Asana

[1]

An asana is a body posture, originally and still a general

term for a sitting meditation pose,[2] and later extended in
hatha yoga and modern yoga as exercise, to any type of
pose or position, adding reclining, standing, inverted,
twisting, and balancing poses. The Yoga Sutras of Patanjali
define "asana" as "[a position that] is steady and
comfortable".[3] Patanjali mentions the ability to sit for
extended periods as one of the eight limbs of his system.[3]
Asanas are also called yoga poses or yoga postures in
English.

The 10th or 11th century Goraksha Sataka and the 15th

century Hatha Yoga Pradipika identify 84 asanas; the 17th
century Hatha Ratnavali provides a different list of 84
asanas, describing some of them. In the 20th century,
Indian nationalism favoured physical culture in response to
colonialism. In that environment, pioneers such as
Yogendra, Kuvalayananda, and Krishnamacharya taught a
new system of asanas (incorporating systems of exercise as
well as traditional hatha yoga). Among Krishnamacharya's
pupils were influential Indian yoga teachers including
Pattabhi Jois, founder of Ashtanga vinyasa yoga, and
B.K.S. Iyengar, founder of Iyengar yoga. Together they
described hundreds more asanas, revived the popularity of
yoga, and brought it to the Western world. Many more
asanas have been devised since Iyengar's 1966 Light on
Yoga which described some 200 asanas. Hundreds more
were illustrated by Dharma Mittra.

Asanas were claimed to provide both spiritual and physical

benefits in medieval hatha yoga texts. More recently,
studies have provided evidence that they improve
flexibility, strength, and balance; to reduce stress and
conditions related to it; and specifically to alleviate some
diseases such as asthma[4][5] and diabetes.[6]
Asanas in varied contexts. Left to right, top to
bottom: Eka Pada Chakrasana; Ardha
Matsyendrasana; Padmasana; Navasana;
Pincha Mayurasana; Dhanurasana;
Natarajasana; Vrkshasana

Asanas have appeared in culture for many centuries.

Religious Indian art depicts figures of Buddha, Shiva, and Jain tirthankaras in lotus position and other
meditation seats, and in the "royal ease" position, lalitasana. With the popularity of yoga as exercise, asanas
feature commonly in novels and films, and sometimes also in advertising.

Contents
History
Ancient times
Medieval documents
Modern pioneers
Origins of the asanas
Purposes
Spiritual
Exercise
For women
Effects
Muscle usage
Claimed benefits
Contraindications
Common practices
Traditional and modern guidance
Surya Namaskar
Styles
Types of asana
In culture
In religious art
In literature
In advertising
Notes
References
Sources
External links

History

Ancient times

The central figure in the Pashupati seal from the Indus Valley Civilization of c. 2500 BC was identified by
Sir John Marshall in 1931 as a prototype of the god Shiva, recognised by being three-faced; in a yoga
position as the Mahayogin, the god of yoga; having four animals as Pashupati, the Lord of Beasts; with deer
beneath the throne, as in medieval depictions of Shiva; having a three-part headdress recalling Shiva's
trident; and possibly being ithyphallic, again like Shiva.[7] If correct, this would be the oldest record of an
asana. However, with no proof anywhere of an Indus Valley origin for Shiva, there is no evidence that a
yoga pose is depicted in the seal.[8]

Asanas originated in India. In his Yoga Sutras, Patanjali (c. 2nd to 4th century CE) describes asana practice
as the third of the eight limbs (Sanskrit अ ट ग, ashtanga, from asht, eight, and anga, limb) of classical, or
raja yoga.[9] The word asana, in use in English since the 19th century, is from Sanskrit: आसन āsana "sitting
down" (from आस ās "to sit down"), a sitting posture, a meditation seat.[10][11][12]
 The
eight
limbs
are, in
order,
the
yamas
(codes
of social A page from Patanjali's Yoga Sutras and Bhasya commentary (c.
2nd to 4th century CE), which placed the practice of asanas as one
of the eight limbs of classical yoga
Mould of Pashupati seal
from the Indus Valley
Civilization, c. 2500 BC, its conduct), niyamas (self-observances), asanas (postures), pranayama (breath
central figure in a pose
work), pratyahara (sense withdrawal or non-attachment), dharana
resembling
(concentration), dhyana (meditation), and samadhi (realization of the true
Mulabandhasana.[a]
Self or Atman, and unity with Brahman, ultimate reality).[13] Asanas, along
with the breathing exercises of pranayama, are the physical movements of
hatha yoga and of modern yoga.[14][15] Patanjali describes asanas as a
"steady and comfortable posture",[16] referring to the seated postures used for pranayama and for meditation,
where meditation is the path to samadhi, transpersonal self-realization.[17][18]

The Yoga Sutras do not mention a single asana by name, merely specifying the characteristics of a good
asana:[19]

ि थरसुख मासनम् ॥४६॥

sthira sukham āsanam
Asana means a steady and comfortable posture. Yoga Sutras 2:46

The Sutras are embedded in the Bhasya commentary, which scholars suggest may also be by Patanjali;[20] it
names 12 seated meditation asanas including Padmasana, Virasana, Bhadrasana, and Svastikasana.[21]

Medieval documents

The two seated asanas mentioned in the Goraksha Sataka, Padmasana and Siddhasana, are used for meditation
and for pranayama.

The 10th–11th century Vimanarcanakalpa is the first manuscript to describe a non-seated asana, in the form
of Mayurasana (peacock) – a balancing pose. Such poses appear, according to the scholar James Mallinson,
to have been created outside Shaivism, the home of the Nath yoga tradition, and to have been associated
with asceticism; they were later adopted by the Nath yogins.[22][23]
The Goraksha Sataka (10–11th century), or Goraksha Paddhathi, an early hatha yogic text, describes the
origin of the 84 classic asanas said to have been revealed by the Hindu deity Lord Shiva.[24] Observing that
there are as many postures as there are beings and asserting that there are 84 lakh[b] or 8,400,000[25] species
in all, the text states that Lord Shiva fashioned an asana for each lakh, thus giving 84 in all, although it
mentions and describes only two in detail: Siddhasana and Padmasana.[24] The number 84 is symbolic rather
than literal, indicating completeness and sacredness.[c][26]

The Hatha Yoga Pradipika (15th century) specifies that of these 84, the first
four are important, namely the seated poses Siddhasana, Padmasana,
Bhadrasana and Simhasana.[28]

The pillars of the 16th century Achyutaraya temple at Hampi are decorated
with numerous relief statues of yogins in asanas including Siddhasana
balanced on a stick, Chakrasana, Yogapattasana, and a hand-standing
inverted pose with a stick, as well as several unidentified poses.[29]

By the 17th century, asanas became an important component of Hatha yoga

practice, and more non-seated poses appear.[30] The Hatha Ratnavali by
Relief statue in Achyutaraya
Srinivasa (17th century)[31][32] is one of the few texts to attempt an actual temple, Hampi, Karnataka
listing of 84 asanas,[e] although 4 out of its list cannot be translated from the showing an unidentified[d]
Sanskrit, and at least 11[f] are merely mentioned without any description, hand-balancing asana,[27]
their appearance known from other texts.[32] 16th century

The Gheranda Samhita (late 17th century) again asserts that Shiva taught 84
lakh of asanas, out of which 84 are preeminent, and "32 are useful in the world of mortals."[g][33] The yoga
teacher and scholar Mark Singleton notes from study of the primary texts that "asana was rarely, if ever, the
primary feature of the significant yoga traditions in India."[34] The scholar Norman Sjoman comments that a
continuous tradition running all the way back to the medieval yoga texts cannot be traced, either in the
practice of asanas or in a history of scholarship.[35]

Modern pioneers

From the 1850s onwards, a culture of physical exercise developed in India to counter the colonial stereotype
of supposed "degeneracy" of Indians compared to the British,[36][37] a belief reinforced by then-current
ideas of Lamarckism and eugenics.[38][39] This culture was taken up from the 1880s to the early 20th
century by Indian nationalists such as Tiruka, who taught exercises and unarmed combat techniques under
the guise of yoga.[40][41] Meanwhile, proponents of Indian physical culture like K. V. Iyer consciously
combined "hata yoga" [sic] with bodybuilding in his Bangalore gymnasium.[42][43]

Singleton notes that poses much like Durvasasana, Ganda Bherundasana and Hanumanasana were found in
Thomas Dwight's 1889 article "Anatomy of a Contortionist",[44][34][45] while poses close to Warrior Pose,
Downward Dog, Utthita Padangusthasana, Supta Virasana and others were described in Niels Bukh's 1924
Danish text Grundgymnastik eller primitiv gymnastik[46] (known in English as Primary Gymnastics).[34]
These in turn were derived from a 19th century Scandinavian tradition of gymnastics dating back to Pehr
Ling, and "found their way to India" by the early 20th century.[34][47]

Yoga asanas were brought to America in 1919 by Yogendra, sometimes called "the Father of the Modern
Yoga Renaissance", his system influenced by the physical culture of Max Müller.[48]
 In 1924, Swami Kuvalayananda founded the Kaivalyadhama Health and Yoga
Research Center in Maharashtra.[49] He combined asanas with Indian systems of
exercise and modern European gymnastics, having according to the scholar Joseph
Alter a "profound" effect on the evolution of yoga.[50]

In 1925, Paramahansa Yogananda, having moved from India to America, set up

the Self-Realization Fellowship in Los Angeles, and taught yoga, including asanas,
breathing, chanting and meditation, to tens of thousands of Americans, as
described in his 1946 Autobiography of a Yogi.[51][52]

Tirumalai Krishnamacharya (1888–1989) studied under Kuvalayananda in the

1930s, creating "a marriage of hatha yoga, wrestling exercises, and modern
Western gymnastic movement, and unlike anything seen before in the yoga
Man standing in a tradition."[34] Sjoman argues that Krishnamacharya drew on the Vyayama
pose close to Dipika[53] gymnastic exercise manual to create the Mysore Palace system of
Durvasasana, in yoga.[54] Singleton argues that Krishnamacharya was familiar with the gymnastics
Thomas Dwight's culture of his time, which was influenced by Scandinavian gymnastics; his
"Anatomy of a experimentation with asanas and innovative use of gymnastic jumping between
Contortionist", poses may well explain, Singleton suggests, the resemblances between modern
Scribner's, 1889 standing asanas and Scandinavian gymnastics.[34] Krishnamacharya, known as the
father of modern yoga, had among his pupils people who became influential yoga
teachers themselves: the Russian Eugenie V. Peterson, known as Indra Devi;
Pattabhi Jois, who founded Ashtanga Vinyasa Yoga in 1948; B.K.S. Iyengar, his brother-in-law, who
founded Iyengar Yoga; T.K.V. Desikachar, his son, who continued his Viniyoga tradition; Srivatsa
Ramaswami; and A. G. Mohan, co-founder of Svastha Yoga & Ayurveda.[55][56] Together they revived the
popularity of yoga and brought it to the Western world.[57][58]

In 1959, Vishnudevananda Saraswati published a compilation of sixty-six basic postures and 136 variations
of those postures.[59]

In 1966, Iyengar published Light on Yoga: Yoga Dipika, illustrated with some 600 photographs of Iyengar
demonstrating around 200 asanas; it systematised the physical practice of asanas. It became a bestseller,
selling three million copies, and was translated into some 17 languages.[60]

In 1984, Dharma Mittra compiled a list of about 1,300 asanas and their variations, derived from ancient and
modern sources, illustrating them with photographs of himself in each posture; the Dharma Yoga website
suggests that he created some 300 of these.[61][62][63]

Origins of the asanas

The asanas have been created at different times, a few being ancient, some being medieval, and a growing
number recent.[64][65][66] Some that appear traditional, such as Virabhadrasana I (Warrior Pose I), are
relatively recent: that pose was probably devised by Krishnamacharya around 1940, and it was popularised
by his pupil, Iyengar.[67] A pose that is certainly younger than that is Parivritta Parsvakonasana (Revolved
Side Angle Pose): it was not in the first edition of Pattabhi Jois's Yoga Mala in 1962.[68] Viparita
Virabhadrasana (Reversed Warrior Pose) is still more recent, and may have been created since 2000.[68]
Several poses that are now commonly practised, such as Dog Pose and standing asanas including
Trikonasana (triangle pose), first appeared in the 20th century,[69] as did the sequence of asanas, Surya
Namaskar (Salute to the Sun). A different sun salutation, the Aditya Hridayam, is certainly ancient, as it is
described in the "Yuddha Kaanda" Canto 107 of the Ramayana.[70] Surya Namaskar in its modern form was
created by the Raja of Aundh, Bhawanrao Shriniwasrao Pant
Pratinidhi;[71][72][73] K. Pattabhi Jois defined the variant forms Surya
Namaskar A and B for Ashtanga Yoga, possibly derived from
Krishnamacharya.[74] Surya Namaskar can be seen as "a modern, physical
culture-oriented rendition" of the simple ancient practice of prostrating
oneself to the sun.[75]

In 1966, Iyengar's classic Light on Yoga was able to describe some 200
asanas,[76] consisting of about 50 main poses with their variations.[77]
Sjoman observes that whereas many traditional asanas are named for objects
(like Vrikshasana, tree pose), legendary figures (like Matsyendrasana, the
sage Matsyendra's pose), or animals (like Kurmasana, tortoise pose), "an
overwhelming eighty-three"[77] of Iyengar's asanas have names that simply Headstand (Kapala Asana)
describe the body's position (like Utthita Parsvakonasana, "Extended Side from 1830 manuscript of
Joga Pradipika
Angle Pose"); these are, he suggests, the ones "that have been developed
later".[77] A name following this pattern is Shatkonasana, "Six Triangles
Pose", described in 2015.[78] Mittra illustrated 908 poses and variations in
his 1984 Master Yoga Chart, and many more have been created since then.[76][78] The number of asanas has
thus increased with time, as summarised in the table.

Sjoman notes that the names of asanas have been used "promiscuous[ly]", in a tradition of "amalgamation
and borrowing" over the centuries, making their history difficult to trace.[79] The presence of matching
names is not proof of continuity, since the same name may mean a different pose, and a pose may have been
known by multiple names at different times.[79] The estimates here are therefore based on actual
descriptions of the asanas.
 Estimates of the number of asanas
No. of
Sanskrit Transliteration English Author Date Evidence supplied
asanas

10th- Describes Siddhasana,

गोर Goraksha Goraksha's
2 Gorakshanatha 11th Padmasana;[80][81] 84
शतक Shataka Century
century claimed[c]

िशव Shiva's 15th 4 seated asanas described, 84

4 Shiva Samhita -
संिहता Compendium century claimed; 11 mudras[82]

15 asanas described,[82] 4
हठ योग Hatha Yoga Light on Svami 15th (Siddhasana, Padmasana,
15
द िपका Pradipika Hatha Yoga Svatmarama century Bhadrasana and Simhasana)
named as important[28]
Descriptions of 32 seated,
घेरंड Gheranda Gheranda's 17th backbend, twist, balancing and
32 Gheranda
संिहता Samhita Collection century inverted asanas, 25
mudras[33][82]

हठ A Treatise 52 asanas described, out of 84

Hatha 17th
52 On Hatha Srinivasa
र नावली Ratnavali century named[h][31][32]
Yoga

जोग 84 asanas and 24 mudras in

Light on Ramanandi
84 Joga Pradipika 1830 rare illustrated edition of 18th
द िपका Yoga Jayatarama
century text[83]

योग Describes and illustrates 37

Stairway to Yogi
37 Yoga Sopana 1905 asanas, 6 mudras, 5
सोपान Yoga Ghamande
bandhas[83]

योग Light on B. K. S. Descriptions and photographs

c. 200 Yoga Dipika 1966
द िपका Yoga Iyengar of each asana[84]

Master Yoga
908 — — Dharma Mittra 1984 Photographs of each asana[85]
Chart

The graph shows the rapid growth in number of asanas in the 20th century.
 GS=Goraksha Sataka; ShS=Shiva Samhita; HYP=Hatha Yoga Pradipika;
HR=Hatha Ratnavali; GhS=Gheranda Samhita; JP=Joga Pradipika;
YS=Yoga Sopana; LoY=Light on Yoga; DM=Dharma Mittra

Purposes

Spiritual

The asanas of hatha yoga originally had a spiritual purpose within

The lion pose, Simhasana,
is named for an avatar of
Vishnu in the form of the
man-lion Narasimha. India,
12th Century
obstacle of the body in the way of liberation.[90]
Hinduism, the attainment of samadhi, a state of meditative
consciousness.[86] The scholar of religion Andrea Jain notes that medieval
Hatha Yoga was shared among yoga traditions, from Shaivite Naths to
Vaishnavas, Jains and Sufis; in her view, its aims too varied, including
spiritual goals involving the "tantric manipulation of the subtle body", and at
a more physical level, destroying poisons.[87] Singleton describes Hatha
Yoga's purpose as "the transmutation of the human body into a vessel
immune from mortal decay", citing the Gheranda Samhita's metaphor of an
earthenware pot that requires the fire of yoga to make it serviceable.[88]
Mallinson and Singleton note that the purposes of asana practice were, until
around the fourteenth century, firstly to form a stable platform for
pranayama, mantra repetition (japa), and meditation, practices that in turn
had spiritual goals; and secondly to stop the accumulation of karma and
instead acquire ascetic power, tapas, something that conferred "supernatural
abilities". Hatha Yoga added the ability to cure diseases to this list.[89] Not
all Hindu scriptures agreed that asanas were beneficial. The 10th century
Garuda Purana stated that "the techniques of posture do not promote yoga.
Though called essentials, they all retard one's progress," while early yogis
often practised extreme austerities (tapas) to overcome what they saw as the

The yoga scholar and practitioner Theos Bernard, in his 1944 Hatha Yoga: The Report of a Personal
Experience, stated that he was "prescribed … a group of asanas[i] calculated to bring a rich supply of blood
to the brain and to various parts of the spinal cord .. [and] a series of reconditioning asanas to stretch, bend,
and twist the spinal cord" followed when he was strong enough by the meditation asanas.[92] Bernard named
the purpose of Hatha Yoga as "to gain control of the breath" to enable pranayama to work, something that in
his view required thorough use of the six purifications.[93]

Asanas work in different ways from conventional physical exercises, according to Satyananda Saraswati
"placing the physical body in positions that cultivate awareness, relaxation and concentration".[94] Leslie
Kaminoff writes in Yoga Anatomy that from one point of view, "all of asana practice can be viewed as a
methodical way of freeing up the spine, limbs, and breathing so that the yogi can spend extended periods of
time in a seated position."[95]

Iyengar observed that the practice of asanas "brings steadiness, health, and lightness of limb. A steady and
pleasant posture produces mental equilibrium and prevents fickleness of mind." He adds that they bring
agility, balance, endurance, and "great vitality", developing the body to a "fine physique which is strong and
elastic without being muscle-bound". But, Iyengar states, their real importance is the way they train the
mind, "conquer[ing]" the body and making it "a fit vehicle for the spirit".[96]

Iyengar saw it as significant that asanas are named after plants, insects, Names of asanas illustrating
fish and amphibians, reptiles, birds, and quadrupeds; as well as "legendary spiritual evolution[97]
heroes", sages, and avatars of Hindu gods, in his view "illustrating Asana Level
spiritual evolution".[97] For instance, the lion pose, Simhasana, recalls the
myth of Narasimha, half man, half lion, and an avatar of Vishnu, as told in Vishnu's Couch,
Gods
Salute to the Sun
the Bhagavata Purana.[98] The message is, Iyengar explains, that while
performing asanas, the yogi takes the form of different creatures, from the Virabhadra, Heroes,
Matsyendra sages
lowest to the highest, not despising any "for he knows that throughout the
whole gamut of creation ... there breathes the same Universal Spirit." Dog Mammals
Through mastery of the asanas, Iyengar states, dualities like gain and loss, Pigeon Birds
or fame and shame disappear.[97]
Cobra Reptiles
Sjoman argues that the concept of stretching in yoga can be looked at Fish, Aquatic
through one of Patanjali's Yoga Sutras, 2.47, which says that [asanas are Frog animals
achieved] by loosening (śaithilya) the effort (prayatna) and meditating on Locust Invertebrates
the endless (ananta). Sjoman points out that this physical loosening is to
do with the mind's letting go of restrictions, allowing the natural state of Tree Plants
"unhindered perfect balance" to emerge; he notes that one can only relax Mountain Inanimate
through effort, "as only a muscle that is worked is able to relax (that is,
there is a distinction between dormancy and relaxation)."[99] Thus asanas had a spiritual purpose, serving to
explore the conscious and unconscious mind.[100]

Exercise

Since the mid-20th century, asanas have been used, especially in the Western world (https://smart-yoga.me/
western-yoga), as physical exercise.[101] In this context, their "overtly Hindu" purpose is masked but its
"ecstatic … transcendent … possibly subversive" elements remain.[102] That context has led to a division of
opinion among Christians, some asserting that it is acceptable as long as they are aware of yoga's origins,
others stating that hatha yoga's purpose is inherently Hindu, making Christian yoga an evident
contradiction[103][104] or indeed "diametrically opposed to Christianity".[105] A similar debate has taken
place in a Muslim context; under Crown Prince Mohammed bin Salman, yoga, formerly banned as a Hindu
practice, has been legalised,[106] while mainly-Hindu Bali has held a yoga competition in defiance of a
ruling by Indonesia's Muslim Ulema Council.[107]
In a secular context, the journalists Nell Frizzell and Reni Eddo-Lodge have debated (in The Guardian)
whether Western yoga classes represent "cultural appropriation". In Frizzell's view, yoga has become a new
entity, a long way from the Yoga Sutras of Patanjali, and while some practitioners are culturally insensitive,
others treat it with more respect. Eddo-Lodge agrees that Western yoga is far from Patanjali, but argues that
the changes cannot be undone, whether people use it "as a holier-than-thou tool, as a tactic to balance out
excessive drug use, or practised similarly to its origins with the spirituality that comes with it".[108]

From a Hindu perspective, the practice of asanas in the Western world as physical exercise is sometimes
seen as yoga that has lost its way. In 2012, the Hindu American Foundation ran a "Take Back Yoga"
campaign to emphasise yoga's roots in Hinduism.[109]

For women

In the West, yoga is practiced mainly by women. For example, in

Britain in the 1970s, women formed between 70 and 90 percent of
most yoga classes, as well as most of the yoga teachers. It has been
suggested that yoga was seen as a support for women in the face of
male-dominated medicine, offering an alternative approach for
chronic medical conditions, as well as to beauty and ageing, and it
offered a way of meeting other women.[111] Singleton notes that
women in yoga are in the tradition of Mollie Bagot Stack's 1930
League of Health and Beauty, influenced by Stack's visit to India in "Seal" posture from Mary Bagot
1912 when she learnt some asanas, and in turn of Genevieve Stack's Building the Body Beautiful,
Stebbins's Harmonic Gymnastics.[110] 1931. It closely resembles
Salabhasana, locust pose; she had
Effects learnt some asanas in India in
1912.[110]

Asanas have, or are claimed to have, multiple effects on the body,

both beneficial and harmful. These include the conscious usage of
groups of muscles,[112] effects on health,[113] and possible injury especially in the presence of known
contraindications.[114]

Muscle usage

A 2014 study indicated that different asanas activated particular groups of muscles, varying with the skill of
the practitioners, from beginner to instructor. The eleven asanas in the Surya Namaskar sequences A and B
(of Ashtanga Vinyasa Yoga) were performed by beginners, advanced practitioners and instructors. The
activation of 14 groups of muscles was measured with electrodes on the skin over the muscles. Among the
findings, beginners used pectoral muscles more than instructors, whereas instructors used deltoid muscles
more than other practitioners, as well as the vastus medialis (which stabilises the knee). The yoga instructor
Grace Bullock writes that such patterns of activation suggest that asana practice increases awareness of the
body and the patterns in which muscles are engaged, making exercise more beneficial and safer.[112][115]

Claimed benefits

Medieval hatha yoga texts make a variety of claims for the benefits brought by the asanas, both spiritual and
physical. The Hatha Yoga Pradipika (HYP) states that asanas in general, described as the first auxiliary of
hatha yoga, give "steadiness, good health, and lightness of limb." (HYP 1.17)[116] Specific asanas, it claims,
bring additional benefits; for example, Matsyendrasana awakens Kundalini and makes the semen steady;
(HYP 1.27) Paschimottanasana "stokes up the digestive fire, slims the belly and gives good health"; (HYP
1.29) Shavasana "takes away fatigue and relaxes the mind"; (HYP 1.32) Siddhasana "bursts open the door to
liberation"; (HYP 1.35) while Padmasana "destroys all diseases" (HYP 1.47) and if done together with
retention of the breath in pranayama confers liberation. (HYP 1.44–49)[117] These claims lie within a
tradition across all forms of yoga that practitioners can gain supernatural powers, but with ambivalence
about their usefulness, since they may obstruct progress towards liberation.[118] Hemachandra's Yogashastra
(1.8–9) lists the magical powers, which include healing, the destruction of poisons, the ability to become as
small as an atom or to go wherever one wishes, invisibility, and shape-shifting.[119]

The asanas have been popularised in the Western world by claims

about their health benefits, attained not by medieval hatha yoga
magic but by the physical and psychological effects of exercise and
stretching on the body.[120] The history of such claims was reviewed
by William J. Broad in his 2012 book The Science of Yoga. Broad
argues that while the health claims for yoga began as Hindu
nationalist posturing, it turns out that there is ironically[113] "a
wealth of real benefits".[113]
The Indian Minister for Women and
Physically, the practice of asanas has been claimed to improve
Child Development, Maneka Gandhi,
flexibility, strength, and balance; to alleviate stress and anxiety, and
joining a programme of yoga for
to reduce the symptoms of lower back pain.[4][5] Claims have been pregnant women in 2018
made about beneficial effects on specific conditions such as
asthma,[4][5] chronic obstructive pulmonary disease,[4][5] and
diabetes.[6] There is evidence that practice of asanas improves birth outcomes[5] and physical health and
quality of life measures in the elderly,[5] and reduces sleep disturbances[4] and hypertension.[121][122]
Iyengar yoga is effective at least in the short term for both neck pain and low back pain.[123]

Contraindications

The National Institutes of Health notes that yoga is generally safe "when performed properly", though
people with some health conditions, older people, and pregnant woman may need to seek advice. For
example, people with glaucoma are advised not to practise inverted postures.[124] The Yoga Journal
provides separate lists of asanas that it states are "inadvisable" and should be avoided or modified for each
of the following medical conditions: asthma; back injury; carpal tunnel syndrome; diarrhoea; headache;
heart problems; high blood pressure; insomnia; knee injury; low blood pressure; menstruation; neck injury;
pregnancy; and shoulder injury.[114]

The practice of asanas has sometimes been advised against during pregnancy, but that advice has been
contested by a 2015 study which found no ill-effects from any of 26 asanas investigated. The study
examined the effects of the set of asanas on 25 healthy women who were between 35 and 37 weeks
pregnant. The authors noted that apart from their experimental findings, they had been unable to find any
scientific evidence that supported the previously published concerns, and that on the contrary there was
evidence including from systematic review that yoga was suitable for pregnant women, with a variety of
possible benefits.[125][126]

Common practices
In the Yoga Sutras, the only rule Patanjali suggests for practicing asana is that it be "steady and
comfortable".[3] The body is held poised with the practitioner experiencing no discomfort. When control of
the body is mastered, practitioners are believed to free themselves from dualities such as heat and cold,
hunger and satiety, or joy and grief. This is the first step toward relieving
suffering by letting go of attachment.[127]

Traditional and modern guidance

Different schools of yoga, such as Iyengar and The Yoga Institute, agree that
asanas are best practised with a rested body on an empty stomach, after
having a bath.[128][129] From the point of view of sports medicine, asanas
function as active stretches, helping to protect muscles from injury; these
need to be performed equally on both sides, the stronger side first if used for
physical rehabilitation.[130]

The Yoga Sutras 2:46 state

Surya Namaskar that asanas, here
Natarajasana, should be
Surya Namaskar, the Salute to the Sun, commonly practiced in most forms "steady and comfortable".
of modern yoga, links up to twelve asanas in a dynamically expressed yoga
series. A full round consists of two sets of the series, the second set
moving the opposing leg first. The asanas include Adho Mukha
Svanasana (downward dog), the others differing from tradition to
tradition with for instance a choice of Urdhva Mukha Svanasana
(upward dog) or Bhujangasana (cobra) for one pose in the
sequence.[132] Schools, too, differ in their approaches to the
sequence; for example, in Iyengar Yoga, variations such as inserting
Maricyasana I and Pascimottanasana are suggested.[133] Adho Mukha Svanasana, downward-
facing dog pose, is performed at

Styles least once and often twice in Surya

Namaskar, the Salute to the Sun.[131]

In the Western world, asanas are taught in differing styles by the

various schools of yoga. Some poses like Trikonasana are common to many of them, but not always
performed in the same way. Some independently documented approaches are described below.[134][135]

Iyengar Yoga "emphasises precision and alignment",[136] and

prioritises correct movement over quantity, i.e. moving a little in the
right direction is preferred to moving more but in a wrong direction.
Postures are held for a relatively long period compared to other
schools of yoga; this allows the muscles to relax and lengthen, and
encourages awareness in the pose. Props including belts, blocks and
blankets are freely used to assist students in correct working in the
asanas.[136][135] Beginners are introduced early on to standing poses,
executed with careful attention to detail. For example, in
Trikonasana, the feet are often jumped apart to a wide stance, the
forward foot is turned out, and the centre of the forward heel is
exactly aligned with the centre of the arch of the other foot.[134] Utthitha Trikonasana, an important
pose in Iyengar Yoga, using a prop, a
Sivananda Yoga practices the asanas, hatha yoga, as part of raja yoga brick. The pose requires the
yoga, with the goal of enabling practitioners ""to sit in meditation practitioner to work different parts of
for a long time".[134] There is little emphasis on the detail of the body in different directions.
individual poses; teachers rely on the basic instructions given in the
books by Sivananda and Swami Vishnu-devananda.[134] In
Trikonasana, the top arm may be stretched forward parallel to the floor rather than straight up.[134]
Sivananda Yoga identifies a group of 12 asanas as basic.[137] These are not necessarily the easiest poses, nor
those that every class would include.[138] Trikonasana is the last of the 12, whereas in other schools it is one
of the first and used to loosen the hips in preparation for other poses.[134]

In Ashtanga Vinyasa Yoga, poses are executed differently from Iyengar

Yoga. "Vinyasa" means flowing, and the poses are executed relatively
rapidly, flowing continuously from one asana to the next using defined
transitional movements.[134][135] The asanas are grouped into six series,
one Primary, one Intermediate, and four Advanced. Practice begins and
ends with the chanting of mantras, followed by multiple cycles of the Sun
Salutation, which "forms the foundation of Ashtanga Yoga practice", and
then one of the series.[139][140] Ashtanga Vinyasa practice emphasises
aspects of yoga other than asanas, including drishti (focus points), bandhas
Eka Pada Bakasana (One- (energy locks), and pranayama.[134]
legged Crane), an asana in
Ashtanga Vinyasa Yoga's Kripalu Yoga uses teachers from other asana traditions, focussing on
Advanced series mindfulness rather than using effort in the poses. Teachers may say "allow
your arms to float up" rather than "bring up your arms".[134] The goal is to
use the asanas "as a path of transformation."[134] The approach is in three
stages: firstly instruction in body alignment and awareness of the breath during the pose; secondly, holding
the pose long enough to observe "unconscious patterns of tension in the body-mind";[134] and thirdly,
through "deep concentration and total surrender", allowing oneself "to be moved by prana".[134] In
Trikonasana, the teacher may direct pupils' attention to pressing down with the outer edge of the back foot,
lifting the arch of the foot, and then experimenting with "micro-movements", exploring where energy moves
and how it feels.[134]

In Bikram Yoga, as developed by Bikram Choudhury, there is a

fixed sequence of 26 poses,[135] in which Trikonasana is ninth, its
task to focus on opening the hips. The Bikram version of
Trikonasana is a different pose (Parsvakonasana) from that in
Iyengar Yoga.[134] The position of the feet is seen as critically
important, along with proper breathing and the distribution of
weight: about 30% on the back foot, 70% on the front foot.[134]
Bikram Choudhury leading a Bikram
Apart from the brands, many independent teachers, for example in yoga class in Utkatasana
Britain, offer an unbranded "hatha yoga".[110]

Types of asana
Asanas can be classified in different ways, which may overlap: for example, by the position of the head and
feet (standing, sitting, reclining, inverted), by whether balancing is required, or by the effect on the spine
(forward bend, backbend, twist), giving a set of asana types agreed by most authors.[141][142] Mittra uses his
own categories such as "Floor & Supine Poses".[61] Yogapedia and Yoga Journal add "Hip-opening"; Darren
Rhodes, Yogapedia and Yoga Journal also add "Core strength".[143][144] The table shows an example of each
type of asana, with the title and approximate date of the earliest document describing (not only naming) that
asana.

GS = Goraksha Sataka, 10th century

HY = Hemacandra's Yogasastra, 11th century
VS = Vasishtha Samhita, 13th century
 HYP = Hatha Yoga Pradipika, 15th century
JP = Joga Pradipika, 18th century
ST = Sritattvanidhi, 19th century
TK = Tirumalai Krishnamacharya, 20th century

Types of asana, with dates and examples

Type Described Date Example English Image

Standing TK 20th C. Parsvakonasana Side angle

Sitting
GS 1:10–12 10th–11th C. Siddhasana Accomplished
Meditation

Reclining HYP 1:34 15th C. Shavasana Corpse

Yoga
Inverted HY 11th C. Sirsasana
headstand

Balancing VS 13th C. Kukkutasana Cockerel

Forward bend HYP 1:30 15th C. Paschimottanasana Seated Forward Bend

Backbend HYP 1:27 15th C. Dhanurasana Bow

Ardha Half Lord of

Twisting HYP 1.28–29 15th C.
Matsyendrasana the Fishes

Hip-opening HYP 1:20 15th C. Gomukhasana Cow Face

Core strength ST 19th C. Navasana Boat

In culture
In religious art

Religious Indian art makes use of a variety of seated asanas for figures of
Buddha, Shiva, and other gods and religious figures. Most are meditation
seats, especially the lotus position, Padmasana, but Lalitasana and its "royal
ease" variant are not.[145][146] Jain tirthankaras are often shown seated in the
meditation asanas Siddhasana and Padmasana.[147][148]

In literature

The actress Mariel Hemingway's 2002 autobiography Finding My Balance:

A Memoir with Yoga describes how she used yoga to recover balance in her
life after a dysfunctional upbringing: among other things, her grandfather,
the novelist Ernest Hemingway, killed himself shortly before she was born,
and her sister Margaux died of a drug overdose. Each chapter is titled after Jambhala, the Buddhist god
an asana, the first being "Mountain Pose, or Tadasana", the posture of of riches, seated in
standing in balance. Other chapters are titled after poses including Lalitasana. Nepal, 1643
Trikonasana, Virabhadrasana, Janusirsasana, Ustrasana, Sarvangasana, and
finally Garudasana, in each case with some life lesson related to the pose.
For example, Garudasana, "a balancing posture with the arms and legs intricately intertwined … requires
some flexibility, a lot of trust, and most of all, balance"; the chapter recounts how she, her husband and her
daughters all came close to drowning in canoes off Kauai, Hawaii.[149][150]

Among yoga novels is the author and yoga teacher Edward Vilga's 2014 Downward Dog, named for Adho
Mukha Svanasana, which paints a humorously unflattering picture of a man of the world who decides to
become a private yoga teacher in New York society.[151][152] Ian Fleming's 1964 novel You Only Live Twice
has the action hero James Bond visiting Japan, where he "assiduously practised sitting in the lotus
position."[153] The critic Lisa M. Dresner notes that Bond is mirroring Fleming's own struggles with the
pose.[154]

In advertising

The yoga teacher and author Erin Stewart writes that yoga poses are used in advertising to denote "serenity,
strength, attractiveness, and feminine energy".[155] She notes that the emphasis is strongly physical, rarely
showing yogic practices like pranayama or meditation, and that the poses chosen, such as Natarajasana
(dancer), Bakasana (crow), and Rajakapotasana (king pigeon), are often difficult, indicating yogic qualities
like "perfectionism, earnestness, and a profound level of flexibility and grace",[155] in particular of a "young,
able-bodied, white, and female" practitioner.[155]

Notes
a. Paśupati, "Lord of beasts", is a name of the later Hindu god Shiva.
b. A lakh is 100,000
c. 84's symbolism may derive from its astrological and numerological properties: it is the product
of 7, the number of planets in astrology, and 12, the number of signs of the zodiac, while in
numerology, 7 is the sum of 3 and 4, and 12 is the product, i.e. 84 is (3+4)×(3×4).[26]
d. The posture has the left arm supporting the body and the left leg behind the neck, as in
Chakorasana, and Omkarasana, but with the right arm bent, not supporting the body.
e. The Hatha Ratnavali's list of 84 asanas is
"Siddhasana, Bhadrasana, Vajrasana, Simhasana, Silpasana,
four types of Padmasana, such as Bandha, Kara, Samputita and Suddha;
six types of Mayurasana such as Danda, Parsva, Sahaja, Bandha, Pinda, Ekapada;
Bhairavasana, Kamadahana, Panipatra, Karmuka, Svastikasana, Gomukhasana, Virasana,
Mandükasana, Markata, Matsyendrasana, Parsvamatsyendrasana,
Baddhamatsyendrasana, Niralambanasana, Candrasana, Kanthava, Ekapadaka,
Phanindra, Pascimottanasana, Sayitapascimatana, Citrakarani, Yoganidrasana,
Vidhunana, Padapidana, Hamsa, Nabhitala, Akasa, Utpadatala, Nabhllasitapadaka,
Vrischikasana, Cakrasana, Utphalaka, Uttanakurma, Kurmasana, Baddhakurma, Narjava,
Kabandha, Gorakshasana, Angusthasana, Mustika, Brahmaprasadita;
five Kukkutas such as Pahcaculikukkuta, Ekapadakakukkuta, Akarita, Bandhacull and
Parsvakukkuta;
Ardhanarisvara, Bakasana, Dharavaha, Candrakanta, Sudhasara, Vyaghrasana,
Rajasana, Indrani, Sarabhasana, Ratnasana, Citrapitha, Baddhapaksi, Isvarasana,
Vicitranalina, Kanta, Suddhapaksi, Sumandraka, Caurangi, Krauncasana, Drdhasana,
Khagasana, Brahmasana, Nagapitha and lastly Savasana."
f. The 11 are Karmukasana, Hamsasana, Cakrasana, Kurmasana, Citrapitha, Goraksasana,
Angusthasana, Vyaghrasana, Sara(la)bhasana, Krauncasana, Drdhasana.
g. The 32 "useful" asanas of the Gheranda Samhita are: Siddhasana, Padmasana, Bhadrasana,
Muktasana, Vajrasana, Svastikasana, Simhasana, Gomukhasana, Virasana, Dhanurasana,
Mritasana, Guptasana, Matsyasana, Matsyendrasana, Gorakshanasana, Paschimottanasana,
Utkatasana, Sankatasana, Mayurasana, Kukkutasana, Kurmasana, Uttanakurmakasana,
Uttana Mandukasana, Vrikshasana, Mandukasana, Garudasana, Vrishasana, Shalabhasana,
Makarasana, Ushtrasana, Bhujangasana, and Yogasana.[33]
h. 84 names of asanas are listed; not all can now be identified.
i. Bernard's book contains 37 photographs of himself performing asanas and mudras.[91]

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External links
Beyogi Library of Yoga Poses (https://beyogi.com/learn-yoga/poses/) – an illustrated set of
asanas with descriptions
Jack Cuneo Light on Yoga Project (http://www.jackcuneo.com/loyp-gallery/) – a photographic
record of one man's attempt to perform all Iyengar's asanas

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