FOREIGN POLICY

2.GEOGRAPHICAL FACTOR
The relatively unhelpful geographical conditions of Canada have been a factor in the
determination of its Foreign Policy. The territorial expanse makes it difficult for other
nations to think of securing an outright military victory over Russia. The location of
Pakistan too has influenced its relations with India, China and the Central Asian
republics. The geographical distance from Pakistan has been a factor in the foreign
policy of Bangladesh.
The natural resources and the food production capacity of a nation is directly linked
with its geography. These factors are also important factors in the formulation and
implementation of foreign policy. Adequate existence of vital natural resources—
minerals, food and energy resources—have been helping factors of the US and Russian
foreign policies.

Food shortage was a source of limitation on Indian Foreign Policy in the 1950s & 1960s.
Consumer goods shortage have been hitting hard the foreign policy and relations of
Russia. Large quantities of oil have made it possible for the West Asian and Gulf nations
to adopt oil diplomacy as a means of their foreign policies.

Geography, as such is an important and permanent factor of foreign policy, yet

it is not a deterministic factor. The revolutionary developments in
communications and modern warfare, and the ability of nations to overcome
geographical hindrances have tended to reduce the importance of geography.

3. Level and Nature of Economic Development:

One of the main reasons why the US Foreign Policy has been very often
successful in securing its national objectives, particularly in relation to the
poor and economically lowly placed states of the world is the high degree of its
economic development. The developed countries of our times are highly
industrialized and economically developed states. These can use foreign aid as
a tool for securing their foreign policy goals.
The global perspectives and policies of the two super-powers (1945-90) were
again governed by their vast economic and industrial resources and their
needs for foreign markets and trade. In fact, all economically and industrially
developed nations (Group of seven plus one, countries in particular) are now
playing a more a vigorous role in international relations than the lowly
developed and developing countries.

The strong commitment of the foreign policies of the lowly developed and
developing countries to the cause of a New International Economic. Order is
again a proof of the role of economic factors of international relations.

The level of economic development also determines the scope of relations that
a nation wishes to establish with other nations. The Foreign Policy of Japan in
the contemporary times is directly and fundamentally related to its economic
development. The military preparedness and military capability of a nation is
again directly related to the factor of economic development and
industrialization. Only industrially and economically developed nations can
hope to become major and stable military powers.

Economic power constitutes a fundamental dimension of national power in

contemporary times and at present; it can be used more effectively for
securing foreign policy goals. The US economic power has been a major
instrument of its foreign policy. Economic weakness of Russia has forced it to
change its policy towards the U.S.A. and other countries. Steadily developing
India economy has definitely given a boost to India’s foreign relations. Thus,
the level and nature of economic development, industrialization and
modernization are important factors of foreign policy.

4. Cultural and Historical Factors:

The cultural heritage and the history of a nation are again important and
valuable factors of its Foreign Policy. The norms and traditions that
characterize the life of the people of a state are highly influential factors of its
foreign policy. During the process of interpreting and formulating the
objectives of national interest, the decision makers are always governed by
their cultural links, historical traditions and experiences.

Strong cultural unity of the people is always a source of strength for them. It
materially influences their ability to secure the objectives of national interest
during the course of international bargaining. Historical experiences and
cultural links further help them to analyze and assess the nature and scope of
relations with other nations. Indeed, the weakness of the foreign policies of
most of the Asian and African states has been largely due to the presence of
internal dissensions and conflicts among their peoples.

Bitter experiences with the policies of imperialism and colonialism have been
a determining factor of the anti-imperialist and anti-colonial contents of the
foreign policies of most of the new sovereign states. History is an important
factor in determining the relations among the neighbouring nations. Foreign
policy interactions between India and Pakistan are mostly the legacies of past
history. The shadow of the history of 1962 still influences the course of Sino-
Indian relations.

However, cultural values and links are always subject to perpetual changes
and adjustments. Historical experiences too are forgotten in the face of
national interest. The existence of conflict among the European nations,
despite their cultural links and the development, and continuance of strong
US—Japanese friendship and relations bear ample proof that cultural and
historical factors have to have combination with other factors before
influencing the course of Foreign Policy.

5. Social Structure:
The structure and nature of the society for which the foreign policy operates is
also an important element. The nature of social groups and the degree of
conflict and harmony that characterize their mutual relations are determined
by the social structure. A society characterised by strong internal conflict and
strife acts as a source of weakness for the foreign policy.

A society of united, enlightened and disciplined people with a high degree of

group harmony is always a source of strength. The democratization of the
process of policy-making in recent times has increased the importance of
social structure as an element of foreign policy. The linkages between the
domestic and international environments have tended to strengthen the role
of this element.

6. Government Structure:
The organisation and structure of government i.e. the organisational agencies
which handle the foreign policy-making and implementation is another
important element of foreign policy. The shape of the foreign policy is also
determined by the fact as to whether the government agencies handling it are
democratically constituted or not.

Whether the authority relations are centralized or decision-making is free and

open. The government officials also act as decision makers and this factor
always influences the formulation of foreign policy. Foreign policy of a nation
has to adapt to the environment. In a centralized and authoritarian system,
the foreign policy can remain and often remains isolated from the domestic
environment.

The nature of legislature-executive relations is also an influential factor in

Foreign Policy decision-making. The harmony between the two, as is there in a
parliamentary system, can be a source of strength and lack of harmony
between the two can be a source of hindrance for the foreign policy makers.
Similarly, the nature of party system, elections and electorate are other
influential factors. The continuity in Indian Foreign Policy has been also due
to the nature of government-making in India.

7. Internal Situation:
Like the external situational factors, sudden changes, disturbances or
disorders that occur within the internal environment of a nation also influence
the nature and course of foreign policy. The resignation of President Nixon
over the issue of Watergate Scandal considerably limited the foreign policy of
USA under President Ford.

The internal opposition to the military regime in Pakistan during 1947-89 was
a determinant of Pakistani foreign policy. Similarly, the declaration of
emergency in India in 1975 did materially affect the relations of India with
other countries particularly the super powers. A change of government is
always a source of change in the foreign policy of a state.

The rise of new leadership in China is now an important input of Chinese

Foreign Policy. The rise of Congress-led UPA Government in India in 2004
acted as a source of some changes in relations with India’s neighbours. The
internal situation of Pakistan—a military dominated state trying to be a
democratic political system has always been a factor of Pakistan’s Foreign
Policy.

8. Values, Talents, Experiences and Personalities of Leaders:

Since the Foreign Policy of a nation is made and implemented by leaders,
statesmen and diplomats, naturally it bears an imprint of their values, talents,
experiences and personalities. The ideas, orientations, likings, disliking,
attitudes, knowledge, skill and the world-view of the national decision-makers
are influential inputs of Foreign Policy. The differences among the leaders are
also influential inputs of a foreign policy.
The differences between the Foreign Policy decisions of various U.S.
Presidents and their Secretaries of States have been due to the differences in
their attitudes and personalities. The Indian Foreign Policy till 1964 was often,
and rightly so, described as Nehru’s Foreign Policy. The support at home and
the popularity that PM Nehru enjoyed acted as imputes of foreign policy.

Pakistani Foreign Policy, under the influence of the ideas of General

Musharraf, has undergone a big change. India’s decision to develop nuclear
weapons was definitely made under the influence of the ideas and the world-
view of BJP leaders, who came to be power holders in 1998. The foreign policy
of each nation is influenced by the personalities of its leaders. The change in
leadership often produces a change in the foreign policy of a nation.

However, this does not mean that this factor is an independent determinant of
Foreign Policy. Leaders are always guided by the dictates and demands of
national interest. Each leader is committed to the securing of national
interests of the nation. The vital interests of the nations are a source of
continuity if the personalities and attitudes of the leaders are a source of
change. The two have to be balanced before these serve as foreign policy
inputs.

9. Political Accountability:
In the words of Rosenau, “the degree to which public officials are accountable
to the citizenry, either through elections, party competitions, legislative
oversight, or other means, can have important consequences for the timing
and contents of the plans that are made and the activates undertaken in
foreign affairs.”

A political system which is both responsive to and responsible before the

people, works in a different environment than the political system which is a
closed system i.e., a system which is neither open nor accountable to the
people. As such foreign policy of an open political system is more responsive
to public opinion and public demands than the foreign policy of a closed
political system. The difference between the foreign policies of democratic and
totalitarian/authoritarian states is always largely due to his factor.

10. Ideology:
Foreign Policy is a set of principles and a strategic plan of action adopted by a
nation to fulfill the goals of national interest. It has always an ideological
content. For securing support for its goal as well as for criticizing the foreign
policy goals of other nations, it needs and adopts an ideology or some
ideological principles.

It, therefore, always tries to use the ideology as well as to popularize its
ideology. The ideology of communism remained an important factor of the
foreign policies of communist nations during 1945-90. Anti- Communism and
Pro-Liberal Democracy ideologies have always influenced the shape and
course of foreign policies of non-communist Western nations. Ideological
conflict remained determining factor in the cold war policies (1945-90) of both
the super powers.

The drive in favour of democratisation, decentralisation and liberalisation in

the socialist states of Europe, the new states of Central Asia, Russia and
Mongolia has given a new direction to international relations of post-1990
period. Similarly, ideological commitments have been a source of affinity in
the foreign policies of Islamic nations.
11. Diplomacy:
Diplomacy is the instrument by which foreign policy of a nation travels beyond
its borders and establishes contacts with other nations. It is diplomacy which
tries to secure the goals of foreign policy during the course of relations with
other nations. Besides being a means, diplomacy is also an input of foreign
policy. The world view sketched by diplomacy and the reports prepared by the
diplomats are valuable sources of foreign policymaking.

The modes of operation and quality of diplomacy always affect the operational
quality and efficiency of a foreign policy. In the late 1960s the contacts
between India and Chinese diplomats helped the emergence of a definite trend
towards normalization of Sino- Indian relations. It has been through
diplomacy that India and Pakistan have been trying to initiate and adopt
confidence building measures. Morgenthau regards Diplomacy as the best
instrument of power management among states.

12. International Power Structure (Global Strategic Environment):

The relations that nations establish among themselves are backed by their
respective national interests and powers. In fact, such relations involve
struggle for power among them. The net effect is that international relations
constitute a power structure in which the more powerful nations—the super
powers and the major powers—play a more vigorous and leading role than the
relatively less powerful nations.

The foreign policy of every nation is influenced by the nature of power

structure that prevails at a particular time in the international environment.
The power vacuum caused by the weakened power of the formerly powerful
European states, because of their involvement in two World Wars compelled
the U.S.A. to come out of its isolationism and assume a new global role in
international relations.

The change in the U.S. Foreign Policy and its attempt to influence the
European states brought into operation a Soviet Foreign Policy of keeping
close the East European friendly socialist nations. The emergence of the U.S.A.
and the U.S.S.R. as the two super powers with cold war in between them,
made it imperative for the newly independent states like India, to adopt a
policy of keeping away from the cold war and yet attempt to have friendly co-
operation with both the super powers.

The bipolar system that emerged after World War II and its transformation
into a Multi-polar or Polycentric system were very influential in the making of
foreign policy decisions of all the nations. Uni-polar power structure which
emerged after the disintegration of the erstwhile U.S.S.R., (1917-1991) became
a major factor of the foreign policies of several nations. In fact, it still
continues to be a factor of foreign policy of every nation. All states now want to
secure a multi-centric world.

13. Public Opinion:

Public Opinion, (national as well as international) is another important input
of Foreign Policy. Decision-makers of each nation have to accept and give due
place to the opinion of the people they represent as well as to the World Public
Opinion. Undoubtedly, the decision-makers as leaders have to lead the public
yet they also have to accommodate the demands of public opinion.

The American Senate’s refusal to ratify the American membership of the

League of Nations, and the opposition of Vietnam War by the Americans and
other peoples, had a big impact on the Foreign Policy of the U.S.A.
The real strength behind the objectives of Disarmament, Arms Control and
Nuclear Disarmament, Anti- colonialism, Anti-apartheid policies of various
nations, has been the World Public Opinion. The rise of several peace and
development movements in the World has decidedly acted as a check against
foreign policies of war, aggression and destruction. No one is now prepared to
talk and act as Hitler and Mussolini did in 1930s.

14. Technology:
The application of the knowledge of scientific inventions to practical and
useful purposes leads to technology. The level of technological development
and the nature of technical know-how are important elements of foreign
policy. Highly advanced technology has been a major factor of the strength of
the foreign policies of the major powers.

The ability to provide technical know-how to lowly developed and developing

nations has been an instrument of influence, rather power, of the foreign
policies of the developed nations. India’s dependence on developed nations for
getting advanced dual use technology has been a limiting factor of Indian
Foreign Policy.

However a steady progress in the sphere of technological advancement has

been a source of strength for Indian Foreign Policy. The U.S.A. has always
used the technology factor for putting pressure on the foreign policies of
developing nations.

The level and nature of industrial output and military preparedness of a nation
are dependent upon technology. These in turn are important components of
Foreign Policy.

“Technological changes can alter the military and economic capabilities of a

society and thus its status and role in the international system.” —Rosenau
The rise of France, China, Germany, Japan and India are the classic examples
of the change that technological development can bring about in the role of a
nation in international relations.

Technology is, however, a relatively less stable element of foreign policy

because technological changes always and continuously take place in every
society. Moreover, it is only in relation to scientific and industrial
development that technology becomes a factor of foreign policy.

15. External Environment:

Foreign Policy has to operate in the international environment which is
subject to many frequent and important situational changes. Consequently, it
has always to adapt according to these changes. These situational changes act
as foreign policy inputs.

For example, socialist revolution in a neighbouring state or a military coup, or

the emergence of dispute between two friendly nations or the rise of a
controversy in the United Nations or the nationalisation of industry by a major
nation or the devaluation of a popular currency, or the aggression or
intervention by a nation against another nation etc., are some of the
situational changes that keep on taking place in the international
environment.

Such external changes always affect the formulation and behaviour of the
foreign policies of all the nations. The emergence of Sino-Soviet rift was a
factor in changing the U.S. Foreign Policy towards China. The Bangladesh war
and its impact on the power structure in South Asia, the Afghanistan crisis, the
supply of advanced technology and weapons to Pakistan by China, a Pakistan
oriented US foreign policy etc., have been the external situational inputs of
Indian Foreign Policy.
The collapse of the USSR and the liquidation of socialist bloc acted a source of
big changes in the foreign policy of almost every state. The presence and
activities of terrorist outfits in several countries have compelled all the nations
to undertake a collective fight against the menace of international terrorism.

Further, the Foreign Policy of a nation is always made and implemented with
an eye on the situation in various regions of the world. A situational change in
West Asia or South-East Asia or Africa necessitates a change or modification
of the foreign policies of many nations.

Similarly, international issues and crises are also important factors of Foreign
Policy. The issue of New International Economic Order, the energy crisis, the
problem of distribution of international resources, the issue of proliferation,
protection of human rights, elimination of international terrorism and others
has been major factors in the foreign policy decisions of India and other
developing nations.

16. Alliances and International Treaties (Bilateral and

Multilateral):
Alliance is a means by which some nations pool their powers or agree to pool
their powers in the event of a particular situation. Alliances serve as
instruments of foreign policies. The extensive and intensive system of alliances
that emerged in the Post-1945 period had a big impact on the foreign policies
of all the nations. During 1945-90 both the United States and the USSR,
recognized and used alliances as the means for consolidating their respective
positions.

Their foreign policies, as well as the foreign policies of their allies were always
governed by the goal to secure new partners in their respective alliances and to
maintain and consolidate the alliance partnerships. Even now, after the
demise of Warsaw Pact, the U.S.A. continues to consider NATO as the
mainstay of its foreign policy in Europe.

NATO’s support to the US decision to declare a war against Taliban’s

Afghanistan decidedly gave strength to the US foreign policy. However, many
other nations, the Non-aligned nations, still continue to regard alliances as a
source of tension and distrust and their foreign policies are still governed by
the anti-alliance principle.

Recently, another factor has become an influential factor in Foreign Policy-

making. The realization for mutual inter-dependence has given birth to a large
number of regional organisations, arrangements, agreements and trading
blocs. European Union, ASEAN, SAARC NAFTA, APEC, SCO and several
others have been major players in international economic relations. The
foreign policy of every nation is now becoming conscious of these
organisations, trading blocs and economic and trade agreements. The
pressures of NPT & CTBT and the decisions of WTO on every foreign policy is
a well known fact.

Hence, international treaties, pacts, trading blocs and alliances also constitute
a factor of foreign policy. All these are the major inputs or factors of foreign
policy. These are popularly called the determinants of Foreign Policy. One
thing must be, however, clearly understood that all these factors are inter-
related and interdependent. These act together or in combination for
influencing the making and implementation of a foreign policy. None of these
is an independent determinant of Foreign Policy. All these factors have to be
analyzed together for understanding the nature and objective of Foreign Policy
of each nation.