in a
monitoring process of the study process by creating some study
habits in the classroom based on using the superior levels of
cognitive taxonomy, applicable later, independent in any
individual study.
Keywords: cognitive taxonomic levels, cognitive progress,
didactic strategies, evaluation items construction.
1. Introduction
Cognitive objectives taxonomy after Benjamin S. BLOOM (1956) –
uses a classifying criteria the complexity of mental operations which involve
each category of educative objectives. Taxonomy is a first try to answer the
need of precision to express the objectives in the cognitive domain. Also time
and educational experience decanted the theory’s vulnerability, the authors of
290 M. M. Popescu-Mitroi
school programs and teachers still are limited to formulations of

objectives that determine difficulties in assuring the study evolution of
pupils, teaching difficulties, evaluation difficulties. Despite the existent
critics, it is obvious that a teacher which has as start point the cognitive
taxonomic levels, when he designs a didactic activity he has greater
chances to give coherence to this process and to develop the thinking
capacities of superior level of his students.
The didactic activity development, according to the steps
identified by G. and V. de Landsheere, is a process of anticipating
objectives (1), contents (2), resources identification (3), the suitable
didactic strategies (4), the evaluation ways and evaluation instruments (5),
in a clear way.
That is why we will analyze in what way we can correlate an
objective developed at a certain taxonomic level with the rest of the
teaching process – study – evaluation, so that the students can benefit of a
cognitive progress. More exact, we realized a parallel between Bloom’s
taxonomic levels – Socratic questions taxonomy – Wilson’s types of
questions – Bloom’s taxonomy applications in evaluation items
construction, taking as example the didactic transposition of Bloom’s
taxonomy.
This try is based on the following arguments:
In the time when we are involved in the development of a teaching
design – study – evaluation, Bloom’s taxonomy can be a start point in this
design and a check list from which we can assure that we selected the
most appropriate types of teaching – study to develop in students the
necessary or wanted capacities.
Through the art of thoughtful questioning teachers can extract not
only factual information, but aid learners in (Wilson L.O., 1997):
connecting concepts, making inferences, increasing awareness,
encouraging creative and imaginative thought, aiding critical thinking
processes, and generally helping learners explore deeper levels of
knowing, thinking, and understanding.
Intending the Taxonomy ,,as a method of classifying educational
objectives, educational experiences, learning processes, and evaluation
questions and problems” (Paul R.W., 1985 p. 39), numerous examples of
test items (mostly multiple choice) were included. This led to a natural
linkage of specific verbs and products with each level of the taxonomy.
The theoretical step is structured in the following 4 aspects,
observing the fallowing correspondence:
Bloom’s taxonomy – valences and utility in pedagogical practice 291
Application
Socratic questions Types of
of Bloom's
and the questions
Bloom'sTaxonomy Taxonomy
correspondence L. O. Wilson
6 levels to the
with (1997)
design of
Bloom’s Taxonomy
MCQs
6. Probe implications
and consequences 6. Evaluative
and Questions about 5. Divergent
the question 4. Convergent
5. Questioning 3. Convergent
viewpoints and 2. Convergent Examples
perspectives 1. Factual of items for
4. Probing rationale each
reasons and evidence This types are taxonomic
3. Probing in level
assumptions correspondence
2. Conceptual with
clarification Bloom’s
questions. Taxonomy
1. _________
Socratic questions. The art of asking questions is one of the basic skills of
good teaching. Also known as the dialectical approach, this type of
questioning can correct misconceptions and lead to reliable knowledge
construction. Here are the six types of questions that Socrates asked his
pupils:
Conceptual clarification questions – the students are put to explain, detail,
argument, think deep, ,,tell me more”.
Probing assumptions - makes them think about the presuppositions and
unquestioned beliefs on which they are founding their argument.
Probing rationale, reasons and evidence - When they give a rationale for
their arguments, dig into that reasoning rather than assuming it is a given.
Questioning viewpoints and perspectives. Most arguments are given from a
particular position. So attack the position. Show that there are other, equally
valid, viewpoints.
Probe implications and consequences. The argument that they give may have
logical implications that can be forecast. Do these make sense? Are they
desirable?
Questions about the question. And you can also get reflexive about the whole
thing, turning the question in on itself. Use their attack against themselves.
Bounce the ball back into their court, etc.
Why Use Socratic Questioning?
During disciplined, carefully structured questioning, students must slow
down and examine their own thinking processes. Thoughtful, disciplined
questioning in the classroom can achieve the following teaching and learning
goals (Stepien B., 1999):
Model scientific practices of inquiry;
Support active, student-centered learning;
Facilitate inquiry-based learning;
Help students to construct knowledge;
Help students to develop problem-solving skills;
Improve long-term retention;
The teacher creates and sustains an intellectually stimulating classroom
environment and acknowledges the value of the student in that environment.
Leslie Owen Wilson ( 1997) - There are five basic types of questions:
Factual; Convergent; Divergent; Evaluative; and Combination:
Factual - Soliciting reasonably simple, straight forward answers based on
obvious facts or awareness. These are usually at the lowest level of cognitive
or affective processes and answers are frequently either right or wrong.
Convergent - Answers to these types of questions are usually within a very
finite range of acceptable accuracy. These may be at several different levels
of cognition -- comprehension, application, analysis, or ones where the
answerer makes inferences or conjectures based on personal awareness, or on
material read, presented or known.
Divergent - These questions allow students to explore different avenues and
create many different variations and alternative answers or scenarios.
Correctness may be based on logical projections, may be contextual, or
arrived at through basic knowledge, conjecture, inference, projection,
creation, intuition, or imagination. These types of questions often require
students to analyze, synthesize, or evaluate a knowledge base and then
project or predict different outcomes.
Evaluative - These types of questions usually require sophisticated levels of
cognitive and/or emotional judgment. In attempting to answer evaluative
questions, students may be combining multiple logical and/or affective
thinking process, or comparative frameworks. Often an answer is analyzed at
multiple levels and from different perspectives before the answerer arrives at
newly synthesized information or conclusions.
Combinations - These are questions that blend any combination of the above.
2. Some applications of Bloom’s taxonomy to enhance the effectiveness
of teaching-learning-evaluation process
In what continues we will show for each taxonomic level, how can be
correlated the three aspects mentioned earlier.
2.1. Knowledge. Abilities showed by students: observing and memorizing
information, terminology, data, events, places, conventions, main ideas,
general elements and abstractions knowledge (laws, principles, theories
specific to the domain), knowledge of procedures and methods. Verbs – the
student will record, define, tell, describe, identify, differentiate, reproduce,
enumerate, show, name, gather, examine, tabulate, quote, when, where, etc.
Table 1. Examples of taxonomic level - knowledge:
Socratic questions - Multiple-choice
Factual questions - examples
examples test - examples
Who made a taxonomy of
cognitive domain?
Taxonomy of
Which are the 6 taxonomy
cognitive objectives
levels proposed by B.S.
after B.S. Bloom
Who, what, when, where, Bloom?
contains at the last
how ...? What are the characteristics of
level:
the analyze level?
a.) application;
Name three abilities that a
b.) evaluation;
student that has reached the
c.) synthesis.
analyze level in what conceerns
the tasks performance is
showing
2.2. Comprehension. ,, Translation, extrapolation and interpretation” are
“steps” of this taxonomy class. Abilities shown by students: understanding
information; understanding the sense; interpreting knowledge in a new
context; interpreting facts, comparison, being in opposition; putting things in
order, interpret, compare, anticipate, associate, distinguish, estimate,
differentiate, talk, extrapolate, transform, analyze, illustrate, redefine, explain,
estimate, demonstrate, paraphrase, determine, compare, correlate, argument,
distinguish, explain, reorganize, etc.
Table 2. Examples of taxonomic level - comprehension:
Socratic questions Convergent
Multiple - choice test -
Conceptual questions –
examples
clarification questions examples
Why are you saying What tasks can Students demonstrate at the
that? students solve that taxonomic level comprehension
What exactly does this have reached the the fallowing skills:
mean? analyze level? a.) can define a specific

How does this relate to What is the meaning principle of a domain;
what we have been that a teacher created b.) can explain a specific
talking about? an operational principle of a domain;
What is the nature of ...? objective at the c.) can catch the relations
What do we already cognitive analyze between the principles of a
know about this? level? domain.
Can you give me an The teacher proposed to
example? students the following task: „to
Are you saying ... or ... ? identify the differences between
Can you rephrase that, the taxonomic levels having in
please? front each ones characteristics”.
This is a task situated at a
taxonomic level:
a.) comprehension;
b.) analyze;
c.) aplication.
2.3. Application. Abilities shown by students: using information, methods,

concepts, theories in new situations; solve problems using the requested
knowledge and abilities, using the correct procedures and methods. Verbs –
the student will apply, demonstrate, calculate, conclude, illustrate, solve,
examine, modify, associate, change, classify, experiment, discover.
Table 3. Examples of taxonomic level - application:
Socratic questions Convergent questions - Multiple-choice test
Probing assumptions examples examples
How is...an example of...?
What else could we Which is the most
How is...related to...?
assume? appropriate question of a
Why is...significant?
You seem to be assuming teacher taht poropose to
... ? himself to develop the
Do you recognize the level
How did you choose students’ thinking at the
that the next operational
those assumptions? analyze taxonomic level:
objective is situated?
Please explain why/how a.) What are the
Create objectives that are
... ? characteristics of
situated at taxonomic levels
How can you verify or comprehension level?
progresively different.
disprove that b.) Give an example of
Why is the created objective
assumption? ability that a students that
,,....” situated at the synthesis
What would happen if ... solves tasks at
taxonomic level?
? comprehension level shows.
How do we create a task of
Do you agree or disagree c.) Why the comprehension
evaluation to correspond the
with ... ? level is inferior to the one
objective ,,...” situated at the
called analyze?
synthesis level?
2.4. Analyze – involves the elements identification from an integer

(“elements analyze”); identifying some logical and causal reports (“relations
analyze”); catching the principles that work or is build from a category of
products (“principles analyze”). Abilities shown by students: recognizing
some known methods, parts organizing; catching hidden senses; indentifying
component parts, recognizing the argumentation errors, distinguish between
facts and inferences, relevant evaluation of data, etc. Verbs – the student will
analyze, separate, order, explain, associate, classify, systematize, divide,
compare, select, explain.
Table 4. Examples of taxonomic level - analyze:
Socratic questions
Convergent questions - Multiple-choice test
Probing rationale, reasons
examples examples
and evidence
How do you know that an
Why is that happening? operational objective is
How do you know this? situated at there
Show me ... ? comprehension level?
Can you give me an Giv example of a task by
example of that? which is evaluated an
What do you think causes ... objective situated at level (X)
? of comprehension. At synthesis
What is the nature of this? What determins the selection taxonomic level the
Are these reasons good of a taxonomic level in what students are capable
enough? concerns the tasks of an to solve the
Would it stand up in court? evaluation test? following task:
How might it be refuted? Why does often happen that a.) to solve
How can I be sure of what the same verb to be included in problems;
you are saying? different taxonomic b.) to create original
Why is ... happening? categories? works;
Why? (keep asking it -- How do we know that a c.) to make
you'll never get past a few certain evaluation task belongs predictions.
times) to a certain taxonomic level?
What evidence is there to Show by example how the
support what you are same verb can mean different
saying? actions situated in different
On what authority are you categories.
basing your argument? Why is the evaluation level
superior to the synthesis level?
2.5. Synthesis – involves some ideas restructuration, presenting them in

another order, catching new logical correlations, on the basis which are
formed personal conclusions, all this leading to elaborating a personal work
(report, composition, essay, technical object, etc). Abilities showed by

students: using old ideas to create new ideas; generalization starting from the
given data; associating the knowledge came from various domains;
conclusion anticipating, etc.
Verbs – the student will associate, integrate, modify, reorganize, replace,
plan, create, develop, invent, compose, formulate, prepare, generalize,
rephrase, etc.
Table 5. Examples of taxonomic level - synthesis:
Socratic questions
Questioning Divergent questions - Multiple-choice test
viewpoints and examples examples
perspectives
Another way of looking Mention the aspects under
at this is ..., does this which the Bloom’s and
seem reasonable? Anderson’s taxonomy are
What alternative ways similar concerning the
of looking at this are confusion of phrasing
there? questions at different levels.
Why it is ... necessary? What solutions do you sugest
Who benefits from to eliminate the confusions in
The reacher proposes
this? items inclusion, to questions
the next task to the
What is the difference at different levels?
students: to find
between... and...? How could be created a
solutions to eliminate
Why is it better than system of monitoring the
confusions between
...? used levels by a teacher,
evaluation taxonomic
What are the strengths when he is teaching a
level (Bloom) and
and weaknesses of...? discipline?
evaluation (Anderson).
How are ... and ... Which are the week and strog
This is a task situated at
similar? points of Bloom’s taxonomy?
the level:
What would ... say Can we predict a student’s
a.) synthesis (Bloom);
about it? performances on the basis of
b.) evaluation
What if you compared actual situation level in
(Anderson);
... and ... ? Bloom’s taxonomy?
c.) evaluation (Bloom).
How could you look What would happen if we did
another way at this? not respect sequential in
What would you teaching the taxonomic
predict/infer from...? levels?
What ideas can you What solutions do you sugest
add to...? to pass over the difficulties in
How would you the objectives at different
create/design a new...? taxonomic levels
What might happen if development?

you combined...?
What solutions would
you suggest for...?
2.6. Evaluation – requires the students to issue judgments of personal

value and argument about a creation making reference to precision, logic,
consistence, coherence, rigor (“evaluation by reporting internal criteria”),
and also to efficiency, adequacy to the purpose according to a model
(“evaluation by reporting at external criteria”). Abilities shown by
students: evaluating the importance of theories, presentations; adopting a
decision based on reason; checking the facts value; subjectivity
recognition, etc. Verbs – the student will evaluate, decide, order, rank,
test, measure, recommend, persuade, select, judge, explain, distinguish,
argument, conclude, compare, resume, etc.
Table 6. Examples of taxonomic level - evaluation:

Socratic
questions Probe Evaluative questions Multiple-choice test
implications and examples examples
consequences
Then what would How do you believe that Evaluate the answer of
happen? The B.S. Bloom’s a student that is told to
What are the taxonomy influences the argument why the same
consequences of teaching and studying action verb can be
that assumption? practice? situated at different
How could ... be Which are the taxonomic levels.
used to ... ? discriminations between Which of the following
the answers is pertinent:
What are the a.) this situation is not
implications of ... Bloom’s taxonomy and L. possible because the
? Andreson’s taxonomy? same verb cannot have
How does ... What are the consequences different complexity
affect ... ? of ignoring the B.S. levels;
How does ... fit Bloom’s taxonomy in b.) this situation is
with what we didactic practice? possible only if the
learned before? How could be removed the tasks/actions are
Why is ... risk to phrase objectives at different as complexity;
important? inferior level of taxonomy? c.) this situation means
What is the best ... Why is important that a an error due to a
? Why? teacher to use taxonomy in missunderstanding of

Questions about phrasing operational the differences that
the question objectives, questions and every taxonomic level
What was the verifying tasks? involves;
point of asking Which are the most
that question? important agreement points Which is the most
Why do you think between the two appropriate methos of
I asked this taxonomies? evaluation to verify an
question? Do you agree with the objective situated at
What does that reviewd taxonomy version evaluation level?
mean? of B.S. Bloom? a.) multiple choice test;
How do you decide which b.) project;
is the level at which you c.) portfolio.
phrase the operational
objectives?
How do you select the
questions/tasks to evaluate
the phrased operational
objectives?
What criteria do you
respect when you evaluate
the level at which an
operational objective is
phrased?
Establish the sequences
order of pedagogical
development in which the
Bloom’s taxonomy is
involved.
3. Conclusions
Bloom’s taxonomy is:

• A reference model in a certain lesson development, of a class, but also
in the analytical program development of a taught discipline o an
educational program, because in all this cases we start from what we
wish to obtain from our students (what will they know, what will they
know to do, what will the students know to be) and we finish with their
evaluation (how do I know that they have these capacities);
• As initial was wanted, Bloom’s taxonomy (including the reviewed one

of Lorin W. Anderson), can contribute to academic education
formalization and education in general, in the whole world;
• Bloom’s taxonomy (including the reviewed one of Lorin W.
Anderson), can be constant applied in the development process, but
also precise in the teaching – study – evaluation process, so that the
students understand the logic of their cognitive progress, and in this
way “can be related by the multiple intelligences development, abilities
to solve problems, critical and creative thinking and integrating the
new technologies” (Noble T., 2004);
A few practical recommendations:

• Teachers can create a monitoring system of correspondence between
objectives – the teaching – study process and what they measure by
evaluation tests. We cannot formulate objectives at the superior level
of taxonomy and evaluate by tasks that are situated at the inferior level
of taxonomy by their requesting level. We cannot teach requesting the
thinking of the students at inferior levels and to evaluate by tasks
situated at superior level. Concerning the evaluation forms, it is
recommended a blend of them, because is hard to catch the
development rank of superior levels by multiple – choice tests. In case
of using multiple – choice tests, it is recommended the item creation
that is at superior levels, according to formulated objectives in an
appropriate share.
• Teachers can involve students in a monitoring process of the study
progress by creating individual study habits. Pupils, students, can be
taught to monitor alone the study progress at every class/lesson,
starting from the level that presents difficulties, by group or individual
exercises. This habit created in the classroom can contribute to the
meta-cognition development of the students, so when they will learn a
information, they can phrase question by their own at different
taxonomic levels, can anticipate the questions and evaluation items,
which represents a control over study and evaluation.
Bibliography:
Bloom, B.S. (1984). Taxonomy of educational objectives. Boston: Published

by Allyn and Bacon Pearson Education. Adapted by permission of the
publisher. Retrieved from http://www.coun.uvic.ca/learning/exams/blooms-
taxonomy.html
Elder, L.; Richard, P. (2004). The Miniature Guide on the Art of Asking
Essential Questions for Students and Teachers. Dillon Beach, CA.
Foundation for Critical Thinking. Retrieved from www.criticalthinking.org
Erickson, H. L.. (2007). Concept-based curriculum and instruction for
the thinking classroom. Thousand Oaks, CA. Corwin Press. Retrieved from
http://web.uct.ac.za/projects/cbe/mcqman/mcqappc.html
Forehand, M. (2005). Bloom's taxonomy: Original and revised. In M. Orey
(Ed.), Emerging perspectives on learning, teaching, and technology.
Retrieved from http://projects.coe.uga.edu/epltt
Merritts Dorothy, Walter R. (nd). Using Socratic Questioning. Franklin &
Marshall College. Retrieved from
http://serc.carleton.edu/introgeo/socratic/index.html
McKeachie,W.J. (1994). Teaching Tips: Strategies, Research, and Theory
for College and University Teachers. (9th ed.) Lexington, MA: D. C. Heath.
Noble, T. (2004). Integrating the revised Bloom's taxonomy with multiple
intelligences: A planning tool for curriculum differentiation. Teachers
College Record (Vol. 106, p. 193): Blackwell Publishing Limited.
Paul, R. W. (1985). Bloom's taxonomy and critical thinking instruction,
Educational Leadership. (Vol. 42, p. 36): Association for Supervision &
Curriculum Development.
Stepien, B. (1999). Taxonomy of Socratic Questioning, has been adapted
from Richard P. (1993). Critical Thinking: How to Prepare Students for a
Rapidly Changing World. Retrieved from http://ed.fnal.gov/
trc_new/tutorial/taxonomy.html
Wilson, L.O. (1997). Newer Views of Learning - Types of Questions. There
are five basic types of questions: Factual; Convergent; Divergent;
Evaluative; and Combination. Retrieved from http://www.uwsp.edu/
education/lwilson/learning/quest2.htm ***Socratic questions Retrieved from
http://changingminds.org/techniques/questioning/socratic_questions.htm
http://www.pdfqueen.com/pdf/so/socratic-questioning/
Vol VI (2010), No. 2, pp. 301-313
Complementarity between the elements of moral

education and religious education
I. Vlădescu
Ionuţ Vlădescu
Facultatea de Psihologie şi Ştiinte ale Educaţiei
Universitatea ”Petre Andrei” din Iaşi
Abstract: The education is defined as the specifically human

activity aiming at building and enhancing the personality of the
targeted persons, in order to achieve certain precise goals
according to the present-day and future needs of the human
society. Supporting the ontogenetic development through the
promotion of the moral and religious values represented in the
long run of time one preoccupation of all human communities as
premise for the sustainability, stability, as well as peaceful and
prosperous cohabitation within one given geographical and
historical area. Thus, the religious education and the moral one
are considered as the core of the genuine personality. Education
is defined as human-specific action, which aims to educate the
training and personal development, for achieving the goals
spelled out depending on current and future requirements of
society. Support development by promoting moral and religious
values was, over time concern of all human communities, as a
prerequisite for stability and peaceful and prosperous
coexistence in a certain geographical area and historical.
Keywords: historical, human society, element, religious,
education
Thus, religious education and moral education are considered the

nucleus of a real personality (D. Salade, 1998, p. 70).
1. Delimitations terminology
The issue of moral education, religious education and thus the

relationship between these dimensions of education is high, it will require
302 I. Vlădescu
understanding and clarify some terminological distinctions. Terms used in

field-anchor of the religious and moral education are ethical, moral, moral
education, religion, religious education. In the context of current scientific
theory of ethics is morality. Over time the term ethics (from the Greek ηθος,
ηθικη) has undergone significant changes: from something outside of man,
human and animal house, home (at Homer), the concept or character smb /
abiding way of acting, habits (the Greek thinkers after him). Aristotle
introduced and understood as a theory of moral ethics, virtue ethics based on
the naming usually experience time.This term was taken over by other Greek
thinkers, to describe both the collective morality and the individual. For a
group or a moral people, for customs, its traditions, the Greek word there
εθος (N. Mladin, O. Bucevschi, C. Paul, I. Zăgrean, 2003).Latin translation of
the word generated ηθος Moralis adjective, noun closely with Santa, Moris,
initially having the same meaning: usually, custom, habit. Usual and
customary concepts - semantically equivalent - means a constant behavior,
subject to rules, manifested over a long period of time. The term usually has
meaning and value of collective and individual value is the term habit, which
led to the distinction between collective or social morality and individual
morality. If, initially, ethical and moral terms had the same meaning,
etymology has crystallized during the evolution of the difference between
them.
Thus, morality is a real phenomenon, collectively and individually,
including both the rules governing human relationships and human types of
activities and all events (subjective and objective) that are produced in
various degrees and ways into those standards or Commands, events subject
to collective and individual assessment (Cătineanu T., 1982, p. 11). Moral
Education is the side of education, which aims at training and character
development as a relational value side of the personality, ie moral
consciousness and conduct. The essence of moral education is formed with a
personality profile morally elevated, which is concentrated in majority of
social morals, values characteristic of a corporate data in a certain stage of
development (D. Salad, 1998, p. 73). Religious phenomenon is present
everywhere, man and religion report varying according to the culture to
which it belongs. This relationship is extremely complex in its dynamics, role
of education in achieving it is essential. Religion is the link for free, and
personal awareness of man with God, based on love and freedom, and
expressed through various forms of veneration of Him in private and
publicly, spoken or sung prayer, bringing gifts, attendance at religious
services and ceremonies, practice of virtue.
Complementarity between the elements… 303
Common to all religions is that they experience the sacred and

essential characteristic of the presence of a divinity (L. Kolakowski, 1993).
Religious education is specifically human action that a teacher student
religiosity conducted for development based on principles and using specific
methods and means. Christian religious education is based on two truths of
faith: incarnation of Jesus Christ - the Son of God who became man to give
man the opportunity to get to the likeness of God - and the existence of the
human soul, which can be modeled by the Education (S. Şebu, M. Opris, D.
Opris, 2000).
The need for religious education follows from the fact that the
approach of self improvement is needed in global education, which, to be
complete, must include the religious component: If it is important for
man's eternal destiny, it means that education can not ignore this
important issue (JLG Gamdo, 1995, p. 183).
2. The relationship between religion and moral
The definition of religion, that it presupposes the existence of a

doctrine or a particular conception of the divine human relationship that
involves deriving from the doctrine that moral and religious worship or forms
through which man expresses his own relationship with divinity. It follows
therefore that religion has three dimensions: the size of doctrinal, moral
dimension, size and ritual practice. At this, Ninian Smart (1989, p. 12-21)
adds four dimensions: experiential and emotional dimension, size narrative /
mythic, social and institutional dimension and the aesthetic dimension. Every
religion has generated its own moral, between the moral structures of
different religions are approximate, and contradictions.
Examples:
1. Formulations of the Golden Rule in different religions: Christianity: All
things are trying to do to you people, I also do them, this is the law and the
prophets. (Matthew 7, 12),
2. Judaism: What you do not hurt your neighbor. (Talmud 5)
3. Islam: Not a true believer until you love your brother as yourself.
(Tradition)
4. Buddhism: Do not do unto others as you make your evil. (Udanavarga 5, 18)
5. Confucianism: Is there a rule that can be followed during life? Surely
loving kindness is such a rule. You should not do to others what they should
and do. (Gleanings 15, 23)
6. Hinduism: This is the supreme duty: not something that others once did,
they would cause pain. (Mahabharata 5, 5-7).
304 I. Vlădescu
7. Romanian Folk Culture has established a rule of thumb in the proverb:

What you do not like each other do not.
3. Contradictions between different religions rules
Suicide is considered a sin in Judaism and Christianity. Sacrifice in

djihad is considered the highest form of veneration of Allah, which provides
immediate entry into heaven without his soul to stay in the midway to the
Last Judgement. No religion can not be conceived without morality. Thus, in
terms of religion and morality, can make the following findings: both religion
and moral concern the man as a person able to internalize and promote moral
values, pursue spiritual fulfillment of man and admit the idea of reward and
punishment / punishment from the deity, community and conscience.
Differences have regard in particular the following aspects: religion
produces moral, and not vice coverage of religion is not only moral,
transcendent religion and morality helps man to exceed the intrinsically.
Within each religion, moral principles are not generated by human
experience and social, but religious teaching. This is very evident in the case
of Christianity and Christian morality: In Christianity, the religion and
morality are summed up in one name: Jesus Christ. In religion we find Jesus
Christ as Lord and Savior of the world shows us that the moral ideal model of
perfect man, the Gospel, he teaches us to believe that we saved; in the
example of His life, He shows us how to live - in love, piety, peace, humility,
brotherhood, forgiveness, simplicity, mercy, kindness, honesty, thrift,
kindness - to reach the highest stage of moral perfection, ie holiness.
Therefore, for the Christian, the greatest good is God incarnate and revealed
in Jesus Christ, loved and lived the Gospel virtues to perfection, so to the
moral likeness to Him (I. Felea, 1994, p. 31).
In the Christian, moral principles are not required as something alien,
outside man, but are consistent with the needs of inner person created by God
to reach his knowledge. Similarities and differences between religion and
morality leads to the conclusion that these two realities are involved,
condition and influence each other: morality without religion would be a sum
of social principles, perspective, not being given an absolute authority, and in
the absence of morality, religion promote selfishness and anarchy. There are
arguing that religion and morality are two different realities that can be
separated, moral principles are the fruit of reason. The most important issue
arising from their separation is relativized moral principles, which are thus
only valid in a certain historical period. Consequences arising from this way
of looking at things are most often negative. For example, sexual minorities
the freedom given to marry and adopt children will certainly have negative
effects for the children by himself educational environment in which they
grow.
Over time there have been philosophical moral systems and concepts
were drafted without including religious ideas before Christ philosophical
systems can be said of Socrates, Plato, Aristotle, each with its own moral.
Changes in the ideological level in Europe since the seventeenth century led
to the emergence of philosophical moral systems, such as:
1. utilitarian morality - identify what is good and useful man in individually
and socially.
2. Evolutionary ethics - explains the moral life based on Biological
evolutionary developments within Reach of the man-animal-Selfish Behavior
in the Human unselfish. Acts of adjustment function one must make is: Self-
Preservation, education and privacy fellow Survivors.
3. positivist Morality - Moral believes Phenomena That Can be known from
personal experience of the subject, But through deeds, through social
experience, through manners and Customs, Which Can be studied
scientifically.
4. naturalistic morality - moral claims that human life should comply with
the laws of nature and thereby justify certain behaviors and attitudes of
people who, although they are in accordance with the laws of nature are
immoral.
Philosophical moral systems aims at studying the facts of human purely
rational grounds, the only legislator of their being human. Motivation facts
and actions are such obvious moral judges, judgments, impulses, needs, etc.
will of man. Without that they are linked with faith in God.
4. Christian morality - the field of Christian religion
Educational phenomenon has been deeply marked by the emergence

of Christianity, promoted both by doctrine and ethics proposed by the Son of
God made flesh to save not only people but also to provide, through word
and deed, as an example of morality. With the spread of Christianity,
especially Roman Empire, its influence in the education plan became evident
at both schools weather , to which were added shortly and set up by some
Fathers of the Church and Christian philosophers and the Christian
communities and families.
An important role in Christian education have had writings with Christian
character: the New Testament and subsequent works of the Church Fathers
(especially those written by: St. Basil the Great, St. John Chrysostom, St.
306 I. Vlădescu
Gregory of Nyssa, Saint Gregory Nazianzus, John John Cassian, Saint John
Damascene, and others) and Christian philosophers (Clement of Alexandria,
Origen, etc.).
Purpose they were written was not only a missionary, but especially
teaching in these writings, the teachings of faith were not separated from
those of morality, so in the first millennium of Christianity there is work to
treat separately the two aspects . Development of science has led some in the
statutory independent disciplines. This trend has favored the Scholastic
period (sec. IX-XIV) early loosening of dogmatic theology and Christian
moral theological systematization of these disciplines. Philosophical-
theological work of Peter Lombard (1105-1160), Libri quattuor sententiarum
(Sentences) was formed with r-Bible - Study in the discipline of theological
faculties, until the thirteenth century. The most important role in the statutory
two theological disciplines have had Catholic philosophers and theologians
of the thirteenth century, the most representative are: Bacon, Bonaventure,
Alexander Halles (belonging to the Franciscan order) and Albert the Great,
Thomas Aquino (belonging to the Dominican). They proposed to reconcile
Aristotles philosophical writings of the Church Fathers, which is why the
thirteenth century is the century rediscovery of Aristotles. Summa theologiae
of Thomas Aquinas (1225-1274) - now, after Vatican Council I (1879)
Formal work Moral Theology Roman Catholic Church - Christianity shaped
by philosophical categories of Aristotle (N. Mladin, O. Bucevschi, C . Paul L
Zăgrean, 2003).
Separation science of philosophy - initiated during scholastic -
culminated in the Renaissance (XV-XVI centuries). in terms of moral and
religious education the most important role has had a religious reform (first
half of XVI century).
Besides the moral reform of clergy, reformers have initiated and changing
doctrine of original sin doctrine of faith and its aftermath, the conception of
grace and freedom, the conception of the role of salvation facts have moral
consequences (for example, supports the teaching of the Protestant Church
about predestination, which produces morally different ways of
understanding the factors that people religious and moral actions). Change
doctrines influenced later theories of education and religious and moral
teaching promoted by the founders of the great systems in the Protestant
Church, the beginnings of moral theology as a theological discipline appear
in Confession Augustine, especially Melanchthon, Zwingli, Calvin. Final
separation of the two theological disciplines in the West was at the end of the
XVI century and in the East, the early eighteenth century.
The emergence of Christian denominations led confesionalizare

morals and Christian, each according to his own doctrine, furthermore, we
refer to the Orthodox Christian morality. Starting from the definition of
religion, the three aspects of these three disciplines dealing with theological:
Dogmatic (discipline showing up as divine truths revealed truths of faith),
Christian Morals (discipline dealing with the study of human facts viewed in
light of the Gospel) and Liturgical (discipline which is the science of divine
worship), between them are closely connected: the Christian moral bases its
content on divine authority, moral rules appear as divine commandments as
revealed truths of faith in the Holy Scripture and Holy Tradition, and human
actions are based on love for God and others and are a prerequisite for
salvation, in cooperation with the grace acquired, in particular by receiving
the Sacraments. Moral Christian (Orthodox) is the theological discipline, on
the basis of divine revelation - contained in Sacred Scripture and Sacred
Tradition and taught by the Holy Church - consistently showing the rules by
which Christians must be guided to achieve its ultimate purpose, similarity
God - the supreme good (Mladin N., O. Bucevschi, C. Paul, L Zăgrean, 2003,
p. 9). The essential elements to be drawn from the definition refers to the fact
that Christian moral values are revealed, which gives an absolute value, and
that their performance exceeds immanent plan. Christian moral theology
contains truths, only on the basis of reason, can not be known: the
supernatural mission of human sin and its consequences, the possibility and
means of sanctification of life, etc.. This does not mean the exclusion of
reason as a source of moral action, merely that it is subject to divine
revelation. Do not agree with the idea that religion and morality are moral but
explicitly religious moral and religious moral default.
The explicit religious morals, man is guided by divine commands
and subordinate their entire lives celebrating their love for God and neighbor.
Implicit religious morality can be explained by the Orthodox
viewpoint that man is God creation, which has planted in his soul the desire
to commit acts according to His will. The Bible speaks clearly about this fact
and show that it was true for the pagans, not only for the chosen people: For
when Gentiles who do not have the Law do by nature those of law, they have
no law shall be Lorus law, they show that the law written in their hearts by
the testimony of conscience and their judgments, blame him or even defend
them on the day when God will judge according to my gospel through Jesus
Christ, the secrets of men (Romans 2, 14-16). In creation, man was endowed
by God with the power to strive for personal excellence in every human soul
is the natural moral law, ie the propensity to form the concept of good and
evil and the good understanding that should be done and evil must avoided.
308 I. Vlădescu
Man does not fall within the profane, because it would mean a total break of
the Creator, something that was not true even before the coming of Christ.
There can be no question of morality than about God than about religion,
because it is a function of the human soul, even if this does not appear
explicitly (see Religion by Leszek Kolakowski work). Based on the above,
detach moral philosophy that religious morality is actually default, because
man can find happiness and the good path of reason, by his own strength.
This well may be but rather, because of human limits.
As far as we are concerned, I share the view of teachers and
Salad Dumitru Constantin Cucos, who believes that moral education and
religious education are areas distinct but complementary aspects of
education, both aimed at training human personality, without denying the
interweaving of all natural sides of education, insisting on the specificity and
autonomy of each component, which deserves to be addressed theoretically
and practically implemented in a relatively independent way (C.
Cucos,1999,p.25).
Relativity independent treatment is more obvious if the moral and
religious education is carried out within the discipline of religion. To finish,
the man needs both moral education and religious education, which go hand
in hand, in a dynamic spiral.
5. Moral education and religious education in the writings of

prominent representatives of modern pedagogy
Environment influences exerted by historical, social and cultural

theorists of education who have worked in conjunction with reporting
personally to divinity, led to different approaches to educational phenomenon
in general and the religious and moral education, especially. Modern
historical period in which teachers have worked coincides with the final
separation of Dogmatic Theology of Christian Ethics, completed in Western
Europe in the late seventeenth century by Jesuit Paul Laymann writings and
in Eastern Europe in the late crystallization of the nineteenth and doctrines of
Protestant denominations, the Catholic Church learned. In addressing the
religious and moral education in modern pedagogical writings, some general
notes can be drawn: the importance of education in the two dimensions of
personality formation, their purpose- Knowledge of God and His works,
namely the cultivation of virtues that help humans in making relationships
with others - and the need for childhood religious education and moral
education.
These general issues receive prominent representatives of specific

facets of pedagogy. The concept of J. A. Comenius (1592-1670), whose
work is profoundly marked by Christian children are born for heaven, so they
must be trained to become citizens of heaven and make the first acquaintance
with the heavenly God, Christ, angels (JA Comenius, 1970, p. 120). This
requires knowledge of their own (and other things) self-restraint and move
towards God, man ultimate mission is eternal happiness in communion with
Him through the cultivation of virtue and self-control of all things is the
human relationship to God: only through these two (n.ns. by morality and
religiosity) we rise above other creatures and us closer to God himself (ibid,
p. 109).
Making religious and moral education from childhood is strongly
motivated by Comenius, from a series of examples from nature: the exact
representation of clay sides odor substance was first put into it, keeping the
direction of the branches of trees during their life the impossibility revopsirii
wool because of its fiber impregnation etc. He concludes: So, everyone is
concerned about the welfare of his followers, leaders of human affairs, of
political or religious services, who have the heart to save the human race
must hurry especially to care for the seedlings to be planted on time sky, to be
carved, watered and happy start to be taken to the advancement of science,
morality and piety. (Ibid, p. 3 6).
The purpose of education proposed by J. Locke (1632-1704) is the
acquisition of virtue, without which no man will be happy in this world nor
the other. As the foundation of virtue in the minds of children need proper
idea about the deity, to be a short and simple worship with prayer, suited to
their age and understanding power. It is better to avoid complicated
explanations about the impenetrable nature of divinity, the child would not
understand (J. Locke, 1962, p. 101). Without causing a complete break with
religion, he was the first teacher who developed a philosophical theory of
moral education, trying to define good and evil: which causes suffering is
wrong, and what produces pleasure is good. A very special event is an
educational model proposed by JJ Rousseau (1712-1778), because of life
promote a fundamental change of state, family, based on a natural religions,
creeds and dogmas rare, rational arguments. Rousseau elaborates the concept
of negative education, that the teacher should not intervene in child
development as long as it is not able to understand the reasoning that lead
him to the truth, but to let nature take its mission and only to remove
obstacles to normal development and to create conditions conducive to
natural development. This concept applies to moral education and religious
education.
310 I. Vlădescu
Moral Education aims to cultivate good feelings toward self and of

others and appreciative of the facts forming judgments of people, promoting
a moral philosophy. Religious education must follow the moral and must be
achieved when reason is made to understand the word of God saw him as a
supreme principle, the source of original goodness. Concrete realization of
the religious education provided by replacing one sees religion based on
divine revelation with natural religion, based on philosophical considerations.
Concept on achieve religious and moral education adolescence was taken
over by I. Kant (1724-1804), provided that up to this age child to be isolated
from everything that could give information about religion. Failure to achieve
in practice to exclude elements of moral education and religious training and
the dangers of wrong ideas about God leads him to propose the realization of
childhood moral and religious education, provided that abstract concepts are
not taught too early: if could be done so that children do not witness any act
The worship of Supreme Being, even God does not hear his name,
then it would be appropriate to order things to lead first to the human
purposes and to what man ought to proceed keen their power, to inform about
order and beauty of nature works, then we add to a fuller understanding of the
structure of the universe and only after they open their skills to the idea of a
supreme being, a legislator (I. Kant, 2002, p. 70-71). In crystallizing the
concept about education, Kant assumes that all creation is an expression of
reason and laws that sensory experience is the source of all beliefs. Moral
education must precede religious education, morality is a way of knowledge
and understanding of God: Religion is a moral applied to the knowledge of
God. If you do not unite religion with morality, religion is only one way to
ask for heavenly (Ibid, p. 71). Transformations in historical, social and
cultural of the late eighteenth and early nineteenth century led to paradigm
shifts in terms of education: it was seen as a possible social recovery. A
particularly important role in an education plan has been JH Pestalozzi (1746-
1827). Under the influence of the Christian was formed, its entire business is
one of the Christian apostolate. Ideas on moral education and religious
education are found throughout his work, but particularly in works like his
Gertruda teaches children to achieve moral and religious education, teachers
are required: create a mood conducive to morality and religiosity, good
training skills through the exercise of morality and religiosity, moral or
religious teachings of extracting intuitive material (GG Antonescu, VP
Nicolau, p. 23). The thought of teaching all sides of education: intellectual,
physical, moral and religious must be in addiction. Man of the senses, you
being with many needs and fervent for the sake of your needs and desires,
you should know and think, but just for the sake of this need and Coveting,
and must act. Thinking and acting must be like brook and fountain in such
relations that the termination of one stop and the other, and vice versa. ( JF
Pestalozzi, 1965, p.481.)
The relationship between dimensions of education is most evident in
times of moral crisis and belief: In this period so critical to our minds and
hearts, should first of all to foster the means God has given human nature
itself, to make it go They also improve their intellectual and moral
improvement (JF Pestalozzi, How Gertruda teach their children, apud GG
Antonescu, VP Nicolau, p. 53). In explaining the role of religious and moral
education, Pestalozzi is based on the relationship between a mother and her
child, based on love, trust, gratitude, obedience, conscience formation
moraleNicolau essential feelings, p. 53).
The purpose of education promoted by JF Herbart (1776-1841) is
forming a strong character and moral man, through moral education in close
connection with religion: religious education but also needs the moral,
because for her imminent danger of hypocrisy, to which someone is exposed
when morality first not won by a solid habit of self observation serious
intention to rebuke to make it better (JF Herbart, general pedagogy, apud GG
Antonescu , VP Nicolau, p. 274).
Religious education should be of childhood: Never peaceful religion
that does not take its rightful place at heart, if its fundamental idea is not the
oldest, which gives you a memory, and if there is not soaked and blended
with all that life-changing leaves in the heart of personality (Ibid, p. 178).
6. Relationship between moral education and religious

education in the formal curriculum, informal and informal
Moral education and religious education is done both at the

institutional level - in the form of non-formal education in formal and non-
institutional level as well as informal education. Associate of the three types
of education, meet three types of curriculum: official formal curriculum,
informal curriculum and informal curriculum.
Curriculum formal / formal education consists of all official
documents underpinning the design and conduct of educational activities at
all levels of education.
Religious education is achieved through discipline in school Religion
at all levels and disciplines of options proposed by the teacher of religion in
the curriculum of the school (CDS). Regarding discipline Religion should be
noted that, through actions carried out teaching, moral education is achieved
and the pupils. In this context, the term sometimes used non-religious or
312 I. Vlădescu
religious-moral. This does not mean merging the two dimensions, but
specifying that we have done in regard to moral education teaching religion.
The methods used in moral education can be tailored to the specific religion
as a subject. In our country, not subject to moral education discipline, self-
contained. To achieve the aims of education under the Education Act, every
discipline of education must promote moral values. The extent to which this
is done depends on many factors: some are linked to official school
documents, and other educators. Among the factors associated with school
papers, the most important are: the absence of framework plans for a
discipline of education that explicitly promote moral values (apart from
religion) and the existence of school programs that promote education tin
most subjects.
The role of teachers is crucial in shaping students personality.
Their business success depends on the extent to which acts to moral
awareness and behavior among students, the extent to which students become
role models for moral, through language, dress, behavior, values it promotes
and joining etc. Tutor time is an opportunity to make moral education.
Educational activities it proposes are subordinated to the educational goal in
terms of moral education involves: formation of the personality through the
acquisition of national and universal cultural values, the growing sensitivity
to human issues and moral values. An important issue related to moral
education is to prohibit the Education Law (Article 131. 3) the conduct of the
educational process spaces for activities that violate the general rules of
morality, jeopardizing the physical or mental health of students.
Moral and religious education activities conducted outside the school,
under the guidance of religion or the Tutor / teacher to another, are optional,
are complementary teaching activities in schools and informal curriculum
subject. In conducting religious education and moral education can not be
circumvented contents of these dimensions of education, drawn from
informal curriculum. It consists of all learning experiences and indirect
development, produced in response to trainee interaction with mass media
(mass media), different interactions with the social, cultural, economic,
family and group of friends, community. (M. Bocos apud M. Ionescu, I.
Radu, coord., 2001, p. 99).
The value that a man has determined that implementation of
educational measures to promote moral and religious values. Share the moral
values they hold in social ideal is of utmost importance to provide the moral
profile of future society. In this regard, it should be noted that not only the
moral education and religious education should promote moral values, but all
facets of education should be based on moral support.
Bibliography:
Antonescu, G.G., Nicolau, V.P., Antologie pedagogică, vol. II, Editura

„Cultura Românească”, S.A.R, Bucureşti
Bocoş, M., (2003), Cercetarea pedagogică. Suporturi teoretice şi
metodologice, Editura Casa Cărţii de Ştiinţă, Cluj-Napoca
Cătineanu, T., (1982), Elemente de etică, Volumul l, Editura Dacia, Cluj-
Napoca
Comenius, J. A., (1970), Didactica magna, Editura Didactică şi Pedagogică,
Bucureşti
Cucoş, C., (1999), Educaţia religioasă. Repere teoretice şi metodice, Editura
Polirom, Iaşi
Cucoş, C., (2002), Istoria pedagogiei, Editura Polirom, Iaşi
Felea, L, (1994), Religia culturii, Editura episcopiei Aradului, Arad
Herbart, J.F., (1925), Prelegeri pedagogice, Tipografia „Jockey-Club”, Ion
C. Văcărescu, Bucureşti
Ionescu, M., (2003), Instrucţie şi educaţie. Paradigme, strategii, orientări,
modele, Editura Garamond, Cluj-Napoca
Ionescu, M., coord., (1998), Educaţia şi dinamica ei, Editura Tribuna
învăţământului, Bucureşti
Ionescu, M., Radu, I. (coord.), 2001, Didactica modernă, Editura Dacia,
Cluj-Napoca.
Locke, J., (1962), Texte pedagogice alese, Bucureşti, Editura de Stat
Didactică şi Pedagogică
Kolakowski, L., (1993), Religia, Editura Humanitas, Bucureşti
Mladin, N., Bucevschi, O., Pavel, C., Zăgrean, L, (2003), Teologia Morală
Ortodoxă, vol. 1, Editura Reîntregirea, Alba Iulia
Opriş, M., Opriş, D., Bocoş, M., (2004), Cercetare pedagogică în domeniul
educaţiei religioase, Editura Reîntregirea, Alba Iulia
Pestalozzi, J.H, (1965), Texte alese, Editura Didactică şi Pedagogică,
Bucureşti
Salade, D., (1998), Dimensiuni ale educaţiei, Editura Didactică şi Pedagogică
R.A, Bucureşti
Şebu, S., Opriş, M., Opriş, D., (2000), Metodica predării religiei, Editura
Reîntregirea, Alba Iulia
Vol VI (2010), No. 2, pp. 314-319
Multi - and intercultural education and its challenges
A. Militaru, A. N. Maxim
Adela Militaru
Secondary School No. 5 Arad
Andreia Nicoleta Maxim
Csiky Gergely Comprehensive School Arad
Abstract: In this paper we will analyse how the objectives of

multi- and intercultural education materialise in Arad County
and we will point out in what way reality presented in speech
becomes true. Thus one can render the image of the present with
regard to the conservation of ethnic identity taking into
consideration education. We have surveyed the usual
educational and cultural, curricular and extracurricular activities
held in the county and their documentation and have found that
there is an interest in multicultural education which nevertheless
does not synonymise with intercultural education.
Keywords: multicultural, intercultural, education, ethnic
otherness, ethnical identity
The research shows that it is ordinarily the objectives of multicultural

education that are put into practice under pretence of the cultivation of the
intercultural. In consequence the existence of otherness is admitted and its
cultural manifestation is accepted, a phenomenon that leads to the
materialisation of the tolerance of ethnic otherness. However, the intercultural
is a more complex phenomenon than that, and we can state the necessity of
the elaboration and implementation of projects that involve a more precise
definition of this type of educational work.
In this part of the paper I am going to analyse the materialization of the
multi-cultural objectives of education in Arad and to show the way in which
the presented reality at the discoursive level is reflected at the factual level.In
this way the image of the present,regarding the conservation of the ethnical
identity may be constructed,taking into consideration the educative
plan.Reviewing the cultural and educational associations,the programme of
the Cultural Centre from Arad and the developing strategies of Arad which
Multi- and intercultural education and its challenges 315
aim this this type of education,too in cooperation or not with the schools
outline a map including the cultural and educational activities of the
town.From all these documents ,together with the organized
demonstrations,derives,in my opinion,the interst for the promotion of the
multicultural education which is not the same as the intercultural
education,Thus,on behalf of the interculturally,the objectives of the
multicultural education are put into practice.Consequenyly,the existence of
The Other is admitted and his different expression from the cultural point of
view ,is accepted,what leads to the demonstrations of the ethnical
tolerance.But,interculurally meansmore than that and it is necessary to
elaborate syllabus which imply the materialization of this type of educative
approach.
„Promotion des éléments multiculturels et interculturels dans

l’éducation
L’article 12(1) fait clairement ressortir que les obligations des Etats
s’appliquent à l’éducation tant pour les personnes appartenant à des minorités
que pour celles appartenant à la majorité. La formulation de l’article 12(1) se
rapproche de celle de l’article 4(4) de la Déclaration des droits des personnes
appartenant à des minorités nationales ou ethniques, religieuses et
linguistiques adoptée par les Nations Unies (1992). D’après le Commentaire
sur la Déclaration, l'enseignement multiculturel suppose des politiques et des
pratiques qui satisfont les besoins en matière d'éducation de chacun des
groupes appartenant à une tradition culturelle différente,tandis que
l'enseignement interculturel suppose des politiques et des pratiques grâce
auxquelles les personnes appartenant à des cultures différentes, qu’elles
soient en position majoritaire ou minoritaire, apprennent à avoir des rapports
constructifs les uns avec les autres.”1
„En vue de garantir la composante interculturelle de l’éducation, qui
englobe tant le dialogue interculturel (articles 6 et 12) que la diffusion de la
connaissance des cultures des minorités (article 12) et l’apprentissage de la
langue majoritaire par les personnes appartenant à des minorités (article 14),
les Etats parties doivent faire le point sur les différentes possibilités
d’organisation de l’enseignement. Comme signalé précédemment, ce
processus requiert, en premier lieu, la collecte de données de base sur les
besoins et les aspirations des différents groupes et individus. ”
At the beginnig I am going to specify the definitions with which I
will work later to underline the similarities and differencies between the two
concepts(multiculturally and interculturally) indicating the hesitations of the
terminology identified in the studied documents. The term designates all the
316 A. Militaru, A. N. Maxim
educational programmes which stands for the needs imposed by the co-
existence in a multi-ethnical medium. The aim of the multicultural education
is to facilitate the adaptation of the ethnocultural groups ,and ,at the same
time the opening of the major society to the cultural models belonging to the
minoriity groups . This definition explains the official point of view of the
ministry,by emphasising yhe idea of adapting in a multi-ethnical medium
and,thus,what really counts is the acceptance of The Other,his existence and
not the understanding the way in which the Other structures his own system
of knowing the world.
„Interculturel, pluriculturel (ou multiculturel), interculturalisation

L’interculturalité « met en cause l’ancienne modalité de gestion du
rapport similitudes-différence […], ébranle à la fois les limites entre le moi et
le non-moi et les attributions qui accompagnent les opérations de
catégorisation » (Vinsonneau, 2002, p. 60). Le préfixe « inter » du terme «
interculturel » sous-entend une relation ou plus précisément ce qui relève de
l’altérité. L’interculturel prend en compte les interactions entre des individus
ou des groupes d’appartenance, c’est-à-dire la confrontation identitaire.
Il ne correspond pas à une réalité objective, mais à un rapport
intersubjectif qui s’inscrit dans un espace et une temporalité donnés. C’est
l’analyse qui confère à l’objet étudié un caractère « interculturel » (Abdallah-
Pretceille, 1999, p. 49).
Le terme multiculturel exprime une situation de fait, la réalité d’une
société composée de plusieurs groupes culturels dont la cohésion est
maintenue en accord avec un certain nombre de valeurs et de normes, alors
que le terme interculturel affirme explicitement la réalité d’un dialogue, d’une
réciprocité, d’une interdépendance et exprime plutôt un désir ou une méthode
d’intervention (Galino & Escribano, 1990, p. 12).
L’interculturel a une origine française (Carlo, 1998, p. 40) : c’est en
effet en France, dans le contexte des migrations des années 1970, que face
aux difficultés scolaires des enfants de travailleurs migrants, la pédagogie
interculturelle va développer l’idée selon laquelle les différences ne sont pas
des obstacles à contourner, mais une source d’enrichissement mutuel quand
elles sont mobilisées. Dans les mêmes années, le multiculturalisme canadien
valorise la diversité culturelle, mais sans proposer de dispositifs de
reconnaissance mutuelle (Ferréol & Jucquois, 2003, p. 175).
Le multiculturalisme est une variante anglo-saxonne du pluralisme
(culturel, mais aussi politique, religieux, syndical, etc.) qui se focalise sur la
reconnaissance des différences culturelles. Mais l’un comme l’autre n’est
qu’une des modalités possibles du traitement de la diversité. La
reconnaissance et la coexistence d’entités distinctes (comme les cultures, les

partis, les religions, les syndicats, etc.) sont essentiels.”
The multicultural educational programmes are based on many
principles:eliminating the dichotomy the culture of the host country(the
majority culture),the culture of the immigrants(the minority culture),in favour
of a more expanded conception upon the cultural diversity and the opening of
the contemporary society;.,education and the intercultural teaching aim to
concentrate the attention of the young people to the experience of the
Other,to his own identity as well to the universal human values.; the
promotion of the members of the minority ethnical groups as
teachers,especially in the primary school,the innovation of the curriculum.
„Éducation multiculturelle
L’éducation multiculturelle peut être considérée comme une
approche basée sur des valeurs et des croyances démocratiques, en affirmant
un pluralisme culturel dans des sociétés culturellement diverses et un monde
interdépendant. Elle permet de développer des compétences interculturelles,
de favoriser le développement personnel et de lutter contre certaines formes
de discrimination comme le racisme (Bennett, 1999, p. 11).
L’éducation multiculturelle peut donner lieu à une réflexion afin que
l’élève comprenne mieux ce qui passe dans son groupe d’appartenance,
développe une analyse critique des différentes formes culturelles, situe son
identité culturelle dans la reconnaissance et l’acceptation de la diversité, et
essaie d’agir pour améliorer ses conditions de vie (Garcia Castano &
Granados Matinez, 1999, p.79).”
„Éducation interculturelle
L’éducation interculturelle considère l’hétérogénéité comme une
norme et non comme un handicap devant être compensé par des aides. De
même, l’homogénéité, par la négation de la diversité ou par l’autoritarisme,
peut être assimilée à de la coercition. L’éducation interculturelle considère
que chaque individu vit en permanence un processus d’acculturation, tandis
que la culture du métissage se généralise tout en produisant de plus en plus de
diversité.
Elle n’est pas un moyen pour compenser les inégalités, mais vise
l’apprentissage2 de l’égalité dans la réciprocité. Elle permet de se décentrer
pour éviter les préjugés inhérents à la différence culturelle et à son lien de
causalité supposé avec l’échec scolaire.
Elle se constitue comme un apprentissage transversal des contenus de
savoir, des pratiques et des représentations qui régissent les interactions. Elle
318 A. Militaru, A. N. Maxim
permet à chaque élève de se sentir concerné et donc de le motiver, mais aussi

de privilégier les ressemblances pour travailler en groupe, compensant ainsi
les difficultés sans stigmatiser les différences. […]
D’après Goodenough (1981), chaque individu a accès à plusieurs
cultures, mais il ne peut acquérir qu’une partie d’entre elles à travers son
expérience. Sa version personnelle de la culture, correspondant à la totalité de
ces parties ou identifications successives, n’est qu’une vision singulière et
subjective du monde.
L’éducation interculturelle va ainsi amener l’élève à élaborer des
compétences dans plusieurs cultures et lui permettre de construire une vision
du monde à la fois individuelle et collective. L’interculturalité concerne tous
les élèves, qu’ils soient immigrés ou autochtones, issus d’un groupe
majoritaire ou de minorités. Par ailleurs, dans une société caractérisée par une
réalité multiculturelle, les points de vue des uns et des autres peuvent devenir
interchangeables.”
The definition is also explained by presenting the principles of the
multicultural education which is based on the idea of adapting and the
egality of chances without insisting ion the sharing of the cultural experiences
of the Other. But it is very important to observe that the terms multicultural
education and intercultural education are considered as being
synonyms.Consequently,the curriculum proposed and carried on by the
ministry have this aim and these principles. The demonstrations called
intercultural must be decodedby using as a filter of this definition.
Bibliography:
Bogdan Nadolu, Analiza consumului cultural în Judeţul Arad. Raport

de cercetare sociologică, Institutul Intercultural Timişoara, Centrul
Cultural Judeţean Arad, Arad, 2009
Fernand Ouellet, L’éducation interculturelle et l’éducation ŕ la
citoyenneté. Quelques pistes pour s’orienter dans la diversité des
conceptions, VEI Enjeux, n° 129, juin 2002, p.4-5
Acces la educaţie pentru grupuri dezavantajate, http://www.acces-la-
educatie.edu.ro/index.php/articles/138
***, Conseil de l’Europe, COMITE CONSULTATIF DE LA
CONVENTION-CADRE POUR LA PROTECTION DES MINORITES
NATIONALES, Commentaire sur l’éducation au regard de la
Convention-cadre pour la protection des minorités nationales,
ACFC/25DOC(2006)002, Strasboug, 2006, p.16-17
***, Approches interculturelles en éducation. Étude comparative

internationale, Institut National de Recherche Pédagogique Service de Veille
Scientifique et Technologique, 2007, http: // www.inrp.fr / vst / Dossiers /
Interculturel / dossier_interculturel.pdf, p.6
***, Programul de guvernare 2009-2012, cap. 5 – Educaţie,
http://www.gov.ro/capitolul -5-educatie__l1a2086.html
http://www.dri.gov.ro/documents/29042010-castigatoare.pdf
***, Strategia de dezvoltare a judeţului Arad, 2007-2013, http: //
www.cjarad.ro / index.php?meniuId = 882&viewCat=1932&lg=ro
Ibidem http://www.ccja.ro/
Strategia de dezvoltare a municipiului Arad, 2007 – 2013 / 2014 –
2020, http: // www.primariaarad.ro / files/hotariri/h2928.pdf, p. 196
PHARE RO 0104.02/46/18 Împreună vom reuşi Phare ro 0104.02/51 Şcoala
şi educaţia, mijloc şi metodă spre o societate multiculturală, PHARE/2003
Ultimele apariţii editoriale primite la redacţie:
• Mihuţ, Lizica, Universitatea „Aurel Vlaicu”2009 - 2010, Editura

Universităţii „Aurel Vlaicu”, Arad, 2010.
• Ionescu, Miron, Instrucţie şi educaţie. Paradigme, strategii,
orientări, modele, Cluj- Napoca, 2007
• Ionescu, Miron, Bocoş, Muşata, (coord.), Tratat de didactică
modernă, Editura Paralela 45, Piteşti, 2009.
• Ungureanu, Dorel, Teroarea creionului roşu. Evaluarea
educaţională, Editura Universităţii de Vest, Timişoara, 2001.
• Moscovici, Serge, Psihologia socială sau maşina de fabricat zei,
Editura Universităţii Al. I. Cuza, Iaşi, 1995.
• Rogers, Carl R., A deveni o persoană. Perspectiva unui terapeut,
Editura Trei, Bucureşti, 2008.
• Visscher, Pierre De, Neculau, Adrian, Dinamica grupurilor. Texte
de bază, Editura Polirom, Iaşi, 2005.
• Vlăsceanu, M., Organizaţii şi comportament organizaţional, Editura
Polirom, Iaşi, 2003.
• Herlo, Dorin, Piscanu, Camelia, Curriculum centrat pe elev şi
implicaţiile sale în învăţământul preuniversitar, Editura Universităţii
„Aurel Vlaicu”, Arad, 2010.
• Leucea, Ilica, Laurenţiu, Didactica educaţiei fizice, Editura
• Cinci, Eugen, Album cultural bănăţean, Editura Universităţii „Aurel
Vlaicu”, Arad, 2010.
• Balaş, Evelina, Pregătirea iniţială a studentului pentru profesia
didactică, Editura Universităţii „Aurel Vlaicu”, Arad, 2010.
• Cheta, Gheorghe, Binchiciu, Viorel, (coord.), Metodica învăţării
aritmeticii, Editura Universităţii „Aurel Vlaicu”, Arad, 2010.
• Ilica, Anton, Psihologia comunicării şi dinamica grupurilor
organizate, Editura Universităţii „Aurel Vlaicu”, Arad, 2010.
• Ilica, Anton, Paradigme pedagogige, Editura Universităţii „Aurel
Vlaicu”, Arad, 2009.
• Kelemen, Gabriela, Pedagogia învăţământului primar şi preşcolar,
• Academia Pedagogică din Vârşeţ, Zbornik, Editura Triton, Vârşeţ,
Serbia, ISSN 1820-1911
• Facultatea Pedagogică "Tessedik Samuel", Diskurzus, Szarvas,
Hungary, ISSN 1589-2662

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literature, a reflection of the European or American ones. Unfortunately,

(social, economic, cultural, behavioral) whose character and thinking we

forming his habits, he awakens ideas, feelings and emotions." "Through

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[ 1 ] A theory, says S. Moscovici, can be described as the complex of connected

Facilitating the Transition from Residential Care into the

Motto: “It is better to build a child than to repair an adult”

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In well-functioning residential care programs and institutions (care

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[1] Bettelheim, B. & Sanders, J. - Milieu therapy: The Orthogenic School

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