ABSTRACT 

Introduction to Differential Equations 

Mohammad Hassan Murad 
      

LECTURE 1‐2 
Week 1 

 
 Lecture 1
1.1 Introduction to Differential Equations
The applications of differential equations are many and varied and appear in virtually every
field of study. Examples are the study of motion, population growth, radioactive decay,
calculations involving compound interest, electrostatic and electromagnetic fields, carbon
dating, chemical reactions, concentration of a drug in the bloodstream, and the spread of a
disease.

Definition of Differential Equations
An equation containing the derivatives of one or more dependent variables, with respect to
one or more independent variables, is said to be a differential equation (DE).

Classifications by Type
If a differential equation contains only ordinary derivatives of one or more unknown
functions with respect to a single independent variable, it is said to be an ordinary
differential equation (ODE). For example
𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦
2𝑡, 𝑦, 𝑦 𝑡, 𝑦 . 1.1
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
Here 𝑡 is an independent variable and 𝑦 is dependent.
An equation involving partial derivatives of one or more unknown functions of two or more
independent variables is called a partial differential equation (PDE).
Some of the famous PDEs from mathematical physics are:
One‐dimensional Heat Conduction Equation
𝜕 𝑢 𝜕𝑢
𝛼 1.2a
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑡
One‐dimensional Wave Equation
𝜕 𝑢 1𝜕 𝑢
1.2b
𝜕𝑥 𝑐 𝜕𝑡
Laplace’s Equation
𝜕 𝑢 𝜕 𝑢
0. 1.2c
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦
In eqs. (1.2a)–(1.2b) 𝑢 is an unknown function of 𝑡 and 𝑥. And in eq. (1.2c) 𝑢 is a function of
𝑥 and 𝑦.

Mohammad Hassan Murad P a g e |1

Assistant Professor
Department of Mathematics and Natural Sciences
Brac University 
 Lecture 1
1.1 Introduction to Differential Equations
Notation: For convenience, we will also use the prime notation for ordinary derivatives and
and subscript notations for partial derivatives, respectively.
For example
𝑑𝑦 𝑑 𝑦 𝑑 𝑦
𝑦 , 𝑦 ,… , 𝑦 , etc.
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
and
𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑢 𝜕 𝑢 𝜕 𝑢
𝑢 , 𝑢 , 𝑢 , 𝑢 , etc.
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑡𝜕𝑥

Classification by Order
The order of a differential equation (either ODE or PDE) is the order of the highest derivative
in the equation.

The general form of an 𝑛th order ODE is

𝐹 𝑡, 𝑦, 𝑦 , 𝑦 , … , 𝑦 0, 1.3

where 𝐹 is a real-valued function of 𝑛 2 variables.

Thus, the general form of a first order ODE is

𝐹 𝑡, 𝑦, 𝑦 0.
Similarly, the general form of a second order ODE is
𝐹 𝑡, 𝑦, 𝑦 , 𝑦 0.
The normal/explicit form of a first order ODE is
𝑦 𝑓 𝑡, 𝑦 .
For example,
𝑦 2𝑡, 𝑦 𝑥 𝑦, 𝑦 𝑦.
are first‐order ODE in normal form.

Mohammad Hassan Murad P a g e |2

Assistant Professor
Department of Mathematics and Natural Sciences
Brac University 
 Lecture 1
1.1 Introduction to Differential Equations
Note In the first eq. 𝑦 stands for 𝑑𝑦/𝑑𝑡 and in the second eq. 𝑦 means 𝑑𝑦/𝑑𝑥, and in the last
eq. 𝑦 denotes the first derivative of 𝑦 with respect to the independent variable, 𝑡 or 𝑥 which
will be understood from the context.
Similarly, the normal form of a second-order ODE is
𝑦 𝑓 𝑡, 𝑦, 𝑦 .
For example, the following are some second‐order differential equations.
𝑦 𝑦, 𝑦 5𝑦 6𝑦 0, 𝑦 5𝑦 6𝑦 3𝑒
where only the first equation is written in its normal form.

Similarly, the most general form of a first order PDE in three variables has the following form

𝐹 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧, 𝑢, 𝑢 , 𝑢 , 𝑢 0,

and the most general form of a second order PDE in two variables has the following form
𝐹 𝑡, 𝑥, 𝑢, 𝑢 , 𝑢 , 𝑢 , 𝑢 , 𝑢 0.

Classification of DE by Linearity

An 𝑛th-order ODE (1.3) is said to be linear if 𝐹 is linear in 𝑦, 𝑦 , 𝑦 , … , 𝑦 . That is, it has the
following form

𝑎 𝑥 𝑦 𝑎 𝑥 𝑦 ⋯ 𝑎 𝑥 𝑦 𝑎 𝑥 𝑦 𝑔 𝑥 1.4
In particular,
𝑃 𝑥 𝑦 𝑄 𝑥 𝑦 𝐺 𝑥
𝑃 𝑥 𝑦 𝑄 𝑥 𝑦 𝑅 𝑥 𝑦 𝐺 𝑥 ,
are first‐ and second‐order linear ODEs, respectively.
For example, 𝑦 5𝑦 6𝑦 0 is a second-order linear ODE in 𝑦.
In this course, we will talk more on these linear ODEs.

Mohammad Hassan Murad P a g e |3

Assistant Professor
Department of Mathematics and Natural Sciences
Brac University 
 Lecture 1
1.1 Introduction to Differential Equations
If an ODE is not linear, then it is called a nonlinear ODE.
For example,
𝑦
𝑦 𝑦 , 𝑦 𝑘𝑦 1 , 𝑦𝑦 𝑥
𝐾
are some nonlinear ODEs.
System of DEs
Example of a system of ODEs
𝑥 𝑥 𝑦
𝑦 𝑥 𝑦.
Example of a system of PDEs
𝑢 𝑣
𝑢 𝑣 .

In the latter system 𝑢 𝑢 𝑥, 𝑦 and 𝑣 𝑣 𝑥, 𝑦 and this system is known as Cauchy–

Riemann equations in complex analysis and is important in the theory of the analytic
functions.

Initial value problem (IVP)

An 𝑛th order initial value problem consists of an 𝑛th order ODE and 𝑛 many conditions

𝑦 𝑓 𝑡, 𝑦, 𝑦 , … , 𝑦

Subject to 𝑦 𝑡 𝑦 , 𝑦 𝑡 𝑦, 𝑦 𝑡 𝑦 .
where 𝑦 , 𝑦 , … 𝑦 are some constants (real numbers.)

The conditions are called Initial Conditions (IC).

Note that initial conditions are prescribed at a single point 𝑡 .
In particular,
𝑦 𝑓 𝑡, 𝑦
Subject to 𝑦 𝑡 𝑦 .
and
𝑦 𝑓 𝑡, 𝑦, 𝑦

Mohammad Hassan Murad P a g e |4

Assistant Professor
Department of Mathematics and Natural Sciences
Brac University 
 Lecture 1
1.1 Introduction to Differential Equations
Subject to 𝑦 𝑡 𝑦 , 𝑦 𝑡 𝑦 .
are first‐ and second‐order initial value problems, respectively.
For example,
𝑦 𝑦, 𝑦 0 1
and
𝑦 5𝑦 6𝑦 0, 𝑦 0 0, 𝑦 0 1
are first- and second-order initial value problems, respectively.

Boundary value problem (BVP)
Initial conditions are prescribed at a single point 𝑥 . But, in many situations, PDEs give rise
to ODEs that are subject to conditions specified on the dependent variable or its derivative
at two different points 𝑥 and 𝑥 . Conditions such as in the equation above are called
boundary conditions (BC).
A differential equation together with boundary conditions is called a boundary‐value
problem (BVP). For example,
𝑦 𝑦 0, 𝑦 0 0, 𝑦 𝜋 0
and
𝑦 𝑦 0, 𝑦 0 0, 𝑦 𝜋 0
are some BVPs.

Mohammad Hassan Murad P a g e |5

Assistant Professor
Department of Mathematics and Natural Sciences
Brac University 
 Lecture 1
1.2 Solution of an ODE or PDE
Solutions of an ODE (or PDE)
Any function 𝜙, defined on an interval 𝐼 and possessing at least 𝑛 derivatives that are
continuous on 𝐼, which when substituted into an 𝑛th-order ordinary differential equation
reduces the equation to an identity, is said to be a solution of the equation on the interval.

In other words, a solution of an 𝑛th-order ODE (1.3) is a function 𝜙 defined on an interval 𝐼

that possesses at least 𝑛 derivatives and for which
𝐹 𝑡, 𝜙 𝑡 , 𝜙 𝑡 , . . . , 𝜙 𝑡 0 for all 𝑡 in 𝐼.

We say that 𝜙 satisfies the differential equation on 𝐼. For our purposes, we shall also assume
that 𝜙: 𝐼 → ℝ, i.e., 𝜙 is a real-valued function.

For example,
1. 𝜙 𝑡 𝑡 is a solution of 𝑦 2𝑡 on ∞, ∞ .
Because, 𝜙 is a differentiable function of 𝑡 on ∞, ∞ with 𝜙 𝑡 2𝑡.
Similarly,
2. For any arbitrary real number 𝐶, 𝜙 𝑡 𝐶𝑒 is a solution of 𝑦 𝑦 on ∞, ∞ .
3. 𝜙 𝑡 1⁄ 1 𝑡 is a solution of 𝑦 𝑦 on 1, ∞ .
4. 𝜙 𝑡 cos 𝑡 is a solution of 𝑦 𝑦 0 on ∞, ∞ .
5. 𝜙 𝑡 3𝑒 2𝑒 is a solution of 𝑦 𝑦 6𝑦 0 on ∞, ∞ .
Because, 𝜙 is twice differentiable function of 𝑡 on ∞, ∞ with
𝜙 𝑡 6𝑒 6𝑒 , 𝜙 𝑡 12𝑒 18𝑒
and 𝜙 𝑡 satisfies
𝜙 𝑡 𝜙 𝑡 6𝜙 𝑡 12𝑒 18𝑒 6𝑒 6𝑒 6 3𝑒 2𝑒
0
for all 𝑡 ∈ ∞, ∞ .

6. 𝜙 𝑥 √1 𝑥 is a solution of 𝑦𝑦 𝑥 0 on 1,1 .
Because, 𝜙 is a differentiable function for all 𝑥 ∈ 1,1 with
2𝑥 𝑥
𝜙 𝑥
2√1 𝑥 √1 𝑥
Mohammad Hassan Murad P a g e |6
Assistant Professor
Department of Mathematics and Natural Sciences
Brac University 
 Lecture 1
1.2 Solution of an ODE or PDE
And 𝜙 𝑥 satisfies
𝜙 𝑥 𝜙 𝑥 𝑥 0.
for all 𝑥 ∈ 1,1 . Similarly, we can show that the function 𝜙 defined by

𝜙 𝑥 1 𝑥 , 𝑥∈ 1,1
is also a solution of 𝑦𝑦 𝑥 0 on 1,1 .
7. 𝜙 𝑡, 𝑥 sin 𝑥 𝑐𝑡 is a solution of the one-dimensional wave equation
𝑐 𝑢 𝑢 .
Occasionally, it will be convenient to denote a solution 𝜙 𝑡 by the alternative symbol 𝑦 𝑡 .

Nonexample. The function 𝜙 𝑡 𝑒 2 is NOT a solution of 𝑦 𝑦 because

𝜙 𝑡 𝑒 𝜙 𝑡

on any interval 𝐼 and for all 𝑡 ∈ 𝐼.

The graph of a solution 𝜙 of an ODE is called a solution curve also known as an integral
curve. Since 𝜙 is a differentiable function, it is continuous on its interval 𝐼 of definition. Thus,
there may be a difference between the graph of the function 𝜙 and the graph of the solution
𝜙. To put it another way, the domain of the function 𝜙 need not be the same as the interval 𝐼
of definition of the solution 𝐼. The following example illustrates the difference.

Consider the following ODE

𝑦 𝑦

and the function 𝜙: ℝ ∖ 0 → ℝ, defined by

1
𝜙 𝑡 .
𝑡
Note that 𝜙 is continuous and differentiable on its domain of definition. However, 𝜙 is NOT
a solution on its domain of definition ℝ ∖ 0 but it is a solution on the intervals 0, ∞ or
∞, 0 . See the figures below.

Mohammad Hassan Murad P a g e |7

Assistant Professor
Department of Mathematics and Natural Sciences
Brac University 
 Lecture 1
1.2 Solution of an ODE or PDE

1 1
𝜙 𝑡 , 𝑡 ∈ℝ∖ 0   𝜙 𝑡 , 𝑡 ∈ 0, ∞  
𝑡 𝑡

Not a solution A solution

TYPES OF SOLUTION
If an ODE (1.3)

𝐹 𝑡, 𝑦, 𝑦 , 𝑦 , … , 𝑦 0

has a solution of the form

𝑦 𝜙 𝑡
i.e., the dependent variable can be expressed in terms of independent variable, then it is
called an explicit solution. For example, 𝜙 𝑡 𝑡 1 is an explicit solution of the ODE
𝑦 2𝑡 on 𝐼 ∞, ∞ .

Mohammad Hassan Murad P a g e |8

Assistant Professor
Department of Mathematics and Natural Sciences
Brac University 
 Lecture 1
1.2 Solution of an ODE or PDE
A relation 𝐺 𝑥, 𝑦 0 is said to be an implicit solution of an ODE

𝐹 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑦 , … , 𝑦 0

on an interval 𝐼 if there exists one function 𝜙 that satisfies the relation as well as the ODE.
For example, the relation
𝑥 𝑦 1
defines two functions 𝜙 : 1,1 → ℝ and 𝜙 : 1,1 → ℝ, defined by

𝑦 𝜙 𝑥 1 𝑥 , 𝑦 𝜙 𝑥 1 𝑥
are solutions of the ODE
𝑦𝑦 𝑥 0.

𝜙2 𝑥 1 𝑥2  
𝜙 𝑥 1 𝑥  

𝑥 𝑦 1 

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Assistant Professor
Department of Mathematics and Natural Sciences
Brac University 
 Lecture 1
1.2 Solution of an ODE or PDE
FAMILY OF SOLUTIONS
Let’s consider the ODE
𝑦 𝑦.
We can show that for any arbitrary constant 𝐶,
𝑦 𝜙 𝑡 𝐶𝑒
satisfies the ODE for all 𝑡 ∈ ∞, ∞ . (Please verify!)
For each value of the constant 𝐶, 𝜙 defines a solution. Let’s see some of the solution curves
in the following figure.

𝜙 𝑡 2𝑒  
𝜙 𝑡 𝑒  

𝜙 𝑡 0 

𝜙 𝑡 𝑒  
𝜙 𝑡 2𝑒  

Some members of the family 𝜙 𝑡 𝐶𝑒

When we solve a first-order ODE

𝐹 𝑡, 𝑦, 𝑦 0
we usually get a solution containing an arbitrary constant or a parameter 𝐶. A solution of
𝐹 𝑡, 𝑦, 𝑦 0 containing a constant 𝐶 is a set of solutions 𝐺 𝑡, 𝑦, 𝐶 0 is called a one‐
parameter family of solutions or simply the general solution.

Mohammad Hassan Murad P a g e | 10

Assistant Professor
Department of Mathematics and Natural Sciences
Brac University 
 Lecture 1
1.2 Solution of an ODE or PDE
In general, a solution of an 𝑛th order ODE

𝐹 𝑡, 𝑦, 𝑦 , … , 𝑦 0

containing 𝑛 arbitrary constants or parameters is a set of solutions

𝐺 𝑡, 𝑦, 𝐶 , 𝐶 , … , 𝐶 0
is called a 𝑛‐parameter family of solutions or simply the general solution.

𝐹 𝑡, 𝑦, 𝑦 , … , 𝑦 0

For example, the 2-parameter family of solutions of

𝑦 5𝑦 6𝑦 0
is given by
𝑦 𝐶𝑒 𝐶𝑒
for all 𝑥 ∈ ∞, ∞ . (Please verify!)

Particular Solution
A solution of a differential equation that is free of parameters or can be obtained by
specifying the constants in the general solution is called a particular solution.
For example, 𝑦 𝑥 3𝑒 2𝑒 is a particular solution of
𝑦 5𝑦 6𝑦 0
for all 𝑥 ∈ ∞, ∞ . Because it can be obtained from the general solution
𝑦 𝑥 𝐶𝑒 𝐶𝑒
by setting 𝐶 3 and 𝐶 2.

Singular Solution
Sometimes a solution of a DE cannot be obtained by specifying any of the parameters in the
family of solutions. Such an extra solution is called a singular solution.
For example, 𝑦 𝑡 0 is a solution to the following equation
𝑦 𝑦 .
However, it CANNOT be obtained from the general solution

Mohammad Hassan Murad P a g e | 11

Assistant Professor
Department of Mathematics and Natural Sciences
Brac University 
 Lecture 1
1.2 Solution of an ODE or PDE
1
𝜙 𝑡
𝑡 𝐶
by assigning any value to 𝐶. Thus, 𝜙 𝑡 0 is a singular solution.

Complete Solution
Thus, in the “general solution,” the word general must not be taken in the sense of complete.
A totality of all solutions of a DE is called a complete solution.

Two Important Questions

1. Does every
Under certain conditions, every first-order ordinary linear differential equation has a
solution and it is unique. This is formally established in the following theorem:

Existence and Uniqueness Theorem for First‐Order ODE 

Let 𝑅 be a rectangle defined by 𝑎 𝑡 𝑏, 𝑐 𝑦 𝑑 containing the point 𝑡 , 𝑦 in its

interior. If 𝑓 and 𝜕𝑓/𝜕𝑦 be continuous on 𝑅, then in some interval 𝐼 ⊂ 𝑎, 𝑏 , there is a
unique solution of the initial value problem

𝑦 𝑓 𝑡, 𝑦 , 𝑦 𝑡 𝑦 .

Illustration of the theorem

𝑦  The slope 𝑚 at the point 𝑡 , 𝑦 is

given by 𝑚 𝑓 𝑡 , 𝑦  
𝑑 
𝑅 
𝑦 𝜙 𝑡  

𝑡 ,𝑦  

𝑐 

𝐼  𝑡 
𝑎  𝑏 

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Assistant Professor
Department of Mathematics and Natural Sciences
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 Lecture 1
1.2 Solution of an ODE or PDE
NOTE

 The conditions stated in Theorem 2.4.2 are sufficient to guarantee the existence of a
unique solution of the initial value problem (2.4.3) in some interval 𝐼 , but they are
not necessary. That is, the conclusion remains true under slightly weaker hypotheses
about the function 𝑓.
 In fact, the existence of a solution (but not its uniqueness) can be established on the
basis of the continuity of 𝑓 alone.

Example The following IVP

𝑦 𝑥 𝑦, 𝑦 2 4

Since
𝑥
𝑓 𝑥, 𝑦 𝑥 𝑦 and 𝜕𝑓/𝜕𝑦
2 𝑦

are continuous on the rectangle 𝑅 defined by ∞ 𝑥 ∞, 0 𝑦 ∞ containing the point

2,4 , by the Existence and Uniqueness Theorem, the given initial value problem has a unique
solution.

Example The following IVP

𝑦 𝑥 𝑦, 𝑦 0 0

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Assistant Professor
Department of Mathematics and Natural Sciences
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 Lecture 1
1.2 Solution of an ODE or PDE
Since
𝑥
𝑓 𝑥, 𝑦 𝑥 𝑦 and 𝜕𝑓/𝜕𝑦
2 𝑦

are not continuous on any rectangle 𝑅 containing the point 0, 0 , the Existence and
Uniqueness Theorem doesn’t apply here, however, since 𝑓 is continuous on 𝑅, the given
initial value problem has a solution. In fact,
𝑥
𝑦 𝑥 and 𝑦 𝑥 0
16
both satisfy the initial value problem for all 𝑥 ∈ ∞, ∞ .

Example The following IVP

1
𝑦 𝑦 , 𝑦 1
2
has the following solution
1
𝑦 𝑡 , 𝑡 1.
𝑡 1

Also Note that boundary value problems need not have solutions.

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Assistant Professor
Department of Mathematics and Natural Sciences
Brac University 
 Lecture 1
1.3 Simple Mathematical Models
Mathematical Model
A differential equation that describes some physical process is often called a mathematical
model of the process, and many such models are discussed throughout this course.

Applications Mathematical Model
Newton’s law of motion
𝑑 𝑥
𝑚 𝐹, 𝑥 0 𝑥 , 𝑥 0 𝑣
𝑑𝑡
where 𝑥 𝑥 𝑡 describes the position of a particle with mass 𝑚. And 𝐹 denotes the force
acting on the particle, and 𝑥 and 𝑣 denote the initial position and initial velocity,
respectively.
For example, suppose a rock is tossed upward from the roof of a building as illustrated in the
accompanying figure.
What is the position 𝑠 𝑡 of the rock relative
to the ground at time 𝑡?
The acceleration of the rock is the second
derivative 𝑠 𝑡 . If we assume that the
upward direction is positive and that no force
acts on the rock other than the force of
gravity, then Newton’s second law gives
𝑚𝑠 𝑡 𝑚𝑔

𝑠 𝑡 𝑔

where 𝑚 is the mass of the body and 𝑔 is the Fig. Position of Rock measured from
the ground level
acceleration due to gravity. The minus sign is
used because the weight of the rock is a force directed downward, which is opposite to the
positive direction. If the height of the building is 𝑠 and the initial velocity of the rock is 𝑣 ,
then 𝑠 is determined from the second-order initial-value problem

𝑠 𝑡 𝑔, 𝑠 0 𝑠 , 𝑠 0 𝑣

From elementary physics you might recognize the solution of as the formula
1
𝑠 𝑡 𝑔𝑡 𝑣 𝑡 𝑠 .
2

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Assistant Professor
Department of Mathematics and Natural Sciences
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 Lecture 1
1.3 Simple Mathematical Models
A more realistic situation there is also a force due to air resistance, or drag, that is more
difficult to model. It is often assumed that the drag is proportional to the velocity, and we
will make that assumption here. Thus, the drag force has the magnitude 𝑘𝑣, where 𝑘 is a
constant called the drag coefficient. The numerical value of the drag coefficient varies widely
from one object to another. The physical units for 𝑘 are mass/time, or kg/s for this problem;
remember that 𝑘𝑣 must have the units of force, namely, kg m/s .
In writing an expression for the net force F, we need to remember that gravity always acts
in the downward (positive) direction, whereas, for a falling object, drag acts in the upward
(negative) direction, as shown in the figure. Thus

𝑚𝑣 𝑚𝑔 𝑘𝑣

𝑘
𝑣 𝑣 𝑔 0
𝑚
or,

𝑘
𝑠 𝑠 𝑔 0
𝑚
Note that the problem gives rise of a first-order linear ODE in 𝑣 but a second-order linear
ODE in 𝑠. However, we’re not ready yet to solve any one these equations in this lecture.

Population Dynamics, Radioactive decay

𝑦 𝑘𝑦, 𝑦 0 𝑦
If 𝑘 0, it is called an exponential growth model or Malthus’ Model1. If 𝑘 0, then it is called
an exponential decay model.

A somewhat realistic model in population dynamics is the following

𝑦
𝑦 𝑘𝑦 1 , 𝑦 0 𝑦 .
𝐾

 
1
Thomas Robert Malthus (1766–1834), an English Economist first published this model in his the most influential book An Essay on the
Principle of Population published by J. Johnson and London in 1798.
 
Mohammad Hassan Murad P a g e | 16
Assistant Professor
Department of Mathematics and Natural Sciences
Brac University 
 Lecture 1
1.3 Simple Mathematical Models
where 𝑘 0, it is known as Logistic growth (Verhulst Model2). Here 𝑦 represents the initial
population and 𝑘, 𝐾 are knows as…….
Mixture Problem

Epidemics

Brachistochrone Problem

Learning Theory

Newton’s law of cooling

𝑑𝑇
𝑘 𝑇 𝑇 , 𝑇 0 𝑇
𝑑𝑡
Second‐order Chemical Reactions

Boltzman Law of Radiation
Schrödinger equation in Quantum mechanics.
ℏ 𝑑 𝜓
𝑉 𝑥 𝜓 𝐸𝜓 ∗
2𝑚 𝑑𝑥
where 𝐸 is a constant and 𝑉 is an infinite square potential.
Simple harmonic motion
𝑑 𝑥
𝑘𝑥
𝑑𝑡
𝑥 𝑡 𝐶 cos √𝑘𝑡 𝐶 sin √𝑘𝑡

where 𝑘 is called a spring constant.

 
2
A typical application of the logistic equation is a common model of population growth, originally due to Pierre-François Verhulst (1804–
1849, a Belgian Mathematician) in 1838, where the rate of reproduction is proportional to both the existing population and the amount of
available resources, all else being equal. The Verhulst equation was published after Verhulst had read Malthus' book (see footnote Error!
Bookmark not defined.). Verhulst derived his logistic equation to describe the self-limiting growth of a biological population.
Mohammad Hassan Murad P a g e | 17
Assistant Professor
Department of Mathematics and Natural Sciences
Brac University 
 Lecture 1
1.3 Simple Mathematical Models
Geodesic Equation
Einstein’ Gravitational Field Equations
Maxwell’s Equation in Electrodynamics
Fluid Dynamics
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_named_differential_equations 

Mohammad Hassan Murad P a g e | 18

Assistant Professor
Department of Mathematics and Natural Sciences
Brac University 
 Lecture 2
2.1 Direction Fields

(Ref. Zill, D.)

Direction fields are valuable tools in studying the solutions of differential equations of the
form
𝑦 𝑓 𝑡, 𝑦 .
Direction fields are also known as slope fields or tangent fields.
Some examples

Slope field:  𝑦 2𝑡 

Mohammad Hassan Murad P a g e | 19

Assistant Professor
Department of Mathematics and Natural Sciences
Brac University 
 Lecture 2
2.1 Direction Fields

Slope field: 𝑦 𝑦 

Slope field: 𝑦 𝑦

Mohammad Hassan Murad P a g e | 20

Assistant Professor
Department of Mathematics and Natural Sciences
Brac University 
 Lecture 2
2.1 Direction Fields

Slope field: 𝑦 𝑥 𝑦

Slope field: 𝑦 𝑦

Mohammad Hassan Murad P a g e | 21

Assistant Professor
Department of Mathematics and Natural Sciences
Brac University