Buying Guide of Variable Frequency Drives (VFDs, Adjustable-speed Drives)

 
When applying a Variable Frequency Drive (VFD, Adjustable-speed Drive) to a new or existing application, there are many factors to consider before
making a firm decision on what type of Variable Frequency Drive (VFD) should be used.

If one already has an existing application where VFDs seem to consistently fail, they should look to using a different VFD type for potential success.

For a new VFD application, below is the list. We should:

Research the motor and Variable Frequency Drive (VFD, Adjustable-speed Drive) specifications. 
Research your application requirements. 
Learn more about the VFD (VSD, ASD) products that are available to you. 
Understand the features of those Variable Frequency Drive products to determine what is an appropriate solution for your application. 
There are a several different types of Variable Frequency Drives (VFDs, AC Drives). Not all drive manufacturers offer every type of VFD available in the
market. So if one has their heart set on a specific product line, one must first do research to ensure that the desired manufacturer offers the type of VFD
needed by the application.

The following is a short summary of the three different types of frequency changers that are available and when these types of drives should be
considered in an application:

1. V/Hz (Volts per Hertz) Variable Frequency Drives (VFDs)

This kind of frequency inveter is the most commonly used and most basic Variable Frequency Drive (VFD) available; this product is for a basic application
in pumps, fans, conveyors, blowers and others.  These applications do not require high starting torque, full motor torque at low rpm, and/or speed
feedback.  Most V/Hz (Volts per Hertz) VFDs have adequate programming features for many applications.  Be sure adequate I/O and programming
features are available to meet your application requirements.  This product is an inexpensive alternative to a phase converter since they will accept single
phase input while providing three phase output.

2. Sensorless (Open Loop) Vector Variable Frequency Drives (VFDs)

The next VFD type that is commonly used in a lathe, mill or any application where full torque is require throughout the motor speed range. Sensorless
Vector VFDs are are also referred to as open loop vector drives; these drives are more complex than V/Hz drives and should always be applied to
applications where high starting torque and/or full torque operating at low RPM is required. If speed feedback and/or extremely complex programming
must be considered in your application you cannot use a sensorless vector VFD. Sensorless vector/open-loop vector VFDs do offer complex
programming to a certain degree, but when your application exceeds sensorless vector programming features, there is a third solution.

3. Closed Loop Vector Variable Frequency Drives (VFDs)

This next level of VFDs are more advanced. And applications that require accurate speed regulation and feedback from the motor and/or require complex
programming will require a closed-loop vector drive. This type of VFD is often offered as a “three in one” and able to operate in all operating modes.

V / Hz (Volts per Hertz) 

Sensorless (Open Loop) Vector and 
Closed Loop Vector 

These products are complex and extremely efficient when properly applied. Closed-loop vector technology is used in the most complex, advanced
manufacturing facilities across the world,  has few limits in drive technology. The product features are phenominal.  Applications where these products are
utilized provide superior speed regulation and torque performance.

Before choosing a VFD (microdrive) for your application, please consult with a qualified integrator, distributor, or manufacturer, who will ask all the right
questions and make an appropriate recommendation.  Be sure that you will be able to get proper service, telephone support or site-support from them
when you, or your qualified electrician, are setting up the drive for your application.
VFD applications with different load types

Variable frequency drive (VFD, VVVF drive) is the most effective motor controller in today's industry. VFD applications can be divided into the following
individual load types. Total are 3 types.

1. Constant torque loads.

These loads represent 90% of all general industrial machines (other than pumps and fans). Examples  aregeneral machinery, hoists, conveyors, printing
presses, positive displacement pumps, some mixers and extruders, reciprocating compressors, as well as rotary compressors.

2. Constant horsepower loads.

These loads are most often found in the machine-tool industry and center driven winder applications. Examples of constant horsepower loads are
winders, core-driven reels, wheel grinders, large driller machines, lathes, planers, boring machines, and core extruders.

Traditionally, these loads were considered DC drive applications only. With high-performance flux vector VFD's now available, many DC drive
applications of this type can be now handled by VFDs.

3. Variable torque loads.

Variable torque loads are often found in variable flow applications, such as fans and pumps. Examples of applications include fans, centrifugal blowers,
centrifugal pumps, propeller pumps, turbine pumps, agitators, and axial compressors.

Variable Frequency Drives (VFDs) offer the greatest opportunity for energy conservation (also enery saving) when driving these loads, because
horsepower varies as the cube of speed and torque varies as square of speed for these loads. For instance, if the motor speed is reduced 20%, motor
horsepower is reduced by a cubic relationship (0.8 X 0.8 X 0.8), or 51%. As such, utilities often offer subsidies to customers investing in Variable
Frequency Inverter (VFD, ac drive, frequency inverter) technology for their applications. Many VFD (frequency converter) manufactures have free
software programs available for customers to calculate and document potential energy savings by using these AC Drives.
Some Problems of Variable Speed Drive With AC Motor (1)

Full load operation for VSD & AC Motor

Variable speed drives (VSDs) provide dramatic energy savings by optimising the system, not by improving the actual efficiency of the motor in isolation
(as an energy efficient motor retrofit would). In fact, a Variable speed drive (VSD) system is about 4% to 6% less efficient at full load than an induction
motor alone. This is mainly due to the losses in the VSD (VFD, ASD) itself. However, it doesn't take much operation at reduced load to save more energy
than is lost at full load. Average loading as high as 90% can justify a VSD (AFD) retrofit for high-duty applications.

Low speed operation for VSD & AC Motor

Most induction motors can operate with modern VSDs (AFDs, Microdrives) through moderate speed ranges (around 30% to 100% speed). Sustained
operation at low speeds and, in particular, high load at low speeds may require a special or larger drive and special measures to cool the motor.

AC induction motors operate hotter with a VSD because of harmonics, impurities in the electric power they provide to the motor and also the slower
rotating speed of the motor's integral cooling fans. This is usually not a problem if speeds are continuously above 40% or where there are brief periods of
slow-speed operation. However, prolonged operation at or below about 30% speed, especially when driving significant loads, can cause rapid and
potentially damaging heat in some motors.

Starting Torque in VSD/motor systems

In VSD/motor systems, starting torque is typically determined by the drive (not the motor). For conventional VSD applications, the VSD/motor
system will have a peak starting torque of about 130% of rated full-load torque, which is significantly less than what the motor could develop by itself. This
level of starting torque is acceptable for most variable speed loads, but some loads (especially constant-torque loads such as conveyers, escalators,
augers, or reciprocating compressors) may require greater starting torque.

Harmonics and power factor

Although they can improve displacement power factor (DPF), modern VSDs (AC Drives, VVVF Drives) also create harmonics, which reduce real power
factor. (Real power factor includes harmonics and displacement power factor (DPF)) For instance, while a VSD can improve DPF to close to 1.0, the
harmonics generated by the VSD can cause the real power factor to decline to between 0.75 and 0.80. These harmonic currents (most often the fifth and
seventh harmonics) tend to exacerbate resistance losses and can even negate the benefits of improved DPF.

To minimise this problem, more and more VSD (ASD) manufacturers are packaging harmonics-mitigating equipment (such as line reactors or
isolation transformers) with drives. Thus it lets users enjoy the full benefits of power factor improvement. What's more, this added equipment can
significantly reduce the impact of VSD-generated harmonics on other electronic equipment.

VSDs located too far from motor 

Pulse-width modulated (PWM) drives can cause significant damage to motors if the length of cable between the VSD and the motor exceeds 15 to 30
metres. (The number seems to differ by manufacturer.) Using pulse-width modulated (PWM) VSDs on older motors with long cable runs may shorten the
life of the motor.

Mechanical resonance for motor and VFD

It is important to determine any mechanical resonance frequencies and to program the VFD (VSD) to avoid steady operation at those speeds. These
resonance frequencies, which are common in large fans, gears, and belt-driven systems, can cause significant damage through vibration.

Motor compatibility with VSD

To ensure that your VSD (Adjustable frequency drive, ac drive) and motor are compatible, either buy them from the same company, or ask the
manufacturer to test the VSD to make sure it's compatible with another company's line of motors.

Scalar Control (V/f Control) is one common speed control technique for variable frequency drives (VFDs, frequency changers, frequency
inverters) in the industry.

In this type of control (scalar control, v/f Control), the motor is fed with variable frequency signals generated by the Pulse Width Modulation
(PWM) control from an inverter, using the feature rich PICmicro microcontroller. Here, the V/f ratio is maintained constant in order to get constant
torque over the entire operating range. Since only magnitudes of the input variables - frequency and voltage -  are controlled, this is known as "scalar
control". Generally, the drives with such a control are without any feedback devices (open-loop control). Hence, a control of this type offers low cost and is
an easy-to-implement solution.

In such controls, very little knowledge of the motor is required for frequency control. So, scalar control (v/f Control) is widely used. A disadvantage of
scalar control (v/f control) is that the torque developed is load dependent, as it is not controlled directly. Also, the transient response of such a control is
not fast due to the predefined switching pattern of the inverter.

However, if there is a continuous block to the rotor rotation, it will lead to heating of the motor regardless of implementation of the overcurrent control
loop. By adding a speed/position sensor, the problem relating to the blocked rotor and the load dependent speed can be overcome. However, this will add
to the system cost, size and complexity. (to be continued)

Sinusoidal Pulse Width Modulation (PWM)

In this method of Sinusoidal Pulse Width Modulation (PWM), the sinusoidal weighted values are stored in the PICmicro microcontroller and are made
available at the output port at user defined intervals.

The advantage of Sinusoidal Pulse Width Modulation (PWM) is that very little calculation is required. Only one look-up table of the sine wave is required,
as all the motor phases are 120 electrical degrees displaced.

The disadvantage of Sinusoidal Pulse Width Modulation (PWM) is that the magnitude of the fundamental voltage is less than 90%. And the harmonics at
Pulse Width Modulation (PWM) switching frequency have significant magnitude.

Six-Step Pulse Width Modulation (PWM)

The inverter of the frequency converter (ac drive) has six distinct switching states. When it is switched in a specific order, the three phase AC induction
motor can be rotated.

The advantage of this method is that there is no intermediate calculation required and thus, is easiest to implement. Also, the magnitude of the
fundamental voltage is more than than the DC bus. The disadvantage of Six-Step Pulse Width Modulation (PWM) is higher low order harmonics which
cannot be filtered by the motor inductance. This means higher losses in the motor, higher torque ripple and jerky operation at low speed.  (to be
continued)
Space Vector Modulation PWM (SVMPWM)

Space Vector Modulation PWM (SVMPWM) is based on the fact that three phase voltage vectors of the induction motor can be converted into a single
rotating vector. Rotation of this space vector can be implemented by variable frequency drive (frequency converter) to generate 3 phase sine waves.
Scalar Control (V/f Control) Variable Frequency Drive:

The advantages of Space Vector Modulation PWM (SVMPWM) are less harmonic magnitude at the PWM switching frequency due to averaging, less
memory requirement compared to sinusoidal PWM, etc. The disadvantages are not full utilization of the DC bus voltage, more calculation required, etc.

Space Vector Modulation PWM (SVMPWM) with overmodulation

Implementation of SVMPWM with overmodulation can generate a fundamental sine wave of amplitude greater than the DC bus level. The disadvantage
of Space Vector Modulation PWM (SVMPWM) with overmodulation is complicated calculation, line-to-line waveforms are not "clean" and the THD
increases, but still less than the THD of the six-step PWM method.

:-) The series of scalar control (v/f control) for adjustable frequency drive (frequency changer, frequency inverter)are complete now. We will introduce
vector control and Direct Torque Control (DTC) for variable speed drive later.

Modern VFD's can use software to compute speed of the motor based on anaylzing the motor current. This calcuated speed can be
used to control load speed pretty close without using a tach feedback, but with some speed error. This is the Sensorless Vector Drive.
The "vector" terminology comes from the analysis that is used to resolve the current measurement into components for magnetizing
current and load torque and comparing them to the voltage waveform. Program 1800 rpm into this drive on an 4-pole (1800 rpm)
motor and it will put out 62 Hz or whatever frequency is needed to hold 1800 rpm instead of the 1780 rpm on the motor nameplate.

For more precise speed and position control ,add a tach or a resolver to the load shaft and provide feedback to the VFD. The Flux
Vector Drives use similar calculations to precisely monitor and control the torque in the motor to keep the tachometer or resolver
speed and position at setpoint.

The V/Hz drive doesn't worry about feedback or load speed. It just puts out the frequency and lets the motor run at the speed it
wants. That 1800 rpm motor will run at 1780 rpm and the drive won't care. This mode is ideal for pumps and fans or anything where
precise speed isn't important, you just need it to go faster or slower. The V/Hz control keeps the volts to frequency ratio constant to
avoid overfluxing (saturating) the motor iron. At 50% speed max voltage should be 50% of nameplate to keep constant V/Hz.

If you put a sensorless flux drive on a cooling tower fan you get great control that you don't need. To control torque, the drive
appears to reduce voltage so the current is higher to maintain the same HP output. When a gust of wind speeds up the fan, the drive
senses the speed change and supplies negative torque to bring the speed back. As a result, the fan current is always spiking as the
drive tries to maintian that 900 rpm speed +/-2 rpm, when all you needed was something more than 850 and less than 1000 rpm. A
V/Hz control mode would be a lot better, easier to tune and less strenuous on the motor. (I won't go into how I learned this.)

Fans and centrifugal pumps are variable torque loads. At 50% speed the torque is 50% so the HP needed is only 25%. A conveyor
takes the same torque whether it is running 1 foot per minute or 200 fpm, at 50% speed it stillneeds ful torque adn 50% HP. A drive
programed for variable torque loads can do some things at reduced speeds to minimize losses that a constant torque drive can't
wihtout stalling the load.