Unit VI

Video Editing and Production

Structure

6.1 Introduction

Objectives

6.2 Establishing Shot

6.3 Dissolves and other optical effects

6.3 Fade

6.4 Dissolves and other optical effects

6.5 Wipe

6.6 A B Roll Editing

6.7 Digital Effects

6.8 Copying vs. Cloning

6.9 Converting Analog to Digital

6.10Shooting Location

6.11 Role of Functionaries:

6.12 Storyboards

6.13 Camera Production

6.14 Studio Production:  

6.15 Formats of TV Programs

6.16 Documentary Production

6.17 Summary

6.18 Terminal Questions

6.19 Answer to Self Assessment Questions and Terminal Questions

6.20 Glossary
6.21 Further Reading

6.1 Introduction

As soon as television production began, it became apparent that some means of storing a
broadcast for delayed playback was essential. Although many attempts were made to develop
an electronic method of recording video, not until the Ampex Corporation unveiled it first
commercial VTR in 1956 in Chicago, did video tape recording become a reality.

Editing is so important to the visual storytelling process because it duplicates the manner in
which the mind sees. We all ‘edit’ reality with our eyes and minds. The art of editing lies in
creating both illusion and new realities, new relationships and in stimulating and sometimes
controlling emotional responses.

Editing, begins at the beginning of the storytelling. Editing in its simplest definition, is selection,
arrangement, presentation and framing of different shots. and The goal of editing is move the
action along smoothly without any discontinuous jumps in time or place. For the most part,
these scenes and tied to one another by the cut, a deceptively simple joining of one scene to
the other. It is easier to perform continuity of the visual sequences if the materials has been shot
with post –production editing in mind. Even if the field tape has not been shot according to the
rules the guideline that the editor has to maintain the continuity of the story will achieve the
desired results. The techniques of effective editing is discussed in this unit.

Objectives

After going through the present unit a student will be able to understand various techniques
involved while editing a video picture. The unit also intends to introduce the reader to other
areas like post production, planning a shooting schedule, preparation of story board.
6.2 Establishing Shot

For all intents and purposes, a television show begins with a blank screen. How you will the
screen creates the videospace. It also determines how the viewer perceives your program and
the message you are trying to convey. The main production decisions are made by the
directors. The decisions are based on an overall approach, style, and concept which we define
as director’s view point. This is further shaped by the various creative and emotional responses
the director has to the program material.

A television director works , in large part, with pictures and images. These images are not just
visuals but imagination converted into pictures. Thus leading to establishing shots. The use of
establishing shot is an important feature of continuity editing. It helps us in identifying the
location and the position of the people in the shot. Each shot establishes relation with the
environment in which it is shot.

The director must determine not only what to show but also in what sequence. He must also
consider the timing of each shot and how quickly or slowly to switch from one shot to the next.
The timing or rhythm of the shots is an important element in the programs overall pacing.

The timing of the shots is a highly relative concept, since the rhythm of cutting and the
transitions used in prior sequences can play as important role as the absolute speed of the cuts.

The transitions of moving from one shot to another can happen in four ways. They are :

1. The Cut 2. The fade 3. The dissolve and 4. The Wipe

6.3 .1 The Cut

The Cut is an instantaneous change from one shot to another. You might think of a cut as the
shortest distance between two shots.

Cut in and Cut Out

Every scene that appears on television has a relation to at least two other scenes i.e the scene
before it and the scene that follows it. The scenes are tied to one another by the cut, a
deceptively simple method of joining of one scene to the other.
The well made cut is deceptive because it is virtually transparent. By their nature, establish
shots tend to be medium or long shots. These shots do not have the dynamism or energy of the
close- up shot.

In effect the cut is a handoff, a way of transferring attention from one image to another. In
similar fashion, whenever we observe happenings in the real world, the mind directs the eye’s
attention from one image to another. We glance here, we glance there. The camera becomes
the audience’s eyes, free to move through time and space from one point of view to another.

Transferring that principle to the television screen, the editor can create tremendous
viewer participation .Because the editor can cut from any image to any other, and can direct the
eye’s attention to any detail or happening, the viewer can be given absolute freedom of
movement and virtually unlimited variations in perspective. From bird’s –eye view to intimate
close-up, the audience is allowed to inhabit a limitless world of heightened realism and
expanded emotion. Suddenly, viewers are free to see events from different angled in rapid
sequence, an ability completely outside the range of human experience.

Once the cut-in established the important details, it is frequently necessary to cut out again to
the wider shot, particularly if action is about to take place. When cutting in to a tighter shot from
a wide shot, objects and people should maintain their same relative place in the frame. The cut
in should not cause the person to flip to the other side of the frame.

Edit Point: The point is at which one shot is surrendered and a new shot begins is called the edit
point.

The editor uses different types of cuts lets learn at least a few of them.

Jump Cuts : Jump cuts in action occur when action jumps unnaturally forward or backward in
time. Jump cuts and matched cuts violate the conventions of continuity editing because they
destroy the invisible, or seamless, quality of the editing. A jump cut occurs when something is
removed from the middle of a shot and the two remaining end pieces are joined together.

Ex: If at one instant the speaker at an outdoor rally is seen to be shielded by an umbrella and
in the next shot the umbrella is nowhere to be seen.

Ex: A woman appears in red scene in one shot and yellow in the other
Pop Cuts: Pop cuts occur whenever you edit together two or more shots that were
photographed along the same axis line, even if the action is perfectly matched. May be the
photographer first photographed a long shot, then zoomed in for a medium shot, and then a
close up. If the camera remained on the same axis line, shooting down the same straight line
toward the subject, then a pop cut will occur. The solution for avoiding pop cuts is to “ shoot and
move” while taking shots in the field.

Technically then a jump cut or Pop cuts is an action that cannot occur in real life. The editor to
over the flaws uses following methods:

Cutaway: The most commonly used device to eliminate jump cuts is the cutaway. In case of the
speaker without umbrellas, soon after the first shot i.e the speaker with umbrella, it is better if
you show the crowd. Cutaway is a shot of some part of the peripheral action that diverts the
viewer’s eye for a moment so that when eye returns to the main action, the jump will be less
obvious.

Insert Shots :An insert shot is a close-up of something that exists within the basic scene.  The
latter is typically visible within the establishing or wide shot. Insert shots add needed
information, information that wouldn't otherwise be immediately visible or clear. While holding to
the basic continuity of a story, an editor can enhance the look of a production by adding insert
shots.

Ex: In a shot if politician announcing his end to his candidacy for the office, first shot shows him
followed by the close-up, essential detail about some part of the main action. In between a shot
of the reaction of public can be shown.

In the editing process we have to rely on regular insert shots and cutaways to effectively present
the elements of a story. We can only hope that whoever shot the original footage (which might
be you) had enough production savvy to include them.

Two other shots which are included while editing are

Reaction Shot: In this shot the subjects sees or reacts to something that has just happed in the
previous shot.

Point of view Shot: In this shot the subject sees or reacts to something off screen, and we see
things from the subject’s point of view.
Parallel Cutting: If neither overlapping action nor appropriate cutaways or other shots are
available in the raw field tape, at least the illusion of matched action can sometimes be
accomplished through parallel cutting or intercutting between separate but developing action.

I Self Assessment Questions

1.Cut as the ………… distance between two shots.

2.The point at which one shot is surrendered and a new shot begins is called the ……..

3. ……….. in action occur when action jumps unnaturally forward or backward in time.

4. ………..occur whenever you edit together two or more shots that were photographed along
the same axis line.

5. ……….. is a shot of some part of the peripheral action

6.3.2 Fade
In a fade the picture either turns from black to an image ( a fade-in) or from an image to black( a
fade-out). Unlike the cut, the fade is an obvious transitional device, which punctuates a program
segment as a period ends a sentence. The fade is often thought of as being similar to the curtain
in the theater that is used to separate each act. The fade can also be used to separate different
program elements such as the show material from the commercials. Fades are often used in
drama to indicate a major change in time or space.

6.3.3Dissolves and other optical effects

A dissolve is a simultaneous fade-in on one shot and fade-out on another. The effect on screen
is a gradual blending of one shot into the other. The most common way to connect two shots is
with a straight cut. Straight cuts work so well because they imply relatedness as one scene cuts
to the next. Often a simple straight cut may be adequate to move viewers along even from one
unrelated scene to the next, but at other times the editor may want to use such optical effects as
fades wipes, dissolves, or more elaborate digital video effects to indicate that scenes, although
significantly different, are related.

In general, the dissolve indicates a change in time, location, or subject matter. One scene melts
into another. In other words, one scene optically fades to blank on top of another scene that
optically fades from black to full exposure. The longer the dissolve, the more obvious is the
separation. Common dissolve lengths are from two to more artistically connect scenes or
eliminate jump cuts within a real time sequence but the result may be confusing to audiences
who have been conditioned to understand that dissolves mean a change in time, location, or
subject matter.

6.3.4 Wipe

In a wipe transition, a new picture literally wipes across the screen replacing the existing image
with a new shot. The pattern and direction of the wipe are variable, and most modern production
switchers offer a tremendous assortment of wipes. A wipe is the most artificial transitional
device and consequently the most obvious to the viewer. It is useful, however, when you
especially want to call attention to a transition. Wipes and flip wipes, whether horizontal or
vertical, are used to indicate a more noticeable separation between scenes. Fades, including
the fade-in and fade-out, are among the most obvious transitions. The scene fades to black, or
something to white, or fades from black to full exposure.

II. Self Assessment Question

1. fade is an obvious ………. device

2. A dissolve is a ……. fade-in on one shot and fade-out on another.

3. wipe is a transition in which a new picture literally wipes across the screen …….. the
existing image with a new shot

6.4 A B Roll Editing

Rather than require two cameras, two camera operators, two sets of lights, a microphone mixer
and an audio person, most short interviews are done in the A-roll, B-roll style illustrated below.

This approach only requires a single camera, one set of lights, and one microphone plugged
into the camera.  It is even possible, although not too convenient, for a interviewer/reporter to
handle everything. Here is an illustration:

A-Roll: First, the camera is set up to record the guest answering the interviewer's questions.  In
the first drawing only the guest is lit. 

The camera position allows for both close-ups of the guest and (when the camera is zoomed
back) shots over the shoulder of the interviewer. Note in the illustration below that the key light
is a bit closer to the guest, making its intensity twice that of the fill light.
A back light (approximately 1½ times the intensity of the key) and a background light
(approximately 2/3rds the intensity of the key) serve to separate the subject from the
background and add depth to the scene.

B-roll: Once all of the answers are recorded, the camera angle is reversed and focused on the
interviewer.  The mic (typically a personal mic or lav) is then moved from the guest to the
interviewer.

This angle provides close-ups on the interviewer as all of the questions are re-asked, but this
time not answered by the guest. The questions, if not obvious from an answer given, will be
edited into the interview as needed. 

These close-ups and over-the-shoulder shots of the interviewer will also be used to cover edits
when nonessential parts of the guest's answers are edited out. Otherwise you would see a jump
cut. These shots are generally taped after all of the questions have been asked.  They consist of
the interviewer nodding or (apparently) just listening to an answer.  These reaction shots are
often called noddies. In a humorous interview they could show the interviewer smiling or even
laughing.

It's possible to record the B-roll footage (the questions) without the guest being present.  This
may be necessary if the guest is on a tight schedule.  Even so, to preserve audio acoustics and
visual ambiance, the B-roll should be taped in the same setting as the interview questions—the
guest just won't be sitting in his or her chair and you won't be able to do any over-the-shoulder
shots with the guest in the foreground.

6.5 Digital Effects

The decade of the '80s saw the introduction of digital audio signal processing. This not only
opened the door to a vast array of new audio techniques, but it represented a quantum leap in
audio quality.

Once extremely popular in television commercials but seldom used in news or dramatic
production, wipes have now largely been replaced by digital video effects. Digital Video effects
are made possible by digital processing equipment. The equipment digitizes the process of
video signal. Common digital effects include
-page push and page pull(the picture appears to be pushed or pulled off the screen by another)

- page turn(like the page of a magazine being turned)

-three dimensional effects transforms the image into a sphere, the side of a cube etc.

This is possible because of the precise timing pulses associated with digital audio and the fact
that digital signal is comprised of  "0s" and "1s." These represent simple positive and negative
voltages that are not close to each other in value (so as to get easily confused or muddled along
the line).

Other common digital video effects include image compression and expansion, which resut from
stretching or squeezing the horizontal and vertical dimensions of the picture. Through image
compression, a full-frame image can be reduced to any size and positioned anywhere in the
frame. Similarly, through expansion, a reduced image located in a section of the frame can
increase in size until it fills the frame.

Digital Video Effects are often used as transactions. Once, only state-of-the art production
houses and television studios had the sophisticated video switchers with the processing
equipment necessary for these effects. But with increasing convergence of computer and video
technology,, many of these special effects are now available in cost-effective desktop video
systems.

Despite the availability of this wide range of transition devices in may sophisticated editing
systems, much video editing is accomplished on simple systems that allow cuts for transitions.
The creative challenge, becomes a plan for transitions during the shooting process. This will
help in effective and interesting transitions of shots.

Ex: The effect of a dissolve can be approximated by cutting on shots that are out of focus.

Camera movement can also be preplanned to accentuate the editing process by controlling the
speed and direction of pans, tilts and zooms during the field production phase. On the other
hand the speed at which shots are replayed can be manipulated during editing process.
Although all field video is recorded at normal speed, while editing the playback speed can be
increased.
 In linear editing systems, this is accomplished by VCRs capable of slow or fast motion play
back, in nonlinear editing systems, motion effects software is used to control the speed of the
images. Slow motion effects are the most common, with action taking place in a dream like
quality. Accelerated motion effects can be created by increasing the playback speed of source
materials.

III. Self Assessment Questions

1. Digital Video effects are made possible by ………… equipment.

2. Digital Video Effects are often used as ………..

3. digital signal is comprised of …………. .

6.6 Copying vs. Cloning

Each time you make a copy of an analog audio segment you introduce aberrations because
you are only creating a "likeness" of the original. With digital technology you are using the
original elements to create a "clone." If we are using the original uncompressed digital data, we
can fully expect to end up with an exact clone of the original, even after 50 generations (50
copies of copies). With analog data copies of copies quickly result in poor audio quality. Before
the event of digital technology, such things as nonlinear editing were not possible.

If you have the option, you'll want to convert analog data into digital as soon as possible and
leave it that way until you are forced at some point to convert it back to analog.

6.7 Converting Analog to Digital

In both audio and video the analog signal is typically quantified or sampled 48,000 times per
second. That means that every 20 microseconds a "snapshot" is taken of the analog voltages. This
instantaneous snapshot is then converted first to a base-ten number and from there to a computer-
type binary ("0" and "1") form. The number of data bits used to encode the analog data determines
the resolution and dynamic range possible. A 16-bit encoding system has 65,536 voltage steps that
can be encoded. Obviously, the higher the data bits the better the quality — and the more technical
resources required to handle the signal. Such high rates demand a high degree of timing
(synchronization) precision. Without it things fall apart with stunning speed. Just as in video, a
synchronizing signal is used to keep things in lock step. This signal or synchronizing (sync) pulse in
digital audio is typically sent out every 0.00002 of a second.
Quantizing Error : In audio production signals must be converted back and forth from analog to
digital and from digital to analog. Since we are dealing with "apple and orange" types of data,
something called a quantizing error can result. In the analog-to-digital conversion process, a voltage
midpoint is selected in the analog values to use as the digital equivalent. This midpoint is a close,
but generally not a perfect, reflection of the original analog signal. Thus, the error, and the need to
minimize the number of digital-to-analog (as well as analog-to-digital) conversions.
 Optimum Digital and Analog Audio Levels : The optimum audio levels for digital audio signals
are different than those for analog signals. Whereas the 0dB peak setting is the standard operating
level (SOL) for analog systems, for digital equipment the maximum level (in North America) is
typically -20dB. With both analog and digital signals it comes down to something called headroom.

Headroom is the safe area beyond the SOL (standard operating level) point. With a SOL of -20dB,
(which is typically the standard in North America) this leaves 20dB for headroom. European
countries tend to allow for-18dB of headroom. 

To simplify the process one may just keep in mind that the maximum audio level for analog signals
will generally be different than it will for digital signals and Analog audio systems often use an
analog meter. In case of digital signals, a digital meter, or a PPM meter is used. In the digital
meter when the signal touches the red area, that means we have entered the headroom area.

If a digital signal were to go to the very top of the scale, clipping would occur. Unlike analog audio,
where exceeding the maximum level will result in signal distortion, in digital audio you might not
notice the elimination of audio peaks. Actually, an occasional full-scale digital sample (to the top of
the red range above) is considered inevitable; but, a regular string of "top of the scale" occurrences
means that the digital audio levels are too high and you are losing audio information.

VU meters respond in different ways to audio peaks.

In the case of a standard VU meter the needle tends to swing past peaks because of inertia. At
the same time, this needle will not quickly respond to short bursts of audio. Thus, this type of
meter tends to average out audio levels.

Because of the limited headroom with digital audio signals a faster responding peak program
meter (PPM) or the previously discussed digital meter is preferred. On the outside a PPM looks
like the animated VU meter.
Before you can really get serious about maintaining correct audio levels throughout a production
facility, you must see that the audio meters throughout the facility accurately calibrated to a
standard audio reference level.

Although, facilities can adopt their own in-house standards, typically, a 1,000Hz audio tone
should register 0dB on analog equipment and -20dB on digital equipment. 

At the same time, production facilities can set their own internal standards as long as they
remain consistent throughout the facility and everyone knows what they are.
Digital Standards : In 1985, the Audio Engineering Society and the European Broadcasting
Union developed the first standard for digital audio. This is referred to as the AEB/EBU
standard. This standard was amended in 1993. Before this standard was adopted digital audio
productions done in one facility could experience technical problems when moved to another
production facility.

Digital Audio Time Code : Although we will cover time-code when we talk about video editing,
we need to mention at this point that digital audio systems make use of similar system of
identifying exact points in a recording. This is essential in the editing process in order to identify
and find audio elements, as well as to keep audio and video synchronized. But, as we will see
when we talk about video time code, in the process of converting frame rates between the 24,
30, and 29.97 (the different video standards), timing errors develop.

Unless the audio technicians are aware of these differences and take measures to compensate,
after a few minutes video and audio can get noticeably out of sync. (We've probably all seen
movies where the lip-sync was out and the words we were hearing didn't exactly match the lip
movements of the actors.). People working with digital audio should at least be aware of the
potential problem, and before a video project is started, consult an engineer about the possible
problems that could arise in the conversion process. It's much easier to head off these problems
before a projects starts than to try to fix them later.

In linear editing two videotapes are typically used: an A-roll and a B-roll. If you are using
videotape, during editing the tapes are switched back and forth as the questions and answers
are assembled. 
In nonlinear editing this is not necessary. Everything can be recorded on one tape, hard disk, or
on a solid state memory card. Once the shots are transferred to the computer hard drive of the
editing system, you can instantly access both the questions and answers as needed.

In more elaborate interviews, two cameras, a double lighting setup, and several crew members
may be used. One camera records the interviewer's questions and reactions, and the second
camera simultaneously records the guest's answers. Two mics and an audio mixer would have
to be used in this case. Although the work is much more demanding, this approach has many
advantages for editing. With either setup room tone should also be recorded. This is done by
just recording "silence" in the room for 15 seconds or so before or after the interview. This
"silence" will just consist of the normal, low background sounds in the interview setting.

During editing room tone may be needed to add an appropriate pause in the audio track .
Absolute silence, or no audio at all, would be noticeable, whereas room tone would naturally
blend in. The pace of a production rests largely with the editing, although the best editing won't
save bad acting or a script that is boring to start with.

IV. Self Assessment Questions

1. analog signal is typically quantified or sampled ………..times per second

2. In the analog-to-digital conversion process, a ………….. is selected in the analog values

3. The long form of ……….SOL

4. PPM means …………….

6.8 Shooting Location

Location shooting is the practice of filming in an actual setting. The shooting location can be
selected as per the program requirement. The shooting can happen both inside studio or
outdoor or combination of both. The job of the producer is before he starts shooting he has to
conceptualize the program and be ready for shooting.

In filmmaking a location is any place where a film crew will be filming actors and recording
their dialog. A location where dialog is not recorded may be considered as a second unit
photography site. Often filmmakers choose to shoot on location because they believe that
greater realism can be achieved in a "real" place, however location shooting is also often
motivated by the film's budget. Many films and television producers shoot interior scenes on a
sound stage and exterior scenes on location. Depending on the size and budget of the creative
work a levision production team will be formulated. The crew involved in each type of program
also vary depending on the locale of shooting and the production state i.e Pre Production or
Post Production. Whatever may be the stage of production, in general a television production
unit generally consists of :

Everything before the shooting of the film is known as the pre-production stage. People involved
in this stage include the director, the producer, the screenwriter, the researcher, the set
designer, the make-up artist, and the costume designer.

6.9 Role of Functionaries:

Director : A television director is usually responsible for directing the actors and other filmed
aspects of a television production. His role differs from that of a film director because the major
creative control will likely belong to the producer. In general, the actors and other regular artists
on a show will be familiar enough with their roles that the director's input will be confined to
technical issues. The director is responsible for all creative aspects of a movie. The director
would most likely assist with hiring the cast (and possibly the crew). He helps decide on the
locations, creates a plan of shooting, and sets a mental layout of shot by shot in his minds eye.
During shooting, the director supervises the overall project, manages shots, and keeps the
assignment on budget, and schedule. Although the director holds much power, he is second in
command after the producer, who ultimately hired him (unless he holds both positions). Some
directors are also the producers of their program, and, with the approval of the funding studio,
have a much tighter grip on what makes the final cut than directors usually have.

Producer : In the entertainment industry, a television producer (compare to film producer) is

generally in charge of, or helps to coordinate, the financial, legal, administrative, technological
and artistic aspects of a production. In television, a television producer can be given one of
the following titles:
 Associate producer :Performs limited producing functions under the authority of a
producer; often in charge of the day-to-day running of a production.

 Assistant Producer (AP) :This is the closest role to that of a film director. An Assistant
Producer often doubles as an experienced Researcher, and takes direct charge of the
creative content and action within a programme.

 Coordinating producer : Coordinates the work of two or more producers working

separately on one or more productions.

 Executive producer : Supervises one or more producers in all aspects of their work;
sometimes the initiator of the production; usually the ultimate authority on the creative
and business aspects of the production (except to the extent that a film director retains
creative control).

 Casting Director: Casts the actors. In fact, when a Television Pilot is initially cast the
program executive himself selects the casts of actors.

 Researcher : Researchers research the project ahead of shooting time to increase truth,
factual content, creative content, original ideas, background information, and sometimes
performs minor searches such as flight details, location conditions, accommodation
details, etc. It is their task to inform the director, producer, and writer of all ideas, and
knowledge related to what task is being undertaken, or what a scene/ event/prop/ or
backdrop needs to be included to make the show factual and ultimately more believable.

 Writer : The writer creates and moulds an original story, or adapts other written, told, or
acted stories for production of a television show. Their finished work is called a script. A
script may also have been a contribution of many writers.

 Make-up artist : A professional makeup artist is usually a beautician, and applies

makeup to anyone appearing on screen. They concentrate on the area above the chest,
the face, the top of the head, the fingers, hands, arms, and elbows. Their role is to
manipulate an actor's on screen appearance whether it makes them look more youthful,
larger, older, or in some cases monstrous. There are also body makeup artist who
concentrate their abilities on the body rather than the head. Make-up itself is substances
to enhance the beauty of the human body, but can also change the appearance,
disguise, or costume someone. Along with the make-up artists, the hair stylists, costume
designers, and dress technicians all combine their effort into transforming an actor into a
character, or a person into a presenter.
  Production designer : The production designer is the person with the responsibility
of the visual appearance of a production. They design, plan, organize, and arrange set
design, equipment availability, as well as the on screen appearance a production will
have. A production designer is often referred to also as the set designer, or scenic
designer. The set designer is responsible for collaborating with the theatre director to
create an environment for the production and then communicating the details of this
environment to the technical director, scenic artist and props master. Scenic designers
are responsible for creating scale models of the scenery as well as scale drawings.

The set designer also takes instructions from the art director to create the appearance
of the stage, and design its technical assembly. The art director, who can also be the
production designer, plans and oversees the formation of settings for a project. They
are fully aware and conscious of art and design styles, including architecture and interior
design. They also work with the cinematographer to accomplish the precise
appearance for the project.

Floor Manager : The Floor Manager is the Director's representative on the studio floor, and
is responsible for giving instruction and direction to crew, cast and guests.

Camera operator/cinematographer: As the head member of the camera crew, the

camera operator uses the camera as coached by the director. They are accountable for
maintaining the required action is correctly filmed in the frame, and needs to react instinctively
as the proceedings take place. If the camera operator is also a cinematographer, they also help
establish the theme and appearance of the show. The cinematographer or director of
photography regulates the lighting for every scene, is responsible for framing some shots,
chooses the lenses to be used, decides on film stock and guarantees that the visual
appearance of the project follows to the directors initial foresight. However, the cinematographer
would usually not maneuver the camera on the set, as this is usually the exclusive role of a
camera operator.

Gallery/Control Room Team : The following crew positions are only utilised on a multi-camera
production. The Gallery or "Control Room" is a separate darkened area away from the studio
floor where the action can be viewed across multiple monitors and controlled from a single
source.
Vision Mixer or Switcher : The Vision Mixer is responsible for the actual switching between
different video sources, such as camera shots and video inserts. They also maintain color and
contrast balance between the studio cameras.

Video Control Operator : A video control operator (typically credited under the title "video
control", and sometimes referred to simply as a "video engineer" and rarely, a "video operator")
is responsible for controlling the video console to regulate transmission of television scenes,
including test patterns and filmed and live telecasts. Video control operators view the action on
set through television monitors and sets switches and observes dials on the video console to
control contrast, framing, brilliance, color balance, and the fidelity of the transmitted image. They
also monitor the program to ensure the technical quality of the broadcast, and review the shot
program to determine that the signal is functioning properly and that it will be ready for
transmission at the required time. Video control operators and video tape operators are used
only in television productions recorded on videotape.

Video Tape Operator : The video tape operator (also known as a VT Operator or VTR
Operator), cues and prepares video inserts into a program. A VT Operator sets up and operates
the videotape equipment to record and play back the program, reads the program log to
ascertain when the program will be recorded and when it will be aired. They also select the
source, such as satellite or studio, from which the program will be recorded, and selects the
videotaping equipment on which it will be recorded. Heavily used in sports programming (though
they are used in all videotaped productions, including news programming, and sometimes
sitcoms, if they are shot on videotape), they are also responsible for action replays and quickly
editing highlights while a show is in progress.

V. Self Assessment Questions

1. Location shooting is the practice of……….

2. An Assistant Producer often doubles as an experienced………

3. The art director, who can also be the

4. The Gallery is also called…….

6.10 Storyboards

Story boards are graphic organizers in which a series of

illustrations or images displayed in sequence for the purpose of
pre-visualizing a motion picture, animation, motion graphic or
interactive media sequence, including website interactivity. The
storyboarding process, in the form it is known today, was
developed at the Walt Disney Studio during the early 1930s,
after several years of similar processes being in use at Walt
Disney and other animation studios.

Story boarding process can be very tedious and intricate.

A storyboard is essentially a large comic of the film or some

section of the film produced beforehand to help film directors,
cinematographers and television commercial advertising clients visualize the scenes and find
potential problems before they occur. Often storyboards include arrows or instructions that
indicate movement. In creating a motion picture with any degree of fidelity to a script, a
storyboard provides a visual layout of events as they are to be seen through the camera lens.
And in the case of interactive media, it is the layout and sequence in which the user or viewer
sees the content or information. In the storyboarding process, most technical details involved in
crafting a film or interactive media project can be efficiently described either in picture, or in
additional text.( Ref: http//en.wikipedia.org)
One advantage of using storyboards is that it allows (in film and business) the user to
experiment with changes in the storyline to evoke stronger reaction or interest. Flashbacks, for
instance, are often the result of sorting storyboards out of chronological order to help build
suspense and interest.

The process of visual thinking and planning allows a group of people to brainstorm together,
placing their ideas on storyboards and then arranging the storyboards on the wall. This fosters
more ideas and generates consensus inside the group.

Storyboards are created in a multiple step process. They can be created by hand drawing or
digitally on the computer. If drawing by hand, the first step is to create or download a storyboard
template.

6.11 Camera Production

While producing a program single or multiple cameras can be used.

The single-camera setup, or single-camera mode of production, is a method of shooting

films and television programs. In this format a single camera is employed on the set and each
shot to make up a scene is taken individually.

Each of the various shots and camera angles is taken with the same camera which is moved
and reset to get each shot or new angle. In addition, the lighting set-up may be reset for each
new camera set-up. Each camera of a multi camera setup covers its own angle of the scene
and is switched-to in order to show the perspective from a new camera angle. The set is lit for
every camera angle, which is faster but less versatile.

In single-camera, if a scene cuts back and forth between actor A and actor B, the director will
first point the camera towards A and shoot shots number 1, 3, 5, 7, and so on. Then they will
point the camera toward B and do shots number 2, 4, 6, 8, and so on. In the post-production
editing process, the shots will be assembled into their final order.

Single-camera productions tend to cluster the shooting of all the scenes that utilize a certain set
and cast, while most multiple-camera productions are shot "in sequence"—the shooting
progressing sequentially through the script. The single-camera setup gives the director more
control over each shot, but is more time consuming and expensive than multiple-camera. The
choice of single-camera or multiple-camera setups is made separately from the choice of film or
video. That is, either setup can be shot in either film or video. However, multiple-camera setups
shot on video can be switched "live to tape" during the performance, while setups shot on film
still require that the various camera angles be edited together later.

Television producers make a distinct decision to shoot in single-camera shooting. In television,

single-camera is mostly reserved for during the production of News.

Multiple Camera Production:

The multiple-camera setup, multiple-camera mode of production, or multicam is a method

of shooting using two or more cameras. They are employed on the set and simultaneously
record or/and broadcast a scene..

Generally, the two outer cameras shoot close shots or "crosses" of the two most active
characters on the set at any given time, while the central camera or cameras shoot a wider
master shot to capture the overall action and establish the geography of the room. In this way,
multiple shots are obtained in a single take without having to start and stop the action. This is
more efficient for programs that are to be shown a short time after being shot as it reduces the
time spent editing the footage.

Multiple camera shooting is used generally for high-output shows like daily soap operas, sports
events, reality shows. Apart from saving editing time, scenes may be shot far more quickly as
there is no need for re-lighting and the set-up of alternate camera angles for the scene to be
shot again from the different angle. It also reduces the complexity of tracking continuity issues
that crop up when the scene is reshot from the different angles. It is also vital for live television.

In multi-camera approach, each camera has its own associated video-recorder( VTRs). Instead
of intercutting between cameras with a switcher, shots from their separate videotapes are edited
together later during a post-production session. Any voice-over narration, sound effects, video
effects, music etc. are added later.

6.12 Studio Production

As a first step in seeing how studio productions are done we need to take a closer look at the
role and responsibilities of the key person in this process -- the director. Since the explanation to
the director is already known to us we will straight away understand the working methods of
studio production. Any director worth the title can stay on top of things when the crew, talent,
and equipment perform exactly as expected. But much of the value and respect that people
place on directors depends on their ability to stay in control when things don't go as planned
and new procedures suddenly have to be improvised.

Put another way, a director's job is not to dictate but to clearly and effectively guide. The director
should follow these suggestions:

Because production involves the activities of numerous crew members -- the number can
rangeRequisitioning Equipment and Facilities : The director's first job will normally be to fill out
a Facilities Request Form. Production facilities typically have forms tailored to their own
needs and equipment. On this form you will list such things as the production and
rehearsal dates and times, studio space needed, personnel required, and the number of
cameras, video recorders and mics needed Not anticipating a need may mean there will be
last-minute delays in getting what you want.

Worse still, you may even have to do without something you need, especially if someone
else has requisitioned the equipment for the same time period. Apart from all these
request the studio's Facilities Manager to plan on the necessary talent, crew, facilities,
and equipment Studio Sets: Although virtual sets are now being used in many studios, the traditional
hardwall and softwall sets are still the most widely used setting for studio productions. Further details are
already discussed.

The Directing Process : For every audio or video event that takes place during a production several
behind-the-scenes production steps are typically required.
 .
.

from 6 to more than 60 -- the director's instructions must be clearly and succinctly phrased. Even
the word sequence is important.

If the director says, "Will you pan to the left and up a little when you 'lose [your tally] light' on
camera one," all camera operators must wait until the end of the sentence before they know who
the director is talking to; and then they must remember what the instructions were.

However, if the director says, "Camera one, when you lose light, pan left and up a little," the first
two words indicate who, the next four words tell when, and the last six words indicate what.

After the first two words, crew members know that only camera one's operator is being addressed.
This will get the attention of the camera one operator, and the rest of the crew members can
concentrate on their individual tasks.

The "when" in the sentence tells the camera one operator not to immediately pan and tilt, but to
prepare for a quick move once the camera tally ("on-air") light is off. This may involve loosening
the pan and tilt controls on the camera's pan head and being ready to make the adjustment --
possibly within the brief interval when the director switches to a reaction shot.Even a two- or
three-second delay can make the difference between a tight show and one where the production
changes lag behind the action.

Although the specifics of the jargon vary between production facilities, directors tend to use some
of the same basic terminology. To illustrate this, let's trace a director's PL line conversation for the
opening of a simple interview show.

Since the guests on this show are different each week and will require different opening and
closing announcements, only the show's theme music is prerecorded. The opening and closing
announcements are read off-camera, live.

cue's and command: 

Director's Comments   Explanation

This means "attention" and "quiet" on the set. The

command is given 15-30 seconds before rolling tape.
Standby on the set.
(Assuming for this example that videotape is being
used.)

Get ready to start the videotape that will record the

Standby to roll tape.
show.
 The tape is rolled, and when it stabilizes the tape
Roll tape.
operator calls "speed."

The electronic test pattern (ETP) and audio tone is

recorded at the reference level (generally, 0dB). This
Ready to take bars and tone. segment will be used to set up
playback equipment for proper video
and audio.
Take bars and tone.
This may last from 15 to 60 seconds
and depends on the technical requirements of the
production facility.

Standby camera ONE on slate; stand

by to announce slate. Assuming the slate is not electronically
generated, camera one's first shot is the
Take ONE. slate identifying the show.

Read slate. During this time the announcer reads the

basic program identifying information we previously
Standby black.
listed.

Go to black The technical director (TD) cuts to black.

Ready TWO with your close-up of Lee;

ready mic; ready cue. The show opens "cold" (without an introduction of any
kind) with a close-up of Dr. Lee. This "tease" statement
  is intended to grab attention and introduce the show's
guest and topic.

Cut to camera two with a close-up of Dr. Lee, turn her

Take TWO, mic, cue!
mic on, and cue her to start.

Stand by ONE on the guest.

 Take ONE! Dr. Lee introduces subject and makes a quick reference
to the guest. When Dr. Lee mentions the guest, the
 
director makes a two- to three-second cut to the close-
  up camera on the guest (who is just listening) and then
back to Dr. Lee on camera two.

Standby black and standby to roll

commercial on tape 4.
Roll tape 4. Go black. Take it.
The commercial is rolled and taken as soon as it comes
  up. The audio person brings up the sound on the
commercial without being cued. (Everyone's script
should list basic information, such as machine playback
 
numbers, etc. Some things, such as cutting mics when
they are not needed, are done as needed without a
  director's command.)

Camera 1 truck left for your wide shot.

During the commercial camera #1 will reposition for the
Fifteen seconds. Standby in studio. opening wide shot. (See drawing above.) This shot will
be used for keying the opening program titles.

Standby opening announce and theme.

Ready ONE on your wide shot; ready

TWO on a close-up of Lee.

Standby to key in title.

When the commercial ends, a wide shot is taken on

Take ONE; hit music; key title. camera one, the theme music is established, and the
title of the show is keyed over the screen.

The music is faded under and the opening announce for

the show is read by an announcer. This will probably
Fade [music] and read.
include the show's title, followed by the topic, and the
name of the show's host.

Ready TWO with a close-up on Lee. This is a close-up of the show's interviewer, Dr. Lee,
Standby mics and cue. who now fully introduces the day's guest and asks the
Take TWO, mic, cue. first question.

Camera 1, ready on your close-up on

During this time Camera 1 trucks back to the opening
the guest.
position for the close-up of the guest. Dr. Lee covers the
interval for the camera move by fully introducing the
 
show and guest..
 

Take ONE. The guest answers first question.

Show continues alternating between close-ups of host

and guest. Occasionally cameras will zoom out to get
over-the-shoulder shots. Closing of show is similar
in pattern to the opening.

Although the studio director can relay signals to the crew via a headset (PL line), getting
instructions to on-camera talent while the mics are on is generally done silently through the floor
director.

To do this the floor director uses agreed upon hand signals.  In order for the talent to be able to
easily and quickly see these signals they should be given right next to the talent's camera lens.
The talent should never have to conspicuously look around for cues when they are on camera

6.13 Formats of TV Programs

Television formats various types of programs for its audiences. Amongst the many some of the
popular formats are discussed here. Ex: studio interview, studio discussion studio chat shows with
audience participation, studio quiz program with audience participation TV documentary
production

Interview Formats for Television : Interaction with popular persons, celebrity, achiever, politician
are common on television. A television studio generally conducts interviews in following formats:

Face-to-face pre-tape : This taped interview is done in person in the celebrities house/working
place or in the studio. The interview is later edited and aired. Such interviews may last form 15
seconds to 15 minutes. Reporters will look for clips that offer emotion, controversy, and gripping
examples.

Live interview : These are interviews that may be done live and on-site as part of an on-going
news story, and are probably the most difficult types of interviews to do. You have to talk directly
into the camera, but unfortunately you won’t be able to see the person speaking with you, as they
are in studio and you are not. You will be wearing an earpiece to hear the anchor’s questions.

Documentary interviews : These are longer interviews with great messaging opportunity .
Studio Discussions with the audience: A studio discussion is designed to provide an
opportunity for a group to hear several people knowledgeable about a specific issue or topic
present information and discuss personal views. A panel discussion may help the audience
further clarify and evaluate their positions regarding specific
issues or topics being discussed and increase their
understanding of the positions of others.

The panel discussion may be conducted by inviting subject

experts or an individual. In these discussion some program
formats particularly related current affairs invite audience to
interact with the panelists. Subject experts on one hand
and On the other hand an audience group will participate in the discussion or encounter
a work of art, literature (in which they are called the "reader"), theatre, music or
academics in any medium. The invited audience though are generally heterogeneous in
nature have commonality with reference to the subject. The audience present participate
by shooting questions, they criticize the policy of the government etc.

Quiz Programs: One of the most popular program format. Amongst different genres of
programs that Indian television produced during its inception, quiz was one of them. Quiz
programs are conceptualized by the television studios for school children to general public. Over
a period of time the quiz like any other program format has changed its formation. Bournavita
quiz to the popular most KBC. Apart from quiz programs on general issues to exclusive areas like
sports, legal, cinema are common on television.

The element that has remained constant with quiz is involvement of audience in the program.

6.14 Documentary Production

A documentary is a film that attempts to “document” reality. Documentaries are often created to
inform people about an important issue or to create an archive of an important event. In recent
years, documentaries have become more mainstream, unleashing a stream of independent
filmmakers communicating their ideas, thoughts, and opinions. Documentaries are made on a
topic, issue, or event that interests the producer. Use documentaries to communicate about a
topic that you are passionate about.

A documentary is a factual production, one that generally incorporates interviews with the people
involved with the subject and actual footage of what has taken place. The dictionary would add,
"from documents....expressing things as perceived without distortion of personal feelings,
insertion of fictional matter, or interpretation." The hard-hitting, hour-long documentaries, such as
"Smile Pinki" which won awards like Oscars however fail to secure time slot in mainstream
commercial television. This is because the documentaries have low ratings since they interest
very few.

Steps to produce a good documentary / Corporate Documentary

Do some research. Even if you know your topic well, still do research. You can use the Internet
and the library to find information. Also, talk to people who know about or are interested in your
subject. Once you have a general topic you are interested in, try to narrow it down. If you are
interested in cars, figure out what specifically interests you. Brainstorm ideas and take lots of
notes. For example, narrow down a documentary about cars to one about a group of people who
work on classic cars and gather to show them off and talk about them. A number of things that
you might include in your documentary would be:

o Interviews
o Recordings of events as they happen

o Pictures, drawings and/or documents (If you decide to use other people's work in
your piece, such as videos, pictures or sound recordings, you must be sure to get
permission to use them before you add them to your documentary)

Interview people. Get interviews from people who have knowledge of or are interested in
your topic. If you get many interviews you will have a more diverse and interesting piece. Be
sure to take notes and film the interview. Let's get back to a car example. Let's say the topic
for the documentary is "The History of Cars". You might want to interview your grandfather
about basic car stuff (how they were designed when he was a kid, how do they work now,
etc...). Then, look for people with specific knowledge about the history of automobiles and

interview them. Ask all kinds of questions. 3

Organize all the parts in an order that is interesting and fun, but that will also make sense to the
 viewers. In our car history example, it would be better if the production starts off with who built

the first automobile and what that car looked like, people's reaction to automobiles at that
time. Then, go through the changes to automobiles and people's attitudes about them through
time to the present day. The end of the piece might be something that ties the information
together in an interesting way, or a great comment from an interview. Remember, the story is
what is interesting, not dates or rote facts.

 Be sure to include informative interviews, re-creations of events (or actual footage if

possible) and factual documentation supporting all sides of the story. A documentary is
meant to simply present the facts and allow the viewer to decide for themselves. Above all
else, be sure you do not editorialize or impress your own, personal opinion, into the
documentary. Once that takes place your work ceases to be a documentary and becomes
propaganda.
 If you include music in your film, be sure to get permission to use the music.

Corporate Documentary Production

Corporate documentaries commonly present, investigate or showcase a situation or person in

their natural, uninhibited environment. Inform employees, partner companies and conglomerates,
while crossing cultural divides and showing off the best of your business.

A polished corporate documentary video instills confidence, encouragement & support and
demonstrates high levels of integrity.

6.15 Summary

Creating the videospace is one of the director’s most important jobs. This involves three concepts:
1. Directorial choice 2. View point 3. Visualization. The shot is the basic visual element in a
television show. The director develops camera shots by selecting the size and content of the shot,
determining the appropriate camera angle, and deciding on camera or subject movement within the
shot. The director plans various programs for television including documentaries by editing the
visuals based on three factors. They are:

1. The juxtaposition of shots-the sequence and order of individual shots have a

definite impact on the viewer.
 2. The timing of the shots and the transitions

3. Transitional devices or the way in which we change camera shots.

6.16 Terminal Questions

1. What do you understand by establishing a shot

2. Explain a Cut. Discuss various types of cuts

3. Explain the technique AB roll editing

4. Write briefly about digital effects

5. Explain the technique of converting analog to Digital

6. Identify the role of functionaries involved in the process of producing a program

7. What is a story board explain how it is useful while producing a program.

8. What are the differences between single and multiple camera operations

9. Explain the technique of producing a quiz program

10. Making a documentary involves serious research. Comment

6.17 Answer to Self Assessment Questions and Terminal Questions

Answers to Self Assessment Questions

I. 1. Shortest 2. edit point. 3. Jump cuts 4. Pop cuts 5 Cutaway

II. 1. Transitional 2. Simultaneous 3. Replacing

III. 1. digital processing 2. transactions. 3. 0s" and "1s

IV. 1. 48,000 2. voltage midpoint 3. standard operating level 4. peak program meter
V. 1. filming 2. Researcher 3. production designer 4. Control Room

Answers to Terminal Questions

1. Refer to 6.2
2. Refer to 6.3.1

3. Refer to 6.4

4. Refer to 6.5

5. Refer to 6.7

6. Refer to 6.9

7. Refer to 6.10

8. Refer to 6.11

9. Refer to 6.13

10. Refer to 6.14

6.18 Glossary

Analog : The video output of nondigital cameras and tape decks that convert or store light rays to
electrical signals rather than 1’s and 0’s

Cutaway : A shot of some part of the peripheral action, such as a clock on the wall or football fans
in a stadium, that can be used to divert the viewer’s eye momentarily from the main action.
Commonly used as an editorial device to help eliminate jump cuts and to condense time.

Editing: The editing of video and its attendant sound is the “conscious and deliberate guidance of
viewer thoughts and associations. The editor strives both to create illusion and to reconstruct
reality, as well as to guide viewers emotional responses.
6.19 Further Reading
 1. Michel Noll., TV technology - Fundamentals and future prospects

2. Barrows Wood Gross, TV Production.

3. Tony Verla, Global, Television

4. Horale Newcomb Television - The Creal view Amed. Oxford, 1987.

5. Television Field Production and Reporting- Fred Shook,

6. Television Production: Alan Wurtzel

6.12 Studio Production: