GARAN, Nikita Alexis O.

PHAR 1-2

1. What are the functions of the bones and the skeletal system?
The bones and the skeletal systems function as:
A. Support & Protection
1. Provides a structural framework for the body
2. Protects many internal organs from injury
B. Assistance & Homeostasis
1. Provides skeletal muscle attachments
2. Bone tissues store several minerals, especially calcium and phosphorus

C. Production & Storage

1. Within certain bones a connective tissue called red bone marrow produces

red blood cells

2.Yellow bone marrow consists mainly adipose cells, which store triglycerides

2. How are bones classified based on their shapes and location? Describe the structure and
functions of each part of a long bone.

The bones are classified whether they are long (meaning they are bones that are
greater in length than width), short (bones that are cube shaped and are equal in length
and width), flat (bones that are generally thin and composed of two nearly parallel plates
of compact bone tissue enclosing a layer of spongy bone tissue), irregular (bones that
have complex shapes where they cannot be grouped in other categories), and sesamoid
(where bones can develop in certain tendons where there is considerable friction, tension,
and physical stress).

Long bones are cylindrical bones that are longer than they are wide. They consist
of a shaft and different quantities of extremities or epiphyses and are slightly curved for
strength. Epiphyses are the heads of a long bone where one is proximal to the diaphysis
and one is distal. Periosteum is a sheet of irregular dense fibrous connective tissue
continuous with the ligaments and it covers the shaft and part of the heads of a long bone.
The articular cartilage is a smooth cap of hyaline cartilage found where the bone
articulates with another bone. The medullary cavity is a space within the center of the
diaphysis where the walls surrounding the space are made of both cancellous and
compact bone. The cavity generally contains yellow bone marrow. The diaphysis is the
whole central shaft of the long bone where the only external part of the shaft is made of
 solid bone tissue. Endosteum is a sheet of dense fibrous tissue that lines the medullary
cavity. Lastly, the metaphysis are narrow regions between the diaphysis and epiphysis
that contains the growth plate, the part of the bone that grows during childhood.

3. What is the cellular composition of bone tissue and the functions of each type of cell?

Bones tissues are made of osteogenic cells, osteoblasts, osteocytes, and

osteoclasts. Osteogenic cells are unspecialized bone stem cells derived from mesenchyme
that constantly divides to regenerate a bone. Osteoblasts are bone building cells while the
osteocytes are the main cells in the bone tissue. Lastly, the osteoclasts which destroy
bones.

4. What is the composition of the extracellular matrix of bone tissue? Compare the structural and
functional differences between compact and spongy bone.
The extracellular matrix of the bone tissues consists of organic components
which contains, glycosaminoglycans, glycoproteins, osteonectin, osteocalcin and collagen
fibers.

Compact bones are hard, cylindrical, and non-cancellous part of the bone which
largely consist of tightly packed osteons. They have a large amount of calcium and they
have a marrow cavity. They also contain the yellow bone marrow. They form the four
major parts of the long bones such as arms and legs. Spongey bones, on the other hand,
are softer, cuboidal, more porous, osseous tissues that fill the interior cavity of bones that
are made of mineralized bars called trabeculae. They contain the red bone marrow and
forms the four major parts of short bones such as wrists and ankles. They also have low
amount of calcium.

5. What are the different steps in intramembranous and endochondral ossification? How are they
different?
Intramembranous ossification consists of four steps which include the
development of the ossification center where osteoblasts secrete organic extracellular
matrix, the calcification where calcium and other mineral salts are deposited the
extracellular matrix calcifies, the formation of the trabeculae where extracellular matrix
develops into trabeculae that fuse to form spongey bone and the last step is the
development of the periosteum where the mesenchyme at the periphery of the bone
develops into periosteum.
 There are six steps in endochondral ossification in which the first is the
development of the cartilage model. This is where the mesenchymal cells develop into
chondroblasts. Next is the growth of the cartilage model where growth occur by cell
division of chondrocytes. Third step is the development of primary ossification center
where in this region of diaphysis, bone tissue replaces most of the cartilage. Then the
development of the medullary cavity where bone breakdown by osteoclasts form the
medullary cavity. The development of secondary ossification centers occurs next where it
happens in the epiphyses of the bone. Last is the formation of the articular cartilage and
epiphyseal plate where both structures consist of hyaline cartilage.

The difference between the two is that in intramembranous ossification,

it occurs in the dermis and it produces dermal bones. In endochondral ossification
however, it begins at the primary ossification center which will develop a hyaline
cartilage inside.

6. What are the different types of bone fractures? What is the sequence of events in fracture repair?
There are six common bone fractures. Open fractures are where the
broken ends of the bone protrude through skin. Comminuted fracture is where the bone is
splintered, crushed or broken into pieces at the site of impact, and smaller bone fragments
lie between the two fragments. Pott fracture is the fracture of the distal end of the lateral
end bone. Colle’s fracture is the fracture of the distal end of the lateral forearm bone
(radius) in which the distal fragment is displaced posteriorly. Greenstick fracture is the
partial fracture in which one bone side of the bone is broken and the other side bends.
Impacted fracture is where one end of the fracture bone is forcefully driven into interior
of the other.
In fracture repair, first there would be the formation of the hematoma,
then the formation of the fibrocartilaginous callus then the remodeling of the bones.

7. What are the different processes involved and different factors that can affect bone growth and
remodeling?
Factors that affect bone growth and remodeling are heredity, nutrition
such as- calcium, phosphorus, and protein become part of the bone matrix itself, hormones and
exercise. During puberty, growth hormone levels increase that increases bone growth. Bones
also respond to mechanical stress by increasing in size and thickness.
8. What is the role of bone in calcium homeostasis? Describe how hormones regulate uptake and
release of calcium from bone.
The bone serves as an important storage point for calcium since it
contains most of the total body calcium. The hormones stimulate incorporation of calcium in
bone and also regulates the amount of calcium and phosphate in the blood to promote the
healthy growth and the remodeling of the bone.

MUSCULAR SYSTEM

1. What are the different types of muscular tissue? Compare and contrast
their structure, functions, and properties.
Skeletal muscle tissue is a striated and voluntary muscular tissue that forms
muscular organs that attach to the bones and move its parts. This can also b controlled by the
conscious mind. Cardiac muscle tissue also has striations, though it is less distinct than the
skeletal muscle tissue. It is involuntary where subconscious mechanisms regulate its contraction
and it is only found in the walls of the heart. The smooth muscle tissue has no distinct striations
and it is also involuntary. It is found in the walls of hollow organs such as digestive organs and
blood vessels.

2. Describe the structural and functional characteristics of cardiac and smooth muscle tissue.
Cardiac muscle striations are less distinct than in skeletal muscle. The cardiac
fibers have single nuclei and they usually have branches that do not taper at their ends. Most
fibers attach end-to-end by fine, fark lines at a right angle to a seemingly continuous fiber called
the intercalated disks. Just like cardiac fibers, smooth muscle fibers have single nuclei. They are
unstriated. Smooth muscle is not wavy and has more even distribution of nuclei than dense
fibrous tissues.

3. What is the macroscopic and microscopic levels of organization of the skeletal muscle?
In microscopic, the properties involved are the sarcomere and the myofibrils.
There are arrangements of filaments within a sarcomere with the components z disc, H zone, I
band, M line, and A band.
For the macroscopic level, the entire organ is covered with fibrous connective
tissue that forms a sheath that is called the epimysium. The fibrous tissue of the epimysium
 expands inward to create sheaths around bundles, or as we call the fasciculi, of the muscle cells.
The inner fibrous sheath is what we call the perimysium.

4. What are the different steps involved in the sliding filament mechanism of muscle contraction?
When muscle contraction occurs, the thin actin filaments slide over the thick
myosin filament and when Calcium is present the blocked active site of the actin clears. First, the
myosin head attaches to actin. What happens next is, power stroke. It means that the myosin head
pivots pulling the actin filament toward the center. Third step is that the cross bridge detaches
when a new ATP binds with the myosin. Lastly, as ATP splits into ADP and P, the cocking of
myosin head occurs. Another cross bridge can form.

5. How does muscle action potential arise at the neuromuscular junction? Compare and contrast
aerobic and anaerobic cellular respiration. What are the reactions by which muscle fibers produce
ATP?
Muscle action potentials arise from the neuromuscular junctions when the
synaptic vesicle releases the ACh into synaptic cleft and then the ACh binds to ACh receptors in
the sarcolemma. Depolarization occurs due to more Na+ ions entering than K+ ions do in the
muscle fiber and it also produces muscle action potential. ACh is then broken down by
acetylcholinesterase.

6. Compare and contrast aerobic and anaerobic cellular respiration. What are the reactions by which
muscle fiber produce ATP?
Aerobic cellular respiration occurs with the presence of oxygen. The reactants,
oxygen and glucose, are converted into the products carbon dioxide, water, and ATP. In
anaerobic respiration, it does not require the presence of oxygen. It is done by glycolysis. In
aerobic cellular respiration there is 32 ATP per 1 glucose molecule but requires more time and
requires a stay stream of nutrients to continue, while the anaerobic cellular respiration produces 2
ATP per 1 glucose at a much quicker rate, but can accumulate a lot of lactic acid.

7. How do muscles develop and regenerate?

Skeletal muscles, except those in head and limbs, arise or develop from
mesodermal somites, whereas skeletal muscle in the head and limbs develop from the general
mesoderm.
Satellite cells help to repair skeletal muscle cells and it is similar to a myoblast
because it is a type of stem cell; however, they are incorporated into muscle cells and facilitate
the protein synthesis required for repair and growth. Smooth muscle tissue regenerates from a
 pericyte that is found in some small blood vessels. Pericytes allow smooth muscle cells to
regenerate and repair much more readily than skeletal and cardiac muscle tissue.

8. What are the effects of aging on skeletal muscle?

When a person reaches the age of 30, there is a slow and progressive loss of
muscle function. This is then replaced by fibrous connective tissue and fat. The aged skeletal
muscle produces less force.