Matthew Smith

Nitrogen cycle implications for biomass

The potential for biomass as a renewable energy which could reduce carbon
dioxide emissions across all sectors of energy provision was discussed in the last module.
Crop re-growth ensures that the combustion of biomass is carbon neutral as far as carbon
dioxide (Co₂) emissions are concerned and other greenhouse gas emissions (methane
and nitrous oxide) are low, depending on burn efficiency. I have chosen to focus on wood
because, although it has a lower yield than other bioenergy crops, forestry is the least
energy intensive production method, so the ratio of energy output (in MJ of yield at
conversion site prior to conversion) to fossil fuel input (MJ used in production) is better. For
intensive short rotation coppice (SRC) it is 36 (over seven willow rotations, Heller,2003)
and it can be up to 50 for forestry residue wood chip (Wihersaari,2005). Wood therefore
needs less carbon offsetting than other biomass crops for it to be carbon neutral.
Life cycle efficiency and vast Co₂ reductions are leading to widespread advocacy of
biomass on a local and global scale. The Code for Sustainable Homes is making biomass
boilers a panacea for domestic energy sustainability in the U.K. while the most optimistic
forecast from the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) sees 50% of global
energy production derived from biomass by 2050 (1996). Biomass energy addresses
present priorities but it does have profound environmental repercussions. These are
particularly felt within the nitrogen cycle, which, though not such a pressing issue as the
carbon cycle, is just as important to the stability of the environment.

Nitrous oxide (N₂O) , ammonia (NH₃) and nitric oxide and nitrogen dioxide
(collectively NOx) are emitted from biomass burning or digestion in differing concentrations
from fossil fuels.

Gas Type Fossil fuel Biomass Biomass

emissions combustion emissions under
(Tg in 1990) emissions IPCC forecast
(Tg in 1990) (Tg in 2050)

NOx 21.3 1.6 10.5

NH₃ 0.1 2.2 14.4

N₂O 0.2 0.1 0.7

The figures in the first two columns are from estimated global emission inventories
(Olivier, 1998). The figures in the third column were calculated by the author using figures
for the percentage share of total world primary energy consumption in 2002 (10800 million
tonnes of oil equivalent [Mtoe] Boyle,2004) and projections by the IPCC of the biomass
share of total energy consumption in 2050 (World Energy Councilʼs most conservative
estimate) to calculate a factor by which to multiply the numbers in column two.
More NOx and less methane can be attributed to biomass than is reflected in these
figures because the increase in biomassʼ share of world energy use is going to come from
new technologies with higher efficiencies. 85% of present biofuel use is from traditional
biomass burning (Boyle,2004). Stemwood has a low nitrogen content of up to 0.5% of dry

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mass so N compound gas emissions are low at low burn temperatures. More efficient
combustion at higher temperature, while dramatically cutting methane emissions, emits
more NOx, as nitrogen in combustion air is oxidised. A modern log boiler emits 72-125 mg/
MJ in comparison to 28-72 for less efficient stoves (Johansson,2004). There is a degree of
pyrdenitrification that occurs, whereby Nitrogen (N) is released from the fuel during
combustion, but overall more N is fixed.
Within Europe, all major criteria air pollutants are decreasing bar NOx, this is mostly
as a result of coal burning. However, the figures in the table above show that an increased
reliance on biomass would have an equivalent impact across all N compound gases and
an especially worrying increase in N₂O. Technology to reduce one of these gases at point
of combustion tends to increase emission of another. This is the case with the 3 way
exhaust catalyst for automobiles decreasing NOx at the expense of an increase in N₂O
(Olivier,1998) Mitigation is thus as complicated as it is for Co₂.

The impact on the nitrogen cycle from non-waste derived biofuels is further
compounded by the emissions associated with cultivating them. N₂O emissions from wood
chip combustion are less than 1 mg/MJ but life cycle emissions are 42% of total GHG
emissions when cultivation is included (Wihersaari,2005). In a dedicated pulpwood/biofuel
forest or SRC the aim is fast growth; a high timber standard is unnecessary, so more
fertiliser is applied. Fertiliser application leads to the emission of 11.2 mgCo₂eq/hectare
(Heller,2003) mainly from N₂O. Poplar SRC results in groundwater pollution of 22.05 kg/
hectare/year of N based acids and 14.08 kg/ha/yr of nitrate (Rafaschieri,1999).
If inorganic fertiliser is used there is further impact on the nitrogen cycle.
Anthropogenically fixed N has doubled the rate of N fixation over that of the natural cycle
(Matson,2002). The Haber process for the manufacture of mineral fertiliser accounts for by
far the largest contribution at 80 Tg a year (Vitousek,1997).
Emissions associated with transport and storage are likely to grow exponentially if
the use of wood-fuel becomes as widespread as predicted. The viability of biomass is
heavily dependent on short distance to end-use. But as the market grows it will spread
further from the source and emissions from haulage per MJ of energy could become
greater than those of fossil fuels because of the volume to energy content ratio (wood has
a sixth of the energy of oil per unit volume [lecture notes, D.Hood]). Decomposition during
six monthsʼ storage of wood chips emits 58-144 kgCo₂ equivalent per Mwhr produced from
the fuel as a mixture of methane and N₂O (depending on moisture content, Wihersaari,
2005a). If it is stored dry and with temperature fluctuations it will emit more N₂O. As the
use of wood fuel expands it will be increasingly stockpiled to deal with seasonal market
fluctuations, leading to more emissions from storage.

The release of all this fixed nitrogen has a significant environmental impact. The
short-term stability of NOx and NH₃ in the atmosphere leads to damage primarily at a local
ecosystem level. Over-enrichment of soil N leads to saturation which in turn leads to
leaching of nitrates and further N₂O and ammonia volatilisation from the soil. Groundwater
pollution contributes to acidification and eutrophication of lakes and rivers and airborne
emissions break down within weeks, contributing to acid rain. NOx causes ground-level
ozone production and photochemical smog as it breaks down.
The soil nutrient imbalance can lead to decreased biodiversity by the emergence of
a few dominant plant species as N ceases to be a growth limiting nutrient. There are
knock-on effects for fauna biodiversity. Soil fertility decreases because negatively charged
nitrates remove positively charged phosphates and calcium as they leach from the soil
(Vitousek,1997). Globally, an increasing contribution of biomass to the massive
overloading of the nitrogen cycle is sure to have a significant impact in the future which, at
present, is poorly understood.
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 The 114 year lifetime of N₂O in the atmosphere (Olivier,1998) means it does not
contribute to overloading of the nitrogen cycle in the short-term. However, N₂O is a
greenhouse gas (GHG) whose global warming potential (GWP) is 310 times that of Co₂. It
is also a significant contributor to the depletion of stratospheric ozone. The rate of increase
of N₂O in the atmosphere is estimated at between 0.25% (IPCC,2007) and 0.3% annually
(Cofer,1991) and estimates are tending to increase as more research is undertaken. The
present concentration of N₂O in the atmosphere is 0.3 parts per million (volume,ppmv).
Using this figure, its GWP, atmospheric lifetime and rate of increase at 0.3%, it is possible
to calculate a rough estimate of the timeframe for N₂O to have the same accumulated
radiative forcing as that of Co₂ at present (383 ppmv at a GWP of 1 =1.46w/m² [IPCC,
2007]). The author estimates the timeframe at a little over 470 years.
The massive extension of intensive land use associated with the population
explosion and the green revolution are more recent phenomenon than the Industrial
Revolution which began the increase in Co₂. The increase in atmospheric concentration of
N₂O in the last 40 years is comparable to the increase of the previous 200 years
(extrapolated from graph, El-Fadel,2000). This implies that without a drastic change in
agricultural management N₂O will increase at a faster rate in the future. Rate of increase
has a disproportionate impact on an order of magnitude calculation, thereby dramatically
reducing the above timeframe. Nevertheless, global warming as a result of Co₂ is the more
immediate threat and biomass energy would replace fossil fuels with the minimum
disruption. Moreover, there are possible benefits to its contribution to anthropological N
fixation.
It is possible to regard increasing levels of nitrogen compound pollutants in a
favourable light. The IPCC has recognised that the amount of Co₂ emitted as a byproduct
of human activity each year exceeds the yearly atmospheric accumulation by 1000Tg
(1996). This imbalance is attributed to a “missing sink” to which increased nitrogen fixation
over the natural rate is identified as a major contributing factor (IPCC,2001). Increased
anthropogenic nitrogen fixation leads to an accelerated rate of carbon sequestration
through plant growth, as nitrogen, usually the primary growth limiting nutrient, becomes
more abundant in forms that the planetʼs vegetation can utilise.
Excess accessible nitrogen in agricultural soils can lead to an increase in microbial
decomposition of soil organic matter and thus an increase in the release of Co₂ from soil
as well as increased uptake of Co₂ from the crop. However, within forests the balance
substantially favours increased growth (Vitousek,1997). It follows that cultivation of wood
biomass could possibly achieve life cycle carbon neutrality.
Firstly, Co₂ emissions from production would have to be minimised. Waste organic
fertiliser such as compost from municipal solid waste or sewage sludge could be used
instead of inorganic fertiliser which has a high embodied carbon. The energy ratio is
improved by 40% by using sludge (Heller,2003). Tractors and transport vehicles running
on biodiesel could be used to save 46% of the energy input; a concomitant increase on
mechanical rather than chemical weed control would reduce fossil fuel input further. Soil
treatment to maintain or enhance the soil organic carbon stock, perhaps with the addition
of biochar or a proportion of forestry residue would reduce it still further (bark would be
particularly appropriate because of its high N content in comparison to other forestry
residues, emissions of NOx would thereby be cut from combustion and the enhanced
nutrient balance would be more likely to increase SOC).
The remaining minimal emissions from machinery manufacture and nursery
operation could then be conceivably offset by the plantationʼs contribution to the missing
carbon sink via its associated increase in nitrogen fixation. This is conjecture; I could not
find any studies comparing the growth of highly managed forestry with natural growth
woodland.

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 Biomass energy production fits very neatly into the fossil fuel mould. It is therefore
the ideal short-term alternative, particularly for rural heating requirements and CHP.
However, although it will undoubtedly help mitigate Co₂ induced climate change, it will also
perpetuate the current overloading of the nitrogen cycle. This will have serious
environmental repercussions on both local and global scales, especially if biomass
dominates global energy provision.

The impact would have been better evaluated had it been possible to find the
number of hectares under production of biofuels by which their agricultural emissions
could have been estimated (as a share of total agricultural land for which there are
emissions estimates). A further limitation results from the difficulty of converting forestry
industry figures in cubic meters, to biomass energy industry figures in kilograms. This is
because of the varying densities of wood. The inability to find comparison data for levels of
soil organic carbon, leaching and volatilisation of N compound gases between natural
woodland and managed forest undermines the exploration of carbon neutrality. Finding
corroboration for the authorʼs calculation of the radiative forcing timeframe for nitrous oxide
would have strengthened the argument for the increasing impact of its GWP.
The essay highlights concerns that are already current. However, overloading of the
nitrogen cycle is not usually linked with biomass energy. There are reservations towards
biomass energy from several environmental groups. They are overwhelmingly based on
concern about reducing the amount of land available for food production but there is also
some recognition that it is not renewable in the same sense as direct solar energy. The
IPCCʼs forecast of the biomass share of world energy consumption diminishing after 2050,
reflects this concern (2007).
This research has shown that there is little exploration carried out into mitigating the
overloading of the nitrogen cycle from biomass energy production. The potential for carbon
sequestration in forestry soil which could offset Co₂ and N₂O emissions could be explored.
Further research is needed into nitrogen retention of soil and the causes of nitrous oxide
and ammonia volatilisation. Gasification dramatically reduces NOx emissions over those of
combustion so study of its market potential would be valuable. Research into the potential
for nitrous oxide capture from the atmosphere could be very useful in about 470 years.

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