Chapter 2 Sets, Relations Functions

Discrete Mathematics BA202
2.0 SETS, RELATIONS AND FUNCTIONS
2.1 UNDERSTAND SETS AND SET OPERATIONS
2.1.1 Describe set notation and operation on sets
 A set is a collection of object, which are called elements or members of the set.
 For example, the set A of all vowels in the English alphabet.
 Notation used to describe membership;
 Three methods are commonly used to describe a set:
Description Roster Form Set-Builder Notation
The set V of all vowels in V = {a, e, i, o, u} V = {x: x is a vowel in the

the English alphabet. English alphabets}
The set C of odd positive C = {1, 3, 5, 7, 9} C = {x : x is an odd positive
integers less than 10 integer less than 10}
C  x Z  
x is odd and x  10 
Set A is the set of natural A = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5} B  x x  N and x  6 
number less than 6 or B  x x  N and x  5 
Note : N = { 0,1,2,3,..... } is a natural number

Z = {...., -2, -1, 0,1,2,.... } is an integer
Z+ = {1,2,3,,.... } is the set of positive integer
R = {x : x is a real number}
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 STANDARDS NOTATION IN SETS
a) Null Set
 A set which contains no elements at all.
 Also known as Empty set { }
 It is denoted by the symbol  .
 Example :
A set of even number greater than 8 and less than 10.
b) Sub Set
• All the elements of a set A are also elements of a set B
• We write A B
• Example:
Given set A = {1, 3, 4} and B = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5}
Conclusion : A B because all elements in A contain in the set B.
c) Proper Subset
• At least one element of B does not belong to A
• We write A B
• Example:
Given set A = {1, 5}, B = {1, 5, 6}, C = {1, 6, 5}
– A and B are subsets of C
– A is a proper subset of C
d) Equal Set
• Set A and Set B have exactly the same elements
• We write A= B
• Example:
The set A = {1, 3, 4}, B = {4, 3, 1}
Conclusion : Set A and B have the same elements.
e) Power Set
 The set of all subsets of a set X is called the power set of X, denoted by P(X).
If a set has n elements, then its power set has 2n elements.
 Example: If X = {a, b, c}, then P(X) = {  , {a}, {b}, {c}, {a,b}, {a,c}, {b,c}, {a, b, c}}
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f) Cartesian product of X and Y
 The Cartesian product of X and Y is denoted by X x Y , is the set of all ordered

pairs (x, y) where x  X and y Y .
 Hence, X x Y = { (x, y) |x X  y Y }.
 Example
What is the Cartesian product of A = {1, 2, 3} and B = {a, b}
Solution:
A x B = {(1, a), (2, a), (3,a),(1, b), (2, b),(3,b)}
• Note that since (x, y) is an ordered pair, then X x Y  YxX.
QUICK EXERCISE 1
1. U = {natural numbers}; A = {2, 4, 6, 8, 10}; B = {1, 3, 6, 7, 8}. State whether

each of the following is true or false:
a. A ϵ U b. 10 ϵ B c. 3 ϵ B
2. Express each of the following set in set builder form

a. A = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5}
b. B is the set of months that contain less than 30 days.
3. Express each of the following set to roster form

a. Set A is the positive integer less than 12
b. Set B is the prime number less than 10
c. Set C is multiple of 20
d. D = {x : x is square of an integer and x less than 100}
4. Given that A = {2,4,6}, B = {2, 6}, C = {4,6}, and D = {4,6,8}. Determine which of
these set subset of which other of sets are.
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2.1.2 Apply Venn Diagram to represent set operations
 Intersection
 Symbol : A ∩ B
 Set operation: The intersection of set A and B U
 The set of elements : Belong to A and B
 A ∩ B = *x : x ϵ A ∩ x ϵ B }
 Example:
Given set A = {1, 3, 5} and B = {1, 2, 3}
A B
Hence,
A ∩ B = *1, 3, 5+ ∩ *1, 2, 3+
= {1, 3}
 Union
 Symbol: A U B
 Set Operation: The union of sets A and B U
 The set of elements : Belong to A or B or
both.
 A U B = {x : x ϵ A U x ϵ B }
 Example:
Given set A = {1, 3, 5} and B = {1, 2, 3} A B
Hence,
A U B = {1, 3, 5} U {1, 2, 3}
= {1, 2, 3, 5}
 Difference
 Symbol: A - B
U
 Set Operation: The difference of sets A and
B
 The set of elements : Belong to A but not to
B
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 A - B = {x : x ϵ A ∩ x ϵ B }
 Example:
Given set A = {1, 3, 5} and B = {1, 2, 3}
Hence, A – B = {1, 3, 5} - {1, 2, 3} = {5}.
 Complement U
 Symbol: A’
 Set Operation: The complement of sets A
 The set of elements do not belong to A
 A’ = *x: x ϵ A }
A
 Example:
If U = {j, m, s, k, p, s, m, z, a} and A = {j, t, m, k} A’
Hence, A’ = *p, s, z, a}
 Symmetrical difference , 
 Symbol: A  B
 Set Operation: The symmetrical difference
of sets A and B U
 The set of elements that belong to A or B but
not both A and B
 A  B = (A – B) U ( B – A)
 Example:
If A = {1, 2, 3}; B = {3, 4, 5} A B
Hence,
A – B = {1, 2} and B – A = {4, 5} A  B
A  B = (A – B) U ( B – A)
= {1, 2} U {4, 5}
= {1, 2, 4, 5}
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QUICK EXERCISE 2
1) If A = (1,2,3,4,6,7), B = ( 2,4,6,9) and C = ( 1,3,7), find :

a) A  B
b) A  B
c) Relation between A and C.
2) Given the sets U = {a,b,c,d,e,f,g,h}, R = {a,b,c,d,e,f,}, S = {c,d,e, } and T ={f,g,h}.
a) Construct a Venn Diagram illustrating the sets.

b) Relation between set R and set S.
c) Give the element for S  T
3) Given the following sets:
U  a , b , c , d , e , f , g 
A  a , b , e , g 
B  a , c , d , e 
C  b , e , f 
Find:
a)  A  B A  C .
b)  A  B C '
4) Given the universal set,    x : x is an integer & 1  x  10  .
P   x : x is a prime number 
Q   x : x is a factor of 10 
R   x : x is an integer & 1  x  5
a) List the element of set P, Q and R

b) Find  P 
/
 Q  R
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5) Given the universal set, U  x : x is an integer & 20  x  35  .
P   x : x is a prime number 
Q   x : x is a multiple of 3 
R   x : x is an integer & x  26 
a) List the element of set P, Q and R

b) Find  P  Q   R /
2.1.3 Create set properties followed D’Morgan’s Law
De Morgan’s Law
1.  A  B  A  B
2.  A  B   A  B
Visual DeMorgan:
A B
A B
A  B
= A  B
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2.2 UNDERSTAND RELATIONS
2.2.1 Definition of relations
Let A and B be sets. A (binary) relation R from A to B is a subset of A B .

Given an ordered pair  x , y  in A B , x is related to y by R , written x R y , if and only if
 x , y  is in R .
 The notation for relation may be written symbolically as follows:
x R y  x, y   R
 For example,
Given set A  0 ,1 , 2  and B  1 , 2 , 3  .
- Element x in A is related to an element y in B if, and only if, x is less

than y.
- Let us use the notation x R y as shorthand for the sentence “ x is
related to y.”
- Then:
0 R 1 sin ce 0  1,
0 R 2 sin ce 0  2,
0 R 3 sin ce 0  3,
1R 2 sin ce 1  2,
1R 3 sin ce 1  3, and
2 R 3 sin ce 2  3,
x R y    0 , 1  ,  0 , 2 ,  0 , 3 , 1 , 2 , 1 , 3 ,  2 , 3  
 Recall that the Cartesian product of A and B where A B , consists of all

ordered pairs whose first element is in A and whose second element is in B:
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A B   x , y  x  A and y  B  .
2.2.2 Properties Relation
1) R is reflexive  for all x in A, x, x   R.
2) R is symmetric  for all x and y in A , if x, y   R then y, x R
3) R is transitive  for all x , y , and z in A , if x, y   R and y, z  R then x, z   R.
 Reflexive
 A relation R on a set A is reflexive if (x , x) ϵ R for every x ϵ A.

 In a reflexive relation, every element on a set A is related to itself (the arrow
pointed to itself)
 Have a loop at every vertex.
x y
 Example 1 :
Consider the following relations on the set A = {1, 2, 3, 4}. Determine whether the
relation is reflexive or not?
a) R₁ = {(1, 1), (1, 2), (2, 3), (1, 3), (4, 4)}
b) R₂ = *(1, 1), (1, 2), (2, 1), (2, 2), (3, 3), (4, 4)+
Solution:
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a) R₁ = *(1, 1), (1, 2), (2, 3), (1, 3), (4, 4)+
Draw directed graph;
2
1
4 3
Hence, R₁ is not reflexive because not all (x , x) ϵ R for every x ϵ A.
b) R₂ = *(1, 1), (1, 2), (2, 1), (2, 2), (3, 3), (4, 4)+
1 2
4 3
Hence, R2 is reflexive because for all (x , x) ϵ R for every x ϵ A.
 Symmetric
 A relation R on a set A is symmetric if whenever x R y, that is,
 Whenever (x , y) ϵ R then (y , x) ϵ R.
 In a symmetric relation, for each arrow we have also an opposite arrow.
x y
 Example 2: Determine which of the relations in Example 1 are symmetric.
Solution:
a) Hence, R₁ is not symmetric because not all (x , y) ϵ R then (y , x) ϵ R.

b) Hence, R2 is not symmetric because not all (x , y) ϵ R then (y , x) ϵ R.
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 Transitive
 A relation R on a set A is transitive if whenever x R y and y R z then x R z, that is,
 Whenever (x, y) ϵ R and (y, z) ϵ R then (x, z) ϵ R.
y
z
x
 Example 3: Determine which of the relations in Example 1 are transitive.
- Hence, R₁ is transitive because for all (x , y) ϵ R and(y, z) ϵ R, then (x, z) ϵ R.

- Hence, R2 is not transitive because not all (x , y) ϵ R and(y, z) ϵ R, then (x, z) ϵ R.
QUICK EXERCISE 3
1) Let A  1 , 2  and B  1 , 2 , 3  and define a binary relation R from A to B as follows:

Given any  x , y   A  B, x, y   R  x  y is even.
a) State explicitly which ordered pairs are in A  B and which are in R .
2) List the ordered pair in the relation R from A = ( 0,1,2,3,4) to B = ( 0,1,2,3) where
(a,b)  R if and only if;
a) a=b
b) a+b=3
3) Consider the following relation on A = {1, 2, 3, 4} which is
R  1,1 , 1, 2 , 1, 3 , 1, 4 ,  2 ,1 ,  2 , 2 , 3 ,1 , 3 , 3 ,  4 ,1 ,  4 , 4 
a) Draw the directed graph for the relation R.

b) Determine whether the relation R is reflexive, symmetric or transitive. Explain
your answers.
4) Let M= {0, 1, 2, 3} and define relation R=  0 ,1 ,  0 , 3 , 1 , 0 , 1 ,1  2 , 3 ,  3 , 0 ,  3 , 3 ,  3 , 2 
a) Represent the relation R using directed graph

b) Determine whether the relation R is reflexive, symmetric or transitive. Explain
your answers.
5) For the following questions, refer to the directed graph belowfor the relation R.
c
b
a) List the ordered pairs in the relation R represented by the directed graph
above.
b) Determine whether the relation R is an equivalence relation on the set {a, b ,c}.
Explain your answer.
2.3 EXPLAIN FUNCTIONS
2.3.1 Basic constructions
 A function is a relationship between two sets of numbers. A function maps a number

in one set to a number in another set.
 Like a relation, a function has a domain and range made up of the x and y values
of ordered pairs. such as { (0,1) , (5, 22), (11,9) }.
 Properties of function:
a) Each x value in a function has one and only ONE y value.
 Eg: Compare the two relations below. Which of the following relations are functions?
Relation 1 Relation 2
0 1 1
1 2 0 2
2 4 1 4
x y x y
Function Not Function
 Relation 1 – Function.
– Has ONLY ONE y value for each x value.
 Relation 2 – Not Function.

– Has TWO distinct y values '2' and '4' for the same x value of '1'.
Example 1:
Determine whether each below relation from X = {1, 2, 3, 4} to Y = { a, b, c, d} is a
function or not. If it is the function, gift its range.
a) f = {(1,a), (2,b), (3,a), (4,c)}
Ans: f is a function from X to Y because each element of X map to Y. Range of f = { a, b, c }
b) f = {(1,a), (2,b), (3,a)}
Ans: f is a not function from X to Y because the element 4 of X not function to Y.
 Domain, Codomain & Range
 The diagram shows the relation that maps the elements of set P to the elements of
set Q.
P Q
domain
codomain
0 1
object 1 2 image
2 4
5
 Set P is called the domain of the relation. Each element in the domain is called
an object.
 Set Q is called the codomain of the relation. Each element in the codomain
that has been mapped is an image.
 The subset of the codomain that contains all the images that have been
mapped is called the range.
2.3.2 Types of function
a) One-to-one functions (injective)
 A one to one function is a function in which every element in the range of the
function corresponds with one and only one element in the domain.
 Each element in B can only have at most 1 arrow pointing to it. (no clashes
occur)
 Example of a one-to-one function: {(0,1), (5,2),(6,4)}
Domain: 0,5,6 Range: 1,2,4

Each element in the domain (0,5 and 6) correspond with a unique element in
the range.
 No clashes (1-to-1)  A clash occurred (not 1-to-1)

A B A B
1 a 1 A
2 b 2
3 c 3 B
d C
b) Onto functions (surjective)
 Each element in B must have at least 1 arrow pointing to it.
 Onto  Not onto

A B A B
1 a a 1
2 b b 2
3 c c 3
4 d 4
Example 1:
Function f = {(1,a),(2,c),(3,b), (4,c)} from X = { 1,2,3,4} to Y = {a,b,c}, is onto, but
not one-to-one.
.1
.a
.2
.b
.3
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X Y
Example 2:
Function f = {(1,a),(2,c),(3,b)} from X = { 1,2,3} to Y = {a,b,c} is one-to-one and onto

Y.
Example 3:
Function f = {(1,b),(3,a),(2,c)} from X = { 1,2,3} to Y = {a,b,c,d}, is not onto.
• a
1•
• b
2•
• c
3•
• d
c) Composition functions
 A composition of functions occurs when you insert one function into another.
 The range of the one function becomes the domain of the second.
 The notation for composition of functions is either:
The composition of function notation on the left is the

f(g(x))
composition. f(g(x)) = f  g(x)
f  g(x)
However it should be noted that f(g(x)) ≠ g(f(x))
Composition of two functions
Composition of two functions
QUICK EXERCISE 4
1) The functions f and g are defined as f(x) = 2x – 3 and g(x) = x2 + 2. Find the
composite function
a) fg(x)
b) gf (x)
c) ff (x)
2) Given f x   x  3 and g  x   5 x  10 . Find

a) f  g  x  if x =2
b) g f  x  if x =3
c) g
1
1 
3) Given that f(x) = 2x + 1 and g(x) = x2, find gf (2) and fg(-2).
d) Inverse functions
 The inverse of the function is when the domain and the range trade places.
 All elements of the domain become the range, and all elements of the range become
a domain.
If ƒ maps X to Y, then ƒ–1 maps Y back to X.
 Example of the inverse of a simple function:

Original function f(x) Inverse of function or f-1(x)
{ (0,3 ) , (1,4) , (2, 5) } { (3, 0 ) , (4,1) , (5, 2) }
0 3 3 0
1 4 4 1
2 5 5 2
 If f denotes a function that maps set A to set B and the process is reversed, then the
inverse mapping can be represented by the symbol f-1.
 Hence,
If f(x) = y, then f -1(y) = x.
 Example: Find the inverse function for f x   2 x  4
1) Change f(x) to y;
y  2x  4
2) Solve for x;
y  2x  4
y  4  2x
y  4
x 
2
3) Change to inverse notation
Know that f -1(y) = x, then;
x  4
f
1
x  
2
1
 x  2
2
QUICK EXERCISE 5
1) Given that f(x) = 2x + 1 , find f -1(3).

2) Given that g(x) = 5 – 3x , find g -1(2).
4
3) The function h is defined as h(x)  ,x  5 . Find:
x 5
a) h
1
(x)
1
b) h (8 )
2.3.3 Graph of function
 Two important functions in discrete mathematics are:

 Ceililng and floor function - Give you the nearest integer up or down.
a) Ceiling function
 Round x up to the smallest integer that is greater than or equal to x

 Graph of Ceiling function
b) Floor function.
 Round x down to the greatest integer that is less than or equal to x

 Graph of Floor function
 Example of values in ceiling function;
x Ceiling,  x  Floor,  x 
 1 .5  1 .5    1  1 .5    2
1  1   1  1   1
 1 .3  1 . 3    1  1 .3    2
 0 .5  0 . 5   0  0 .5    1
0 0   0 0   0
0.3 0 . 3   1 0 . 3   0
0.5 0 . 5   1 0 . 5   0
1 1   1 1   1
1.5 1 . 5   2 1 . 5   1
2.71  2 . 71   3  2 . 71   2
Example 1: What is the floor and ceiling of 2.31?
Solution:
Floor of,  2 . 31  is 2 - The greatest integer that is less than (or equal) to 2.31 is 2.
The Ceiling of,  2 . 31  is 3 – The smallest integer that is greater than (or equal) to 2.31 is 3.
 Floor and Ceiling of Integers
 There is no change for the floor or ceiling of a number that is already an integer.
 Example 2: What is the floor and ceiling of 5?
- The Floor of 5 is 5
- The Ceiling of 5 is 5
QUICK EXERCISE 6
1) Find these values;

3
d)
a) 1 . 1   
4
b)   0 . 1   7
e) 


c)  2 . 99   8
1  3 
h)    
2  2 
1  5 
i)    
f) 3   2  2 
g) 3 . 3  0 . 5 
2) Solve for the following function;
a)  0 . 5  1 . 3   1 . 3  
b)  2.5  1   3 . 2  
c)  0 . 5   2 . 5   1 . 5  

Chapter 2 Sets, Relations Functions

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Chapter 2 Sets, Relations Functions

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Discrete Mathematics BA202

2.0 SETS, RELATIONS AND FUNCTIONS

2.1 UNDERSTAND SETS AND SET OPERATIONS

2.1.1 Describe set notation and operation on sets

 Notation used to describe membership;

 Three methods are commonly used to describe a set:

Description Roster Form Set-Builder Notation

The set V of all vowels in V = {a, e, i, o, u} V = {x: x is a vowel in the

Note : N = { 0,1,2,3,..... } is a natural number

 STANDARDS NOTATION IN SETS

f) Cartesian product of X and Y

 The Cartesian product of X and Y is denoted by X x Y , is the set of all ordered

• Note that since (x, y) is an ordered pair, then X x Y  YxX.

1. U = {natural numbers}; A = {2, 4, 6, 8, 10}; B = {1, 3, 6, 7, 8}. State whether

2. Express each of the following set in set builder form

3. Express each of the following set to roster form

2.1.2 Apply Venn Diagram to represent set operations

1) If A = (1,2,3,4,6,7), B = ( 2,4,6,9) and C = ( 1,3,7), find :

2) Given the sets U = {a,b,c,d,e,f,g,h}, R = {a,b,c,d,e,f,}, S = {c,d,e, } and T ={f,g,h}.

a) Construct a Venn Diagram illustrating the sets.

3) Given the following sets:

4) Given the universal set,    x : x is an integer & 1  x  10  .

a) List the element of set P, Q and R

5) Given the universal set, U  x : x is an integer & 20  x  35  .

a) List the element of set P, Q and R

2.1.3 Create set properties followed D’Morgan’s Law

2.2 UNDERSTAND RELATIONS

2.2.1 Definition of relations

Let A and B be sets. A (binary) relation R from A to B is a subset of A B .

Given set A  0 ,1 , 2  and B  1 , 2 , 3  .

- Element x in A is related to an element y in B if, and only if, x is less

 Recall that the Cartesian product of A and B where A B , consists of all

2.2.2 Properties Relation

1) R is reflexive  for all x in A, x, x   R.

2) R is symmetric  for all x and y in A , if x, y   R then y, x R

3) R is transitive  for all x , y , and z in A , if x, y   R and y, z  R then x, z   R.

 A relation R on a set A is reflexive if (x , x) ϵ R for every x ϵ A.

Draw directed graph;

Hence, R₁ is not reflexive because not all (x , x) ϵ R for every x ϵ A.

Hence, R2 is reflexive because for all (x , x) ϵ R for every x ϵ A.

 A relation R on a set A is symmetric if whenever x R y, that is,

 In a symmetric relation, for each arrow we have also an opposite arrow.

 Example 2: Determine which of the relations in Example 1 are symmetric.

a) Hence, R₁ is not symmetric because not all (x , y) ϵ R then (y , x) ϵ R.

 Example 3: Determine which of the relations in Example 1 are transitive.

- Hence, R₁ is transitive because for all (x , y) ϵ R and(y, z) ϵ R, then (x, z) ϵ R.

1) Let A  1 , 2  and B  1 , 2 , 3  and define a binary relation R from A to B as follows:

3) Consider the following relation on A = {1, 2, 3, 4} which is

R  1,1 , 1, 2 , 1, 3 , 1, 4 ,  2 ,1 ,  2 , 2 , 3 ,1 , 3 , 3 ,  4 ,1 ,  4 , 4 

a) Draw the directed graph for the relation R.

4) Let M= {0, 1, 2, 3} and define relation R=  0 ,1 ,  0 , 3 , 1 , 0 , 1 ,1  2 , 3 ,  3 , 0 ,  3 , 3 ,  3 , 2 

a) Represent the relation R using directed graph

2.3 EXPLAIN FUNCTIONS

2.3.1 Basic constructions

 A function is a relationship between two sets of numbers. A function maps a number

 Relation 2 – Not Function.

Ans: f is a function from X to Y because each element of X map to Y. Range of f = { a, b, c }

b) f = {(1,a), (2,b), (3,a)}

Ans: f is a not function from X to Y because the element 4 of X not function to Y.

 Domain, Codomain & Range

2.3.2 Types of function

a) One-to-one functions (injective)

 Example of a one-to-one function: {(0,1), (5,2),(6,4)}