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 DISPLAYS

Measurement system consists of three elements:

1. Sensors 2. Signal Conditioner 3. Display/Recorder

Display is an element which is used to represent the data output

obtained from signal conditioner. These devices constitute the
interaction between the instrument and the human observer and are
therefore the final stage of instrument. The display element also known
as Data representation element.

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 DISPLAYS/RECORDERS
Traditionally the data representation elements are categorized as:

1. Indicators 2. Recorder

Indicators are the elements which give an instant visual indication of

sensed variable (measurand).

Recorders are the elements which record the output over the period of
time and give automatically a permanent record. The recorder is an
appropriate choice, if the event is high speed or transient and cannot be
followed by an observer or there are large amounts of data, or it is
essential to have a record data.

Theses both Indicator and recorder are further classified as Analogue

and Digital.
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 DISPLAYS

Analogue Indicator

Analogue Indicators are the

elements, whose function rely on
analogue signals and represent the
data in analogue form.

Basically they are the dials or

Indicators on which pointer moves
across a scale.

4
 DISPLAYS

The Bourdon tube

pressure gauge is
an example where
the movement of
tube is transmitted
through lever and
gearing to the
pointer on the
gauge face.
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 DISPLAYS

Mechanical chart recorder

Once the movement has been obtained, it is relatively
simple matter to attach a light pen in order to provide
record. Paper moving past the pen at a constant speed
would then give a plot of the variable against time.
Pressure chart recorder is an example of this type of
recorder. In this case the power to derive the marking
system is obtained directly from the pressure signal
and is called a direct recording instrument. It is
relatively cheap but requires the chart to be changed
after one revolution. A typical paper speed would be
one revolution in twenty four hours. 6
 DISPLAYS

Mechanical chart recorder

7
 DISPLAYS

Digital Displays

The digital Indicators are the elements that represent the data in
various digital forms. In contrast to mechanical displays, the digital
displays comprise certain display elements which are excited by
electrical means.

Digital displays can be subdivided into two categories according to the

requirement of what to be displayed.

1. Alphanumeric displays
2. Graphic and Pictorial displays

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 DISPLAYS

Alphanumeric displays

These displays can generate letters of alphabet (A to Z), decimal

numbers (0 to 9), punctuation marks and many symbols. These
displays systems are made with the help of display elements like Light
emitting Diode (LEDs) and Liquid Crystal Displays (LCDs). These
display elements are arranged generally in two types: dot-matrix and
seven segment. LEDs are used to construct the dot matrix displays
while seven segments are preferably constructed of LCDs.

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 DISPLAYS

Dot matrix
displays
In this display
tiny dots are
arranged in
regular arrays
and letters of
alphabet are
generated by
activating
suitable dot.

10
 STRAIN AND STRESS MEASUREMENT

Stress
Internal resistance offered by a material when external force is
applied on material. It can be represented by
Stress = Force / Area

σ = F/A

Its unit is same as that of pressure N/m2.

Strain
Change in length (ΔL) per unit original length(L) is known as strain
(direct). It is a unit-less quantity. Mathematically it can be represented
as:
Є =ΔL/L

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 STRAIN AND STRESS MEASUREMENT
Poisson’s ratio

The ratio of lateral strain to direct strain is called Poisson’s ratio. It can
be represented as:
Poisson’s ratio = Lateral strain /direct strain

The ratio is particular to any given metal or alloy. It is as low as 0.21 for
zinc and as high as 0.35 for brass.

Modulus of elasticity
The Modulus of elasticity is the ratio of stress to strain. It is denoted as:

Modulus of elasticity = Stress/Strain

E = σ/ Є
Its unit is same as that of stress N/m2
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 STRAIN AND STRESS MEASUREMENT

Bonded electrical
resistance strain
measurement

Metal resistance
strain gauges are
made in two basic
forms: wire and foil.

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 STRAIN AND STRESS MEASUREMENT

The foil types are pressed from a thin sheet.

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 STRAIN AND STRESS MEASUREMENT

Foils have advantage that the gauge can take almost

any shape that can be drawn. Because of thinner cross
section, heat is dissipated more readily from foil
gauges as compared to wire gauges. Generally,
superior qualities foil gauge are largely used except
where grids are required 150 mm long length.

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 STRAIN AND STRESS MEASUREMENT

The resistance R of material depends on its

electrical resistivity ρ, its area A and its length
L according to equation

R = ρL/A

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 STRAIN AND STRESS MEASUREMENT

Thus to obtain high resistance gauge occupying a

small area:

• the metal chosen has high resistivity,

• larger number of grid loops (to increase length) and
• very small cross-sectional area.

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 STRAIN AND STRESS MEASUREMENT

Wire gauges are embedded in plastic cements and

sandwiched between thin paper or plastic insulator.

The cement holds the wire rigidly on to the backing

so that it will not buckle under strain. Foil gauges
are usually cemented on to a backing.

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MEASUREMENT OF STRAIN

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MEASUREMENT OF STRAIN

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MEASUREMENT OF STRAIN

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 STRAIN AND STRESS MEASUREMENT

Gauge factor
The gauge factor K is the ratio of change in resistance δR/R to the
change in length δL/L and is given by

Here R is resistance of gauge

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 STRAIN AND STRESS MEASUREMENT

A strain gauge having an electrical resistance

of 120 Ω and a gauge factor 2.1 is used to test
a steel specimen subjected to an axial tensile
load. Calculate the induced strain, if the
increase in gauge resistance is shown to be
0.134 Ω.

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 STRAIN AND STRESS MEASUREMENT
A strain gauge having an electrical resistance of 120 Ω and a gauge
factor 2.1 is used to test a steel specimen subjected to an axial tensile
load. Calculate the induced strain, if the increase in gauge resistance
is shown to be 0.134 Ω.

R = 120 Ω
G = 2.1 ϵ
∆R = 0.134
ϵ = ??
ϵ = 531 microstrain

24
 STRAIN AND STRESS MEASUREMENT

A strain gauge is attached to a 10 mm

diameter spindle which is subjected to an
axial load. Determine the magnitude of the
load in kilo Newton given the following
information: gauge resistance 350 Ω; change
in gauge resistance 0.15 Ω; gauge factor
2.02; and modulus of elasticity 207 GN/m2.

25
 STRAIN AND STRESS MEASUREMENT

A strain gauge is attached to a 10 mm diameter spindle which is

subjected to an axial load. Determine the magnitude of the load in
kilo Newton given the following information: gauge resistance 350
Ω; change in gauge resistance 0.15 Ω; gauge factor 2.02; and
modulus of elasticity 207 GN/m2.

Data:
d=10 mm = 0.01m
∆R = 0.134
R= 350 Ω
G = 2.02
E = 207 GN/m2 = 207× 109 N/ m2
P = ? in kN

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STRAIN AND STRESS MEASUREMENT

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 FORCE/WEIGHT MEASUREMENT

FORCE/WEIGHT MEASURING INSTRUMENTS

Force measuring instruments can be classified into
three main categories:
1.Mechanical methods
2.Hydraulic and Pneumatic methods
3.Electrical methods

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 FORCE/WEIGHT MEASUREMENT

1. Mechanical methods
Force/ Weight measuring instruments are based on the
principle that when force is applied to an elastic element
produces a measurable deflection. Some of them are described
below:
1. Spring Balance
2. Physical Balance
3. Load Cells
4. Pneumatic Load Cells
5. Hydraulic Load Cells
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 FORCE/WEIGHT MEASUREMENT

Spring Balance
The spring balance is the simplest form of spring type
system provides a method of measurement that is
simple and cheap. The mass is hung on one end of the
spring, which extends with an amount of proportional
to the magnitude of load. A calibrated scale indicates a
load applied as shown in figure.

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FORCE/WEIGHT MEASUREMENT

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 FORCE/WEIGHT MEASUREMENT

(ii) Physical Balance

This type of instrument consists of two pans hang on
a beam, and the beam is suspended at its midpoint
with the help of knife edge, in such a balanced
manner that the pointer provided at the middle of
beam exhibits zero on the provided scale as shown in
figure.

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FORCE/WEIGHT MEASUREMENT

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 FORCE/WEIGHT MEASUREMENT

Proving Ring
If a force is applied on an elastic member such as a
spring or a steel ring, then the member will deform.
Provided that the force does not exceed the elastic
deformation of the member, this deformation is
proportional to the applied force.

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FORCE/WEIGHT MEASUREMENT

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FORCE/WEIGHT MEASUREMENT

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 FORCE/WEIGHT MEASUREMENT
Hydraulic and Pneumatic methods
(i) Pneumatic Load Cells
Pneumatic load cells operate on the principle that
application of force increases the pressure of any fluid.
When mass is placed over the cell which causes the
diaphragm to deflect. The output pressure measured in the
cell is approximately proportional to the magnitude of
weight.

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FORCE/WEIGHT MEASUREMENT

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 FORCE/WEIGHT MEASUREMENT

(ii) Hydraulic Load Cells

Hydraulic load cells are force -balance devices,
measuring weight as a change in pressure of the
internal filling fluid. A load or force acting on a
loading head is transferred to a piston that in turn
compresses a filling fluid diaphragm chamber. As
force increases, the pressure of the hydraulic fluid
rises. This pressure can be transmitted to the
pressure gauge for measurement.

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FORCE/WEIGHT MEASUREMENT

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FORCE/WEIGHT MEASUREMENT

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FORCE/WEIGHT MEASUREMENT

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 FORCE/WEIGHT MEASUREMENT
Electrical methods
(i) Load Cells
A load cell is a transducer which converts force into
a measurable electrical output. This conversion is
indirect and happens in two stages. Through
mechanical arrangement force is sensed is used in
deforming the strain gauges or other displacement
transducers like piezoelectric devices or differential
transformer. These transducers convert the
deformation into electric signal.
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 FORCE/WEIGHT MEASUREMENT
Electrical methods
(i) Load Cells
The electronic load cells have relatively low cost,
wide measurement range, tolerance to dusty and
corrosive environment and remote measurement
capability.
The electronic load cell is based on physical
principle that the force applied to an elastic element
produces a measureable deflection. The elastic
elements used for load cell have various shapes as
shown below. 44
 FORCE/WEIGHT MEASUREMENT

The design aim is to obtain linear relationship between

the force and deflection. Load cell exist in both
compression and tension form. Normally a load cells
have four strain gauges in Wheatstone bridge but also
available with one or two strain gauges.
Load cell including strain gauges are used to measure
masses over a wide range of 0 to 3000 tons with an in
accuracy figure of ±0.2% of full range.

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 FORCE/WEIGHT MEASUREMENT
The cells based on piezoelectric devices are capable of measuring up to
1000 tons having inaccuracy figure ±1% of full range. The electronic
balance is a device that contains several compressive type load cells as
shown in figure.
Normally 3 or 4 load cells are used in electronic balance with output
mass measurement from the sum of output of each cell.

46
 TEMPERATURE MEASUREMENT

Because temperature is such an important variable in many

engineering systems, an engineer should be familiar with the
basic methods of measuring it. Temperature sensors appear in
buildings, chemical process plants, engines, transportation
vehicles, appliances, computers, and many other devices that
require monitoring and control of temperature.

Because many physical phenomena depend on temperature,

we can use this dependence to indirectly measure temperature
by measuring quantities such as pressure, volume, electrical
resistance, and strain and then convert the values using the
physical relationship between the quantity and temperature.

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 TEMPERATURE MEASUREMENT

Temperature Measuring Instruments

Temperature Measuring Instruments can be divided into two
groups: electrical and non-electrical

Non-electrical methods
1. Liquid , vapour pressure and gas thermometer
2. Bimetallic strip thermometers

Electrical Methods
1. Resistance Temperature Detectors (RTD)
2. Thermocouples
3. (i) Total radiation Pyrometer
(ii) Photoelectric Pyrometer
(iii) Optical Pyrometer

48
 TEMPERATURE MEASUREMENT
Thermal expansion
All substances solids, liquids or gases expand on the increase in
temperature and contracts on reducing the temperature, this process is
called “thermal expansion of substances”. Based on thermal expansion
various measuring instruments are developed.
Example:
The examples of such instruments are
1. Liquid in glass thermometer
2. Bi-metallic strip

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 TEMPERATURE MEASUREMENT

(i) Liquid in Glass Thermometer

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 TEMPERATURE MEASUREMENT

Liquid in Metal Thermometer

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 TEMPERATURE MEASUREMENT

Bimetalic Temperature Sensors

The Bimetallic strip is a mechanical temperature sensor

element. It converts temperature to a mechanical
displacement. This displacement may be coupled to a switch
for simple on-off function, to a needle of an indicator, or to a
position detector for electronic output. By far the most
common application of the bimetallic strip is as a thermostat
switch used for temperature control.

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TEMPERATURE MEASUREMENT
Bimetalic Temperature Sensors

53
Bimetallic Strip
The bimetallic strip is composed of two or more metal
layers having different coefficients of thermal expansion.
The strip can be straight, as shown in the figure, or coiled
for a more compact design.

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TEMPERATURE MEASUREMENT

55
56
Bimetallic Strip
Because these layers are permanently bonded together, the
structure will deform when the temperature changes. This is
due to the difference in the thermal expansions of the two
metal layers. The deflection can be related to the
temperature of the strip. Bimetallic strips are used in
household and industrial thermostats where the mechanical
motion of the strip makes or breaks an electrical contact to
turn a heating or cooling system on or off.

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TEMPERATURE MEASUREMENT
Resistance temperature detector (R.T.D)

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TEMPERATURE MEASUREMENT
Resistance temperature detector (R.T.D)

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60
 TEMPERATURE MEASUREMENT
A Wheatstone bridge and RTD as shown in Figure , with α = 0.003925°C-1,
fixed resistances R2 and R3 = 25 Ω , R0 = 25 Ω at 0°C, R1 = 37.36 Ω for
balanced conditions. Determine temperature of RTD.

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 TEMPERATURE MEASUREMENT
A Wheatstone bridge and RTD as shown in Figure , with α = 0.003925°C-1,
fixed resistances R2 and R3 = 25 Ω , R0 = 25 Ω at 0°C, R1 = 37.36 Ω for
balanced conditions. Determine temperature of RTD.

RRTD = R1 = 37.36 Ω

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Thermistor
Its resistance temperature relationship is usually expressed
in the form:

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 TEMPERATURE MEASUREMENT
(ii)Thermistors

Thermistors are temperature measuring devices. Instead of metal

wire they use the semiconductors.

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TEMPERATURE MEASUREMENT

Thermocouple

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Thermocouple

Two dissimilar metals in contact form a thermoelectric

junction that produces a voltage proportional to the
temperature of the junction. This is known as the Seebeck
effect.

66
Thermocouple

Here we have wires of metals A and B forming junctions at different temperatures

T1 and T2 , resulting in a potential V that can be measured. The thermocouple
voltage V depends on the metal properties of A and B and the difference between
the junction.

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68
If T1 is the temperature of hot junction and T2 temperature of
cold junction. The thermocouple voltage is directly
proportional to the junction temperature difference:

V = α (T1 – T2)

where α is called the Seebeck coefficient (Which depends

on?).

The relationship between voltage and temperature difference is

not exactly linear. However, over a small temperature range,
is nearly constant.

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 Two ways to measure thermocouple voltage

hot junction cold junction

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71
An alternative to using an ice bath is a semiconductor
reference (e.g., a thermistor), which electrically establishes the
reference temperature based on solid state physics principles.
These reference devices are usually included in thermocouple
instrumentation to eliminate the need for an external reference
temperature (For example Max 6675 breakout board shown
below).

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73
Thermopile is a set of thermocouples arranged in series to increase voltage output.
Figure illustrates the configuration for a thermopile, which combines N pairs of
junctions, resulting in a voltage N times that of a single pair. In the example shown
in the figure, the multiplication factor would be 3. If the measuring junctions (at T)
are at different temperatures, the output would represent the average of these
temperatures.

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75
76
 TEMPERATURE MEASUREMENT

Thermopiles
Series of connected thermocouples in which a number of hot
junctions are laid side by side or in star formation as shown in
figure are called thermopiles.

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 TEMPERATURE MEASUREMENT

INFRA-RED
THERMOMETER
An infrared thermometer is a
thermometer which infers
temperature from a portion of
the thermal radiation.

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TEMPERATURE MEASUREMENT

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TEMPERATURE MEASUREMENT

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 TEMPERATURE MEASUREMENT
The most basic design consists of a lens to focus
the infrared thermal radiation on to a detector,
which converts the radiant power to an electrical
signal that can be displayed in units of
temperature. This configuration facilitates
temperature measurement from a distance without
contact with the object to be measured. As such,
the infrared thermometer is useful for measuring
temperature under circumstances where
thermocouples or other probe type sensors cannot
be used or do not produce accurate data for a
variety of reasons.
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 TEMPERATURE MEASUREMENT

Some typical circumstances are:

• where the object to be measured is moving;
• where the object is surrounded by an
electromagnetic field, as in induction heating;
• where the object is contained in a vacuum or other
controlled atmosphere;
• or in applications where a fast response is required,
• contact with a sensor would mar (spoil) the object
or the sensor, or introduce a significant temperature
gradient on the object's surface.

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 TEMPERATURE MEASUREMENT

Infrared thermometers can be used to serve a wide variety of

temperature monitoring functions. A few examples :
• Detecting clouds for remote telescope operation
• Checking mechanical equipment or electrical circuit breaker
boxes or outlets for hot spots
• Checking heater or oven temperature, for calibration and
control purposes
• Detecting hot spots / performing diagnostics in electrical
circuit board manufacturing
• Checking for hot spots in fire fighting situations
• Monitoring materials in process of heating and cooling, for
research and development or manufacturing quality control
situations
83
 TEMPERATURE MEASUREMENT

The distance-to-spot ratio (D:S) is the ratio of the

distance to the object and the diameter of the
temperature measurement area. For instance if the D:S
ratio is 12:1, measurement of an object 12 inches (30
cm) away will average the temperature over a 1-inch-
diameter (25 mm) area.

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TEMPERATURE MEASUREMENT

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TEMPERATURE MEASUREMENT

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 TEMPERATURE MEASUREMENT

Thermography (Thermal Imaging)

Thermography, or thermal imaging, involves

scanning an infrared radiation detector across an
object. The information gathered is then processed
and an output in the form of the temperature
distribution across the object is produced.
Temperature measurement over the range from 20
0C up to 1500 0C is possible.

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 TEMPERATURE MEASUREMENT

The radiation detector uses the same principles of

operation as a radiation pyrometer in inferring the
temperature of the point that the instrument is
focused on from a measurement of the incoming
infrared radiation. However, instead of providing a
measurement of the temperature of a single point at
the focal point of the instrument, the detector is
scanned across a body or scene, and thus provides
information about temperature distributions.

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TEMPERATURE MEASUREMENT

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TEMPERATURE MEASUREMENT

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TEMPERATURE MEASUREMENT

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TEMPERATURE MEASUREMENT

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