sensors

Article
3 Cat-3/MOTS Nanosatellite Mission for Optical
Multispectral and GNSS-R Earth Observation:
Concept and Analysis
Jordi Castellví 1,2, *, Adriano Camps 1 ID
, Jordi Corbera 2 and Ramon Alamús 2
1 Teoria del Senyal i Comunicació (TSC), Universitat Politècnica de Catalunya (UPC), 08034 Barcelona, Spain;
camps@tsc.upc.edu
2 Institut Cartogràfic i Geològic de Catalunya (ICGC), Parc de Montjuïc, 08038 Barcelona, Spain;
jordi.corbera@icgc.cat (J.C.); ramón.alamus@icgc.cat (R.A.)
* Correspondence: jordi.castellvi@tsc.upc.edu; Tel.: +34-687-238-258

Received: 13 December 2017; Accepted: 3 January 2018; Published: 6 January 2018

Abstract: The 3 Cat-3/MOTS (3: Cube, Cat: Catalunya, 3: 3rd CubeSat mission/Missió Observació
Terra Satèl·lit) mission is a joint initiative between the Institut Cartogràfic i Geològic de Catalunya
(ICGC) and the Universitat Politècnica de Catalunya-BarcelonaTech (UPC) to foster innovative
Earth Observation (EO) techniques based on data fusion of Global Navigation Satellite Systems
Reflectometry (GNSS-R) and optical payloads. It is based on a 6U CubeSat platform, roughly a 10 cm
× 20 cm × 30 cm parallelepiped. Since 2012, there has been a fast growing trend to use small satellites,
especially nanosatellites, and in particular those following the CubeSat form factor. Small satellites
possess intrinsic advantages over larger platforms in terms of cost, flexibility, and scalability, and may
also enable constellations, trains, federations, or fractionated satellites or payloads based on a large
number of individual satellites at an affordable cost. This work summarizes the mission analysis
of 3 Cat-3/MOTS, including its payload results, power budget (PB), thermal budget (TB), and data
budget (DB). This mission analysis is addressed to transform EO data into territorial climate variables
(soil moisture and land cover change) at the best possible achievable spatio-temporal resolution.

Keywords: GNSS-R; soil moisture; downscaling; mission analysis; earth observation

1. Introduction
The emergence of small satellites, and in particular the CubeSat standard [1], has opened up new
ways of exploiting space [2]. Future projections foresee thnat in the next 5–10 years most satellites will
be small satellites of less than 50 kg (nano and microsatellites) [3]. The inherent strategy behind the
small satellites approach has allowed for ES (Earth Science) missions, such as 3 Cat-3/MOTS (3: Cube,
Cat: Catalunya, 3: 3rd CubeSat mission/Missió Observació Terra Satèl·lit), at an affordable risk and
cost [4]. However, small satellites present limitations and vulnerabilities associated with their low
cost philosophy. In order to overcome a hostile space environment, both the behavior of the different
subsystems and that of the components need to be accurately studied [5].
The mission statement of 3 Cat-3/MOTS is based on three pillars: viability (budget, human
resources, and know-how), feasibility (technology readiness), and desirability (usefulness of the
results). These three concepts converge in 3 Cat-3/MOTS with an innovative combined optical/
Global Navigation Satellite Systems Reflectometry (GNSS-R) [6,7] payload and data fusion solution
for high-resolution soil moisture mapping. Since the concept of innovation is linked to a limited
time window, the combination of the knowledge provided by the Institut Cartogràfic i Geològic de
Catalunya (ICGC) in the field of satellite imagery applied to the management of the Catalan territory,
and the experience of the Universitat Politècnica de Catalunya-BarcelonaTech (UPC) in the field

Sensors 2018, 18, 140; doi:10.3390/s18010140 www.mdpi.com/journal/sensors

Sensors 2018, 18, 140 2 of 18

of Remote Sensing, in the development of previous small satellite missions (3 Cat-1 [8], 3 Cat-2 [9],
and 3 Cat-4 and 3 Cat-5 as part of the FYS (Fly Your Satellite) program [10] and FSSCat (Federated
Satellite System Catalunya) [11] respectively, both in the design phase), and in the access to facilities to
test and qualify space hardware [12] define an optimum environment for 3 Cat-3/MOTS.
The main goal of 3 Cat-3/MOTS is to acquire multispectral imagery of the Earth in conjunction
with GNSS-R data. The regions of interest (ROIs) for this mission will be land cover areas with high
vulnerability and impact by climate change. The ICGC has defined a set of design requirements
(Table 1) where the specific criteria for attitude control, exploitation, and data acquisition are detailed.
In parallel to this main goal, the mission objectives can be listed as:

1. To identify the limit of current CubeSat technology in terms of spatial resolution and required
power to accomplish a multispectral optical and GNSS-R space mission.
2. To evaluate the feasibility of using Commercial off the Shelf (COTS) optical equipment in space
to achieve 3 Cat-3/MOTS’s mission requirements.
3. To acquire multispectral images from the visible to the near infrared (400 nm to 870 nm) with a
spatial resolution better than 30 m and swath wider than 30 km with a signal-to-noise ratio (SNR)
better than 30 dB in each band.
4. To achieve a revisit time of less than 10 days over the Catalan territory to properly respond to
territorial changes.
5. To perform data fusion of the observables acquired by both payloads: multispectral imagery
from the optical sensor and L-band reflectometry data from the GNSS-R soil moisture mapping
at 30 m resolution.

Table 1. Design requirements provided by the Institut Cartogràfic i Geològic de Catalunya (ICGC).

Attitude Requirements
Pointing knowledge at nadir 120 arcsec
Pointing stability 20 arcsec/s
Main Exploitation Requirements
Digitalization 12 bits
Data storage on board >1 Gb
GSD at nadir pointing <30 m
Swath at nadir pointing >30 km
Main Radiometric Budget SNR (dB) MTF (lp/mm)
Blue band (440–510 nm) 35 25
Green band (520–590 nm) 35 25
Red band (620–680 nm) 35 25
Red edge band (690–730 nm) 35 20
NIR band (850–890 nm) 30 20
Extra band (if available) 30 20
GB: gigabytes; GSD: Ground Sampling Distance; SNR: signal-to-noise ratio; NIR: near infrared; MTF: Modulation
Transfer Function.

2. Materials and Methods

2.1. Orbit Selection

The main tradeoff that drives the mission concept is between spatial resolution and mission
lifespan: the limited size of the CubeSat does not allow for a large optical system; thus, in order to
achieve a good spatial resolution, a low orbit is recommended. The ideal orbit is therefore an inclined
orbit at ~500 km height and 55◦ inclination so as to cover most areas of interest (urban regions) and
for orbit stability purposes [13]. A common choice for Earth Observation (EO) missions with optical
sensors is a Sun-Synchronous Orbit (SSO) with a determined Local Time of Ascending Node (LTAN)
Sensors 2018, 18, 140 3 of 18

designed to acquire images of the ROI with a constant illumination. However, the proposed orbit is
not an SSO since the nature of the mission is strongly focused in the region of Catalonia, Spain, and the
chosen orbit reduces the revisit time. In practice, the final orbit will be the best available one, taking
into account that CubeSats are launched as a piggyback on a larger primary satellite that is the one
that drives the orbit selection.

2.2. Platform Selection

The CubeSat standard allows for several configurations. Currently, there are 1U up to 6U CubeSats
in orbit, although future missions with 12U and 27U units are already planned. After a detailed study,
the 6U unit is the smallest CubeSat platform to fit the payload’s main requirements. Two arguments
lead to this conclusion:

1. High spatial resolution is achieved by using sensors with a small detector size and long focal
lengths. This discards 1U and 2U CubeSats in favor of 3U and 6U ones. In a 3U, most of the
inner space would be used for the optical sensor and the optical train, leaving little space for the
GNSS-R payload (antenna and microwave receiver) and all other satellite subsystems.
2. The electrical power to be supplied to the subsystems and payload of the 3 Cat-3/MOTS cannot
be supplied by a 3U CubeSat.

2.3. Preliminary Concepts and Simulation Configuration

One of the design guidelines of the mission has been the correct estimation of the satellite’s
lifespan and orbit lifetime. There are several internal and external factors that reduce the lifespan of
the satellite (charged particles, solar radiation, extreme temperature variations, batteries’ depth of
discharge and number of charge/discharge cycles, aging of the electronic devices, etc.). On the other
hand, there is the orbital decay, which is mostly due to atmospheric drag and is especially significant
for low earth orbit (LEO) orbits. The reentry of the satellite is both inevitable and desirable, but only
when the mission is finished. As with most CubeSats, the 3 Cat-3/MOTS will not have orbital maneuver
capabilities; therefore, the satellite’s lifespan and its orbit lifetime should be similar.

2.3.1. Orbital Lifetime

Given the characteristics of the optical payload and the pursuit of high spatial resolution images,
a 500 km orbital height is assumed for simulation purposes in the present study. The simulation of the
satellite’s orbital lifetime, the reentry time, and the orbital height fluctuations along the mission have
been predicted using DRAMA-OSCAR Graphical User Interface V.2.1.0 [14] (Figure 1). The lack of
any propulsion system and the need to comply with the recommendations [15] forces us to design
an orbit with a reentry time under 25 years. The simulation performed considered a cross-sectional
area equal to 0.01 m2 and a typical drag coefficient of 2 for LEO orbits [16], and it predicts a re-entry in
4.6 years. The re-entry survival analysis shows that no debris will reach the Earth’s surface and that all
devices will disintegrate between 71 km and 78 km height (Table 2). The reentry time of 4.6 years is in
compliance with the 3 Cat-3/MOTS mission requirements of a lifespan and orbit lifetime of at least
3 years [17].
Sensors 2018, 18, 140 4 of 18

Table 2. Reentry survivability analysis has been completed with DAS 2.02 [18]. The main subsystems
andSensors
materials
2017, 17,with
140 their specific shape, thermal mass, size, quantity, and material type have been
4 of 18
considered. All parts disintegrate between 71 km and 78 km height, therefore the casualty area and the
Table 2. are
kinetic energy Reentry survivability
equal to 0. analysis has been completed with DAS 2.02 [18]. The main subsystems
and materials with their specific shape, thermal mass, size, quantity, and material type have been
considered. All parts disintegrate between 71 km and 78 km height, therefore the casualty area and
Object Name Sub Component Object DemiseAltitude (km)
the kinetic energy are equal to 0.
Chasis 73.7
Object NameSub Component Object DemiseAltitude (km)
Solar panels 77.5
Chasis 73.7
ADCS subsystem 71.4
Solar panels 77.5
3 Cat-3/MOTS Power Subsystem 75.9
ADCS subsystem 71.4
3Cat-3/MOTS OBC
Power Subsystem 75.9 77.3
Camera
OBC 77.3 77.1
Lens
Camera 77.1 77.3
Lens 77.3
OBC: on-board computer; ADCS: Attitude Control and Determination System.
OBC: on-board computer; ADCS: Attitude Control and Determination System.

Figure 1. Apogee/Perigee Altitude history for the studied orbit (Start Year: 2019, Inclination: 55°,
Figure 1. Apogee/Perigee
RAAN (Right AscensionAltitude historyNode):
of the Ascending for the8.32°,
studied orbit0°,(Start
Arg. Peri.: MeanYear:
Anomaly2019, Inclination:
0°, and Area- 55◦ ,
RAAN (Right ◦ ◦ ◦
to-Mass:Ascension
0.006 kg/m of 2 theinitial
). The Ascending Node):
orbital height for8.32 , Arg. Peri.:
the simulation has 0
been, Mean
set to Anomaly 0 , and
500 km. Reentry willArea-to-
Mass: 0.006 kg/m
occur after 4.62 ).years,
Thewhile
initial
theorbital
missionheight for the simulation
has an expected lifespan of 2 has
years.been
Duringsetthis
to 500 km.
period, theReentry
changes
will occur afterin4.6
theyears,
orbital while
height are
thenegligible
mission forhaspayload functioning
an expected purposes.
lifespan of 2 years. During this period,
the changes in the orbital height are negligible for payload functioning purposes.
2.3.2. Shielding
Radiation and high-energy particles destroy the electronic components of the satellite at a
2.3.2. Shielding
microscopic level (transistor size in 2017 is 7–5 nm [19]). There are several sources of radiation, and
Radiation and high-energy
different techniques particles
must be applied destroy
to protect the electronic
platforms components
from their damaging effects:of the satellite at a
microscopic level (transistor size in 2017 is 7–5 nm [19]). There are several
1. Galactic Cosmic Rays (GCR) are high-energy charged particles that have originated sources ofour
outside radiation,
and different techniques
Solar must beis applied
system. Shielding to protect
not effective platforms
to protect from
the platform theirGCR.
against damaging effects:
2. Solar Energetic Particles (SEP) are electrons, protons, and heavy ions that have originated in the
1. Galactic Cosmic
Sun. Rays (GCR)
Also, gradual events are high-energy
accelerated charged
by Coronal Massparticles that have
Ejections (CME) and originated outside our
impulsive events
from Solar flares present a risk to the satellite’s electronics.
Solar system. Shielding is not effective to protect the platform against GCR.
2. Solar Energetic Particles (SEP) are electrons, protons, and heavy ions that have originated in the
Sun. Also, gradual events accelerated by Coronal Mass Ejections (CME) and impulsive events
from Solar flares present a risk to the satellite’s electronics.
Sensors 2018, 18, 140 5 of 18

3. Solar wind: Plasma of charged particles causing disturbances in the magnetosphere.

Sensors 2017, 17, 140 5 of 18
4. Radiation belts: Charged particles (protons and electrons) trapped by the Earth’s magnetic field.
3. Solar wind: Plasma of charged particles causing disturbances in the magnetosphere.
In order to secure the survivability of the satellite for at least 2 years, it is mandatory to implement
4. Radiation belts: Charged particles (protons and electrons) trapped by the Earth’s magnetic field.
some shielding around essential components, such as the payload, the OBC (On Board Computer),
In order to secure
and the Communication the survivability
System. of the radiation
The high-energy satellite for at least blocked
is mainly 2 years, by
it is
themandatory
amount oftomass
implement some shielding around essential components, such as the payload, the OBC (On Board
(thickness of the shielding) of the impacted material. Aluminum layers have been thoroughly used
Computer), and the Communication System. The high-energy radiation is mainly blocked by the
as shielding, but Z-graded shields have also proven to perform with a reduced mass compared to
amount of mass (thickness of the shielding) of the impacted material. Aluminum layers have been
Aluminum layers.
thoroughly usedThe
as NASA
shielding,Shields-1 technology
but Z-graded shieldsdemonstrator
have also proven [20]to seeks to with
perform test Z-graded shielding
a reduced mass
technology (a laminate
compared to Aluminumof several
layers.materials
The NASA with different
Shields-1 atomic numbers,
technology designed
demonstrator to protect
[20] seeks to test against
Z-
ionizing radiation)
graded shielding[21]technology
in a CubeSat with theofcorresponding
(a laminate several materialslimitations in bothatomic
with different mass and available
numbers,
room.designed
SPENVIS [22] has
to protect beenionizing
against used toradiation)
perform [21]
the in
radiation
a CubeSat analysis,
with the mainly focusing
corresponding on trapped
limitations
in both mass and available room. SPENVIS [22] has been used to perform
proton and electron fluxes, galactic cosmic ray fluxes, and damage equivalent fluencies for solarthe radiation analysis,
cells. mainly focusing protons
Both trapped on trapped andproton and contribute
electrons electron fluxes, galactic
to the Totalcosmic ray Dose
Ionizing fluxes,(TID)
and damage
along with
equivalent fluencies for solar cells. Both trapped protons and electrons contribute
Bremsstrahlung protons and Solar flare protons, but in LEO orbits, protons dominate over electrons to the Total in
Ionizing Dose (TID) along with Bremsstrahlung protons and Solar flare protons, but in LEO orbits,
contribution to the TID [23], (p. 30). Shielding, therefore, will be essential to the survival of the mission,
protons dominate over electrons in contribution to the TID [23], (p. 30). Shielding, therefore, will be
but given the high constraints of mass and size of the 6U CubeSat, the thickness of the shielding
essential to the survival of the mission, but given the high constraints of mass and size of the 6U
should be carefully
CubeSat, adjusted
the thickness to comply
of the shieldingwith its protective
should be carefullytask for the
adjusted duration
to comply ofits
with theprotective
mission task
with the
minimum weight (Figure 2). A 3 mm Aluminum plate shielding (84.3 gr) minimizes
for the duration of the mission with the minimum weight (Figure 2). A 3 mm Aluminum plate both the radiation
dose accumulated
shielding (84.3 and the shieldboth
gr) minimizes mass.the radiation dose accumulated and the shield mass.

Figure 2. Accumulated radiation dose (rad) as a function of the shielding thickness. The main
Figure 2. Accumulated radiation dose (rad) as a function of the shielding thickness. The main
contributors to the Total Ionizing Dose (TID) include trapped protons and electrons and
contributors to the Total
Bremsstrahlung Ionizing
protons. The Dose (TID)accumulated
total dose include trapped protonsreduced
is efficiently and electrons
up to aand
5 mmBremsstrahlung
shielding
protons. The total
thickness. dose accumulated is efficiently reduced up to a 5 mm shielding thickness.

2.3.3. 2.3.3. Scheduler

Scheduler
The scheduler
The scheduler handles
handles theactivity
the activity of
ofthe
thedifferent
differentsubsystems and decides
subsystems if the subsystems
and decides can
if the subsystems
be powered on, for how long, and over which regions. Scheduler activity has been defined as a
can be powered on, for how long, and over which regions. Scheduler activity has been defined as a
combination of Target Areas (TAs) to be observed and Ground Stations (GSs) to contact the satellite.
combination of Target Areas (TAs) to be observed and Ground Stations (GSs) to contact the satellite.
When the satellite flows over them, different subsystems are turned on: either the payloads to acquire
Sensors 2018,
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Sensors 2017, 17, 140 6 of 18

When the satellite flows over them, different subsystems are turned on: either the payloads to acquire
When the satellite flows over them, different subsystems are turned on: either the payloads to acquire
data or the communication
communication system to download data. The definition of these areas has a strong
data or the communication system to download data. The definition of these areas has a strong
influence
influence over
over the
the state
state of the satellite and the duty cycle of the different subsystems.
subsystems. In order to show
influence over the state of the satellite and the duty cycle of the different subsystems. In order to show
representative
representativesimulation
simulationresults, three
results, TAsTAs
three andand
threethree
GSs have
GSs been
haveconsidered in this mission
been considered in this analysis
mission
representative simulation results, three TAs and three GSs have been considered in this mission
(Figure
analysis3). The TA
(Figure 3). and
The GSTA over
and GSEurope
over overlap
Europe purposely because because
overlap purposely the UPCthe hasUPC
a ground station
has a ground
analysis (Figure 3). The TA and GS over Europe overlap purposely because the UPC has a ground
located in the Observatori del Montsec [24], close to Barcelona. The scheduler decides
station located in the Observatori del Montsec [24], close to Barcelona. The scheduler decides which which subsystem
station located in the Observatori del Montsec [24], close to Barcelona. The scheduler decides which
is active over
subsystem is which area, which
active over for how long,
area, forand
howunder
long,which budgetwhich
and under conditions
budgetto conditions
achieve payload data
to achieve
subsystem is active over which area, for how long, and under which budget conditions to achieve
fusion.
payloadIndataFigure 4, theIndata
fusion. acquired
Figure 4, theby both
data payloads
acquired byisboth
depicted. The possibility
payloads is depicted.toTheperform the data
possibility to
payload data fusion. In Figure 4, the data acquired by both payloads is depicted. The possibility to
fusion
perform with
thethedataoptical
fusion payload
with the on-board does noton-board
optical payload only dependdoesonnot
theonly
simultaneous
depend onacquisition of data
the simultaneous
perform the data fusion with the optical payload on-board does not only depend on the simultaneous
from both payloads.
acquisition of data There
from are
bothexternal
payloads.factors, suchare
There as the meteorological
external factors, suchconditions
as the(i.e., clouds, fog)
meteorological
acquisition of data from both payloads. There are external factors, such as the meteorological
and the local
conditions time,
(i.e., that can
clouds, fog)disable
and thethe acquisition
local time, thatof can
optical data.the
disable Also, the specular
acquisition reflection
of optical data.points
Also,
conditions (i.e., clouds, fog) and the local time, that can disable the acquisition of optical data. Also,
can be located
the specular outside points
reflection the optical
can beswath of the
located camera,
outside theand therefore
optical swathmakeof thedata fusion
camera, andimpossible.
therefore
the specular reflection points can be located outside the optical swath of the camera, and therefore
To
makeresolve
data this scenario,
fusion the track
impossible. of the Sentinel
To resolve 2A (equipped
this scenario, the trackwith
of thea Multi-Spectral Imager) with
Sentinel 2A (equipped is alsoa
make data fusion impossible. To resolve this scenario, the track of the Sentinel 2A (equipped with a
depicted to give an example of the possible use of another satellite’s data to achieve
Multi-Spectral Imager) is also depicted to give an example of the possible use of another satellite’s the final product
Multi-Spectral Imager) is also depicted to give an example of the possible use of another satellite’s
data
of theto3 Cat-3.
achieve the final product of the 3Cat-3.
data to achieve the final product of the 3Cat-3.

Figure 3. Target areas (TA) in red and ground stations (GS) in green considered for the simulation.
Figure 3.
Figure Target areas
3. Target areas (TA)
(TA) in
in red
red and
and ground
ground stations (GS) in
stations (GS) in green
green considered
considered for
for the
the simulation.
simulation.
The radii of the TAs (from left to right) are set to 3000 km, 3500 km, and 2000 km, respectively. The
The radii of the TAs (from left to right) are set to 3000 km, 3500 km, and 2000 km, respectively.
The radii of the TAs (from left to right) are set to 3000 km, 3500 km, and 2000 km, respectively. The
ground stations have a minimum elevation angle over the horizon of 10°. ◦
The ground
ground stations
stations havehave a minimum
a minimum elevation
elevation angle
angle overover the horizon
the horizon of 10 .
of 10°.

Figure 4. Simulation of the 3Cat-3track (red), the swath of the optic instrument (red blurred), possible
Figure 4. Simulation of the 33Cat-3track (red), the swath of the optic instrument (red blurred), possible
Figure Simulation
4. reflection
specular of the(green),
points Cat-3track (red), the
the Sentinel swath
2A/B passofcloser
the optic instrument
to the (red blurred),
Catalan territory (cyan),possible
and the
specular reflection points (green), the Sentinel 2A/B pass closer to the Catalan territory (cyan), and the
specular
swath of reflection points (green),
the optic instrument theSentinel
of the Sentinel 2A/B
2A/B(cyan
pass closer to the Catalan territory (cyan), and the
blurred).
swath of the
swath of the optic
optic instrument
instrument ofof the
the Sentinel
Sentinel 2A/B
2A/B (cyan
(cyan blurred).
blurred).
Different scenarios can be dictated by the satellite’s internal state, as well as by external factors
Different scenarios can be dictated by the satellite’s internal state, as well as by external factors
that should bescenarios
Different approached by dictated
can be a different set of
by the rules. The
satellite’s scheduler’s
internal state, asplanning
well as bycan never factors
external jeopardize
that
that should be approached by a different set of rules. The scheduler’s planning can never jeopardize
the survival of the mission. The scheduler controls the activity and duty cycle
should be approached by a different set of rules. The scheduler’s planning can never jeopardize theof the different
the survival of the mission. The scheduler controls the activity and duty cycle of the different
subsystems
survival as mission.
of the sketchedThe
in Figure 5. The
scheduler simulations
controls presented
the activity in this
and duty report
cycle consider
of the differentthe following
subsystems
subsystems as sketched in Figure 5. The simulations presented in this report consider the following
guidelines
as sketchedpresented
in Figure by priority-check
5. The simulations order:
presented in this report consider the following guidelines
guidelines presented by priority-check order:
presented by priority-check order:
Sensors 2018, 18, 140 7 of 18

1.SensorsThe
2017, 17, 140 tolerance of all devices and materials on-board the satellite. The scheduler takes7into
thermal of 18

consideration the energy dissipated in the form of heat by all devices on-board, as well as the
1. The thermal tolerance of all devices and materials on-board the satellite. The scheduler takes
Sun-eclipse periods experienced by the satellite. The heater will turn on if the temperature drops
into consideration the energy dissipated in the form of heat by all devices on-board, as well as
under a threshold and will not power off until the temperature reaches a certain level (5 ◦ C and
the Sun-eclipse periods experienced by the satellite. The heater will turn on if the temperature
8 ◦ C, respectively). The batteries have the most restrictive temperature working range (between
drops under a threshold and will not power off until the temperature reaches a certain level
0 ◦ C and 45 ◦ C); therefore, the hysteresis cycle that controls the heater prevents it from turning
(5 °C and 8 °C, respectively). The batteries have the most restrictive temperature working range
on/off constantly.
(between 0 °C and 45 °C); therefore, the hysteresis cycle that controls the heater prevents it from
2. The impossibility to recharge the batteries in case of a total discharge as well as the maximum
turning on/off constantly.
number of cycles of charge and discharge under different Depth of Discharge (DoD) levels as
2. The impossibility to recharge the batteries in case of a total discharge as well as the maximum
specified by the manufacturer (e.g., [25]).
number of cycles of charge and discharge under different Depth of Discharge (DoD) levels as
3. The amount of data stored in the on-board memory. The scheduler is programed to give priority
specified by the manufacturer (e.g., [25]).
to the discharge of the data over the acquisition of new data when the amount of data stored
3. The amount of data stored in the on-board memory. The scheduler is programed to give priority
on-board exceeds a certain limit. On the other hand, when the memory is below certain level
to the discharge of the data over the acquisition of new data when the amount of data stored on-
(20% of the total storage maximum capacity) data acquisition has priority over the download
board exceeds a certain limit. On the other hand, when the memory is below certain level (20%
of data.
of the total storage maximum capacity) data acquisition has priority over the download of data.

Figure5.5.Conceptual
Figure Conceptualdiagram
diagramon onthe
thedependency
dependencyofofthe
theactivity
activityof
ofthe
thedifferent
differentsubsystems
subsystemswith
withthe
the
budgetsthat
budgets thatreflect
reflectthe
theresults
resultsofofthe
thesimulation.
simulation.UHF:
UHF:ultra-high
ultra-highfrequency;
frequency;SD:
SD:secure
securedigital.
digital.

3.3.Results
Results

3.1.Mission
3.1. MissionAnalysis
Analysis
The mission
The mission analysis
analysis isis carried
carried out
out by
by monitoring
monitoring the the satellite’s
satellite’s capability
capability to
to power
power up up all
all
subsystems (Power
subsystems (Power Budget),
Budget), thethe heat
heat balance
balance (Thermal
(Thermal Budget),
Budget), and
and thethe capability
capability toto store
store and
and
download the
download the acquired
acquired data
data(Data
(DataBudget).
Budget).InIn order to have
order an overall
to have vision
an overall of theofsatellite’s
vision status
the satellite’s
the MOTS
status End-to-end
the MOTS Performance
End-to-end Simulator
Performance (MEPS) simulator
Simulator has been developed
(MEPS) simulator [26]. In order
has been developed to
[26].
obtain
In order consistent results, it
to obtain consistent is necessary
results, to calculate
it is necessary all all
to calculate budgets
budgets simultaneously
simultaneouslydue due to the
to the
interdependency of all variables that govern the
interdependency of all variables that govern the system. system.

3.1.1.Payload
3.1.1. PayloadAnalysis
Analysis
ItItwas
was decided
decided the 3 Cat-3/MOTS
that that the 3Cat-3/MOTSmissionmission would
would carry carry two
on-board on-board two
payloads: payloads: a
a multispectral
multispectral
optical optical
sensor [27] in thesensor [27] in and
VNIR (Visible the Near-InfraRed)
VNIR (Visible [28,29]
and Near-InfraRed) [28,29] and The
and a GNSS-Reflectometer. a GNSS-
final
Reflectometer.
product The of
will consist final
dataproduct will consist
fusion from of datamerging
both payloads fusion from both payloads
the multispectral merging
image obtainedthe
multispectral
from the opticalimage
sensorobtained
and the datafromcollected
the optical
by thesensor and the
geolocated data collected
reflectometer. This by the details
section geolocated
the
reflectometer.
performance ofThis sectionsensor
the optical detailsandthe the
performance of the optical
GNSS-Reflectometer sensor
from and the
the point of GNSS-Reflectometer
view of the physical
from the point
constraints of view of
and technical the physicaltoconstraints
requirements and technical
fulfill the mission requirements to fulfill the mission
statement.
statement.
Sensors 2018, 18, 140 8 of 18

• Optical Sensor
The selected COTS (Commercial off the Shelf) optical sensor and telephoto lens (Table 3) fulfill
the mission statement described in Section 2 in terms of the Ground Sampling Distance (GSD) and
swath. The study has thoroughly considered several COTS candidates for the optical sensor and lenses,
but the decisive criterion was the solution adopted to provide multispectrality to the optical system
with reliable technology. The standard solution of a filter wheel presents a problem for both the size
of the wheel and the filter switch delay introduced into the acquisition of the multispectral image.
The selected camera [29] has a set of up to two charge-coupled device (CCD) optical sensors with its
own filters, solving the multispectrality issue. The size of the camera allows for a 75 mm optical focal
length lens. The resulting GSD at nadir is calculated from the sensor’s pixel size (p), the focal length of
the assembly (f), and the platform height (h) given the specifications of the manufacturer:

p·h
GSD = . (1)
f

Table 3. Manufacturer’s specifications of both the optical sensor and the telephoto lens.

Optical Sensor
Sensor tech CCD
# pixels 1296 × 966
Pixel size (m) 3.75
Digitalization (bits) 8/12
Power consumption 12 VDC/8W
Shutter exposure (ms) min. 6.5
LENS
Focal length (mm) 75
Aperture (f/#) f/2.8
Angle of view D 12
Weight (g) 765
Diameter × length (mm) 36 × 64.3
CCD: charge-coupled device.

The predicted GSD values are only correct if the aperture of the optical system is large enough
so as to satisfy the Rayleigh’s diffraction criterion. As the wavelength increases, the condition of the
minimum aperture diameter (AP) of the optical system becomes more stringent:

λmax ·h
APmin = , (2)
GSD
where λmax is the longest wavelength among all bands. Assuming a narrow swath, it is directly
calculated from the GSD obtained as:

Swath ∼
= #pixels·GSD, (3)

where #pixels is the number of pixels in the cross-track direction. Another key parameter calculated
after the swath is the Field of View (FOV). The lens manufacturer provides the FOV defined in the
horizontal, vertical, and diagonal directions, which has to be larger than:
 
swath
FOV = 2·arctan , (4)
2·h

so that the whole image is projected on the sensor. In order to measure the feasibility of the optical
system in terms of image quality from the orbital configuration described, the signal-to-noise ratio
(SNR) must also be calculated. The solar radiation spectrum at the top of the atmosphere (TOA) is not
 Sensors 2017, 17, 140

Sensors 2018, 18, 140 9 of 18

not constant in all bands of interest; thus, the reflected electromagne
Sensors 2017, 17, 140 optical sensor has different signal power values9 of for18each band studied
constant in all bands of interest; thus, the reflected electromagnetic (EM) wave received by the optical · · · ·∆
not constant
sensor in all bands
has different signalof interest;
power thus,
values forthe
each reflected
band studied electromagnetic
[5], (pp. 17–20).(EM) wave received by=the · #
,
optical sensor has different signal power values for each band studied [5], (pp. 17–20).
0
·τ2atm ·ρEλ ·Area
Eλwhere is the
det · ∆λ
Exo-Atmospheric Irradiance (EAI) in (W2/m2·n
Signal Power = transmission
=
· · ·
π·G
·∆
coefficient,
,
,  is the reflectance over (5)
(5) the Earth’s surface
· #
value, Area #
is the area of the pixel in the detector provided by
where EEλ0 isis the the Exo-Atmospheric
Exo-Atmospheric IrradianceIrradiancereceiver
(EAI)
(EAI) inoptical in (W
(W /m 2 2 /m ·nm), width,
22·nm),
spectral τatm is and the G-number ( # ) , which
the atmospheric
atmospheric
transmission coefficient, ρλ isisthe thereflectance
reflectanceoverover the
theEarth’s
characterizes Earth’s surface,surface,
the optical which
which
system:depends
depends on the albedo
value, Area Areadet isisthe area
the area of the pixel
of the in the
pixel in detector
the detector provided provided by theby manufacturer,
the manufacturer, ∆λ is the∆ receiver
is the × #
optical
receiverspectral
opticalwidth,
spectral andwidth,
the G-number
and the (G # ), which includes
G-number ( # ) , which includes( fthe
the f-number f-number #( =the
# ), characterizes #) , ×
,
optical system:
characterizes the optical system:
where is defined as the ratio between the focal length and the ap
1 + 4 × f #2#
G# = =the optical × # , (6)
# τopt × , transmissivity for all of the optical train (6) (optical sensor plu
× π
to compute the SNR is the Noise Equivalent Power (NEP), which is a
where f ##isisdefined
where definedasasthe theratio between
ratio between thethe
focal length
photodetector
focal length and andthein aperture:
the terms
aperture: # =# f=
of fnoise: /AP, and
/AP, τoptτis the
and is
optical transmissivity for all of the optical train (optical sensor plus
the optical transmissivity for all of the optical train (optical sensor plus lens). The other factor needed lens). The other factor needed to
compute thethe
SNR is is
the Noise Equivalent 2 · of the + · · )·
to compute SNR the Noise EquivalentPower
Power(NEP), (NEP),which whichisisaameasure measureof ofthe
the goodness
=
goodness of the .
·λ
photodetector
photodetector in in terms
terms of of noise:
noise: ŋ· ·
c·h
2 ·2·q( Ids++ In F·· M2 ··Idb )·)B· (7), q is the electric charge of the electron (C), h = 6.63
p
NEP==  Equation . . (7)
q··λλ quantum efficiency, which changes for each (7)
ŋŋ··is cthe · ·
M band and it is p
c ··hh
and are the surface and bulk dark currents, respectively (A),
the electric charge of the M is
In Equation (7), q is the electric charge of the electron (C), hh==6.63
In Equation (7), q is electron the multiplication
(C), ·10−
6.63·10 factor
34 J·S
−34 of
J·Sis the
isthe avalanche
thePlanck
Planck diode, which in this ca
constant,
constant,
ŋ is
is thethe quantum
quantum efficiency,
efficiency, which
which changes
changes for no
for each photo
each band band and multiplication
and it it is involved,
is particular
particular for for theand B (Hz)
the optical is the inverse of the inte
optical sensor,
sensor,
Ids and
and Idb are arethethe surface
surface andand
bulkbulk
darkdark currents,
currents, respectively
respectively (A), (A), F isexcess
F is the the excess
noisenoise
factorfactor
(−), M(−),is ·
≥ = = ,
M is the multiplication factor of the avalanche diode, which in this
the multiplication factor of the avalanche diode, which in this case is F = M = 1, because there is no · case is F = M = 1, because there is
no photo
photo multiplication
multiplication involved,
involved, andand B (Hz)
B (Hz) is the
is the inverse inverse of the of the integration
integration time, time,
which is related ·
to the satellite’s ground speed and the GSD (Eq
≥ 1 = 1 = 2·Vgrd, (8)
B≥ = GSD ·
Table = 4. Results , of the mission analysis for the (8) optical payload p
Tintegration 2·Vgrd
GSD
which is related to the satellite’s ground speed and Commercial
the GSDoff the Shelf (COTS)
(Equation (1)). camera and lens specified in Table 3
described in Section 2.1.
which is related to the Vgrd satellite’s ground speed and the GSD (Equation (1)).
Table 4. Results of the mission analysis for the optical payload performance considering the
Optical parameters Bands performa
Commercial
Table off of
4. Results thetheShelf (COTS)
mission camera
analysis andoptical
for the lens specified in Table 3 and
payload performance the orbital
considering theconfiguration
Commercial
described in Section 2.1.
off the Shelf (COTS) camera and lens specified in Table Swath in the
3 and (km):
orbital configuration described in 34.7
Section 2.1. Max. aperture of the lens
Optical parameters Bands performance 33.6
in (mm):
Optical parameters
Swath in (km): StudiedBands
34.7 performance
Bands: 475 (nm) 555 (nm) 650 (nm)
Swath in (km): of the lens
Max. aperture Aperture 33.6 34.7 for each
required
Max. aperture of the lens in (mm):
in (mm): band to satisfy33.6
Rayleigh 8.9 10.4 12.2
Studied Bands: 475 (nm) 555 (nm) 650 (nm) 710 (nm) 870 (nm)
Studied Bands: 475 (nm) 555 (nm) criterion in (mm):
650 (nm) 710 (nm) 870 (nm)
Aperture required for each band to
8.9 10.4 12.2 13.3 16.3
satisfy Rayleigh
Aperture criterion
required in (mm):
for each GSD for each band after
GSD
bandfortoeach band
satisfy after Rayleigh 8.9
Rayleigh 26.8 10.4 Rayleigh
26.78 12.2criterion 13.3 26.78 26.8 16.3
26.78in (m): 26.78
26.78 26.78
criterion in (m):
criterion in (mm):
SNR for each band in (dB): 37.3 40.4for each band
SNR 41.2 in (dB): 41.6 37.3 36.9 40.4 41.2
GSD for each band after
26.8 26.78 26.78 26.78 26.78
Rayleigh criterion in (m):
Results are presented in Table 4 and fulfill the mission
Resultsstatement requirements.
are presented in Table 4 The
and following
fulfill the mission statemen
sections
SNRspecify
for eachthe design
band and simulated
in (dB): 37.3 performance
40.4 of all of
41.2 the required
41.6 subsystems needed
36.9
sections specify the design and simulated performance to of all of the r
enable the payloads and the transmission of the data acquired to the ground stations.
enable the payloads and the transmission of the data acquired to the g
Results are presented in Table 4 and fulfill the mission statement requirements. The following
sections specify the design and simulated performance of all of the required subsystems needed to
enable the payloads and the transmission of the data acquired to the ground stations.
Sensors 2018, 18, 140 10 of 18

• GNSS-Reflectometer
The GNSS payload of the 3 CAT-3 is being developed in parallel with the 3 Cat-4 ESA Fly Your
Satellite project, in which the UPC NanoSat Lab [12] is also participating. This 1U CubeSat will carry a
flexible microwave payload: an Automatic Identification System (AIS), a GNSS Reflectometer, and a
microwave Radiometer [30]. The use of a software-defined radio (SDR) as a data logger is essential to
reduce power consumption, the size of the payload, and cost. The scope of the 3 Cat-3 is to perform data
fusion between the optical payload and the GNSS-R data. The radiometer capabilities of the flexible
microwave payload designed for the 3 Cat-4 are being evaluated as a possible inclusion in the 3 Cat-3
only if they do not jeopardize the development of the main mission in terms of power availability,
data budget, and platform design. If the payload were to include a radiometer, the duty cycle of the
down-looking antenna (GNSS receivers use GPS, Galileo, GLONASS, and Beidou systems) would
increase and thus the power consumed would also increase. There are two possible configurations
for the down-looking antenna with a minimum directivity of 12 dB: a 2 × 2 patch array, tested and
integrated in the 3 Cat-2 (in the 3 Cat-2 it was a 2 × 3 patch array because all of the nadir-looking side
was dedicated to the antenna), and a helix antenna, which is being developed for the 3 Cat-4.

3.1.2. Power Subsystem and Budget

The power subsystem consists of three separated main elements: the Electric Power System (EPS),
the batteries, and the solar panels. An overall 80% efficiency has been considered for the Maximum
Power Point Tracking (MPPT) and charger. The scheduler defines the set of rules under which the
EPS will provide power to every subsystem on demand. On their behalf, each subsystem will try
to be powered up when the satellite passes over certain defined areas (TA, GS, or during all orbit).
Table 5 lists each subsystem, the regions over which they need to be powered on, and the typical and
maximum power consumption. The battery heater’s schedule is controlled by the thermal budget,
which monitors its temperature. The state of the battery heater responds to survival reasons, so it
might need to be powered on over any area. Similarly, the ADCS needs to be powered on over TAs
(for payload pointing accuracy) and GSs (for antenna pointing reasons), but the power peak when
switching it on may indicate that it is preferable to keep the ADCS on during all orbit.

Table 5. The different subsystems will try to power on over different regions. The scheduler is in charge
of checking the state of the satellite to allow or deny the activation of all non-survival subsystems.
Green—attempt to power up; Yellow—powered up under survival conditions and power save mode;
Red—no attempt to power up.

Consued Power
TA GS All Orbit
Typical (W) Max. (W)
Optical payload - 6
GNNS-R payload 1.5 2
Battery heater 0.5 2.5
ADCS 0.5 2.5
S-band TX 8 12
VHF TX 2.9 3.1
Primary OBC 2.3 2.3
Secondary OBC 0.2 0.9
GNNS-R: Global Navigation Satellite Systems Reflectometry.

• Solar Panels
The Indium Gallium phosphide/Gallium arsenide/Germanium (GaInP/GaAs/Ge) triple-
junction cells solar panels considered have 30% efficiency [31]. In order to account for the total
energy collected by the satellite, both the direct Sun radiation and the radiation scattered on the surface
of the Earth (albedo radiation, Figure 6) have been considered changing along the track. The platform
has been modelled as a ~10 × 20 × 30 cm3 parallelepiped so as to consider the incident angle between
• Solar Panels
The Indium Gallium phosphide/Gallium arsenide/Germanium (GaInP/GaAs/Ge) triple-junction
Sensors 2017, 17, 140 11 of 18
cells solar panels considered have 30% efficiency [31]. In order to account for the total energy collected
by the• satellite, both the direct Sun radiation and the radiation scattered on the surface of the Earth
Solar Panels
Sensors 2018, 18, 140 11 of 18
(albedo radiation, Figure 6) have been considered changing along the track. The platform has been
The Indium Gallium phosphide/Gallium arsenide/Germanium (GaInP/GaAs/Ge) triple-junction
modelled as a panels
cells solar ~10 × considered
20 × 30 cmhave 3 parallelepiped so as to consider the incident angle between both
30% efficiency [31]. In order to account for the total energy collected
radiation
by thesources
both radiation and
sources
satellite, the
bothand solar
the the
directpanels
solar mounted
Sunpanels onthe
mounted
radiation and theon sides (Figure
the sides
radiation 7).onIt 7).
(Figure
scattered is necessary
the It to detail
is necessary
surface of the the
to detail
Earth
orientation
(albedo ofradiation,
the orientation theofsatellite to interpret
Figure
the satellite 6)to
have the results
been
interpret of the
considered
the results ofsimulation.
changing along The nadir
the track.
the simulation. The The direction
nadir is aligned
platform
directionhas is
been with
aligned
the −z axis and
modelled the
as a linear
~10 × velocity
20 × 30 cmof the satellite is aligned with the +y axis.
3 parallelepiped so as to consider the incident angle between both
with the −z axis and the linear velocity of the satellite is aligned with the +y axis.
radiation sources and the solar panels mounted on the sides (Figure 7). It is necessary to detail the
orientation of the satellite to interpret the results of the simulation. The nadir direction is aligned with
the −z axis and the linear velocity of the satellite is aligned with the +y axis.

Figure
Figure6.6.Reflectivity
Reflectivitydatadatafrom
fromEarth’s
Earth’ssurface
surface(source
(sourceTOMS,
TOMS,Total
TotalOzone
OzoneMapping
MappingSpectrometer).
Spectrometer).
The Figure 6. Reflectivity
of 360data
× from
288 Earth’s
cells has surface
been (source
reduced TOMS,
in a Total
factor of Ozone
4 to Mapping
lighten theSpectrometer).
The original matrix of 360 × 288 cells has been reduced in a factor of 4 to lighten the computingtime.
original matrix computing time.
The original
TOMS-EP measuredmatrixtotal
of 360ozone
× 288 cells
by has been reduced
observing both inincoming
a factor of solar
4 to lighten the computing
energy time.
and backscattered
TOMS-EP measured total ozone by observing both incoming solar energy and backscattered ultraviolet
TOMS-EP
ultraviolet (UV).measured total ozoneamount
By comparing by observing both incoming solar to
energy and backscattered
(UV). By comparing the amount the of backscattered
of backscattered radiation
radiation to observations observations
of of incoming
incoming solar energy at
ultraviolet (UV). By comparing the amount of backscattered radiation to observations of incoming
solar energy
identical at identicalitwavelengths,
wavelengths, is possible toitinfer
is possible
Earth’sto infer Earth’s albedo.
albedo.
solar energy at identical wavelengths, it is possible to infer Earth’s albedo.
-3 -3
x 10 Area projected by side 1 Area projected by side 2 x-310 Area projected by side 3
-3
8 x 10 Area projected by side 1 0.06 Area projected by side 2 3.5
x 10 Area projected by side 3
8 0.06 3.5

0.05 3
0.05 3
6 6
0.040.04 2.52.5
Area [mm2]

Area [mm2]

Area [mm2]
Area [mm2]

Area [mm2]

Area [mm2]

2 2
4 4 0.030.03
1.51.5

0.020.02 1 1
2
2
0.01 0.5
0.01 0.5
0 0 0
0 0 1 2 3 4 5 0 0 1 2 3 4 5 00 1 2 3 4 5
0 1 2 Simulation
3 time [days]
4 5 0 1 2
Simulation time3[days] 4 5 0 1
Simulation 2 [days]3
time 4 5
Simulation time [days] Simulation time [days] Simulation time [days]
Area projected by side 4 Area projected by side 5 Area projected by side 6
0.03 Area projected by side 4 0.06 Area projected by side 5 0.02 Area projected by side 6
0.03 0.06 0.02
0.025 0.05
0.015
0.025 0.05
0.02 0.04
0.015
Area [mm2]

Area [mm2]

Area [mm2]

0.02 0.015 0.040.03 0.01

Area [mm2]

Area [mm2]

Area [mm2]

0.015 0.01 0.030.02 0.01

0.005
0.01 0.005 0.020.01
0.005
0.005 0 0.01 0 0
0 1 2 3 4 5 0 1 2 3 4 5 0 1 2 3 4 5
Simulation time [days] Simulation time [days] Simulation time [days]
0 0 0
0 1 2 3 4 5 0 1 2 3 4 5 0 1 2 3 4 5
Figure 7. Instantaneous
Simulation time [days] effective area exposed to thetime
Simulation Sun of each side of the 6U CubeSat
[days] along
Simulation time5[days]
days
Figure 7. Instantaneous effective area exposed to the Sun of each side of the 6U CubeSat along 5 days
of simulation. Each side of the CubeSat presents a different angle towards the Sun, which affects the
of simulation.
Figure Each sideeffective
7. Instantaneous of the CubeSat presents
area exposed a different
to the angle
Sun of each towards
side of the the Sun, which
6U CubeSat affects
along the
5 days
collected energy.
collected
of energy.
simulation. Each side of the CubeSat presents a different angle towards the Sun, which affects the
collected energy.
• BATTERIES
Typically, the manufacturer provides the DoD [31] of the batteries as a maximum number of cycles
of charge/discharge at 25% and 75% of the total charge (A·h) stored. The life cycle of the mission may
depend, to a large extent, on the DoD policy. As specified by the scheduler, there are a few survival
 Sensors 2017, 17, 140 12 of 18

Sensors•2018,BATTERIES
18, 140 12 of 18

Typically, the manufacturer provides the DoD [31] of the batteries as a maximum number of
subsystemsofthat
cycles charge/discharge
must be poweredat 25%onand
all75%
theoftime,
the total
butcharge
others(A·h)
maystored.
not beThe life cycledue
activated of the
to mission
low battery
may depend,
charge values. to a large extent, on the DoD policy. As specified by the scheduler, there are a few
survival subsystems that must be powered on all the time, but others may not be activated due to
• Power Budget
low battery charge values.
•
The power budget provides instantaneous battery charge throughout the simulation period
Power Budget
(Figure 8).The
It shows
powerthe stateprovides
budget of the batteries’ charge
instantaneous (A·h),charge
battery already balancingthe
throughout thesimulation
incoming/outgoing
period
charge from the
(Figure 8). Itphotovoltaic
shows the stateconverter and to the
of the batteries’ subsystems.
charge Thebalancing
(A·h), already eclipse periods, which account for
the incoming/outgoing
approximately
charge from 30%the of the orbit, converter
photovoltaic are automatically
and to thetreated by the
subsystems. Thescheduler, whichwhich
eclipse periods, denies all power
account
for approximately 30% of the orbit, are automatically treated by the scheduler, which
demands from the subsystems that are not essential for survival. In the simulation, a maximum 20% denies all power
usagedemands from
of the total the subsystems
battery charge has that are not
been essential for
established survival.
in order In the simulation,
to increase a maximum
the lifespan 20% as
of the satellite
muchusage of the total battery charge has been established in order to increase the lifespan of the satellite
as possible.
as much as possible.
Charge and discharge of the battery

Battery charge
20 90% DOD
75% DOD
18 25% DOD
16

14
Charge [A·h]

12

10

0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4 4.5 5
Simulation time [days]

Figure 8. 3 Cat-3/MOTS
Figure 8. 3Cat-3/MOTS power
power budget.In
budget. Inblue
blue is
is the
the instantaneous
instantaneouscharge
chargeof of
thethe
batteries (A·h)
batteries (Aduring
·h) during
5 days of simulation. After an initial transition period, the scheduler takes command
5 days of simulation. After an initial transition period, the scheduler takes command and the and the budget
budget is
more is more predictable
predictable becausebecause the activity
the activity and duty
and duty cycles cycles of devices
of the the devices are firmly
are firmly controlled.
controlled. The
The green,
green, blue, and red levels are at 90%, 75%, and 25% Depth of Discharge (DoD), respectively. The total
blue, and red levels are at 90%, 75%, and 25% Depth of Discharge (DoD), respectively. The total battery
battery capacity is 20.8 A·h, in a configuration of two modules of 10.4 A·h.
capacity is 20.8 A·h, in a configuration of two modules of 10.4 A·h.
3.1.3. Thermal Budget
3.1.3. Thermal Budget
Temperatures in the thermosphere vary radically depending on the Sun’s illumination. The
Temperatures
dependence on in the
solar thermosphere
activity and the cyclesvaryof radically
shadowingdepending
illumination on theday
every Sun’s
form illumination.
a highly
variable thermal scenario. On the other hand, electronic devices have a well-defined
The dependence on solar activity and the cycles of shadowing illumination every day form a highly temperature
operating
variable range
thermal (Table 6).
scenario. On The
theplatform is exposed
other hand, to high devices
electronic temperatures
havewhen in direct linetemperature
a well-defined of sight
of the Sun and, if not properly defined, to very low temperatures when shadowed by the Earth. The
operating range (Table 6). The platform is exposed to high temperatures when in direct line of sight
simulation takes into account as heat sources the direct Sun radiation, the reflected radiation on the
of the Sun and, if not properly defined, to very low temperatures when shadowed by the Earth.
Earth’s surface (albedo radiation), the Earth’s radiation or Earthshine, and the internal heat
The simulation takes into account as heat sources the direct Sun radiation, the reflected radiation on the
dissipation of the electronic devices when they are turned on. On the other hand, the satellite itself
Earth’s surface (albedo radiation),
radiates heat to space depending the
onEarth’s radiation
the surface or Earthshine,
and emissivity and the
of the solar cellsinternal heat
and other dissipation
materials.
of the electronic devices when they are turned on. On the other hand, the satellite itself radiates heat to
space depending on the surface and emissivity of the solar cells and other materials.
Sensors 2017, 17, 140 13 of 18

SensorsTable 6. 140
2018, 18, Operational temperature (°C) of all devices on-board the Cat-3/MOTS sensible of 3
13 of 18
malfunctioning due to temperature changes. Higlighted in red, the batteries, are the most restrictive
temperature conditions’ device.
Table 6. Operational temperature (◦ C) of all devices on-board the 3 Cat-3/MOTS sensible of
Operational
malfunctioning due to temperature changes. Higlighted in Temperature (°C) are the most restrictive
red, the batteries,
temperature conditions’Device
device. min. max.
6U Chasis -40 85
Operational Temperature (◦ C)
Solar panels -40 85
Device min. max.
EPS6U Chasis -40 −40 85
125
Solar panels −40 85
Batteries 0 45
EPS −40 125
ADCS Batteries -40 0 80
45
ADCS −40 80
OBC -40 60
OBC −40 60
S-band TX TX
S-band -40 −40 85
85
Optical payload −40 60
Optical payload -40 60
EPS: electric power system.
EPS: electric power system.

To
To better
better control
control the
the satellite
satellite temperature,
temperature, aa coating
coating should
should be be applied
applied to to the
the surface
surface ofof the
the
satellite
satellite to vary the coefficient of absorptance and emittance. The satellite’s structure is covered with
to vary the coefficient of absorptance and emittance. The satellite’s structure is covered with
polished
polished beryllium,
beryllium, which
which has
has an
an absorptance
absorptance coefficient
coefficient ofof αα== 0.44
0.44 and
and an
an emittance
emittance coefficient
coefficient of
of
εε == 0.01
0.01 [23],
[23], (p.
(p. 363).
363). This
Thiscoating
coatingisiswill
willhelp
helpto
toincrease
increase the
the satellite’s
satellite’s temperature
temperature thatthat drops
drops during
during
eclipse
eclipse periods
periods (simulated
(simulated instantaneous
instantaneous average
average temperature
temperature of of the
the satellite,
satellite, Figure
Figure 9).
9). The
The polished
polished
beryllium has a medium absorptance coefficient, but an extremely low emittance
beryllium has a medium absorptance coefficient, but an extremely low emittance coefficient. Another coefficient. Another
alternative explored was to apply a coating with higher absorptance in order
alternative explored was to apply a coating with higher absorptance in order to capture more heat, to capture more heat,
for
for example
example black
black paint
paint(epoxy),
(epoxy),αα==0.950.95andandεε==0.85
0.85[23],
[23],(p.
(p.363).
363).TheThesimulations,
simulations,however,
however,showshow a
much lower thermal budget due also to the higher emittance of the black
a much lower thermal budget due also to the higher emittance of the black paint (Figure 10).paint (Figure 10).
As
As mentioned
mentioned in in Section
Section 3. C. Scheduler,
3. C. Scheduler, the
the thermal
thermal budget
budget indirectly
indirectly controls
controls the
the battery
battery heater
heater
which
which will
will power
power onon independently
independently of of the
the scheduler
scheduler ifif the
the temperature
temperature drops drops under
under certain
certain levels
levels to
to
preserve the thermal range tolerance of the devices
preserve the thermal range tolerance of the devices on-board. on-board.

Satellite instantaneous temperature [ºC]

30
Eclipse
No eclipse
25

20
Temperatura [ºC]

15

10

0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4 4.5 5
Simulation time [days]

Figure 9. 3Cat-3/MOTS thermal budget. In blue/red, instantaneous satellite temperature (°C) for a 5-
Figure 9. 3 Cat-3/MOTS thermal budget. In blue/red, instantaneous satellite temperature (◦ C) for a
day simulation. The red color shows the temperature when there is no solar eclipse. On the contrary,
5-day simulation. The red color shows the temperature when there is no solar eclipse. On the contrary,
the blue color shows the temperature while in Sun eclipse periods. The satellite’s initial temperature
the blue color shows the temperature while in Sun eclipse periods. The satellite’s initial temperature
has been set to 25 °C. There is a noticeable permanent regime temperature around 10 °C. The
has been set to 25 ◦ C. There is a noticeable permanent regime temperature around 10 ◦ C. The maximum
maximum temperature
temperature reached is approximately
reached is approximately 27 ◦ C and the 27 °C and temperature
minimum the minimum temperature
4 ◦ C. 4 °C. and
The absorptance The
absorptance and emittance coefficients of the coating (polished beryllium) are
emittance coefficients of the coating (polished beryllium) are 0.44 and 0.01, respectively.0.44 and 0.01,
respectively.
Sensors 2018, 18, 140 14 of 18
Sensors 2017, 17, 140 14 of 18

Satellite instantaneous temperature [ºC]

30
Eclipse
25 No eclipse

20

15
Temperatura [ºC]

10

-5

-10

-15
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4 4.5 5
Simulation time [days]

Figure
Figure 10.10.
3Cat-3/MOTS thermal budget. In blue/red is the instantaneous satellite temperature (°C)
3 Cat-3/MOTS thermal budget. In blue/red is the instantaneous satellite temperature (◦ C)
for a 5-day simulation.
for a 5-day simulation. The The
redred color
color shows
shows thethe temperature
temperature when
when there
there is no
is no solar
solar eclipse.
eclipse. OnOn thethe
contrary, the blue color shows the temperature while in Sun eclipse periods.
contrary, the blue color shows the temperature while in Sun eclipse periods. The satellite’s initial The satellite’s initial
temperature
temperature hashas
beenbeen
setset to 25
to 25 ◦ C.°C. There
There is aisnoticeable
a noticeable permanent
permanent regime
regime temperature
temperature around
around −2−2 °C.
◦ C.
The
The maximum
maximum temperature
temperature reached
reached is the
is the initial
initial temperature
temperature at 25
at 25 ◦ C °C
andand
thethe minimum
minimum is −is11
−11 °C.
◦ C.
The absorptance and emittance coefficients of the coating (black paint) are
The absorptance and emittance coefficients of the coating (black paint) are 0.95 and 0.85m respectively. 0.95 and 0.85m
respectively.
3.1.4. Data Handling and Budget
3.1.4. Data Handling and Budget
The data download is performed with an S-band link when there is contact with a ground station
The data download is performed with an S-band link when there is contact with a ground station
and the scheduler powers on the communication subsystem. The amount of data acquired by the
and the scheduler powers on the communication subsystem. The amount of data acquired by the
optical system can easily get out of hand if the duty cycle is not carefully controlled. The camera
optical system can easily get out of hand if the duty cycle is not carefully controlled. The camera
acquires images of 1.25 MP. With a digitalization of 12 bits/pixel, each image is in the order of 1.9 MB.
acquires images of 1.25 MP. With a digitalization of 12 bits/pixel, each image is in the order of 1.9 MB.
Considering the size of the image (1296 × 966 pixels at approximately 26.6 m GSD), the necessary
Considering the size of the image (1296 × 966 pixels at approximately 26.6 m GSD), the necessary
overlapping (5% to 15%) to ease the formation of the mosaic picture, and the ground speed of the
overlapping (5% to 15%) to ease the formation of the mosaic picture, and the ground speed of the
satellite (7.06 km/s at an orbital altitude of 500 km), the optical system will generate roughly 4 Mbps of
satellite (7.06 km/s at an orbital altitude of 500 km), the optical system will generate roughly 4 Mbps
data (neither optical data compression, nor GNSS data acquisition have been considered). This amount
of data (neither optical data compression, nor GNSS data acquisition have been considered). This
of 4 Mbps of data generated at 100% of duty cycle is overwhelming. Typical commercial values of
amount of 4 Mbps of data generated at 100% of duty cycle is overwhelming. Typical commercial
S-band link modules are less than 4 Mbps [31,32], and the average contact time with the GSs, located
values of S-band link modules are less than 4 Mbps [31,32], and the average contact time with the
as described in Figure 2, is around 5.3% of the orbit (Figure 11). For the simulations, two scenarios
GSs, located as described in Figure 2, is around 5.3% of the orbit (Figure 11). For the simulations, two
have been considered for the S-band link speed: 0.1 Mbps and 0.5 Mbps. The contact time with the
scenarios have been considered for the S-band link speed: 0.1 Mbps and 0.5 Mbps. The contact time
GSs is the same for all simulations: 5.3% of the orbital period.
with the GSs is the same for all simulations: 5.3% of the orbital period.
The data download is the final step of the main objective of the mission, so the scheduler gives
priority to the data download over the acquisition of new data if the power available is disputed.
It is assumed that the OBC has a storage limit of 2 GB, and two cases (a 0.1 Mbps data rate and a
0.5 Mbps data rate) have been assumed in order to perform the data budget. For the 0.1 Mbps downlink
(Figure 12), the amount of data stored in the on-board memory is steadily growing. The transmission
rate does not compensate for the data input flux, so given the acquisition configuration over the TAs,
the mission will lose data acquired. This situation is corrected by increasing the download data rate to
0.5 Mbps (Figure 13). The output flux is now higher than the input flux so, all data acquired is rapidly
downloaded to the GS’s.
 1
Sensors 2018, 18, 140 15 of 18

Contact GS
Sensors 2017, 17, 140 15 of 18

Contact with all GS's, 1st satellite = 377 minutes

1.5

0.5

0
Contact GS

0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4 4.5 5

Simulation time [days]

Figure 11. 3Cat-3/MOTS contact time. In red, blue, and green is represented the contact with the
ground stations described in Figure 2 (from left to right, respectively). In this particular case, the
0.5
simulation lasts for 5 days and the total contact time is 377 min. This is approximately 5.3% of the
orbital period. The minimum elevation over the horizon to stablish contact with the GS has been set
to 10°.

The
0
data download is the final step of the main objective of the mission, so the scheduler gives
priority0 to the data
0.5 1
download over1.5 2
the acquisition 2.5
of new data
Simulation time [days]
3
if the3.5 4
power available is4.5disputed.5
It
is assumed that the OBC has a storage limit of 2 GB, and two cases (a 0.1 Mbps data rate and a 0.5
MbpsFigure
Figure
11. 3Cat-3/MOTS
data rate)
11. 3 Cat-3/MOTS
contact time.
have been assumed
contact time.
In red,
in order to blue,
In red, performand green
blue, andthe
is budget.
data
green
represented
Forthe
is represented thecontact
the 0.1 Mbps
contact
with
with
the
downlink
the
ground
(Figure 12), stations
the described
amount of in
data Figure
stored 2
in (from
the left
on-boardto right,
memoryrespectively).
is In
steadily this particular
growing.
ground stations described in Figure 2 (from left to right, respectively). In this particular case, the The case, the
transmission
simulation
rate does lasts
lasts for
not compensate
simulation for 55 days and
for the
days the
the total
anddata input
total contact
flux, so
contact time is
is 377
given
time min.
themin.
377 This is
is approximately
acquisition
This approximately
configuration 5.3%
over
5.3% of the
ofthe
the TAs,
orbital period. The minimum elevation over the horizon to stablish contact with the GS has been set
the mission will lose
orbital period. Thedata acquired.
minimum This over
elevation situation is corrected
the horizon by increasing
to stablish contact withthethedownload
GS has beendata set rate
to
to 10°.
10 ◦ .
to 0.5 Mbps (Figure 13). The output flux is now higher than the input flux so, all data acquired is
rapidly downloaded to the GS’s.
The data download is the final step of the main Memoryobjective
budget of the mission, so the scheduler gives
priority 7000
to the data download over the acquisition of new data if the power available is state
SD meory disputed. It
is assumed that the OBC has a storage limit of 2 GB, and two cases (a 0.1 Mbps Image data acquisition
rate and a 0.5
6000
Mbps data rate) have been assumed in order to perform the data budget. For the 0.1 Mbps downlink
(Figure 12), the amount of data stored in the on-board memory is steadily growing. The transmission
5000
rate does not compensate for the data input flux, so given the acquisition configuration over the TAs,
the mission will lose data acquired. This situation is corrected by increasing the download data rate
Memory [Mb]

4000
to 0.5 Mbps (Figure 13). The output flux is now higher than the input flux so, all data acquired is
rapidly downloaded
3000
to the GS’s.
Memory budget
7000
SD meory state
2000 Image acquisition
6000

1000
5000

0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4 4.5 5
Memory [Mb]

4000 Simulation time [days]

Figure 12. 33Cat-3/MOTS data budget. In blue is the instantaneous state of the on-board memory
300012. Cat-3/MOTS data budget. In blue is the instantaneous state of the on-board memory
Figure
storage in Mb. In red is the acquisition time of the payloads for a 0.1 Mbps downlink rate and five
storage in Mb. In red is the acquisition time of the payloads for a 0.1 Mbps downlink rate and five days’
days’ simulation. The memory is rapidly getting full due to the inconsistent rate between acquisition
2000
simulation. The memory is rapidly getting full due to the inconsistent rate between acquisition and
and download capability. This effect can be corrected by reducing the acquisition area and/or
download capability. This effect can be corrected by reducing the acquisition area and/or increasing
increasing the transmission rate. In this simulation, the TAs and GSs are described in Figure 3.
the 1000
transmission rate. In this simulation, the TAs and GSs are described in Figure 3.

0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4 4.5 5
Simulation time [days]

Figure 12. 3Cat-3/MOTS data budget. In blue is the instantaneous state of the on-board memory
storage in Mb. In red is the acquisition time of the payloads for a 0.1 Mbps downlink rate and five
days’ simulation. The memory is rapidly getting full due to the inconsistent rate between acquisition
and download capability. This effect can be corrected by reducing the acquisition area and/or
increasing the transmission rate. In this simulation, the TAs and GSs are described in Figure 3.
Sensors 2018, 18, 140 16 of 18
Sensors 2017, 17, 140 16 of 18

Memory budget
500
SD meory state
450 Image acquisition

400

350

300
Memory [Mb]

250

200

150

100

50

0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4 4.5 5
Simulation time [days]

3 Cat-3/MOTS data
Figure 13. 13.
Figure 3Cat-3/MOTS databudget.
budget.InInblueblueis is
thethe
instantaneous
instantaneous state of of
state thethe
on-board
on-boardmemory
memory
storage in Mb.
storage In red
in Mb. is the
In red is acquisition time time
the acquisition of theofpayloads for a 0.5
the payloads forMbps
a 0.5 downlink rate andrate
Mbps downlink fiveand
days’
five
simulation. The state of the memory is under control. The effect of Figure 12 has been
days’ simulation. The state of the memory is under control. The effect of Figure 12 has been corrected corrected by
increasing the transmission
by increasing rate atrate
the transmission 0.5 Mbps.
at 0.5 Mbps.

4. Conclusions
4. Conclusions
A feasibility
A feasibility study study
for anfor an optical/GNSS-R
optical/GNSS-R missionmission
based onbased on a 6U
a 6U CubeSat hasCubeSat has been
been performed
performed and its summary is presented here. It includes the power, thermal,
and its summary is presented here. It includes the power, thermal, and data budget for a selected orbit. and data budget for a
selected
For theorbit.
optical payload, the longer the wavelength the stricter the Rayleigh’s condition is for the
minimum Foraperture
the optical sizepayload,
(Equation the(2)).
longer
On thethe other
wavelength
hand, athe stricter
small GSD the Rayleigh’s
requires condition
large focal lengths is for
andthe
minimum
small aperturewhich
size detectors, size (Equation
also increase (2)).theOnrequired
the other hand, adimensions.
aperture small GSD requires
The physicallargedimensions
focal lengths
of and small size
the platform are thedetectors,
ultimatewhichlimiting also increase
factor the also
[33]. This required
appliesaperture dimensions.
to the physical The physical
dimensions of the
dimensions of the platform are the ultimate limiting factor [33]. This
GNSS-R antenna, which needs to have a directivity of at least 12 dB (either as a 2 × 2 patch antenna or also applies to the physical
as dimensions
a retractableof the GNSS-R
helix configuration antenna, 3 Cat-4).
as inwhich needs to have a directivity of at least 12 dB (either as a 2 ×
2 patch antenna
The power or asis,
budget a retractable
as usual, one helix
of theconfiguration as in 3Cat-4).
mission’s bottlenecks, and the thorough configuration of
the payload’s duty cycle will secure the success of the mission. With 31%and
The power budget is, as usual, one of the mission’s bottlenecks, theorbital
of the thoroughtimeconfiguration
in eclipse,
theofpower
the payload’s
availableduty for allcycle will secure and
the subsystems the success
the two of the mission.
payloads will beWith
very31% of the
limited. Theorbital time in
duty cycle
eclipse,
will also havethean power
impact available for all the subsystems
on the temperature andthus,
of the satellite; the two payloadsshould
the scheduler will beconsider
very limited.
that theThe
duty in
priority cycle
terms will
of also have an survival
the mission’s impact on may thecome
temperature of the satellite;
from the activity thus,and
of the heaters thethe
scheduler
contributionshould
to consider
raising the that the priority
temperature ofintheterms of subsystems
active the mission’s fromsurvival may come
dissipation. Last,from the least,
but not activity
theof the heaters
download
of and the contribution
the data to raising the
is of critical importance temperature
because the finalofproduct—soil
the active subsystems from dissipation.
moisture—will be obtainedLast, frombut
twonot least, the
different download
payloads withof the data is of critical
differentiated duty importance
cycles and with because the final
different product—soil
amounts moisture—
of data acquired
will be
(optical obtained
data is muchfrom largertwo thandifferent
GNSS-R payloads
data). Awith differentiated
stable and at least duty
Mbpscycles and with
downlink different
is desirable
amounts of data acquired (optical data is much larger than GNSS-R
to download the data acquired and not jeopardize the duty cycle of the payloads. In conclusion, data). A stable and at least Mbps
thedownlink is desirable
mission requires to download
a delicate equilibrium thebetween
data acquired and not
power, data, and jeopardize the duty
thermal budgets, but cycle of the
is feasible
andpayloads.
challenging In conclusion,
at the same time, the mission
integrated requires
withinaa delicate
6U CubeSat equilibrium
and optical between power,payloads.
plus GNSS-R data, and
thermal budgets, but is feasible and challenging at the same time, integrated within a 6U CubeSat
and optical plusThis
Acknowledgments: work payloads.
GNSS-R was supported by the AGAUR, 2015-DI-039 “DOME: Development of operational
missions for Earth Observation based on 6U satellite technologies” within the framework of the Industrial
Doctorate Program between UPC (Universitat Politècnica de Catalunya) and ICGC (Institut cartogràfic I Geològic
de Acknowledgments: This work
Catalunya) of the Generalitat was supported
de Catalunya, by Ministry
the Spanish the AGAUR, 2015-DI-039
of Economy "DOME: Development
and Competitiveness and FEDER of
EUoperational missions
under the project for Earth
“AGORA: Observation
Tecnicas baseden
Avanzadas onTeledeteccion
6U satellite technologies" within
Aplicada Usando the framework
Senales of the
GNSS y Otras
Senales de Oportunidad”(MINECO/FEDER)
Industrial Doctorate Program between UPC ESP2015-70014-C2-1-R by the de
(Universitat Politècnica Agencia Estatal and
Catalunya) de Investigacion,
ICGC (Institut
Spain, and Unidad
cartogràfic de Excelencia
I Geològic Maria de
de Catalunya) ofMaeztu MDM-2016-0600.
the Generalitat de Catalunya, the Spanish Ministry of Economy and
Competitiveness and FEDER EU under the project “AGORA: Tecnicas Avanzadas en Teledeteccion Aplicada
Sensors 2018, 18, 140 17 of 18

Author Contributions: Jordi Castellví, Adriano Camps, and Jordi Corbera conceived and designed the mission
analysis; Jordi Castellví developed the simulation tools; Adriano Camps, Jordi Corbera, and Ramon Alamús
theoretically validated the results; Jordi Castellví, Adriano Camps, and Jordi Corbera wrote the paper.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflicts of interest.

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